PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 6.9 – Transmissions

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.9

TRANSMISSIONS

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Contents

TRANSMISSIONS ----------------------------------------------------------- 1
GEAR -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
GEAR RATIOS ---------------------------------------------------------------- 3
REDUCTION AND MULTIPLACATION GEAR SYSTEMS -------------- 3
TYPES OF GEAR AND THEIR APPLICATION ---------------------------- 3
DRIVEN AND DRIVING GEARS ------------------------------------------- 9
MESHING PATTERNS -----------------------------------------------------10
BELTS AND PULLEYS ------------------------------------------------------11
CHAINS AND SPROCKETS ------------------------------------------------13

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TRANSMISSIONS The means of transmitting power, from a source to provide

eventual motion, is achieved by such devices as:
In mechanical engineering terms, transmissions consist of a
 Gears
series of connected parts (or mechanisms) whereby a source of
power can be applied to another component, which is, then,  Belts and Pulleys
able do the required work in the form of motion.  Chains and Sprockets

Transmissions can be used to:

 Connect two (or more) shafts so that one provides drive to

another (or others)
 Change the speed of one shaft relative to another
 Change the direction of rotation of one shaft relative to
another
 Convert one type of motion to another (rotary to linear or
vice versa)

Aerospace transmissions involve the use of a wide range of

sources, to provide the power, which eventually results in the
desired motion in a particular system and those power sources
include (singly or in combinations):

 Muscle and (where possible), assisted muscle power

 Hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical power
 External and (most frequently) internal combustion engines

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GEAR

Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit power between

Spur
components of a machine where the center distances between
the shafts is limited. They give a positive drive of a fixed
velocity ratio and do not slip.

Gears are used in conjunction with the various bearings and

shafts in various components to:
Bevel
 Transmit power.
 Change direction of rotation.
 Increase speed.
 Decrease speed.

Gears may be cast, molded or cut from solid from steel, brass,
bronze and plastics. Frequently used combinations for wheel
and pinion respectively are: Key

Worm and Wheel

 Carbon steel/alloy steel.
 Alloy steel/case hardened steel.
 Case hardened steel/case hardened steel.

When two gears are running together the large one is called the
Basic Forms of Gears
gear and the smaller is called a pinion. If the pinion drives the
gear, the unit is a speed reducer. If the gear drives the pinion, it Fig. 01
is a speed increaser. Gears are more often used as speed
reducers.

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GEAR RATIOS
A gear ‘train’ consists of two (or more) gear wheels, running in
series, on separate, parallel, shafts such that one gear transmits
its drive to the other. Gear trains can change the direction of
rotation and can also alter the speed of the output shaft. The
speed of rotation is dependent on the ratio between the number
of teeth of the input gear to that of the output gear (the Gear
Ratio).
If, for example, the input gear has 25 teeth and the output gear
has 75 teeth, then the output speed will be in the ratio of 25:75,
or one third of the input speed. Conversely, if the input gear has
20 teeth and the output gear has 10 teeth, then the output
speed will be in the ratio of 20:10, or twice that of the input
speed.
REDUCTION AND MULTIPLACATION GEAR SYSTEMS
Gear trains may be used in a variety of ways, to change the
direction of rotation or to increase or decrease the speed of the
relevant output gear (and its shaft).
The design of a gear train will be influenced by the amount of
space available to accommodate the desired effect and by the
power which is to be transmitted through the gears.
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TYPES OF GEAR AND THEIR APPLICATION
Spur Gears
When two shafts are not lying in the same straight line, but are
parallel, you can transmit motion from one to the other by spur
gears. This set-up is shown in figure below.
Fig. 01 Spur gear
Spur gears are wheels with mating teeth cut in their cylindrical
surfaces so that one can turn the other without slippage. When
the mating teeth are cut so that they are parallel to the axis of
rotation, as shown in figure A, the gears are called straight spur
gears. When two gears of unequal size are meshed together,
the smaller of the two is usually called a pinion. By unequal
size, we mean an unequal number of teeth causing one gear to
be a larger diameter than the other. The teeth, themselves,
must be of the same size to mesh properly. The most commonly
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used gears are the straight spur gears which were easier to
machine but were noisy because the entire length of the teeth
come in contact at the same time with a slight impact. Today
these gears are used mainly for slow speeds to avoid excessive
noise and vibration.

