Simulation

Methodology
Simulation: Transactions of the Society for
Modeling and Simulation International
1–9
Modeling conflict in a social system Ó The Author(s) 2018
DOI: 10.1177/0037549718761573
using diffusion equations journals.sagepub.com/home/sim

Petukhov Alexander Yurevich, Malkhanov Alexey Olegovich,

Sandalov Vladimir Mikhailovich and Petukhov Yuri Vasilievich

Abstract
In this paper the problem of modeling social conflicts of various types with the help of diffusion equations is discussed.
The main approaches to and methods of mathematical modeling in contemporary humanitarian sciences are outlined.
The main concepts of social conflicts, means of their classification and interpretation – including ethnic-social, religious,
and other conflicts – are considered. The notion of a conflict in a social system is defined in terms of mathematical mod-
eling. A model based on the Langevin diffusion equation is introduced. The model is based on the idea that all individuals
in a society interact by means of a communication field. This field is induced by each individual in the society and forms
informational interaction between individuals.
An analytical solution of the system of equations is given in the first approximation for a diverging type of diffusion. It is
shown that even for a simple case of the interaction of two groups of individuals the developed model makes it possible
to discover characteristic laws of a conflict in a social system. It allows determining the effect of social distance in a soci-
ety on the conditions of generation of such processes, with account of external effects or a random factor.
Based on the analysis of the phase portraits for the given system, it has been concluded that there exists a stability
region within which the social system is stable and non-conflicting.

Keywords
Communication field, diffusion equations, Langevin equation, social conflict, society

