GeneralChemistry1 - Quarter1 - Week 1-4

Week
MODULE 1:
Properties of Matter & Basic Separation Techniques
I What I need to know?

Module 1 serves as a review of the different classification of the properties of
matter- physical, chemical, intensive or extensive. This lesson provides the background
for the topic on methods of separating mixtures, particularly in determining the most
appropriate separation techniques based on the properties of the individual components
of the mixture. Learners will develop a keen sense of observation skills as they study the
different properties of matter. In the end, it is hoped than more than gaining knowledge of
the different techniques of separating mixtures, learners will also have the an appreciation
of the application of chromatography and distillation in diverse industries, from food,
forensic science, arson investigation, petroleum processing, water purification, and many
more.
The module contains 2 lessons: properties of matter and methods of separating mixtures.
Lesson 1: Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them
After going through lesson 1, you are expected to:

1. Classify the properties of matter as physical, chemical, intensive or extensive;
2. Value the importance of keen observation skills when classifying characteristics;
and
3. Apply analogies of the properties of matter to different scenarios.
Lesson 2: Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation and

chromatography.
After going through lesson 2 you are expected to:

1. Identify the properties of the components of the mixture to determine the basis for
their separation;
2. Determine the appropriate separating techniques for a given mixture;
3. Appreciate the practical applications and uses of chromatography and distillation.
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Lesson PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1
This lesson will briefly describe the physical and chemical, intrinsic and extrinsic
properties of matter. Actual examples of each type will also be given.
I What is new?
Properties of Matter
Were there times when you looked into a crowd of students in the covered court
and recognize a friend at once? You learn to recognize people by the shape of their face,
the color of their hair and eyes, the way they walk, and many other features. These
characteristics make them easy to identify even in a crowd. Likewise, a sample of matter
can be identified by observing its characteristics, or PROPERTIES. We learn about matter
by observing its properties, the characteristics that give each substance its unique identity.
To identify a person, we might observe height, weight, fingerprints, and even DNA pattern
until we arrive at a conclusion. To identify a substance, we observe two types of properties,
physical and chemical, which are closely related to the two types of change that matter
undergoes:
Activity 1.1 Identifying my Physical Characteristics

An analogy can be made when we describe our own characteristics. Physical
characteristics describe our outside appearance that make us different from others. In this
activity, you will list at least 10 physical characteristics you have that make you unique and
identifiable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
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1. What property determines whether one substance will sink or float in another
substance?
A. Density C. Texture
B. Temperature D. Volume
2. Which of the following is a property of both liquids and gases, but NOT solids?
A. Can be compressed C. Has a definite texture
B. Can flow D. Has definite shape
3. Which type of matter is classified as a conductor of thermal energy?

A. Cotton C. Plastic
B. Metal D. Wood
4. What physical property can be used to separate and classify aluminum from steel in a
recycling plant?
A. Magnetism C. Size
B. Shape D. Solubility
5. Water floats on corn syrup and sinks in oil (See Figure 1).
Which correctly classifies the relative density of water?
A. equal to corn syrup C. greater than oil
B. greater than corn syrup D. less than oil
6. Which of the following is NOT an example of a physical property of a material?

A. Changing of phase C. Reaction with oxygen
B. Color and texture D. Temperature change
7. Which of the following presents the CHEMICAL PROPERTY of a candle?

A. Candle wick burns when lit C. It has a lavender scent
B. Color of the candle is yellow D. Wax melts at high temperature
8. What does a physical property tell about a substance?

A. Dependent on the amount of matter in a material
B. Determined by the type of material in a substance
C. Observed and measured without changing the composition
D. Observed by changing the composition of the material
9. Which of the following is NOT an EXTENSIVE property of matter?

A. Density C. Mass
B. Length D. Volume
10. All of the following present the physical property of matter EXCEPT
A. Boiling Point is 1000C C. Conducts electricity
B. Combines with oxygen D. Soluble in water
11. Which of the following is an example of a chemical property?

A. ability to rust C. has a high density
B. can have different phases D. variety of color
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12. Which of the following is a chemical change?
A. adding food coloring to water C. tearing a piece of paper
B. burning paper D. water boiling
13. If the size of an object decreases, what happens to its density?

A. decreases C. increases
B. divides in half D. stays the same
14. Which of the following DOES NOT describe the physical property of water?
A. Boils at 100 degrees Celsius C. Decomposes upon electrolysis
B. Colorless and tasteless D. Has a density of 1.00 g/mL
15. Which is description BEST describes the chemical property of the cleaning agent,
Borax?
I. Dissolves in water
II. Solid and odorless
III. Melts at 741 degrees Celsius
IV. Produce sodium perborate in acid solution
A. I and II C. III only
B. III and IV D. IV only
What is in?
D
Activity 1.2 Fundamental Concepts
Direction: Write the missing information to complete the characteristics of the different
states of matter.
Table 1. Characteristics of the Different States of Matter

State of Matter Definite volume? Definite shape? Intermolecular
(Yes or No) (Yes or No) Forces of
Attraction (Weak,
Strong, Strongest)
SOLID
LIQUID
GAS
D What is it?
Physical, Chemical, Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter
Physical properties are characteristics a substance shows by itself, without changing into
or interacting with another substance. These properties include melting point, electrical
conductivity, and density. A physical change occurs when a substance alters its physical
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properties, not its composition. For example, when ice melts, several physical properties
change, such as hardness, density, and ability to flow. But the composition of the sample
does not change: it is still water. Thus, in physical change, the substance is the same
before and after: water (solid form) to water (liquid form).
Chemical properties are characteristics a substance shows as it changes into or interacts

with another substance (or substances). Chemical properties include flammability,
corrosiveness, and reactivity with acids. A chemical change, also called a chemical
reaction , occurs when a substance (or substances) is converted into a different
substance (or substances). When you pass an electric current through water: the water
decomposes (breaks down) into two other substances, hydrogen and oxygen, that bubble
into the tubes. The composition has changed: the final sample is not longer water. Thus,
in chemical change, the substance before and after the reaction is different: water (passing
of electric current) will change to hydrogen and oxygen.
Table 2. Some Examples of Physical Properties of Matter
Property Examples
Mass A nickel weighs 5 g A penny weighs 2.5 g
Structure Ice is crystalline. Glass is amorphous.
Color Sulfur is yellow. Bromine is reddish brown.
Hardness Diamond is exceptionally hard. Sodium metal is soft.
Taste Acids are sour; bases are bitter.
Odor Benzyl acetate smells like Hydrogen sulfide smells like
jasmine. rotten eggs.
Boiling point Water boils at 1000C. Ethyl alcohol boils at 78.50C.
Freezing point Water freezes at 00C. Methane freezes at -1820C.
Conductivity Copper conducts electricity. Glass is a poor heat conductor.