Helical Spur Gears

Helical gears are like spur gears except that their teeth have
been twisted at an angle from the gear center line. Contact
between two teeth starts first at the leading ends and moves
progressively across the gear faces until the trailing ends are in
contact. This kind of meshing action keeps the gears in constant
contact with one another. Therefore, less lost motion and
smoother, quieter action is possible. This angular contact tends Fig. 02 Helical Spur gear
to cause side thrusts, which a bearing must absorb. It is
necessary to put a special thrust bearing at the end of the shaft Limitations:
to counteract this thrust. However, helical spur gears are quieter
in operation and have greater strength and durability than Helical gears have the major disadvantage that they are
straight spur gears, simply because the contacting teeth are expensive. Helical gears are also slightly less efficient than a
longer. Helical spur gears are widely used in transmissions spur gear of the same size as they create an additional thrust
today because they are quieter at high speeds and are durable. load during operation.

Advantages:

Helical gears can be used on non-parallel and even

perpendicular shafts, and can carry higher loads than can spur
gears, because the length of the teeth is more.

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Herringbone Gears turbines and generators frequently use herringbone gears

Herringbone gears are actually double helical gears with teeth
on each half of the gear are cut in opposite directions, each half
of the gear develops a thrust that counter balances the other
half.
because of their durability.
Internal Gears
The internal gear in figure below, has teeth on the inside of a
ring, pointing inward toward the axis of rotation. An internal gear
is meshed with an external gear, or pinion, whose centre is
offset from the centre of the internal gear. Either the internal or
pinion gear can be the driver gear and the gear ratio is
calculated the same as for other gears by counting teeth.

Fig. 03 Herringbone gear

Fig. 04 Internal gear
You do not need thrust bearings if you use herringbone gears
like those. The two sets of teeth are often separated at the Sector Gears
centre by a narrow gap for better alignment and to prevent oil
from being trapped at the apex. You only need a portion of a gear where the motion of the
pinion is limited. You use the sector gear shown in figure to
Herringbone gears are best suited for quiet, high-speed, low save space and material.
thrust applications where heavy loads are applied. Large

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Fig. 05 Sector gear

Fig. 06 Rack and Pinion

Rack And Pinion

The rack and pinion in this figure is both spur gears. The rack is
a piece cut from a gear with an extremely large radius. The rack
and pinion arrangement is useful in changing rotary motion into
linear motion.
Advantages:
The only gearing component that converts rotational motion to
translational motion. Efficiently transmits power. Generally
offers better precision than other conversion methods.

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Bevel Gears

When shafts are not parallel (at an angle), we use another type
of gear called the bevel gear. This type of gear can connect
shafts lying at any given angle because you can bevel them to
suit the angle.

Fig. 08 Bevel gear with 45-degree angle

The gears shown in above figures are straight bevel gears,

because the whole width of each tooth comes in contact with
the mating tooth at the same time. However, you’ll run across
spiral bevel gears with teeth cut to have advanced and trailing
ends.
Fig. 07 Bevel gear with 90 degree angle
Limitations:

You can see in figure below, how bevel gears are designed to Cannot be used for parallel shafts. Become noisy at high
join shafts at any angle. Gears cut at any angle other than 45 speeds.
degrees are bevel gears.

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Advantages:

Excellent choice for intersecting shaft systems.

Worm And Worm Wheel

Worm and worm wheel combinations, like those in figure below,

have many uses and advantages.