1. Introduction conflictological knowledge effective;7 Schtompke, who

A social conflict can be defined as a peak stage in the
development of contradictions in relations between indi-
viduals, groups of individuals, or a society as a whole,
characterized by the presence of contradicting interests,
objectives, and viewpoints of the interacting subjects.
Conflicts can be latent or explicit, and are caused by a lack
of compromise or sometimes even dialogue between the
two or more parties involved.1
Works of scientists that became fundamental in analyz-
ing practical problems of this complex interdisciplinary
science played an important part in the development of
general conflictology at the present stage. These are the
classical works of Coser,2 Darendorf,3 and Habermas,4 and
others, who substantiated a natural and attributive charac-
ter of ethnic-political conflicts and their functions in the
life of a society; Boulding,5 Kozer,6 and others, who laid
the groundwork for developing a general theory of con-
flicts; Burton and his followers, who addressed the issue of
effective practical technologies of settling and principal
resolution of conflicts as the first priority for making
absolutized the ‘‘western main road’’ of social salvation;
and Glazl, who introduced modern mechanisms of solving
conflicts.7–9
One of the most successful and consistent approaches to
the modeling of social phenomena with the help of discrete
equations was carried out by Hayes.10
The problems of studying, classifying, and—the most
important—predicting conflicts has always played a sig-
nificant role in fundamental social science. A lot of works
of leading sociologists and mathematicians have been
devoted to the study of this topic.11–14
Research Laboratory for Modeling Social and Political Processes,
Lobachevsky University of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
Corresponding author:
Petukhov Alexander Yurevich, Research Laboratory for Modeling Social
and Political Processes at the Lobachevsky University of Nizhny
Novgorod, pr. Gagarina, 23, Nigni Novgorod, 603950, Russia
Email: Lectorr@yandex.ru
2 Simulation: Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International 00(0)
Taking into account the important impact of such phe-
nomena on a society and all the processes inside it, any
ways of predicting and discovering characteristic laws of
social conflicts are certainly of paramount importance.
One of the directions in which to search for possible
solutions to this problem is forecasting and describing a
social conflict mathematically—that is, using mathemati-
cal modeling.10–15
2. Mathematical modeling in social
science
Significant progress has been made in modeling of social
and political processes in recent years.16 Sociology utilizes
such areas of mathematics as statistics, the theory of sto-
chastic processes, queueing theory, informatics, decision
theory, game theory, differential equations, mathematical
methods of synergy and chaos theory, graph and network
theory, theory of categories, systems theory, mathematical
physics, and others. It is obvious that new methods such as
evolutionary modeling (genetic algorithms) and neural
networks can be applied to the study of sociological prob-
lems as well. The growth of generalization of mathemati-
cal modeling approaches in sociology increases the role of
more transcendental areas of mathematics such as general
algebra, topology, and functional analysis.10,16
The already available models can be tentatively subdi-
vided into three groups.
1. Models/concepts based on discovering and ana-
lyzing general historic laws and representing
them in the form of cognitive schemes describ-
ing logical relations between various factors
affecting historical processes (e.g., Goldstein,
Wallerstain, Goumilyov, Rozov). Such models
feature a high degree of generalization, but
are of a purely logical, conceptual—rather than
mathematical—nature.
2. Special mathematical models of the simulation
type, designed for describing particular historical
events and phenomena (e.g., Pavlovskiy, Borodkin,
Meadows, Forrester). In such models, the main
focus is accounting for and describing factors and
processes affecting the studied phenomena. The
applicability of such models is, as a rule, limited
by a fairly short spatial and time interval; they are
‘‘tied up’’ to a particular historical event and can-
not be extrapolated onto longer periods of time.
3. Mathematical models, intermediate between the
two above types. These models describe a certain
class of social processes without giving a detailed
description of the features characteristic for each
specific historical event. They are designed for dis-
covering basic laws characterizing the processes of
the type in question. Accordingly, such mathemati-
cal models are called basic.17
In the classical models,18–24 the dynamics of nonlinear
systems are modeled using multidimensional differential
equations,22,25,26 difference equations,27,28 the mathemati-
cal apparatus of cellular automation,27,29 the mathematical
apparatus of catastrophe theory,30,31 the mathematical
apparatus of the self-organized criticality theory,32,33 sto-
chastic differential equations of Langevin and Ito-
Stratonovich,27,32 analysis of systems with chaos, and
reconstruction of stable states (attractors) along time
series.10,27,29 Holyst et al. presented an effective model of
social opinion, based on representing the interaction
between individuals in the form of Brownian motion.33
There are also numerous studies in the field of modeling
social and political processes using various types of mathe-
matical models.34–40
However, mathematical modeling, which is based on
nonlinear dynamics, being widely spread in natural
sciences, is relatively rare in sociological research.
3. The main concepts of a social conflict