Diamond does not.
Solubillity Ethyl alcohol dissolves in water. Gasoline does not.
Density For water it is 1.00 g/mL. For gold it is 19.3 g/mL.
Table 3. Some Examples of Chemical Properties of Matter
Matter Chemical Property

Iron Gets rusty (combines with oxygen to form iron oxide)
Carbon Burns (combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide)
Silver Tarnishes (combines with sulfur to form silver sulfide)
Nitroglycerin Explodes (decomposes to produce a mixture of gases)
Neon Is inert (does not react with anything)
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Extensive properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter that is
being measured. Intensive properties, such as density and color, DO NOT depend on
the amount of matter. Both extensive and intensive properties are physical properties,
which means they can be measured without changing the substance’s chemical identity.
For example, the freezing point of a substance is a physical property: when water freezes,
it’s still water (H2O)—it’s just in a different physical state.
Table 4. Some Examples of Intensive and Extensive Properties of Matter
Intensive Extensive
Color Weight / Mass
Odor Volume/ Area
Hardness Length/ Width
Density Mass
Boiling/ Melting/ Freezing Point Thickness
E What is more?
Activity 1.3 Classifying Properties
Direction:
Classify the following examples as physical or chemical. Under physical properties, further
classify it as Intensive or Extensive. Write your answers on Table 5.
Table 5. Classification of the Properties of Matter
Physical Chemical
Intensive Extensive
1. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

2. Diamonds can be used for cutting glass.
3. Water can be separated by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.
4. Sugar is weighed at 50 g.
5. Vinegar will react with baking soda.
6. Yeast acts on sugar to form carbon dioxide and ethanol.
7. Wood is flammable.
8. Aluminum has a low density.
9. Ammonia is a gas at room temperature.
10. Bromine has a red color.
11. Soda has a 15 mL volume
12. I am 58 kg.
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Short Response: Answer the questions in not more than 3 sentences.
1. What is your basis for classifying the examples as physical or chemical?
2. What is your basis for classifying the examples as intensive or extensive?
E What I can do?

Activity 1.4 Health First!!!
List at least 2 materials you use to uphold/ maintain your health. Under each, list at least
1 physical and 1 chemical property it has that make it effective in promoting/ maintaining
optimum health.
Example: Alcohol: Physical property- Clear and colorless ; Chemical property- Flammable
Material 1: _________ Material 2: _________
Physical Chemical Physical Chemical

1. 1. 1. 1.
A What I can achieve?

MULTIPLE CHOICE.
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. All of the following are examples of physical property EXCEPT
A. Changing of phase C. Reaction with oxygen
B. Color and texture D. Temperature change
2. Which of the following presents the CHEMICAL PROPERTY of a candle?

A. Color of the candle is yellow C. Wax melts at high temperature
B. It has a lavender scent D. Candle wick burns when lit
3. What does a physical property tell about a substance?

A. Observed and measured without changing the composition
B. Observed by changing the composition of the material
C. Dependent on the amount of matter in a material
D. Determined by the type of material in a substance
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4. All of the following are EXTENSIVE properties of matter EXCEPT
A. Density C. Mass
B. Length D. Volume
5. Which of the following is NOT a physical property of matter?

A. Boiling Point is 1000C C. Conducts electricity
B. Combines with oxygen D. Soluble in water
6. Which of the following is an example of a chemical property?

A. has a high density C. ability to rust
B. variety of color D. can have different phases
7. Which of the following is a chemical change?

A. burning paper C. tearing a piece of paper
B. adding food coloring to water D. water boiling
8. If the size of an object decreases, what happens to its density?

A. increases C. decreases
B. divides in half D. stays the same
9. Which of the following DOES NOT describe the physical property of water?
A. Has a density of 1.00 g/mL C. Boils at 100 degrees Celsius
B.Decomposes upon electrolysis D. Colorless and Tasteless
10. Which is description BEST describes the chemical property of Borax?

I. Dissolves in water
II. Solid and odorless
III. Melts at 741 degrees Celsius
IV. Produce sodium perborate in acid solution
A. I and II C. III only
B. III and IV D. IV only
11. What property determines whether one substance will sink or float in another
substance?
A. Density C. Texture
B. Temperature D. Volume
12. Which of the following is a property of both liquids and gases, but NOT solids?
A. Can be compressed C. Has a definite texture
B. Can flow D. Has definite shape
13. Which type of matter is classified as a conductor of thermal energy?

A. Cotton C. Plastic
B. Metal D. Wood
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14. What physical property can be used to separate and classify aluminum from steel
in a recycling plant?
A. Magnetism C. Size
B. Shape D. Solubility
15. Water floats on corn syrup and sinks in oil (See Figure 1). Which
correctly classifies the relative density of water?
A. equal to corn syrup C. greater than oil
B. greater than corn syrup D. less than oil
Lesson SIMPLE SEPARATION

TECHNIQUES
2
I What is new?
This lesson starts with a short review on the difference between substances and
mixtures. It is followed by a review of the basic techniques learned in the previous years.
Discussion of each type of techniques will be also be given. Lastly, applications of
chromatography and distillation will be presented.
Simple Separation Techniques

A mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that can be present in varying
amounts and can be physically separated by using methods that use physical properties
to separate the components of the mixture, such as evaporation, distillation, filtration and
chromatography.
Activity 2.1 SE-PA-RATE!
Given the following mixtures, list the physical property of each component and describe
how you will separate them from each other. (Ex. Oreo: cookie and cream; twisting)
Mixture Components How will you separate each

component?
1 2
Salt and Pepper
Egg yolk and egg

white
Colored beads
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I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. How do you separate miscible liquids that have different boiling points?
A. Chromatography C. Distillation
B. Decantation D. Filtration
2. Which one of the following shows the separation technique of decanting?
A B C D
3. In the distillation apparatus shown, what are the parts labelled A and B?
A B
A Liebig condenser flask
B Liebig condenser thermometer
C funnel thermometer
D thermometer funnel
4. The separation technique that involves heating a solution until the liquid changes into a
gaseous state, leaving behind a solid is known as what?
A. Chromatography C. Evaporation
B. Decantation D. Sublimation
5. Which one of the following techniques would BEST be used to separate soil and water?
A. Chromatography C. Filtration
B. Decanting D. Fractional distillation
6. In the process of evaporation, which one of the following pieces of laboratory apparatus
would NOT be used?
A. bunsen burner C. filter funnel
B. evaporating basin D. wire gauze
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7. Which one of the following methods would NOT be used to separate an insoluble solid
and a liquid?
A. chromatography C. evaporation
B. decantation D. filtration
8. Sodium chloride can be separated from rock salt by first adding water to the mixture to
dissolve the sodium chloride. The separation then takes place in which two stages?
A. distillation followed by decanting C. filtration followed by decanting
B. evaporation followed by filtration D. filtration followed by evaporation
9. Which one of the following would you use to separate sand from iron filings?
A. bar magnet C. distillation apparatus
B. chromatography paper D. filter paper
10. What are the two changes of state that occur during distillation?
A. Liquid to gas and gas to liquid C. Solid to gas and gas to liquid
B. Liquid to gas and gas to solid D. Solid to liquid and liquid to gas
11. What method of separating mixtures involves separating an insoluble solid from a
liquid?
A. Decantation C. Evaporation
B. Distillation D. Filtration
12. Which one of the following methods is used to separate the colors in food dyes?
B. decantation D. flotation
13. Which one of the following pairs of separation techniques will BOTH separate salt from
a mixture of salt and water?
A. Chromatography and evaporation C. Decanting and filtration
B. Decanting and distillation D. Distillation and evaporation
14. Water and alcohol are easily separated by distillation because of difference in what
property?
1. boiling points C. densities
2. colors D. melting points
15. In a coffee machine, the ground coffee is separated from the coffee solution by using
what kind of paper?
A. filter C. tissue
B. porous D. wax
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What is in?
D
Activity 2.2 How can you tell?
Direction: Classify each material as substance or mixture and state the reason for your
classification.
Table 6. Classification of Matter According to its Characteristics
Material Classification Basis of classification

