PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

MODULE 17A
Sub Module 17.2

PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Contents

CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS USED IN WOODEN,

COMPOSITE AND METAL PROPELLERS -------------------------------- 1
BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK, BLADE BACK AND
HUB ASSEMBLY ------------------------------------------------------------10
FIXED PITCH, CONTROLLABLE PITCH AND CONSTANT SPEED
PROPELLERS ----------------------------------------------------------------13
PROPELLER INSTALLATION----------------------------------------------17
SPINNER INSTALLATION -------------------------------------------------19

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - i Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Page Intentionally Left Blank

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - ii Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Category – A/B1
CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS USED IN
WOODEN, COMPOSITE AND METAL PROPELLERS
Propellers have been constructed using wood, metal and
composite materials. We will take a look at each of these
materials starting with simple wooden and metal propeller
construction.
Wooden Propellers
Wooden propellers are generally fixed pitch or ground
adjustable and have two blades. They are normally to be found
installed on single engine, light aircraft. Variable pitch wooden
propellers have a metal hub and pitch change mechanism. The
individual wooden blades are fitted with metal root fittings
designed to mate with the hub. We will concentrate on the all
wood, two blade fixed pitch propeller at this stage.
The wood most frequently used these days is yellow birch but
other woods such as mahogany, cherry, maple or walnut have
been used either singly or in combination. Mahogany was
extensively used in earlier times. Prior to its use the wood must
be inspected to ensure that it is free from knots, shakes, cracks,
signs of decay, mildew, wormholes or staining. The grain should
be straight and the wood correctly seasoned.
The more common defects that can be found in wood are worth
noting. Dote disease is the worst condition and can be
recognized by the presence of oily brownish yellow spots
scattered over the wood. The affected areas appear soggy and
the wood will break out in pieces when picked with a knife.
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01
17.2 - 1
Module 17A – PROPELLER
Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction
The condition is infectious so the only remedy is to burn the
wood. Decay normally reveals itself as dry brown patches that
either flake or come out in chunks. It is often referred to as ‘dry
rot’ because the fungus that causes it feeds on moisture in the
wood. Shakes are splits that run along sap lines or around
annular rings. They may occur during the growth of the tree or
during seasoning. They can also be caused by frost if the wood
is wet. Shakes are hard to spot and often are not seen until the
wood is varnished. Knots appear in several forms but ail will
cause problems. A thorough inspection is essential to save a lot
of wasted effort.
A propeller is not carved from a block of solid wood, it is
laminated. The construction process commences by gluing and
clamping together seasoned planks that have been roughly
profiled to form a blank shape containing a minimum of five
layers of the selected wood. The use of a laminated
construction is designed to reduce the risk of the wood warping
during the service life of the propeller. Gluing is carried out
using plastic resin glue under carefully controlled pressure and
temperature conditions. The glued blank is then left for a further
period to allow the layers to season together. Seasoning is a
drying process carried out to reduce the possibility of shrinkage
and warping of the propeller after manufacture. It also improves
the strength of the timber and its resistance to decay. The blank
should be kept horizontal during this time to ensure even
moisture distribution or the shrinkage will be uneven.
For Training Purpose Only
Rev. 01
Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.01

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 2 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