The contemporary literature on sociology abounds in clas-
sifications of types of conflicts according to various
grounds. Consider some of them from the viewpoint of
defining a social conflict as a mathematical notion in our
model.
From the viewpoint of subjects involved in a conflict,
four types of conflicts can be discerned.
1. Intrapersonal conflict (this can appear in the fol-
lowing forms: a role conflict—it appears when
contradictory requirements are imposed on a per-
son, regarding what the result of his/her work has
to be; intrapersonal—it can result from a mismatch
between the working requirements and the individ-
ual’s needs and values).
2. Interpersonal conflict (this can manifest in the form
of a clash of individuals having different charac-
ters, views, or values, and is the most common
conflict).
3. Conflict between an individual and a group (when
an individual assumes a position differing from the
position of the group).
4. Intergroup conflict.
Conflicts can also be classified according to the spheres
of activity, as: political, social-economic, national-ethnic,
and others.7–8
Petukhov et al.
However, it is vital to identify some fundamental para-
meter of the social conflict that will be the base of the
developing model. It is obvious that the parameter should
be logically justified within the framework of the modern
concepts of social conflict. There are quite a few concepts
of the theory of social conflict. Some of the best-known
are as follows:
Coser’s concepts
 in any society there exists inevitable inequality, per-
manent psychological discontent of its members,
interpersonal and intergroup tension (emotional,
psychic disorder), leading to social conflict;
 social conflict as incongruity between the reality
and ideas of various social groups or individuals
about what it should be like; and
 social conflict as struggle for values and pretensions
to a certain status, power, and resources, in which
the antagonists aim at neutralizing, damaging, or
eliminating the opponent.2
Conflict model of society by Darendorf:
 permanent social fluctuations in society, suffering
social conflict;
 any society is based on making some of its mem-
bers obey other members, meaning inequality of
social positions in the distribution of power; and
 difference in the social position of various social
groups and individuals leading to reciprocal ten-
sions and contradictions resulting in the alteration
of the social structure of the society.3
General theory of conflict by Boulding:
 all conflicts have common development patterns;
their detailed study and analysis makes it possible
to develop a generalized theory—‘‘the general theory
of conflict’’—which will allow society to control con-
flicts, manage them, and predict their consequences;
 Boulding argues that conflict is an intrinsic part of
social life (striving for struggling with the similar is
in human nature);
 a conflict is a situation in which each of the parties
tries to adopt an attitude that is incompatible and con-
trary in respect to the interest of the other party; and
 there are two aspects of social conflict: static and
dynamic.
The static aspect is the analysis of the parties (subjects)
involved in the conflict (individuals, organizations, groups)
and relations between them (classification: ethnic, confes-
sional, professional).3
3
The dynamic aspect studies interests of the parties as
stimuli for conflict behavior of people. The definition of
conflict dynamics is a set of responses to external stimuli.1
From the above discussion, the following statements for
our model can be made.
1. A major social conflict, as a rule, is accompanied
by an information and social distance between indi-
viduals and groups of individuals. A basis for such
a distance can be ethnic, cultural, confessional, as
well as economic differences. The causes of such a
conflict can have various bases: different levels of
aggression of social, ethnic groups; contradicting
cultural and economic intentions; and so on. In
other words, the social-information distance is not
the cause of the conflict but in general comes with
it.
2. This distance increases in the process of conflict,
especially in its extremal forms (revolutions, civil
wars, etc.), bringing the opposing parties to the
attitude of irreconcilability. Unfortunately, history
knows very few examples of short- and medium-
term positive scenarios for such situations.
3. Hence, the point of no return, which is under con-
sideration, is somewhere before the initiation of the
conflict, and this transition of a social system from
one state to another is determining.
4. Mathematical model
For mathematical modeling, an important point is that
social and political processes cannot be rigorously
assigned. They tend to be subjected to minor changes and
fluctuations. As an analogy, a social process is similar to a
Brownian particle—that is, a particle moving along a
fairly definite trajectory which, on closer examination, is
highly winding and broken. These small fluctuations are
explained by chaotic motion of other molecules. In social
processes, fluctuations can be assumed as manifestations
of free will of its individual participants, as well as other
random manifestations of the external medium.41
In physics, such processes are generally described using
the Langevin stochastic diffusion equation, which is also,
to a certain degree, tested for modeling some social pro-
cesses. For example, Holyst et al. developed a model of
social opinion, which is based on this approach.33
The method based on the Langevin equations has a
number of advantages.
1. As has already been mentioned, the method allows
one to account for the demonstration of the free
will of its individual participants, as well as other
4 Simulation: Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International 00(0)