(Substance or Mixture) (Physical properties)
1. Refined sugar
2. Oil and water
3. Pebbles of different
sizes
Guide Questions:
1. What is the difference between a substance and a mixture?
2. What physical properties helped you decide whether the material is a substance or
a mixture?
D What is it?
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Most of the time the substances that we see around us are not in their pure form. They are
basically a mixture of two or more substances. Interestingly, mixtures tend to also come in
different forms. Therefore, there are several types of separation techniques that are used
in segregating a mixture of substances. As for the need for separation, it is usually done
to remove all the unwanted materials and obtain useful components.
Some of the common methods of separating substances or mixtures are:
Evaporation Distillation Mechanical Separation
Filtration or Sedimentation Handpicking Flotation
Chromatography Sieving/ Sifting
Decantation Use of Centrifuge
Sublimation Magnetism/ Magnetic Separation
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Evaporation
Evaporation can be used as a separation
method to separate components of a mixture
with a dissolved solid in a liquid. The liquid is
evaporated, meaning it is convert from its
liquid state to gaseous state. This often
requires heat. Once the liquid is completely
evaporated, the solid is all that is left behind.
Figure 2. Evaporation can be used as a separation technique.
Distillation
Distillation is a separation technique used to separate

components of a liquid mixture by a process of
heating and cooling, which exploits the differences in
the volatility of each of the components.
Distillation procedure: 1) the round bottom flask
contains the liquid mixture which must be heated to a
vigorous boil, 2) the component with the lower boiling
point will change into its gaseous state, 3) upon
contact with the water-cooled condenser, the gas will
condense, 4) trickle down into the graduated cylinder
where the chemist can them recuperate the final
distilled liquid, and 5) the other liquid component
remains in the round bottom flask.
Figure 3. Distillation apparatus.
Filtration
Filtration is a separation technique used to separate the

components of a mixture containing an undissolved solid
in a liquid. Filtration may be done cold or hot, using
gravity or applying vacuum, using a Buchner or Hirsch
funnel or a simple glass funnel . The exact method used
depends on the purpose of the filtration, whether it is for
the isolation of a solid from a mixture or removal of
impurities from a mixture.
Figure 4. Filtration apparatus.
Filtration procedure: 1) the mixture is pored through a funnel lined with a filter paper, 2)
the filtrate (liquid) drips through to the filter flask, 3) the solid remains in the funnel.
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Chromatography
Though chromatography is a simple technique in principle, it remains the most important

method for the separation of mixtures into its components. It is quite versatile for it can be
used to separate mixtures of solids, or of liquids, or mixtures of solids and liquids
combined, or in the case of gas chromatography, can separate mixtures of gases. The
two elements of chromatography are the stationary phase and the mobile phase. There
are many choices of stationary phases, some being alumina, silica, and even paper. The
mobile phase, in liquid chromatography, can also vary. It is often either a solvent or a
mixture of solvents and is often referred to as the eluant. A careful choice of eluting solvent
helps to make the separation more successful. The mixture is placed on the stationary
phase. The eluant passes over the mixture and continues to pass through the stationary
phase carrying along the components of the mixture. If a component in the mixture has
greater affinity for the mobile phase (eluant) than the stationary phase, it will tend to be
carried along easily with the eluant. If another component in the mixture has a greater
affinity for the stationary phase than the mobile phase then it will not be carried along so
easily. A separation is thus obtained when the different components in a mixture have
different affinity for the stationary and mobile phase. Three important types of
chromatography based on the principles discussed above are: 1) thin layer
chromatography (TLC), 2) column chromatography, and 3) gas chromatography.
Figure 5. Thin layer chromatography is

a one type of chromatography. a) The
stationary phase can be a thin film of
alumina or silica on glass or even
paper. The plate is placed in a
developing tank which contains the
mobile phase (eluant) which travels up
the plate by capillary action. b) A
separation is obtained because the
component of the mixture that has a
stronger affinity for the eland
(compound 2) travels faster up the
plate, than the component that has a
strong affinity to the stationary phase
(compound 1).
Sieving/ Sifting
It is done to separate mixtures that contain substances mostly of different sizes. The
mixture is passed through the pores of the sieve. This is similar to the sieve used in the
kitchen to separate lumps from fine flour. All the smaller substances pass through easily
while the bigger components of the mixture are retained.
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Decantation
Decantation is used when the liquid is poured from a solid-liquid mixture, leaving the solid
behind. This method is used when an insoluble solid is dense enough to be left after
pouring the liquid.
It is also used in the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible (non-
mixing) liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid or liquid below.
The process can be carried out by tilting the mixture after pouring out the top layer. This
process can also be used to separate two liquids that do not mix with each other for e.g.,
oil and water. When we leave the mixture of oil and water, two separate layers are formed,
with water at the bottom and oil, being lighter, at the top. We can remove the oil layer from
the top by pouring it into another vessel, which leaves us with the water layer at the bottom.
Use of Centrifuge
This is the process of separating a suspended solid from a liquid by whirling the mixture
at high speed. Centrifugation separates the components of heterogeneous mixtures.
These include liquids in liquids, solids in liquids, and solids and liquids in gases.
Centrifugation uses centrifugal force to move dense components to the outside of the
container. This causes the solid to settle more rapidly and completely.
Some examples of centrifugation are:

• Removing fat from milk to produce skimmed milk
• Removing water from wet lettuce in a salad spinner
• Separating water from clothes by spin-drying in washing machines
• Separating solid components of blood and urine in forensic and research labs
Sublimation
If one component of a mixture sublimates, this property may be used to separate it from
the other components of the mixture. Iodine (I2), naphthalene (C10H8, mothballs),
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and dry ice (solid CO2) are some substances which sublime.
The ability to sublime is a physical property of some substances to pass directly from the
solid state to the gaseous state without the appearance of the liquid state. Not all
substances possess this characteristic
Magnetism/ Magnetic Separation
Ideal for separating mixtures of two

solids with one part having magnetic
properties. Some metals like iron, nickel
and cobalt have magnetic properties
whiles gold, silver and aluminum do not.
Magnetic elements are attracted to a magnet
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Flotation
Flotation is used to separate substances by whether they float or sink. When a mixture is
put into a tube and is stirred, the lighter substance should rise above the heavier
substance. The substances are then separated and can be removed separately.
Mechanical Separation
This method involves simply picking out all the unwanted substances by hand and
separating them from useful ones. The separated substances may be an impurity that has
to throw away or maybe that both the separated substances are useful. For example – if
you separate black grapes from green ones from a mixture of the two.
Life Science Applications of Chromatography
Chromatography is widely used in various life science applications. Some important