A worm gear is a combination of a screw and a spur gear.

Fig. 09 Worm gear

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GEARS USED TO CHANGE SPEED A spur-gear arrangement is shown in above Figure (10) will help
DRIVEN AND DRIVING GEARS you to understand how speed changes are possible. Wheel A
has 10 teeth that mesh with the 40 teeth on wheel B. Wheel A
Reduction gears are designed as simple spur gears, planetary will have to rotate four times to cause B to make one revolution.
gears, bevel planetary gears, and combinations of spur and Wheel C is rigidly fixed on the same shaft with B. Thus, C
planetary gears. makes the same number of revolutions as B. However, C has
20 teeth and meshes with wheel D, which has only 10 teeth.
Hence, wheel D turns twice as fast as wheel C. Now, if you turn
A at a speed of four revolutions per second, B will rotate at one
revolution per second. Wheel C also moves at one revolution
per second and causes D to turn at two revolutions per second.
You get out two revolutions per second after having put in four
revolutions per second. Thus, the overall speed reduction is
2/4—or 1/2—that means you got half the speed out of the last
driven wheel you put into the first driver wheel.

Planetary Gear

Another type of reduction gear system is planetary gear set.

The name is taken from our solar system, in which planets
rotate about the sun. There are three types of gear wheels on
planetary gear system the inner most gear known as the sun,
the outer most gear known as the ring gear and the gears in the
middle, which are called planets.

Fig. 10 Spur gear arrangement

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MESHING PATTERNS

Because of the high power being transmitted by gears in certain

situations and keeping in mind that (using spur gears) only one
tooth at a time can be subjected to that power, then the point of
contact between the teeth in mesh is very important.

Helical gears may have as many as 5 teeth in contact at any

one time, therefore power will be spread across more teeth. The
loads must be applied mid-way between the front and rear faces
of the gear wheel. They must also be exerted between 1/3 and
2/3 of the distance between the root and tip of the gear tooth.

These settings and adjustments have to be attended to during

the build-up of the gearbox and are usually achieved with the
use of appropriately sized shims.

Fig. 11

In above figure (11) the planet gears are carried on a planet

carrier and are in mesh with both the sun gear and ring gear. In
most cases the input shaft drives the sun gear and the planet
carrier drives the output shaft. The ring gear is held fixed.