random demonstrations of the external environ- Here, a divergent type of diffusion is assigned, and
ment for the social system. function
2. The behavior of the social system can be treated as
  1 ðxi xj Þ
2

a whole and as particular individuals/particles. q xi , xj = pffiffiffiffi e e2

3. This approach allows identifying some distinguish- e p
ing stable modes of functioning of social systems,
is used instead of the delta function; for ðe ! 0Þ it asymp-
depending on various initial conditions.
totically tends to the latter, considerably simplifying the
4. Diffusion equations, as a mathematical apparatus,
process of computer  modeling.

are sufficiently validated and known from the point
The function f xi , xj characterizes relations between
of view of conducting numerical simulations.
individuals, which is modeled here using classical
Gaussian distribution:
The model is based on the idea that individuals of a
society interact by means of a communication field (simi-   1 ðxi xj Þ
2

lar to the work of Holyst et al.33). This field is induced by f xi , xj = pffiffiffiffi e u2 ,

u p
each individual of the society, modeling informational
interaction between individuals. However, it should be u = kci ksi + kcj ksj ,
kept in mind that society, which is considered here, can
hardly be viewed as an object in classical physical spatial which is fairly widely used in various sociological studies.
topology. Really, in terms of transfer of information from Here ksi is the coefficient of scientific-technological prog-
individual to individual, space in society has both classical ress and development of the ith individual/group of indi-
spatial coordinates and some additional specific character- viduals; kci is the coefficient of social activity of the ith
istics. This is because of the fact that in the contemporary individual/group of individuals; and d is the inverse
informational world it is not necessary to be near the object Kronecker delta.
to transfer information to the object. Coefficients ks and kc are used for each separate indi-
Thus, society is a multidimensional, social-physical vidual or group in the system, and a total coefficient of the
space reflecting a possibility of one individual to ‘‘reach’’ entire system is found by fractal transformation of the val-
another individual with their communication field—that ues of all individuals and clusters of the system.42
is, to affect the individual and their parameters, and possi- Translations of an individual are described using the
bility to move in this space. Accordingly, the position of Langevin equation:
an individual relative to other individuals also models the !
level of relations between them and their involvement in dxi X
N
∂   pffiffiffiffiffiffi
= kci ksi h xj , t + 2Dji ðtÞ ð2Þ
the informational exchange. Close positions in this model dt ∂xj
j = 1, j6¼i
show that there is regular exchange of information and
social connection between them. With such a formulation in which stochastic force ji ðtÞ is introduced, which models
of the problem, a conflict can be considered to be a type a random factor in society, and, in particular cases, exter-
of interaction between individuals or groups thereof, nal effects on individuals.
which results in a sharp increase of the distance (i.e., When solving Equations (1) and (2), the differential
social distance: Dx = xi– xj, where x is a coordinate in equation
social-physical space, i,j = [1, N], where N the is number
of individuals or consolidated groups of individuals) dh ∂h dxi ∂h
between them, and a further increase of the distance testi- = +
dt ∂xi dt ∂t
fies to increasing conflict.
Thus, a communication field can be represented with a should also be taken into account.
diffusion equation as shown in Equation (1): In a general case, initial conditions for Equations (1)–
(3) can be taken as follows:
∂ XN    
hð x i , t Þ = f xi , xj q xi , xj d(ksj + kcj ), (k i + k i ) 



∂t j=1
s c
ð1Þ xi  ¼ x0i hðxi ; t ¼ 0Þ ¼ h0i 
t¼0
+ Dðhðxi , tÞ  hðxi , t0 ÞÞ
It is also necessary to assign a range of characteristic
parameters 0 \ kc , ks , D \ 1 (individual distribution).
Petukhov et al. 5

   
5. Approximate solution of the system ∂h  ∂h 
x0i = 0, h0 ðx0i , 0Þ = = = 1 ð5Þ
∂xi  t=0 ∂t  t=0
For the simplest model of two interacting individuals or xi = x0i xi = x0i

two consolidated groups of individuals (i.e., belonging to

the first two equations of system (3) are integrated, using
the same social, confessional, ethnic group, etc.), assumed
Equations (4) and (5), after which the following expression
to be in a state of conflict, accounting for external effects,
results:
Equations (1) and (2) can be written as:
8 ðt ðt c2 + 1
∂h ð x , t Þ c2 + 1 t2  2 ðxi ðuÞxj ðuÞÞ
2
>
> 1 2 1  ð x 1 x 2 Þ2
hð x , t Þ = D x ð uÞdu + D + ak j
k i
e c du
>
> = D½hðx1 , tÞ  hðx1 , 0Þ + akc ks e c 2 i i
2 c s
>
> ∂t
>
>
0 0
>
> ∂hðx2 , tÞ 2
c + 1ðx x Þ2 j=3  i
>
< = D½hðx2 , tÞ  hðx2 , 0Þ + akc1 ks2 e c2 1 2
∂t
pffiffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
>
> dx1 1 1 ∂hðx2 , t Þ
>
> = k k
c s + 2D j 1 ðt Þ
>
> dt ∂x2 Using Equation (6), the last two equations of system (3)
>
>
>
> dx ∂h ð x , t Þ p ffiffiffiffiffiffi can be transformed, based on the continuity of all the func-
>
: 2 = kc2 ks2 1
+ 2Dj2 ðtÞ ð3Þ tions, into the following form:
dt ∂x1

8 2 3
> ðt pffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> dx c 2
+ 1  c2 + 1
ðx ð uÞx ðu Þ Þ2
>
>
1
= kc1 ks1 4Dt + 2akc1 ks2 ðx1 ðuÞ  x2 ðuÞÞe c2 1 2
du5 + 2Dj1 ðtÞ
>
> 2
< dt c
0
2 3 ð7Þ
>
> 2 ðt pffiffiffiffiffiffi
> dx
> 2 = k 2 k 2 4Dt + 2ak 2 k 1 c + 1  c2 + 1
ðx ð uÞx ðu Þ Þ2
>
>
> c s c s 2
ðx2 ðuÞ  x1 ðuÞÞe c2 1 2
du5 + 2Dj2 ðtÞ
: dt c
0

