THE

 SELF  FROM  VARIOUS  PERSPECTIVES       CHAPTER  1.  UNIT  2  

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Unit  2  
 SOCIOLOGICAL  AND  ANTHROPOLOGICAL  PERSPECTIVES  ON  THE  SELF  
 
Learning  Objectives  
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1. Analyze  the  different  representations  and  conceptualizations  of  the  self  
from  a  sociological/anthropological  point  of  view.    
2. Compare  and  contrast  how  the  self  has  been  represented  as  examined  by  
the  different  sociological/anthropological  constructs.  
3. Understand  and  internalize  the  different  sociological/anthropological  
perspectives  in  the  development  of  a  social  self.      
4. Determine  the  concept  of  stigma  or  self-­‐stigma  and  how  they  arise  from        
             social/cultural  biases  and  prejudices.  
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A.                    What  constitutes  a  Society?  
1.   In   Anthropology:     a   society   connotes   a   group   of   people   who   are   linked  
together   through   sustained   interactions,   a   common   culture   or   at   least   a  
recognized   set   of   norms,   values   and   symbolism   that   defines   its   members  
(Kottak,  2015:31;  Peoples  and  Bailey,  2016:22).    
2.   In   Sociology:   a   society   is   composed   of   a   group   of   people   sharing   a  
common   territory,   a   common   culture   and   who   are   in   continuous  
interaction   with   one   another.   Societies   may   be   separated   in   terms   of  
geography,   language,   beliefs   and   practices   at   the   very   least   (Macionis,  
2015:20).    
 
B. Defining  Culture  
There   is   no   definite   way   to   define   what   culture   is.   Perhaps,   the   most   succinct  
encapsulation  of  what  culture  is  would  be  the  working  definition  provided  by  the  
anthropologist  Sir  Edward  B.  Tylor  who  contended  that:    
 
“that  complex  whole  which  includes  knowledge,  belief,  art,  law,  morals,  custom,  and  
any  other  capabilities  and  habits  acquired  by  man  as  a  member  of  society.”  
 
Hence,  in  simple  words,  culture  is  people’s  way  of  life.  It  is  composed  of  behavioral  
patterns,  which  has  been  created  by  human  beings.  As  such,  culture  can  be  divided  
into:      

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THE  SELF  FROM  VARIOUS  PERSPECTIVES       CHAPTER  1.  UNIT  2  

 
1. Material   Culture:   refers   to   the   objects   or   belongings   of   a   group   of  
people.  
2. Nonmaterial   Culture:   consists   of   the   ideas,   attitudes   and   beliefs   of   a  
society.  
 
 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CULTURE  
 
Because  culture  is  an  all-­‐encompassing  concept,  we  have  to  further  understand  it  
in  terms  of  its  basic  characteristics.  Culture  is  universal;  there  is  no  existing  society  
that  is  devoid  of  culture  and  there  is  no  living  individual  or  group  of  people  with  
no   acquired   culture.   Thus,   it   is   important   to   understand   that   all   cultures   share  
these  basic  characteristics:    

• Culture   is   learned.   Culture  is  not  biologically  inherited  although  much  of  
what  we  know  about  our  own  cultures  happen  unconsciously.  The  process  
of   learning   a   culture   is   called   enculturation.   We   get   enculturated   through  
our  families,  peers,  the  media  and  other  social  institutions.    
• Culture   is   shared.   We   learn   culture   and   become   integrated   in   a   society  
because   we   share   it   with   other   members   of   the   society.   By   closely  
interacting   with   specific   groups   of   people,   we   learn   to   act   in   socially  
appropriate   ways,   make   mental   notes   of   what   we   should   not   do   and   predict  
how  others  will  act.  Although  culture  is  shared,  it  does  not  mean  to  say  that  
everything  within  it  is  homogenous.  There  are  multiple  cultural  life  worlds  
which  exist  simultaneously  in  one  society  with  various  cultural  expressions.    
• Culture   is   based   on   symbols.     Symbols   are   arbitrary   and   the   meanings  
attached  to  specific  symbols  vary  cross-­‐culturally.  Art,  belies,  language  and  
value   systems   are   all   within   the   symbolic   structure   of   cultures.   The  
heterogeneity  of  cultures  is  based  on  their  symbolic  differences.    
• Culture   is   an   integrated   whole.   The   different   aspects   of   culture   are   all  
interconnected.   To   truly   understand   a   culture,   it   is   important   that   we  
acknowledge   how   all   parts   relate   to   one   another.   To   avoid   cultural   biases  
and  prejudices  toward  one,  all  of  its  parts  must  be  learned  and  understood.    
• Culture   is   dynamic.   Although   cultures   are   universal,   they   are   not   static.  
The   various   aspects   of   culture   are   in   constant   interaction   with   each   other  
and   through   this,   cultural   change   is   constant.   When   cultures   come   in  
contact   with   other   cultures,   ideological   and   symbolical   exchange   happens.  
As   such,   if   one   part   of   culture   changes,   it   is   most   likely   that   the   entire  
cultural  system  must  adjust  to  the  change.    