The blank is then roughly shaped using an automatic profiling Three small holes are drilled into the blade tip to act as a vent
machine. This rough shape is called a ‘white’. The roughly for moisture allowing the wood in that region to breathe. The
shaped block is then shaved into its correct form using propeller will finally be checked for correct static and dynamic
templates and blade protractors to check the shape and pitch. balance.
This part of the process requires a highly skilled craftsman. The
thin tip region of each blade is then bound with cotton fabric to On simple wooden propellers, applying and smoothing solder
prevent splitting and doped to avoid moisture ingress. A sheet onto the light blade tip metal cap may trim horizontal static
brass anti-erosion sheath covering the leading edge and the tip balance. Vertical static balance may be adjusted by screwing a
of each blade is screwed into position. The leading edge will brass or lead compensating balance plate onto the light side of
have been rebated to accept the sheath. the propeller boss face. Very small balance adjustments may be
carried out by the application of additional coats of clear varnish
The countersunk screws securing the leading-edge sheath are to the light blade.
normally locked using solder to till the countersink depressions
over the screw heads. Copper rivets are sometimes used to During the post manufacture testing of wooden propellers, it is
secure the metal cap onto the thin sections near the blade tip. important to check for vibration and that they do not suffer
These are also capped with solder to prevent loosening in use. resonance in any part of the operating range. With piston
engines, this test should take into account the effects of
The hub center bore and the holes for the propeller mounting misfiring or inoperative cylinders.
bolts are drilled through the center boss. The most frequently
used surface finish for wooden propellers is waterproof clear
varnish and this is applied over the whole of the propeller using
several coats. Alternatively, cellulose paint may be used. The
appropriate metal hub is then inserted and secured to the
propeller with through bolts and a faceplate. The hub assembly
adapts the propeller for installation onto the engine drive shaft.
There are a number of different propeller drive methods. The
hub may be adapted to accept shaft splines, a flange plate or a
keyed taper shaft. A typical example only is shown in the figure
17.2.02.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 3 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.02

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 4 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Metal Propellers

Improvements in metallurgy and manufacturing techniques have Some propellers have blades made of steel with the blade
enabled metal propellers to replace wood propellers for modern halves stamped of thin sheet steel and brazed together along
commercially manufactured aircraft. Figure 17.2.03 shows a the leading and trailing edges. The blade shell is then installed
metal construction propeller blade. over a tubular steel shank. A few propellers with hollow steel
blades are still flying, but these are usually found only on
Metal propellers are forged from high-strength aluminium alloy, special purpose aero planes.
and after being ground to their finished dimensions and pitch,
are anodized to protect them from corrosion. Metal propellers
cost more than wood for the same engine and aero plane, but
their increased durability, resistance to weathering, and ability to
be straightened after minor damage have made them more cost
effective in the long term.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 5 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.03

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 6 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Category – A/B1
Composite Propellers
Laminated wood, forged aluminium alloy, and brazed sheet
steel propellers have been standard for decades. But the
powerful turboprop engines and the demands for higher-speed
flight and quieter operation have caused propeller
manufacturers to exploit the advantages of modern advanced
composite materials in modern turbo-prop engines.
Composite materials used in the propeller manufacturing
consist of two constituents: the fibres and the matrix. The fibres
most generally used are glass, graphite and aramid (Kevlar),
and the matrix is a thermosetting resin such as epoxy. The
strength and stiffness of the blades are determined by the
material, diameter and orientation of the fibres. The matrix
material supports the fibers, holds them in place and completely
encapsulates them for environmental protection. Because the
fibres have strength only parallel to their length, they are
arranged in such a way that they can sustain tensile loads.
 Hartzell Blade Construction
The typical Hartzell composite propeller, like that in figure
17.2.04 has a machined aluminium alloy shank, and molded
into this shank is a low density foam core. Slots are cut into the
foam core and unidirectional Kevlar shear webs are inserted.
The leading and trailing edges are solid sections made of
unidirectional Kevlar and laminations of pre-impregnated
material are cut and laid up over the core foundation to provide
the correct blade thickness, aerofoil shape, pitch distribution,
planform and ply orientation.
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01
17.2 - 7
Module 17A – PROPELLER
Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction
The outer shell is held in place on the aluminium alloy shank by
Kevlar filaments impregnated with epoxy resin wound around
the portion of the shell that grips the shank. Some Hartzell
blades have a stainless-steel mesh under the final layer of
Kevlar to protect against abrasion, and a nickel leading edge
erosion shield is bonded in place. The entire blade is put into a
blade press and cured under computer-controlled heat and
pressure.
 Hamilton-Standard Blade Construction
The Hamilton-Standard blade has tremendous strength and
fatigue resistance because of its solid aluminium alloy spar
enclosed in a glass fibre shell (Figure 17.2.05).
The spar is machined to its correct configuration and placed in a
mould cavity, and the core foam is injected around it. The foam
is cured and removed from the mould. Glass fibre cloth, with the
correct number of plies and the proper ply orientation, is then
laid over the cured core. The complete item is then placed in a
second mould that has the shape of the finished blade. The
resin matrix is injected to impregnate all the fibres, and is cured
with heat and pressure.
For Training Purpose Only
Rev. 01
Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.05

Figure 17.2.04

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 8 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

 Dowty Rotol Blade Construction

The Dowty Rotol composite propeller blade has two carbon fibre
spars that run the length of the blade on both the face and back
and come smoothly together at the blade root.