After time differentiation of Equation (7), the following

forms of differential equations are obtained:
8 2  
> d x1 2a c2 + 1 kc1 ks1 kc1 ks2 2
c + 1ðx x Þ2 pffiffiffiffiffiffi dj ðtÞ
>
> 1 1
ðx1  x2 Þe c2 1 2 + 2D 1
< dt2 = kc ks D + 2 dt
c
 2  2 2 2 1 ð8Þ
>
> 2
d x2 2a c + 1 kc ks kc ks  c 2 +1
ðx x Þ 2 p ffiffiffiffiffiffi dj ðtÞ
>
: 2 = kc2 ks2 D + ðx2  x1 Þe c2 1 2 + 2D 2
dt 2 dt
c
To further simplify the solution of the problem in ques-
tion, it is assumed that equality of active stochastic forces
for individuals or various groups,

j1 ðtÞ = j2 ðtÞ
where:
is satisfied.
1 Then, introducing new designations:
c = kc1 + ks1 + kc2 + ks2 , a = pffiffiffiffi dkc1 + ks1 , kc2 + ks2
c p
y = x1  x2 ,
To obtain the approximate analytical solutions of  
A = D kc1 ks1  kc2 ks2
Equation (3), series expansion is used with the accuracy of  2 
up to the quantity of the first order of smallness for c +1  1 1 1 2 
B = 2a 2
kc ks kc ks + kc2 ks2 kc2 ks1
Dx = xi  x0i , Dt = t  0 of difference: c
2
   c +1
∂h  ∂h  C= ,
hðxi , tÞ  hðx0i , tÞ’ Dx + Dt ð4Þ c2
∂xi  t=0 ∂t  t=0
xi = x0i xi = x0i
after finding the difference of Equation (8), the following
Then, assuming the following initial conditions: equation is obtained:
6 Simulation: Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International 00(0)

Figure 1. System (11) solutions.

rffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffi
d2y 2 A A 1 1 A 1 1
2
= A + ByeCy , B . 0, C . 0 ð9Þ  = 0,  = e 2 ,  = e 2 ð13Þ
dt B B 2C B 2C
Now, Equation (9) is rewritten in Cauchy form: Naturally, if conditions opposite to Equation (12) are
8 satisfied as follows:
> dy
< =z rffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffi
dt ð10Þ A 1 1 A 1 1
>
: dz = A + ByeCy2  \ e , .
2 e 2 , A=B 6¼ 0 ð14Þ
B 2C B 2C
dt
there are no equilibrium conditions.
Equation (10) can be viewed as a dynamic system
As Equation (10) is conservative, the law of conserva-
describing a process of interaction between two individu-
tion of energy holds. Then, knowing the energy integral of
als or groups thereof.
Equation (10), it is possible to find phase trajectories of
As is known, a dynamic system describes a process of
the system in question. As is known, in a conservative sys-
transition from one state to another.43–44 The phase picture
tem, phase trajectories are lines of the level of the poten-
of Equation (10) will be represented by a set of all states;
tial energy function,43 which has the following form:
to determine equilibrium states of this set, it is necessary to
solve the following system of equations:
ðy
2
Cu2 BeCy
 V = A + Bue du = Ay + ð15Þ
z=0 2C
2 ð11Þ
yeCy = AB : 0

For social systems, the notion of energy is either mean-

Analysis of Equation (11) is readily represented graphi-
ingless or has another definition. However, their dynamic
cally (Figure 1):
behavior qualitatively coincides with the behavior of con-
As follows from Figure 1, two equilibrium conditions
servative mechanical systems, and, in the phase plane, the
are possible if condition
qualitative behavior of their phase trajectories is similar.44
rffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffi As among parameters A, B, C only A can invert its sign,
1 1 A 1 1 A only two possible situations are to be considered. First, if
 e 2 \ \ e 2 ,  6¼ 0 ð12Þ
2C B 2C B conditions
is satisfied, and one equilibrium condition if one of the rffiffiffiffiffiffi
three following equalities are satisfied: 1 1 A
 e 2 \  \ 0, A . 0 ð16Þ
2C B
Petukhov et al. 7

Figure 2. Phase trajectories for the dependence (16). Figure 3. Phase trajectories for the dependence (17).