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COMPONENTS  OF  CULTURE  

We   have   mentioned   that   cultures   have   certain   aspects/dimensions   that   are   in  
constant   interaction   with   each   other.   Within   these   dimensions   are   specific  
components  that  make  a  culture  both  an  integrated  whole  and  a  by-­‐product  of  the  
relationship   of   its   parts.   In   this   section,   we   will   cover   the   three   components   of  
culture:  the  cognitive,  the  normative  and  the  material.    
 
1. Cognitive:  it  includes  ideas,  knowledge,  values,  beliefs  and  various  cultural  
accounts   and   narratives   that   are   passed   down   from   one   generation   to   the  
next.    
a. Value:   the   basis   of   our   judgment   of   what   is   good   and   what   is   bad  
depending  on  the  situation  and  on  how  an  individual  make  use  of  them.  
Example:  pakikisama,  honesty,  cooperation  
b. Beliefs:   statements   about   reality   or   convictions   that   people   hold   to   be  
true,   and   are   divided   between   Primitive/Superstitious   beliefs   or  
Scientific  beliefs  (beliefs  with  empirical  basis)  
c. Symbols:  they  represent  things  other  than  itself.  Symbols  are  composed  
of:  
-­‐Paralanguage:  extra  linguistic  noise  
-­‐Objects:  physical  things  
-­‐Gestures:  actions  and  behaviors  
-­‐Characteristics:  colors,  emblems,  designs  and  marks  
-­‐Language:  a  complex  system  of  written,  verbal  and  non-­‐verbal  cues  that  
is  governed  by  grammar  and  syntax.  
2.    Normative:  guidelines  of  behavior  in  our  society  that  tells  us  what  is  wrong  
or  tight,  proper  or        improper  in  the  society.  Any  deviations  from  it  is  followed  
by  sanctions.  
a. Folkways:  norms  without  moral  underpinnings;  they  direct  appropriate  
behavior  in  the  everyday    practices  and  expressions  of  a  culture.  
b. Mores:   norms   which   have   moral   significance;   their   source   mainly   is  
from   the   ten   commandments.   Example:   the   universal   incest   taboo,  
monogamy/polygamy  
c. Laws:   formal   and   written   codes   of   conduct   that   have   been   formally  
integrated  in  the  constitutional  laws  established  and  created  by  the  state  
and   the   sanction   depends   upon   the   degree   of   violation.   Example:  
Euthanasia,  Anti-­‐Abortion  
3.  Material:  any  man-­‐made  creation  or  thinking;  tangible  objects  

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Technology:   refers  to  techniques  and  know  how  in  utilizing  raw  materials  
to   produce   food,   tools,   shelter,   clothing,   means   of   transportation   and  
weapon.  These  products  become  artifacts.  
 
PATTERNS  OF  CULTURE  
Culture  exists  in  multiple  levels  and  it  is  experienced  variably  in  different  cultural  
patterns.  To  further  understand  the  variability  of  culture,  we  need  to  know  some  
basic  patterns  of  culture  that  we  consciously  and  unconsciously  live  with.    
 
High   Culture.   A   term   which   describes   the   pattern   of   cultural   experiences   and  
attitudes  that  exist  in  the  highest,  class  segments  of  society.  
 
Popular   Culture.   Refers  to  the  pattern  of  cultural  experiences  and  attitudes  that  
exist  in  mainstream  society.  
 
Cultural   Change:   Culture   is   always   evolving.   Cultures   change   when   something  
new   opens   up   new   ways   of   living   and   when   new   ideas   enter   a   culture.  
(Globalization,  Innovation,  Inventions)  
 
Cultural   Lag:   coined   by   William   F.   Ogburn.   It   refers   to   the   time   that   elapses  
between  when  a  new  item  of  material  culture  is  introduced  and  when  it  becomes  
an  accepted  part  of  nonmaterial  culture.  
 