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BELTS AND PULLEYS
Pulleys
Belts and pulleys are an important part of most machines.
Pulleys are nothing but gears without teeth and instead of
running together directly they are made to drive one another by
cords, ropes, cables, or belting of some kinds.
Like gears, belts and pulleys are used to change the speed of
rotating axles and transmitting motion from one to another.
There are some major differences, however, between belts and
pulleys and gears.
The first difference is the direction of rotation. With a pair of spur
gears, the input axle and the output axle rotate in opposite
directions. With a belt and pulley, both the input and output
axles rotate in the same direction.
Fig. 12 Simple Pulley
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The second major difference is belts cannot transfer as much
force as gears except timing belts. Belts can transfer force
across long distances.
Like spur gears, belts and pulleys do have a "gear ratio." This is
the ratio of the diameter of the output pulley to the diameter of
the input pulley. As with gears, the velocities of pulleys are
inversely proportional to their diameters.
BELTS
The four principle types of belts are flat, round, V and timing.
Crowned pulleys are used for flat belts, and grooved pulleys for
round and V belts. Timing belts require toothed wheels, or
sprockets. In all cases the pulley axes must be separated by a
certain minimum distance, depending upon the belt type and
size, to operate properly.
Flat Belts
One or both surfaces may have friction surface coating. Flat
belts are quiet, they are efficient at high speeds, and they can
transmit large amounts of power over long centre distances.
Two or more flat belts running side by side, instead of a single
wide belt, are often used to form a conveying system.
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Round Belts
Round belts are light-to-medium duty power transmission belts.
They can be solid or hollow. They use friction to stay in contact
with the pulleys, and must be stretched or elongated to provide
good driving tension.
V- Belts
V-belts are power transmission drive belts with a triangular or
trapezoidal cross section. V-belts are used with mating pulleys
in many drives where speed ratio is not critical. In contrast with
flat belts, V belts are used with similar sheaves and at shorter
centre distances. A number of them can be used on a single
sheave, thus making a multiple drive. V belts are made only in
certain lengths and have no joints.
Timing Belts
Timing belts are made of rubberized fabric and steel wire and
have teeth, which fit into grooves cut on the periphery of the
sprockets. The timing belt does not stretch or slip, and
consequently transmits power at a constant angular-velocity
ratio. The fact that the belt is toothed provides several
advantages over ordinary belting. One of these is that no initial
tension is necessary, so that fixed center drives may be used.
Another elimination of the restriction on speeds; teeth make it
possible to run at nearly any speed, slow or fast.
Disadvantages are first cost of belt, necessity of grooving
sprockets.
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RULES FOR CALCULATING DIAMETERS AND SPEEDS OF
PULLEYS
Speed of Driven Pulley Required
Diameter and speed of driving pulley, and diameter of driven
pulley are known.
Rule-: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its speed in
revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the diameter
of the driven pulley.
Example-: If the diameter of the driving pulley is 15 inches and
its speed, 180 revolutions per minute, and the diameter of the
driven pulley, 9 inches, then the speed of the driven pulley =
15x180/9= 300 revolutions per minute.
Diameter of the Driven Pulley Required
Diameter and speed of driving pulley, and revolutions per
minute of the driven pulley are known.
Rule-: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its speed in
revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the required
speed of the driven pulley.
Example-: If the diameter of the driving pulley is 24 inches and
its speed, 100 revolutions per minute, and the driven pulley is to
rotate 600 revolutions per minute, then the diameter of the
driven pulley = 24x100/600 = 4 inches.
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Diameter of Driving Pulley Required
Diameter and speed of the driven pulley, and speed of the
driving pulley are known.
Rule-: Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by its speed in
revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the speed of
the driving pulley.
Example-: If the diameter of the driven pulley is 36 inches and
its required speed 150 revolutions per minute, and the speed of
the driving pulley is 600 revolutions per minute, then the
diameter of the driving pulley =36x150/600 =9 inches.
Speed of Driving Pulley Required
Diameters of driving and driven pulleys and speed of driven
pulley are known.
Rule-: Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by its speed,
and divide the product by the diameter of the driving pulley.
Example-: if the diameter of the driven pulley is 4 inches, its
required speed, 800 revolutions per minute, and the diameter of
the driver, 26 inches, then the required speed of the driver =
4x800/26 = 123 revolutions per minute approximately.
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CHAINS AND SPROCKETS
Chains, for aircraft use, are generally the simple roller type that
consists of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and
bushes (refer to Fig.13).
Chains may be one of four standard sizes but, for most aircraft
installations, the manufacturer dictates the size and type of
chains used. They are obtained as complete, proof-loaded,
units from manufacturers, and are identified by their allocated
part numbers in the relevant aircraft IPC.
Basic features of chain drives include a constant ratio, since no
slippage or creep is involved; long life; and the ability to drive a
number of shafts 'from a single source of power.
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are
generally used wherever it becomes necessary to change the
direction of control runs in systems where considerable force is
exerted, e.g. aileron and elevator controls. The change of
direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys.
Chains may be found in, control column installations, aileron
controls and elevator controls and in trim control systems.
Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with
cable assemblies.
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Specifications

Chains used for aircraft purposes are generally of the simple

roller type and comply with the requirements of British Standard
BS 228: 1984, A complete schedule of dimensions and breaking
loads for chains is given in this Standard.

NOTE: BS 228 is equivalent to ISO 606 - 1982.