are satisfied, relations V(y) represented in Figure 2 and the

related phase trajectories are realized, where y_ = dy
dt .
Second, if conditions
rffiffiffiffiffiffi
A 1 1
0\  \ e 2, A \ 0 ð17Þ
B 2C
are satisfied, relation V(y) represented in Figure 3 and the
related phase trajectories are realized.
With the introduction of social friction in the system,
the picture changes significantly (Figure 4).
However, this is a separate task, and requires a separate
article.
Based on the analysis of the obtained phase pictures
(Figures 2 and 3), it can be concluded that there exists a
Figure 4. Phase trajectories for system with introduction of
certain stability region (confined in the pictures by a stable social friction.
loop of the separatrix)—that is, the region within the
closed trajectory.
The boundaries of this region are defined by values of This can be interpreted as the existence of an interaction
characteristic parameters of individuals, or groups thereof, region, parameterization of which makes relatively abrupt
as well as the society as a whole: ksi , kci , D. These coeffi- fluctuations of social coordinates (i.e., a state of conflict)
cients, strictly speaking, can change in time as a result of highly improbable or impossible.
the interaction of individuals, thus affecting the dimensions It is true that in a society, where social and informa-
and position of the stability region. However, in the present tional contact occur, mutual permeation of different cul-
study, only a short-term scenario was considered—thus, tures and ethnic groups is sufficient where particular
their possible variation in time was assumed insignificant. groups of population do not separate themselves, creating
Individuals and groups thereof having parameters nec- closed subsystems (in which conditions substantially differ
essary for getting into the stability region at an initial time from those of the main system), the possibility of initiating
do not move apart from one another to a relatively large ethnic-social, confessional conflicts, for example, is rela-
social distance as a result of reciprocal interaction. They tively minimized.
remain at a distance within which social relations and Outside the stability region, phase trajectories are diver-
active information exchange are possible. gent and not close. Individuals/groups of individuals that
8 Simulation: Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International 00(0)
are, at an initial time, outside this region, after some time
will find themselves at a relatively large social distance,
which corresponds to the increase of social and informa-
tional gap between individuals and/or groups of individu-
als. It is this state of a social system that can be
characterized as a conflict and manifestation of the contra-
dictions existing between individuals and groups thereof.
Thus, in ethnic-social conflicts, this is manifested in the
minimization of social and cultural contacts between differ-
ent ethnic groups, growth of the social-economic gap, aggra-
vation of contradictions, and, as a result, transfer to the
phase of explicit confrontation accompanied with the desta-
bilization of the social and political system as a whole.
6. Conclusion
Social hyper-clustering of a society, abrupt distinctions in
the informational and social environment of individuals,
and cultural and inter-ethnic separation create ideal condi-
tions for social conflict. Therefore, prevention of conflicts
in society, determination of boundary conditions of their
initiation, and search for the most effective scenarios of
their suppression is a vital issue for contemporary social
sciences.
The present article concisely reviews the main
approaches to modeling in social sciences, problems of
determining social conflict and its main concepts. Conflict
in a social system is defined in terms of mathematical
modeling.
A mathematical model based on the Langevin equation
is introduced, and an analytical solution in the first approx-
imation for the divergent type of diffusion is given.
It is shown that, even in a simple example of two inter-
acting groups of individuals, the developed model makes it
possible to discover characteristic properties of conflict in
a social system, to determine the impact of social distance
in society upon the conditions of generation of such pro-
cesses, accounting for external effects and random factors.
As a result of the modeling, a certain region of stability
for a social system is found, within which it is stable and
conflict-resistant.
The results of the present investigation will make it pos-
sible in the future to approach the analysis of general prob-
lems for large numbers of individuals.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding
The research work was supported by the Russian Scientific Fund
(Project No. 15-18-00047).
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Author biographies
Petukhov Alexander Yurevich is an associate professor
and head of the Research Laboratory for Modeling Social
and Political Processes at the Lobachevsky University of
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.
Sandalov Vladimir Mikhailovich is an associate profes-
sor at the Lobachevsky University of Nizhny Novgorod,
Russia, the Institute of Information Technology,
Mathematics and Mechanics, and senior researcher at the
Research Laboratory for Modeling Social and Political
Processes.
Malkhanov Alexey Olegovich is a senior researcher at
the Institute of Mechanical Engineering Problems of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia,
and senior researcher at the Research Laboratory for
Modeling Social and Political Processes, Lobachevsky
University of Nizhny Novgorod.
Petukhov Yuri Vasilievich is a professor and leading
researcher at the Institute of Applied Physics, Russian
Academy of Sciences, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, and also
chief researcher at the Research Laboratory for Modeling
Social and Political Processes, Lobachevsky University of
Nizhny Novgorod.