applications of chromatography in the food, molecular biology, and forensic sectors are
discussed below.
1. Food industry
a. Spoilage detection
Chromatography can be used in flavor studies and to detect spoilage in foods. Determining
the amount of organic acids in foods provides key information about the quality of foods.
Column chromatography is used to detect and quantify spoilage indicators such as pyruvic
acid in milk. Pyruvic acid content is a measure of psychrotrophic bacteria present in milk.
The same separation method is used to assess total organic acid profile of milk and to
measure lactose, which indicates the level of sweetness. Chromatography enables rapid
analysis when compared with techniques such as bacterial plating, which may take several
days to yield results. Rapid analysis is crucial in the food industry to prevent outbreak of
spoilage and to minimize possible health risks.
b. Additive detection
Additives are added to foods to enhance their flavors or to give them a visual appeal. For
example, the presence of added malic acid in apple juice is more difficult to detect because
apple juice naturally contains malic acid. However, synthetic malic acid contains fumaric
acid as a contaminant and hence its level in an apple juice sample is an indicator of the
commercial malic acid. Chromatography has been successfully used to detect and
quantify fumaric acid in apple juice.
c. Determining nutritional quality
Vitamin C depletion in foods can be an indicator of depletion of other nutrients and so the
vitamin C content of foods and beverages is closely monitored during all stages of food
processing using column chromatography. This analysis can be carried out rapidly using
modern acid analysis columns coupled with electrochemical detection even in complex
samples. This technique is used to quantitate vitamin C in juices, powdered drinks, and
both fresh and frozen vegetables and fruits.
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2. Forensics
a. Crime scene testing
Gas chromatography is used to test evidence such as blood or hair from a crime scene.
This allows investigators to understand the crime better and to develop theories on what
exactly happened and where the victim has been earlier, based on the material found.
b. Forensic pathology
Gas chromatography (GC) has been widely used in forensic pathology to identify the type
of compounds and fluids present in the human body, post death. This testing can help
detect the presence of alcohol or drugs or poisonous substances in the body at the time
of death, thus assisting in determining the possible motive and cause of death.
3. Arson investigation
GC is a low cost technique used to identify ignitable / flammable liquids from fire debris.
On comparison with a list of flammable liquids publically available, the exact kind of liquid
used can be concluded. Mass spectrometry (MS) characterization of the separated
components yields better and more precise results.
Practical Uses of Distillation
Many of the products we use every day are the result of distillation, from the gasoline
that powers our cars to the water we drink. Distillation is a physical process that uses heat
to purify or separate mixtures containing one or more liquids. As a mixture is heated, the
liquid with the lowest boiling point will boil and turn into vapor, leaving behind any solid
material or other liquids. The vapor is captured and cooled until it condenses, resulting in
a purified version of the liquid.
1. Scientific Uses
One practical use of distillation is in the laboratory. While the results of this type of
distillation may not find their way directly into our homes, the process is used regularly in
chemical and pharmaceutical research, quality assurance testing for many consumer
products and law enforcement forensics.
2. Water Purification
Water from natural sources contains a variety of minerals and other impurities, many of
which can be removed by distillation. Distilled water is commonly used in situations where
the presence of minerals might reduce the effectiveness of certain equipment, such as in
steam irons or cigar humidors. Some people drink distilled water because they like the
taste or want to avoid the minerals found in tap water. Parents will often use distilled water
when preparing baby formula for their infants. Desalination plants also use distillation to
turn seawater into drinking water
3. Alcoholic Beverages
Distillation is used to produce a variety of alcoholic beverages, such as whiskey, rum and
brandy. When fruit and plant materials ferment, a dilute version of ethyl alcohol is
produced. Distilling the fermented material purifies and concentrates the ethanol. A variety
of other components, such as water, esters and other types of alcohol, are also collected
during the distillation process, which accounts for the unique flavor of each alcoholic spirit.
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4. Petroleum Products
A number of products can be produced from crude oil. Because each of these products
has a unique boiling point, a process known as fractional distillation is used to refine oil
into separate materials. These include: gasoline, diesel fuel, lubricating oil, fuel oil, paraffin
wax, and petrochemicals.
5. Perfume
One of the earliest uses of distilling was to make perfume, which began around 3500 B.C.
The aroma from various plants and herbs is contained in what are known as essential oils,
which can be extracted through distillation. However, many aromatic plants tend to
decompose at high temperatures so separation by normal distillation isn’t practical. In
those instances, steam is passed through the plant material to draw out the essential oils
without burning the mixture. The steam is then captured and condensed just as in normal
distillation.
6. Food Flavorings
Steam distillation is also used to create natural food flavorings. The most common are
citrus oils and liquid extracts of various herbs and spices.
E What is more?
Activity 2.3 Identifying Appropriate Separation Methods
Answer YES or NO to determine the appropriate separation method for the following
mixtures.
Table 7. Appropriate Separation Methods Based on the Composition of the Mixture
Separation Components of the Mixture

Methods 2 Solids 2 Liquids Solid Solid and
(Yes or No) (Yes or No) dissolved in liquid
a liquid (Yes or No)
(Yes or No)
Evaporation
Distillation
Filtration
Chromatography
Activity 2.4 Separating a Complex Mixture
Imagine you are a member of a team of scientists working together in a laboratory. Your
team has been given an important job. You have been given a beaker that contains a
mixture of substances to separate.
The mixture contains the following components:
sand iron filings salt ethanol water
18 | P a g e
Your job is to design a procedure for separating the mixture into its individual components.
How would you do that? Your procedure should be summarized in the form of a flow chart.
Before you start, imagine what the mixture would look like. Draw a picture of the a clear
container and the different contents in the mixture in the space.
To help you design your procedure, here are a few guiding questions and a template for
your flow chart:
1. What is the physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of each of the components in the mixture?
Fill these into the table.
Component (Substance) State (Solid, Liquid or Dissolved or
Gas) undissolved
2. Name the solids that will not dissolve in the

mixture. These are the undissolved solids.
3. Name the dissolved solids in the mixture.
4. What would be the best method for separating
the undissolved solids from the liquids in the
mixture? Write the name of this method in the
block numbered 1 of the flowchart below.
5. Write the names of the undissolved solids in
block 2 of the flowchart.
6. What remains after the undissolved solids have
been removed from the mixture? Write the names
of these compounds in block 3.
7. How could we separate the undissolved solids?
(Hint: look at the flow chart for some ideas.) Write
the name of this process in block 4.
8. Write the names of the two undissolved solids
in blocks 6 and 7.
9. How could we separate the liquids from the dissolved solid? We could evaporate them,
but then they would be lost. What other option is available if we want to separate the
components in a solution? Write the name of this process in block 5.
10. Which liquid would be distilled first? (Hint: which liquid has the lowest boiling point?)
Write the name of this liquid in block 8.
11. What remains in the solution when the first liquid is removed? Write the names of these
components in block 9.
12. How can we separate the liquid from the dissolved solid? (Hint: this process is the
same as the one in block 7.) Write the name of the process in block 10.
13. Write the names of the final two components in blocks 11 and 12.
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E What I can do?
Activity 2.5 How am I affected?
Go back to the applications of chromatography and distillation. Choose at least 2
application from each method and identify specific ways on how you are affected as a
student or member of the society.
Application Specific ways I am affected

Chromatography
1.
2.
Distillation
1.
2.
E What else I can do?