Ethnocentrism.   The  practice  of  judging  other’s  culture  by  the  standards  of  one’s  
own  culture.  
 
Xenocentrism.  Considering  other’s  culture  as  superior  to  one’s  own.  
 
Cultural   Relativism.   The   practice   of   judging   a   culture   by   its   own   standards;   a  
particular  pattern  of  behavior  is  right  or  wrong  as  it  is  declared  by  the  people  who  
follow  it.  
 
C. SOCIALIZATION  AND  SELF-­‐CONSTRUCTION  
 
Socialization   is   the   process   through   which   people   are   taught   to   be   proficient  
members   of   the   society.   It   describes   the   ways   that   people   come   to   understand  
societal   norms   and   expectations,   to   accept   society’s   beliefs,   and   to   be   aware   of  
societal  values.  Socialization  is  not  the  same  as  socializing  (interacting  with  others,  

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like  family,  friends,  and  co-­‐workers);  to  be  precise,  it  is  a  sociological  process  that  
occurs  through  socializing.  
 
Sociologists  have  long  been  fascinated  by  circumstances  in  which  a  child  receives  
no   social   interaction   because   they   highlight   how   much   we   depend   on   social  
interaction   to   provide   the   information   and   skills   that   we   need   to   be   part   of   society  
or  even  to  develop  a  “self”.  
 
WHY  SOCIALIZATION  MATTERS  
Socialization  is  just  as  essential  to  us  as  individuals.  Social  interaction  provides  the  
means   via   which   we   gradually   become   able   to   see   ourselves   through   the   eyes   of  
others,  learning  who  we  are  and  how  we  fit  into  the  world  around  us.  In  addition,  
to   function   successfully   in   society,   we   have   to   learn   the   basics   of   both   material  
land   nonmaterial   culture,   everything   from   how   to   dress   ourselves   to   what’s  
suitable  attire  for  a  specific  occasion;  from  when  we  sleep  to  what  we  sleep  on;  and  
from   what’s   considered   appropriate   to   eat   for   dinner   to   how   to   use   the   stove   to  
prepare  it.  Most  importantly,  we  have  to  learn  language  in  order  to  communicate  
and  to  think.  
 
FUNCTIONS  OF  SOCIALIZATION  
1. Transmission  of  values,  customs,  beliefs  from  one  generation  to  another.  
2. Development  of  a  person  into  a  socially  functioning  person.  
3. Social  control  mechanism.  
 
AGENTS  OF  SOCIALIZATION  
 
Ø SOCIAL   GROUP   AGENTS:   Social   groups   often   provide   the   first  
experiences   of   socialization.   Families   and   later   peer   groups,   communicate  
expectations  and  reinforce  norms.  
 
1. FAMILY:   the   first   agent   of   socialization;   influenced   by   race,   social   class,  
religion  and  other  factors.  
 
2. PEER  GROUPS:  made  up  of  people  who  are  similar  in  age  and  social  status  
and   are   sharing   the   same   interests.   Peer   groups   provide   their   own  
opportunities  for  socialization  since  kids  usually  engage  in  different  types  of  
activities  with  their  peers  than  they  do  with  their  families.  
 

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Ø INSTITUTIONAL   AGENTS:   The   social   institutions   of   our   culture   also  

inform  our  socialization.  Formal  institutions—like  schools,  workplaces,  and  
the   government—teach   people   how   to   behave   in   and   navigate   these  
systems.   Other   institutions,   like   the   media,   contribute   to   socialization   by  
inundating  us  with  messages  about  norms  and  expectations.  
 
1. SCHOOL:   It  serves  a  latent  function  in  society  by  socializing  children  into  
behaviors  like  teamwork,  following  a  schedule  and  using  textbooks.  School  
and   classroom   rituals   regularly   reinforce   what   society   expects   from  
children.   Sociologists   describe   this   aspect   of   schools   as   the   hidden  
curriculum,  the  informal  teaching  done  by  schools.  
 
2. RELIGION:   It   focuses   on   practices   related   to   formal   institutions.   From  
ceremonial   rites   of   passage   that   reinforce   the   family   unit,   to   power  
dynamics   which   reinforce   gender   roles,   religion   fosters   a   shared   set   of  
socialized  values  that  are  passed  on  through  society.  
 
3. MASS   MEDIA:   Refers   to   the   distribution   of   impersonal   information   to   a  
wide  audience.  It  greatly  influences  social  norms,  people  learn  about  objects  
of   material   culture   (technology   options),   as   well   as   non-­‐material   culture  
(beliefs,  values  and  norms).  
 