The carbon fibres and pre-impregnated glass fibre cloth are laid
with the correct number of plies and the correct ply orientation
and are placed in a mould. Polyurethane foam is injected into
the inside of the blade, and the entire unit is cured under heat
and pressure.

The Dowty Rotol blade is secured in the hub by expanding the

carbon fibre spars with tapered glass fibre wedges and locking
them between the inner and outer sleeves (Figure 17.2.07).

Figure 17.2.07
Figure 17.2.06

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 9 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

BLADE STATION, BLADE FACE, BLADE SHANK, BLADE

BACK AND HUB ASSEMBLY

The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted

aerofoil of irregular planform, as shown in the figure 17.2.08.
For the purposes of analysis, a blade can be divided into
segments, which are located by station numbers in inches from
the centre of the blade hub. The blade hub assembly is the
supporting unit for the blades. The blade shank and the blade
butt are also identified the figure 17.2.08.

Figure 17.2.08

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 10 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a

central hub to which they are attached. Propeller blades have a
shank, butt, hub, tip, trailing edge, leading edge, face and a
back. The blade shank is the thick, rounded portion of the
propeller blade near the hub, which is designed to give strength
to the blade. The blade butt, also called the blade base or root,
is that end of the blade, which fits in the propeller hub. The
blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the hub,
generally defined as the last 6 inches of the blade. The
cambered side of a blade is called the blade back. The flat side
of the blade is called the blade face.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 11 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.09

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 12 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Category – A/B1
FIXED PITCH, CONTROLLABLE PITCH AND CONSTANT
SPEED PROPELLERS
There are various types or classes of propellers, the simplest of
which are the fixed-pitch and ground-adjustable propellers. The
complexity of propeller systems increases from these simpler
forms to controllable pitch and complex automatic systems.
Fixed-Pitch Propeller
As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch,
or blade angle, built into the propeller. The blade angle cannot
be changed after the propeller is built. Generally, this type of
propeller is one piece and is constructed of laminated wood or
aluminium alloy.
Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one
rotational and forward speed.
They are designed to fit a set of conditions of both aircraft and
engine speeds, and any change in these conditions reduces the
efficiency of both the propeller and the engine. The fixed-pitch
propeller is used on aircraft of low power, speed, range, or
altitude.
ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01
17.2 - 13
Module 17A – PROPELLER
Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction
Ground-Adjustable Propeller
The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-pitch
propeller. The pitch or blade angle can only be changed when
the propeller is not running. It is done by loosening the clamping
mechanism, which holds the blades in place. After the clamping
mechanism has been tightened, the pitch of the blades cannot
be changed in flight to meet variable flight requirements. Like
the fixed-pitch propeller, the ground-adjustable propeller is used
on aircraft of low power, speed, range, or altitude.
A ground adjustable propeller may have blades made of wood
or metal. The hub is usually of two-piece steel construction with
clamps or large nuts used to hold the blade securely in place.
When the angle of the blade is to be changed, the clamp or
blade nuts are loosened and the blades rotated to the desired
angle as indicated by a propeller protractor. The angle markings
on the hub are not considered accurate enough to provide a
good reference for blade adjustment, so they are only used for
reference.
For Training Purpose Only
Rev. 01
Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.10

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 14 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Controllable Pitch Propeller

Ground-adjustable propellers were a step in the right direction,

but with only minor added weight and complexity, the propeller
could be made far more efficient by allowing the pilot to change
the pitch of the blades in flight.

The first popular controllable-pitch propellers were hydraulically

actuated by engine lubricating oil supplied through a hollow
crankshaft. A counterweight on an arm is attached to each
blade root so that centrifugal force rotates the blade into a high
pitch angle. A fixed piston in the end of the propeller shaft is
covered by a movable cylinder attached through bearings to the
counterweight arms.

