4.

5  Counting Rules 1

4.5  Counting Rules

In many cases, a large number of outcomes is possible and determining the exact number of
outcomes can be difficult. In these situations, rules have been developed for counting the exact
number of possible outcomes. This section presents five such counting rules.

Counting Rule 1  Counting rule 1 determines the number of possible outcomes for a set
of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive events.

COUNTING RULE 1
If any one of k different mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive events
can occur on each of n trials, the number of possible outcomes is equal to
k n(4.10)

For example, using Equation (4.10), the number of different possible outcomes from tossing
a two-sided coin five times is 25 = 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 32.

EXAMPLE 4.11 Suppose you roll a die twice. How many different possible outcomes can occur?
Rolling a Die Twice SOLUTION  If a six-sided die is rolled twice, using Equation (4.10), the number of different
outcomes is 62 = 36.

Counting Rule 2  The second counting rule is a more general version of the first counting
rule and allows the number of possible events to differ from trial to trial.

COUNTING RULE 2
If there are k1 events on the first trial, k2 events on the second trial, . . . , and kn
events on the nth trial, then the number of possible outcomes is
(k1)(k2) c(kn)(4.11)

For example, a state motor vehicle department would like to know how many license plate
numbers are available if a license plate number consists of three letters followed by three numbers
(0 through 9). Using Equation (4.11), if a license plate number consists of three letters followed by
three numbers, the total number of possible outcomes is (26)(26)(26)(10)(10)(10) = 17,576,000.

EXAMPLE 4.12 A restaurant menu has a price-fixed complete dinner that consists of an appetizer, an entrée, a
Determining the beverage, and a dessert. You can choose from 5 appetizers, 10 entrées, 3 beverages, and 6 des-
Number of Different serts. Determine the total number of possible dinners.
Dinners SOLUTION  Using Equation (4.11), the total number of possible dinners is (5)(10)(3)(6) = 900.

Counting Rule 3  The third counting rule involves computing the number of ways that a
set of items can be arranged in order.

COUNTING RULE 3
The number of ways that all n items can be arranged in order is
n! = (n)(n - 1) c(1)(4.12)
where n! is called n factorial, and 0! is defined as 1.

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 2 CHAPTER 4  |  Basic Probability

EXAMPLE 4.13 If a set of six books is to be placed on a shelf, in how many ways can the six books be arranged?
Using Counting SOLUTION  To begin, you must realize that any of the six books could occupy the first position
Rule 3 on the shelf. Once the first position is filled, there are five books to choose from in filling the
second position. You continue this assignment procedure until all the positions are occupied.
The number of ways that you can arrange six books is
n! = 6! = (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) = 720

Counting Rule 4  In many instances you need to know the number of ways in which a
subset of an entire group of items can be arranged in order. Each possible arrangement is called
a permutation.

student TIP COUNTING RULE 4: PERMUTATIONS

Both permutations and
combinations assume The number of ways of arranging x objects selected from n objects in order is
that you are sampling n!
without replacement. nPx = (4.13)
(n - x)!
where
n = total number of objects
x = number of objects to be arranged
1
On many scientific calculators, there n! = n factorial = n(n) - 1) c(1)
is a button labeled nPr that allows P = symbol for permutations1
you to compute permutations. The
symbol r is used instead of x.

EXAMPLE 4.14 Modifying Example 4.13, if you have six books, but there is room for only four books on the
Using Counting shelf, in how many ways can you arrange these books on the shelf?
Rule 4 SOLUTION  Using Equation (4.13), the number of ordered arrangements of four books selected
from six books is equal to
n! 6! (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
nPx = = = = 360
(n - x)! (6 - 4)! (2)(1)

Counting Rule 5  In many situations, you are not interested in the order of the outcomes
but only in the number of ways that x items can be selected from n items, irrespective of order.
Each possible selection is called a combination.

COUNTING RULE 5: COMBINATIONS

The number of ways of selecting x objects from n objects, irrespective of order,
is equal to
n!
nCx = (4.14)
x!(n - x)!
where
n = total number of objects
x = number of objects to be arranged
n factorial = n(n - 1) c(1)
2
On many scientific calculators, there n! =
is a button labeled nCr that allows
you to compute combinations. The C = symbol for combinations2
symbol r is used instead of x.

If you compare this rule to counting rule 4, you see that it differs only in the inclusion of a
term x! in the denominator. When permutations were used, all of the arrangements of the x objects
are distinguishable. With combinations, the x! possible arrangements of objects are irrelevant.

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 4.5  Counting Rules 3

EXAMPLE 4.15 Modifying Example 4.14, if the order of the books on the shelf is irrelevant, in how many ways
Using Counting can you arrange these books on the shelf?
Rule 5 SOLUTION  Using Equation (4.14), the number of combinations of four books selected from
six books is equal to
n! 6! (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
nCx = = = = 15
x!(n - x)! 4!(6 - 4)! (4)(3)(2)(1)(2)(1)

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 4.5 

APPLYING THE CONCEPTS
4.48  If there are 10 multiple-choice questions on an exam, each
having three possible answers, how many different sequences of
answers are there?
4.49  A lock on a bank vault consists of three dials, each with
30 positions. In order for the vault to open, each of the three dials
must be in the correct position.
a. How many different possible dial combinations are there for
this lock?
b. What is the probability that if you randomly select a position on
each dial, you will be able to open the bank vault?
c. Explain why “dial combinations” are not mathematical combi-
nations expressed by Equation (4.14).
4.50  a. If a coin is tossed seven times, how many different out-
comes are possible?
b. If a die is tossed seven times, how many different outcomes are
possible?
c. Discuss the differences in your answers to (a) and (b).
4.54  In the National Basketball League there are five teams in the
Pacific Division: Golden State, Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles
Lakers, Phoenix, and Sacramento. How many different orders of
finish are there for these five teams? (Assume that there are no ties
in the standings.) Do you believe that all these orders are equally
likely? Discuss.
4.55  Referring to Problem 4.44 how many different orders of finish
are possible for the first four positions?
4.56  A gardener has six rows available in his vegetable garden to
place tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, cucumbers, beans, and lettuce.
Each vegetable will be allowed one and only one row. How many
ways are there to position these vegetables in this garden?
4.57  How many different ways can a senior project manager and
an associate project manager be selected for an analytics project if
there are eight data scientists available?
4.58  Four members of a group of 10 people are to be selected to
a team. How many ways are there to select these four members?

4.51  A particular brand of women’s jeans is available in seven 4.59  A student has seven books that she would like to place in her
different sizes, three different colors, and three different styles. How backpack. However, there is room for only four books. Regardless
many different women’s jeans does the store manager need to order of the arrangement, how many ways are there of placing four books
to have one pair of each type? into the backpack?

4.52  You would like to ”build-your-own-burger” at a fast-food
restaurant. There are five different breads, seven different cheeses,
four different cold toppings, and five different sauces on the menu.
If you want to include one choice from each of these ingredient
categories, how many different burgers can you build?
4.53  A team is being formed that includes four different people.
There are four different positions on the teams. How many different
ways are there to assign the four people to the four positions?
4.60  A daily lottery is conducted in which 2 winning numbers are
selected out of 100 numbers. How many different combinations of
winning numbers are possible?
4.61  There are 15 exercise bikes in a fitness store showroom. The
fitness store owner wishes to select three of them to display at a
fitness expo. How many ways can a group of three be selected?

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