Activity 2.6 Table Completion
Write the technique that can BEST be used to separate the components of the given
mixture on the second column. On the third column, write the basis of your answer (what
property of the component of the mixture did you consider in deciding on your answer).
Mixture Technique Basis

2 water insoluble compounds with
different densities
1 water soluble compound and 1 water
insoluble compound
Magnetic element and non-magnetic
element
Solid compound that vaporizes at lower
temp and solid non-evaporating
compound
2 water soluble, colored component
2 components that have different
particle sizes
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A What I have learned?
Activity 2.7 Creating a Flowchart
Create a Flowchart on how to separate the
following mixtures. Choose only one
mixtures. Refer to the sample given.
1. rough sand, table salt, corn starch
2. red juice powder, corn starch, rock salt
3. sand, pepper, sugar
4.black sand, iron fillings, salt
5.monggo seeds, salt, sand

MULTIPLE CHOICE.
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. In the process of evaporation, which one of the following pieces of laboratory apparatus
would NOT be used?
A. Bunsen burner C. evaporating basin
B. filter funnel D. wire gauze
2. Which one of the following methods would NOT be used to separate an insoluble solid
and a liquid?
A. evaporation C. chromatography
B. filtration D. decanting
3. Sodium chloride can be separated from rock salt by first adding water to the mixture to
dissolve the sodium chloride. The separation then takes place in which two stages?
A. distillation followed by decanting C. filtration followed by decanting
B. evaporation followed by filtration D. filtration followed by evaporation
4. Which one of the following would you use to separate sand from iron filings?
A. bar magnet C. chromatography paper
B. distillation apparatus D. filter paper
5. What are the two changes of state that occur during distillation?
A. Solid to gas and gas to liquid C. Liquid to gas and gas to liquid
B. Solid to liquid and liquid to gas D. Liquid to gas and gas to solid
6. What method of separating mixtures involves separating an insoluble solid from a liquid?
A. Decantation C. Evaporation
B. Distillation D. Filtration
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7. Which one of the following methods is used to separate the colors in food dyes?
B. decantation D. flotation
8. Which one of the following pairs of separation techniques will BOTH separate salt from
a mixture of salt and water?
A. Chromatography and evaporation C. Decanting and filtration
B. Decanting and distillation D. Distillation and evaporation
9. Water and alcohol are easily separated by distillation because of difference in what
property?
A. boiling points C. densities
B. colors D. melting points
10. In a coffee machine, the ground coffee is separated from the coffee solution by using
what kind of paper?
A. filter C. tissue
B. porous D. wax
11. How do you separate miscible liquids that have different boiling points?
A. Chromatography C. Distillation
B. Decantation D. Filtration
12. Which one of the following shows the separation technique of decanting?
A B C D
13. In the distillation apparatus shown, what are the parts labelled A and B?
A B
A Liebig condenser flask
B Liebig condenser thermometer
C funnel thermometer
D thermometer funnel
14. The separation technique that involves heating a solution until the liquid changes into
a gaseous state, leaving behind a solid is known as what?
A. Chromatography C. Evaporation
B. Decantation D. Sublimation
15. Which one of the following techniques would BEST be used to separate soil and water?
A. Chromatography C. Filtration
B. Decanting D. Fractional distillation
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Week
MODULE 2:
Atomic Structure and Electron Configuration

Module 2 includes an in-depth discussion of isotopes and electron configuration of
the atom. Both lessons involve the fundamental knowledge of sub-atomic particles.
Unstable isotopes are useful because they emit radiation during spontaneous decay in
order to achieve a stable state. This property is particularly useful in food preservation,
archeological dating of artifacts, and medical diagnosis and treatment. On the other hand,
quantum numbers are important in understanding the behavior of electrons, as well as
identifying the probable location of the atom’s electrons. Moreover, it is also important in
the understanding of the characteristics of atoms, such as ionization energy and atomic
radius. Lastly, knowledge of electron configuration is useful in understanding the chemical
behavior of elements, as seen in their arrangement in the periodic table. It is also important
in describing how chemical bonds form and how they hold atoms together.
The module contains 3 lessons: Common Isotopes and their Uses, Quantum numbers,
and Electron Configuration
Lesson 1: Common Isotopes and Their Uses
1. Differentiate among atomic number, mass number, isotopes, and which of these
distinguishes one element from another;
2. Enumerate and describe the different types of isotopes and their uses; and
3. Identify applications of isotopes in their daily lives.
Lesson 2: Quantum Numbers

1. Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom

2. Describe the electronic structure of atoms in terms of main energy levels, sub levels
and orbitals and relate this to energy
Lesson 3: Electron Configuration
1. Write the electron configuration of atoms

2. Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electron configuration of atoms
3. Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electron configuration
23 | P a g e
Lesson COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR
1 USES
Isotopes are often related to nuclear energy which is being used in many industries.
This is because the nuclear energy usually comes from radioisotopes- a kind of isotopes
that is radioactive. Many of the food products in the market were subjected to radiation
that comes from radioisotopes. Only few people knew this because the industries are
aware that people are sensitive to the use of nuclear energy. This module will discuss the
nature of isotopes as well as their kinds, examples and uses.
I What is new?
Activity 1.1 I see…I think…I wonder….
Guide Questions
1. What do you see in the picture?
2. How do you think isotopes are used in situations like this?
3. What questions come to your mind regarding isotopes and the image?
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Choose the letter of the BEST answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
24 | P a g e
1. Which subatomic particles is/ are located in the nucleus of a carbon atom?
A. Neutrons only C. Protons and neutrons
B. Protons and electrons D. Protons only
2. How many neutrons are in the atom in the picture?

A. 4 C. 6
B. 5 D. 11
3. The atomic mass number of a specific element is determined by the:

A. number of protons in its nucleus
B. number of neutrons plus protons in its nucleus
C. number of neutrons plus electrons in its nucleus
D. number of electrons in its outermost shell
E. total number of neutrons orbiting the nucleus
4. All of the following are application of radioisotopes EXCEPT

A. Archeology C. Pest Control
B. Food Industry D. Telecom Industry
5. Uranium-235 has 92 protons. How may neutrons does it have?

A. 143 C. 235
B. 92 D. 90
6. Which of the following BEST describes isotopes as atoms?

A. Same number of neutrons, Different number of protons
B. Same number of electrons, Different number of protons
C. Same number of protons, Different number of neutrons
D. Same number of neutrons and protons
7. Which isotope is used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid function?

A.32P C.131I
59
B. Fe D.133Xe
8. Uranium-238 has 92 protons. How many neutrons does it have?

A. 239 C. 92
B. 146 D. 330
9. What sub-atomic particle is extra in deuterium 2H1 , that is why it is sometimes called
heavy hydrogen?
A. electron C. neutron
B. nucleus D. proton
10. What is the charge of a beta particle?

A. -1 C. +1
B. -2 D. +4
25 | P a g e
What is in?
D
Activity 1.2 WHAT’S MY LABEL?
Label the parts of the atom and identify the element.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. What element is it? ______________
D What is it?
Isotopes
The word isotope was derived from Greek words isos and topos which means “the
same place”. Isotopes variants of an element are still found in the same location in the
periodic table of elements. This term was introduced by a British Chemist Frederick Soddy.
Isotopes are alternative “versions” of elements that have a different atomic mass
but the same atomic number. The atomic number of an element is simply the number of
protons present in its atom, while atomic mass depends on how many neutrons it has.
Isotopes of the same element have different quantities of neutrons, though the proton
count is the same. Scientists divide isotopes into two main types: radioactive and stable.
Both types see wide use in several industries and fields of study.
What is the Nature of Isotopes?
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons
but different in the number of neutrons. For example, the most common oxygen isotope
has 8 neutrons inside the nucleus, but other isotopes have 9 or 10 neutrons.
ISOTOPES Subatomic Particles
Oxygen- 16 Number of Proton = 8
Number of Neutron = 8
Mas number = 16
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Oxygen-17 Number of Protons = 8
Number of Neutron = 9
Mass number = 17
Oxygen -18 Number of Protons = 8