For takeoff, the two-position propeller control is placed in the

low pitch position that directs engine oil into the cylinder and
moves it forward over the piston. This pulls the counterweights
in and rotates the blades into their low pitch position. When the
airplane is set up for cruise flight, the pitch control is moved to Figure 17.2.11
the high pitch position. This opens an oil passage, allowing the
oil in the propeller cylinder to drain back into the engine sump.
Centrifugal force on the counterweights moves them outward
into the plane of rotation, and rotates the blades into their high
pitch position.

This same configuration of propeller, when equipped with a

flyweight governor to control the oil into and out of the cylinder,
is a popular constant speed propeller.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 15 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Constant-Speed Propeller

A constant speed propeller system is a system in which the

propeller blade angle is varied by the action of a governor to
maintain a constant speed. The pitch changing devices for
constant speed propellers include electric motors, hydraulic
cylinders, and devices in which centrifugal forces act on
flyweights and combinations of these methods. The tremendous
advantage of being able to change pitch in flight opened new
possibilities for increased efficiency. Replacing the two-position
valve with a flyweight-controlled valve in a governor allows the
blade pitch angle to be continuously and automatically adjusted
in flight to maintain a constant and efficient engine speed.

Throughout and immediately after World War II, an electrically

controlled constant speed propeller was used with some degree
of success. A small reversible DC motor mounted in the centre
of the propeller hub drove a speed reducer with an attached
bevel gear. This gear meshed with bevel gears on the root of
each blade to change the pitch so the propeller could maintain
an air load on the engine that produced the RPM called for by
the governor. The large amount of maintenance required for
electric propellers caused their demise.

There are only two types of propellers installed on current

production airplanes: fixed-pitch propellers for the small and
simple airplanes, and hydraulically actuated constant-speed
propellers for complex airplanes. The blades of constant-speed
propellers are held in high-strength steel hubs, with roller or ball
type thrust bearings that enable their pitch angle to be changed Figure 17.2.12
with a minimum of force.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 16 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

PROPELLER INSTALLATION Tapered Shaft Propeller Installation

Flanged Shaft Propeller Installation
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most flat/horizontally
opposed and some turboprop engines. The front of the
crankshaft is formed into a flange four-to-eight inches across
and perpendicular to the crankshaft centre line. Mounting bolt
holes and dowel pin holes are machined into the flange and, on
some flanges, threaded inserts are pressed into the bolt holes.
Tapered shaft crankshafts are found on older model engines of
low horsepower. This type of crankshaft requires a hub insert to
adapt the propeller to the shaft. The method used to attach the
propeller to the engine crankshaft will vary with the design of the
crankshaft.

Figure 17.2.14
Figure 17.2.13

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 17 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Splined Shaft Propeller Installation

Splined crankshafts are found on most radial engines and some

flat/ horizontally opposed, inline, and even popular for large
turboprop engines. The splined shaft has grooves and splines of
equal dimensions, and a master, or double-width, spline so that
a hub will fit on the shaft in only one position.

Figure 17.2.15

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 18 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

SPINNER INSTALLATION

All modern propeller-driven airplanes have spinners over their

propeller hubs. These spinners have the dual aerodynamic
function of streamlining the engine installation and directing cool
air into the openings in the Cowling.

Figure 17.2.18 shows a typical spinner installation over a

constant-speed propeller. The spinner bulkhead is installed on
the propeller shaft flange and held in place by six spinner
attaching bolts. The propeller is then installed so that the dowel
pins in the propeller hub align with the holes in the flange. The
propeller attaching nuts are installed and tightened to the torque
value specified in the airframe maintenance manual.

If a spinner support is required, it is installed and the spinner is

secured to the bulkhead with the proper machine screws. The
propeller spinner and bulkhead are critical components, and
cracks in either one can be repaired only if they do not exceed
the allowable limits. Repair them using the procedures specified
in the airframe maintenance manual and take special care not
to add weight where it could cause vibration.

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 19 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 17A – PROPELLER
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 17.2 – Propeller Construction

Figure 17.2.18

ISO 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M17A/01 Rev. 01
17.2 - 20 Nov 2017