THEORIES  REGARDING  THE  SELF,  SOCIETY  and  CULTURE  
 
THE   LOOKING   GLASS   SELF   THEORY   by   CHARLES   HORTON   COOLEY:  
People’s   self-­‐understanding   is   constructed,   in   part,   by   their   perception   of   how  
others  view  them.    
Elements  of  the  Theory:  
1. The  imagination  of  how  we  appear  to  other  persons.  
2. The  imagination  of  the  judgment  of  the  appearance.  
 
THE   GENERALIZED   OTHER:   ROLE   TAKING   &   ROLE   PLAYING   THEORY   by  
GEORGE   HERBERT   MEAD:   the  self  (a  person’s  distict  identity  that  is  developed  
through  social  interaction).  Before  an  individual  develops  the  self,  he  must  first  see  
himself  in  the  eyes  of  others  through  the  roles  he  takes.  
 
STAGES   CHARACTERIZATION  
 

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Imitation   The  preparatory  stage;  they  copy  the  actions  of  people  with  whom  they  regularly  
(0-­‐1  year)   interact  with  like  their  mothers  and  fathers.  
Play  Stage   Role  playing  takes  place  where  the  child  becomes  gradually  conscious  of  the  role  
(2-­‐7   years   he  plays  but  do  not  have  a  complete  idea  of  the  role;  Example:  acting  out  grownup  
old)   behavior,   dress   up   and   acting   the   mom   role,   talking   on   a   toy   telephone   the   way  
they  see  their  fathers  do.  
Game   (8   Children   learn   to   consider   several   roles   at   the   same   time   and   how   those   roles  
years   old   interact  with  each  other.  They  learn  to  understand  interactions  involving  different  
onwards)   people  with  a  variety  of  purposes.    
 
CLIFFORD  GEERTZ:  THE  IMPACT  OF  THE  CONCEPT  OF  CULTURE  ON  THE  
CONCEPT  OF  MAN  
Basic  Premises:    
• It   is   in   a   systematic   review   and   analysis   of   the   varying   styles   of   becoming  
human  that  we  will  find  out  what  it  is  to  be  man.    
• Elements  of  culture  (marriage,  economy,  religion,  etc.)  can  be  so  entwined  
that  you  cannot  easily  separate  any  particular  layer  and  analyze  it  by  itself.    
• The  most  fundamental  thing  about  the  relationship  of  culture  and  man  is  to  
look   for   what   makes   people/cultures   different   and   not   much   on   their  
similarities.   It   is   more   effective   to   analyse   human   nature   by   noting   the  
differences   between   cultures   that   arise   over   time   and   space   than   to   try   to  
form  vague  notions  of  universals.    
• Culture   reveals   the   link   between   what   man   is   capable   of   and   how   he  
actually  behaves,  which  in  turn  helps  define  human  nature.    
• Culture   is   the   accumulated   totality   of   symbolic   patters   that   appear   in  
different  societies.    
Concepts  about  Culture  and  Man:  
• MAN   AS   AN   UNFINISHED   ANIMAL:   man’s   nature   is   very   much   the  
product   of   the   society   he   lives   in,   hence,   man   is   an   unfinished   animal  
because  society  and  culture  evolves  and  changes.    
• CULTURE:   cultures   are   like   texts   and   texts   have   meanings;   meanings   are  
also   enacted   and   not   just   pure   abstractions,   thus,   if   cultures   are   texts   and  
texts   have   meanings,   cultures   must   be   very   material   and   tangible   because  
they  are  enacted.    
• THICK   DESCRIPTION:   a   method   of   analysis   which   provides   enough  
context   so   that   a   person   outside   the   culture   can   make   meaning   of   the  
behavior   of   the   people   living   there,   helping   a   person   transition   from   an  
outsider  to  an  insider.    

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ERVING  GOFFMAN:  DRAMATURGICAL  THEORY    
a.)   Builds   on   the   idea   that   “men   are   mere   actors   and   actresses   in   a   large   stage  
called  the  society”.      
b.)   Its   key   concept   is   impression   management   defined   as   a   conscious   or  
subconscious   process   in   which   people   attempt   to   influence   the   perceptions   of  
other   people   about   a   person,   object   or   event.   They   do   so   by   regulating   and  
controlling  information  in  social  interaction.    
c.)   Impression   management   and   dramaturgy   need   the   combination   of   certain  
elements  for  it  to  be  successful.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

UNDERSTANDING  THE  SELF