Number of Neutrons = 10
Mass number = 18
Isotopes of Oxygen
To identify a specific isotope of an element, write the name of the element followed
by a hyphen and the mass number of the isotope. Isotopes of oxygen are presented below.
➢
Oxygen-16 for the isotope with mass number of 16
➢
➢
An oxygen atom with eight protons and eight neutrons and has a mass number of
16, its name is Oxygen-16. Oxygen-17 has eight protons and nine neutrons and its mass
number is 17. And lastly, an oxygen atom with eight protons and ten neutrons and has a
mass number of eighteen.
Due to the variations of the mass number of the isotopes like Oxygen-16, Oxygen-
17 and Oxygen-18, the relative atomic mass should be computed as indicated in the
periodic table. The atomic mass of oxygen indicated in the periodic table is 15.999. How
this figure obtained? To calculate the atomic mass of an element, you have to multiply
the mass number of each isotope by its percentage abundance in decimal form. Then
add these amounts together to find the relative atomic mass.
For example, Chlorine-35 makes up 75.53 percent of all the chlorine in nature,
and Chlorine-37 makes up the other 24.47 percent. The relative atomic mass of chlorine
is calculated as follows;
Isotope Mass Number Atomic Mass Percentage Relative
unit Abundance Atomic Mass
Chlorine-35 35 34.969 75.53% 35.45
Chlorine-37 37 36.966 24.47%
PRACTICE EXERCISE : Problem Solving
Boron has two isotopes, Boron-10 and Boron-11, whose percentage abundances
are 19.8% and 80.2% respectively. The atomic masses of Boron-10 and Boron-11 are
27 | P a g e
10.0129 amu and 11.0093 amu respectively. Write the symbols for the two isotopes of
boron and determine the relative atomic mass.
Isotope Mass Number Atomic Mass Percentage Relative
Abundance Atomic Mass
unit
When we talk about the chemical properties of isotopes of a given element, they are
almost the same or identical. Different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behaviors.
However, when it comes to physical properties of isotopes like the mass, melting point,
melting point, density and freezing point they are all different. Some isotopes of an element
have unique properties because they are unstable. An unstable atom is an atom whose
nucleus can change its composition. This type of isotope is called radioisotope.
Radioisotopes are radioactive isotope because they produce radiation as they breakdown
in the process.
Important Isotopes
Isotope Use/s
Sodium-24 Injected into limb to detect blood cloth
Cobalt-60 Detect and Treat Cancer/ use to kill bacteria
Iodine-131 Detect functions of Thyroid Gland
Phosphorous-32 Added to fertilizer to study plant processes
Nitrogen-15 Added to fertilizer to study plant processes
Cesium-137 Use to kill bacteria
Flourine-18 Use for diagnosis and treatment of diseases
Gallium-67 Use for diagnosis and treatment of diseases
Carbon-14 Carbon dating Process

Types of Isotopes & Their Uses
Stable Isotopes
Stable isotopes have a stable proton-neutron combination and do not display any
sign of decay. This stability comes from the amount of neutrons present in an atom. If an
atom has too many or too few neutrons, it is unstable and tends to disintegrate. Since
stable isotopes do not decay, they do not produce radiation or its associated health risks.
Uses of Stable Isotopes

Scientists performing environmental and ecological experiments use stable
isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and carbon. For example, in geochemistry,
scientists study the chemical composition of geological materials such as minerals and
28 | P a g e
rocks. Stable isotopes are dependable tools for determining many facts about geological
materials, such as their age and where they came from.
Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive isotopes have an unstable combination of protons and neutrons. These
isotopes decay, emitting radiation that includes alpha, beta and gamma rays. Scientists
classify radioactive isotopes according to their creation process: long-lived, cosmogenic,
anthropogenic and radiogenic.
Long-lived radioactive isotopes emerged during the creation of the solar system,
while cosmogenic radioactive isotopes occur as a reaction of the atmosphere to cosmic
rays emitted by stars. Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear activities,
such as weapons testing and nuclear fuel production, while radiogenic isotopes are the
end result of radioactive decay.
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive isotopes find uses in agriculture, food industry, pest control, archeology
and medicine. Radiocarbon dating, which measures the age of carbon-bearing items, uses
a radioactive isotope known as carbon-14. In medicine, gamma rays emitted by radioactive
elements are used to detect tumors inside the human body. Food irradiation -- the process
of exposing food to a controlled level of Radioactive isotopes have a variety of applications.
Generally, however, they are useful because either we can detect their radioactivity or we
can use the energy they release.
Radioactive isotopes are effective tracers because their radioactivity is easy to

detect. A tracer is a substance that can be used to follow the pathway of that substance
through some structure. For instance, leaks in underground water pipes can be discovered
by running some tritium-containing water through the pipes and then using a Geiger
counter to locate any radioactive tritium subsequently present in the ground around the
pipes. (Recall that tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen.)
Tracers can also be used to follow the steps of a complex chemical reaction. After
incorporating radioactive atoms into reactant molecules, scientists can track where the
atoms go by following their radioactivity. One excellent example of this is the use of carbon-
14 to determine the steps involved in photosynthesis in plants. We know these steps
because researchers followed the progress of carbon-14 throughout the process.
Radioactive Dating
Radioactive isotopes are useful for establishing the ages of various objects. The
half-life of radioactive isotopes is unaffected by any environmental factors, so the isotope
acts like an internal clock. For example, if a rock is analyzed and is found to contain a
certain amount of uranium-235 and a certain amount of its daughter isotope, we can
conclude that a certain fraction of the original uranium-235 has radioactively decayed. If
29 | P a g e
half of the uranium has decayed, then the rock has an age of one
half-life of uranium-235, or about 4.5 × 109 y. Many analyses like
this, using a wide variety of isotopes, have indicated that age of the
earth itself is over 4 × 109 y. In another interesting example of
radioactive dating, hydrogen-3 dating has been used to verify the
stated vintages of some old fine wines.
One isotope, carbon-14, is particularly useful in determining
the age of once-living artifacts. A tiny amount of carbon-14 is
produced naturally in the upper reaches of the atmosphere, and
living things incorporate some of it into their tissues, building up to a
constant, albeit very low, level. Once a living thing dies, it no longer
acquires carbon-14; as time passes the carbon-14 that was in the
tissues decays. (The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,370 y.) If a once-living
artifact is discovered and analyzed many years after its death and
the remaining carbon-14 is compared to the known constant level,
an approximate age of the artifact can be determined. Using such methods, scientists
determined that the age of the Shroud of Turin
(Figure 6 “Shroud of Turin”; purported by some to be the burial cloth of Jesus Christ and
composed of flax fibres, a type of plant) is about 600–700 y, not 2,000 y as claimed by
some. Scientists were also able to use radiocarbon dating to show that the age of a
mummified body found in the ice of the Alps was 5,300 y.
In 1989, several groups of scientists used carbon-14 dating to demonstrate that the
Shroud of Turin was only 600–700 y. Many people still cling to a different notion, despite
the scientific evidence.
Irradiation of Food
The radiation emitted by some radioactive substances can be used to kill
microorganisms on a variety of foodstuffs, extending the shelf life of these products.
Produce such as tomatoes, mushrooms, sprouts, and berries are irradiated with the
emissions from cobalt-60 or cesium-137. This exposure kills a lot of the bacteria that cause
spoilage, so the produce stays fresh longer. Eggs and some meat, such as beef, pork, and
poultry, can also be irradiated. Contrary to the belief of some people, irradiation of food
does not make the food itself radioactive.
Medical Applications
Radioactive isotopes have numerous medical applications—diagnosing and
treating illness and diseases. One example of a diagnostic application is using radioactive
iodine-131 to test for thyroid activity (Figure 4.2 “Medical Diagnostics”). The thyroid gland
in the neck is one of the few places in the body with a significant concentration of iodine.
To evaluate thyroid activity, a measured dose of 131I is administered to a patient, and the
next day a scanner is used to measure the amount of radioactivity in the thyroid gland.
The amount of radioactive iodine that collects there is directly related to the activity of the
thyroid, allowing trained physicians to diagnose both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.
Iodine-131 has a half-life of only 8 d, so the potential for damage due to exposure is
minimal. Technetium-99 can also be used to test thyroid function. Bones, the heart, the
30 | P a g e
brain, the liver, the lungs, and many other organs can be imaged in similar ways by using
the appropriate radioactive isotope.
Very little radioactive material is needed in these diagnostic techniques because the
radiation emitted is so easy to detect. However, therapeutic applications usually require
much larger doses because their purpose is to preferentially kill diseased tissues. For
example, if a thyroid tumor were detected, a much larger infusion
(thousands of rem, as opposed to a diagnostic dose of less than
40 rem) of iodine-131 could help destroy the tumor cells. Similarly,
radioactive strontium is used to not only detect but also ease the
pain of bone cancers. Table 8 “Some Radioactive Isotopes with
Medical Applications” lists several radioactive isotopes and their
medical uses. Radioactive iodine can be used to image the thyroid
gland for diagnostic purposes.
Figure 7 Medical Diagnostics
Table 8 Some Radioactive Isotopes with Medical Applications
In addition to the direct application of radioactive isotopes to diseased tissue, the