Chain assemblies are produced to standards prepared by the

Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC). These
standards provide a range of chains built up in various
combinations with standard fittings. e.g. end connectors with
internal or external threads, bi-planer blocks for changing the
plane of articulation of a chain through 90° and cable spools for
connecting chains to cables having eye-splices.

Fig. 13 Typical arrangements of chain assemblies

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Chain Assemblies A typical assembly in chains, using a standard end connector

with an internal thread, is shown in this figure.
A simple roller chain consists of outer and inner plates, rollers,
bearing pins and bushes; the component parts are shown in
figure below. The smallest unit consist of two outer plates, roller,
bush connected by bearing pins.

The chain has three principal dimensions (known as gearing

dimensions since they are related to the size of the wheels on
which the chains run), these being pitch, width between inner
plates and roller diameter. The positions at which these
dimensions are measured are shown in figure below.

Fig. 14 Typical Chain assembly with end connector

Chain assemblies for aircraft systems should be obtained as

complete, proof-loaded units from approved chain assembly
manufacturers and no attempt should be made to break and
reassemble riveted links or riveted attachments. If it is
necessary to disconnect the chain, this should be undertaken
only at the bolted or screwed attachments.

INSTALLATION OF CHAIN ASSEMBLIES

Figure 15 illustrate typical arrangements of chain assemblies.

Figure A shows the simple transfer of straight-line to rotary
motion; whilst figure b shows a change of direction of motion in
two planes by the use of a bi-planer block.

Fig. 13 Typical Chain Parts and terminology

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A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a

safeguard against the crossing of controls. However, these
connectors do not always prevent the possibility of reversing the
chain end to end on its wheel, neither do they prevent the
possibility of the chain being assembled to gear on the wrong
face where two wheels are operated by the same chain. Such
contingencies can be overcome by the use of non-reversible
chains.

.
Fig. 15 (a) Typical arrangements of chain assemblies

Fig. 15 (b) Typical arrangements of chain assemblies

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NON-REVERSIBLE CHAINS

Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that

every second outer plate is extended in one direction in order to
break up the symmetry of the chain. The complete system of
non-reversibility involves the use of five features, i.e. the
nonreversible chain, the shroud on the wheel, correct
positioning of the wheel on its shaft, the chain guard and non-
interchangeable connectors. The shape of the special outer
plates and the principle of non-reversible chains are shown in
figure 16 (a). It will be seen from figure below that by providing a
shroud on one side of the wheel and by making use of the chain
guard, the reversing of the chain end to end on its wheel is not
possible. It should be borne in mind that in practice a special
feature, such as an attachment collar, a key, or a flat on the Fig. 16 (a) Non-Reversible chain assemblies
shaft in conjunction with a specially shaped hole, is incorporated
in the wheel mounting to ensure that it can be assembled on its
shaft in one definite position only. Figure 16 (b) below illustrates an instance where the use of
jockeys is necessary or where contra-rotation of the wheels is
required; it will be seen that the feature of non-reversibility does
not affect the ability of the chain to gear on both sides.

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INSPECTION AFTER ASSEMBLY

After installation in the aircraft, the chain should be examined

for freedom from twist.

Care should be also taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled
out of line by the chain wheel; the chain should engage
smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth and there should be
no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth.

The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this

will cause friction, but should be just sufficient to prevent any
backlash in the system.

The guarding should be checked to ensure that jamming could

not occur and that the chain would not come off the wheel
should it become slack.

The security of end connections should be checked, care being

Fig. 16 (b) Non-Reversible chain assemblies taken to ensure that the split pins in the chain connecting bolts
are correctly locked.

The initial lubricant on new chains should not be removed and

the chains should be further lubricated after assembly by
brushing all over, particularly on link edges, with lubricant
specified in the relevant manual.

The wheel or pulley mountings should be examined to ensure

that the wheels or pulleys are firmly secured to the shafts or
spindles that they are correctly located and are running freely.

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