gamma ray emissions of some isotopes can be directed toward the tissue to be destroyed.
Cobalt-60 is a useful isotope for this kind of procedure.
Food and Drink App: Radioactivity in Wines
Wine lovers put some stock in vintages, or the years in which the wine grapes were
grown before they were turned into wine. Wine can differ in quality depending on the
vintage. Some wine lovers willingly pay much more for a bottle of wine with a certain
vintage. But how does one verify that a bottle of wine was in fact part of a certain vintage?
Is the label a fake? Is that stash of wine found in the basement of a French chateau really
from the 1940s, or was it made in 2009?
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Wine Radioactivity
Cesium-137 is a radioactive isotope that has a half-life of
30.1 y. It was introduced into the atmosphere in the 1940s
and 1950s by the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons
by several countries after World War II. A significant
amount of cesium-137 was released during the Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in 1986. As a result of this atmospheric
contamination, scientists have precise measurements of
the amount of cesium-137 available in the environment
since 1950. Some of the isotope of cesium is taken up by
living plants, including grape vines. Using known
vintages, oenologists (wine scientists) can construct a
detailed analysis of the cesium-137 of various wines
through the years.
This wine label from a bottle of wine claims a vintage of 1991. Is the wine really
from this vintage, or is it a fake? Radioactivity can help determine the answer.The
verification of a wine’s vintage requires the measurement of the activity of cesium-137 in
the wine. By measuring the current activity of cesium-137 in a sample of wine (the gamma
rays from the radioactive decay pass through glass wine bottles easily, so there’s no need
to open the bottle), comparing it to the known amount of cesium-137 from the vintage, and
taking into account the passage of time, researchers can collect evidence for or against a
claimed wine vintage.
Before about 1950, the amount of cesium-137 in the environment was negligible,
so if a wine dated before 1950 shows any measurable cesium-137 activity, it is almost
surely a fake, so don’t shell out lots of money for it! It may be a good wine, but it is almost
definitely not over 60 years old.
Activity 1.3 UNDERSTANDING CHECK
1. Define tracer and give an example of how tracers work.

2. Explain how radioactive dating works.
3. What are positive and negative aspects of the irradiation of food?
4. Describe how iodine-131 is used to both diagnose and treat thyroid problems.
5. Which isotope is used in therapeutics primarily for its gamma ray emissions?
32 | P a g e
E What I can do?
Activity 1.4 ISOTOPES AND ME
Enumerate three isotopes, its uses and how it directly or indirectly affects you.
Isotope Uses How it affects me
E What else I can do?

Activity 1.5 SUMMARIZING MY LEARNINGS
Write the needed information to complete the table.
Isotope Use Number of Number of No of

protons electrons neutrons
Sodium-24
Cobalt-60
Iodine-131
Phosphorous-32
Nitrogen-15
Cesium-137
A What I have learned?

Activity 1.6 3–2-1
List: 3 main points (or 3 “somethings”), 2 controversial ideas (or two things I disagree with),
and 1 question related to the key concept or learning

MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
33 | P a g e
1. Uranium-238 has 92 protons. How many neutrons does it have?
A. 239 C. 92
B. 146 D. 330
2. What sub-atomic particle is extra in deuterium 2H1 , that is why it is sometimes called
heavy hydrogen?
A. electron C. neutron
B. nucleus D. proton
3. What is the charge of a beta particle?

A. -1 C. +1
B. -2 D. +4
4. Uranium-235 has 92 protons. How may neutrons does it have?

A. 143 C. 235
B. 92 D. 90
5. Which of the following BEST describes isotopes as atoms?

A. Same number of neutrons, Different number of protons
B. Same number of electrons, Different number of protons
C. Same number of protons, Different number of neutrons
D. Same number of neutrons and protons
6. Which subatomic particles is/ are located in the nucleus of a carbon atom?
A. Neutrons only C. Protons and neutrons
B. Protons and electrons D. Protons only
7. How many neutrons are in the atom in the picture?

A. 4 C. 6
B. 5 D. 11
8. The atomic mass number of a specific element is determined by the:

A. number of protons in its nucleus
B. number of neutrons plus protons in its nucleus
C. number of neutrons plus electrons in its nucleus
D. number of electrons in its outermost shell
E. total number of neutrons orbiting the nucleus
9. All of the following are application of radioisotopes EXCEPT

A. Archeology C. Pest Control
B. Food Industry D. Telecom Industry
10. Which isotope is used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid function?
A.32P C.131I
59
B. Fe D.133Xe
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Lesson QUANTUM NUMBERS
2
I What is new?
Activity 2.1 Comparing Pictures
Set A Look at picture 1 and picture 2. Write at least 2

differences and 2 similarities between the two. Then write Picture1 Picture 2
one common feature/ property/ description for both
pictures. Write your answers on a Venn diagram.
Set B Look at picture 3 and picture 4. Write at least 2
differences and 2 similarities between the two. Then write
one common feature/ property/ description for both Picture3 Picture 4
pictures. Write your answers on a Venn diagram.
Picture 1 Picture 2
Picture 3 Picture 3
Sodium when placed in water

Processing Questions
1. How do the pictures in Set A differ from the pictures in Set B in terms of reactivity?
2. What accounts for the reactivity of elements?
35 | P a g e
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. Which of the following states that "No two electrons in an atom can have the same set
of n, l, ml and ms quantum numbers."?
A. Aufbau principle C. Hund's rule
B. Bohr's theory D. Pauli’s exclusion principle
2. What orbitals are possible for the principal quantum number n = 4?

A. only an s orbital C. only s, p and d orbitals.
B. only s and p orbitals D. only s, p, d and f orbitals.
3. Which set of quantum numbers uniquely defines one of the electrons in an atomic orbital
with n = 2 and l = 0?
A. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +½ C. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1
B. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 1, ms = +½ D. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 1, ms = +1
4. For a principal quantum number n, how many atomic orbitals are possible?
A. n + 1 C. 2n
B. n D. n2
5. Which quantum number(s) do 2s and 2p orbitals have in common?

A. n and l C. l
B. n D. l and ml
6. Which quantum number represent a specific orbital in an atom?

A. n C. ml
B. l D. ms
7. What happens to the energy levels in an atom as you go farther away from the nucleus?
A. get closer together to each other C. same distance from each other
B. get farther apart from each other D. remain separated by a constant distance
8. How many electrons can the first energy level (n=1) hold?
A. 0 C. 2
B. 1 D. 8
9. What is the value the azimuthal quantum number, l, for the d-subshell?
A. 0 C. 2
B. 1 D. 3
10. Which of the following orbital is the BEST way to describe the image in the
figure?
A. s C. d
B. p D. f
36 | P a g e
What is in?
D
Activity 2.2 Four Ws and one H
1. Who needs the Mall of Asia (MOA) seat plan?
2. What is a MOA Seat plan?
3. When is a MOA Seat plan used?
4. Why is a MOA Seat plan important?
5. How can we ensure that the MOA Seat plan is
followed?
6. How can we compare the MOA Seat plan to the
quantum numbers of the electron?
D What is it?
If you attend a concert or show, you need a ticket to get in. It is very likely that your
ticket may specify a gate number, a section number, a row, and a seat number. No other
ticket can have the same four parts to it. It may have the same gate, section, and seat
number, but it would have to be in a different row. Each seat is unique and allows only one
occupant to fill it.
Concert tickets are like electrons in an atom, but unlike concert tickets, electrons
have fixed values of energy thar are indexed by the number, n, also referred to as quantum
numbers. The Danish scientist Niels Bohr in 1913, suggested that the energy of electrons
was quantized because it was in a specific orbit. Because the energies of the electron can
have only certain values, the changes in energies can have only certain values (somewhat
similar to a staircase: not only are the stair steps set at specific heights but the height
between steps is fixed). Quantum numbers are used to describe the location of an electron
in an associated atom. They specify the properties of the atomic orbitals and the electrons
in those orbitals. An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum numbers to describe its
state. Think of them as important variables in an equation which describes the three-
dimensional position of electrons in a given atom.
Bohr’s ideas were useful but were applied only to the hydrogen atom. However,
later researchers generalized Bohr’s ideas into a new theory called quantum mechanics,
which explains the behavior of electrons as if they were acting as a wave, not as particles.
Quantum mechanics predicts two major things: quantized energies for electrons of all
atoms (not just hydrogen) and an organization of electrons within atoms. Electrons are no
longer thought of as being randomly distributed around a nucleus or restricted to certain
orbits (in that regard, Bohr was wrong). Instead, electrons are collected into groups and
subgroups that explain much about the chemical behavior of the atom.
37 | P a g e
The number of electrons in the outermost shell of a particular atom determines its
reactivity, or tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms. This outermost shell is
known as the valence shell, and the electrons found in it are called valence electrons. In
general, atoms are most stable, least reactive, when their outermost electron shell is full.
Most of the important elements need eight electrons in their outermost shell in order to be
stable, and this rule of thumb is known as the octet rule. This explains why helium and
neon are stable, while hydrogen and sodium are unstable.
Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom

In the quantum-mechanical model of an atom, the state of an electron is described
by four quantum numbers, not just the one predicted by Bohr: the principal quantum
number (n), the orbital angular momentum quantum number (l), the magnetic quantum
number (ml), and the electron spin quantum number (ms). The principal quantum number,
n , describes the energy of an electron and the most probable distance of the electron from
the nucleus. In other words, it refers to the size of the orbital and the energy level an
electron is placed in. The number of subshells, or l , describes the shape of the orbital. It
can also be used to determine the number of angular nodes. The magnetic quantum
number, ml, describes the energy levels in a subshell, and ms refers to the spin on the
electron, which can either be up or down.
The Principal Quantum Number ( n )

The first quantum number is called the principal quantum number(n). The principal
quantum number largely determines the energy of an electron. Electrons in the same atom
that have the same principal quantum number are said to occupy an electron shell of the
atom. The principal quantum number can be any nonzero positive integer: 1, 2, 3, 4,….
The principal quantum number designates the principal electron shell. Because n
describes the most probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus, the larger the
number n is, the farther the electron is from the nucleus, the larger the size of the orbital,
and the larger the atom is. n can be any positive integer starting at 1, as n=1 designates
the first principal shell (the innermost shell). The first principal shell is also called the
ground state, or lowest energy state. This explains why n can not be 0 or any negative
integer, because there exists no atoms with zero or a negative amount of energy
levels/principal shells. When an electron is in an excited state or it gains energy, it may
jump to the second principle shell, where n=2 . This is called absorption because the
electron is "absorbing" photons, or energy. Known as emission, electrons can also "emit"
energy as they jump to lower principle shells, where n decreases by whole numbers. As
the energy of the electron increases, so does the principal quantum number, e.g., n = 3
indicates the third principal shell, n = 4 indicates the fourth principal shell, and so on.
Example 1
If n = 7, what is the principal electron shell?
38 | P a g e
Example 2
If an electron jumped from energy level n = 5 to energy level n = 3, did absorption or
emission of a photon occur?
Answer
Emission, because energy is lost by release of a photon.
The Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number ( ℓ )

The orbital angular momentum quantum number ℓ determines the shape of an
orbital, and therefore the angular distribution. The number of angular nodes is equal to the
value of the angular momentum quantum number ℓ . Each value of ℓ indicates a specific
s, p, d, f subshell (each unique in shape.) The value of ℓ is dependent on the principal
quantum number n. Unlike n, the value of ℓ can be zero. It can also be a positive integer,
but it cannot be larger than one less than the principal quantum number (n-1):
ℓ = 0, 1, 2,…, n − 1
The ℓ quantum number has a minor effect on the energy of the electron but also
affects the spatial distribution of the electron in three-dimensional space—that is, the
shape of an electron’s distribution in space. The value of the ℓ quantum number can be
any integer between 0 and n − 1:
Thus, for a given value of n, there are different possible values of ℓ:
and so forth. Electrons within a
shell that have the same value of ℓ
are said to occupy a subshell in the
atom. Commonly, instead of
referring to the numerical value of
ℓ, a letter represents the value of ℓ
(to help distinguish it from the
principal quantum number):
Example 3
If n = 7, what are the possible values of ℓ ?
Answer
Since l can be zero or a positive integer less than (n-1), it can have a value of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
Example 4
If ℓ = 4, how many angular nodes does the atom have?
Answer
The number of angular nodes is equal to the value of l, so the number of nodes is also 4.
The Magnetic Quantum Number ( ml )

The magnetic quantum number, ml determines the number of orbitals and their
orientation within a subshell. Consequently, its value depends on the orbital angular
momentum quantum number ℓ. Given a certain ℓ, ml is an interval ranging from –ℓ to + ℓ,
so it can be zero, a negative integer, or a positive integer.
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ml=−l,(−l+1),(−l+2),…,−2,−1,0,1,2,…(l–1),(l–2),+l(3)
For any value of ℓ, there are 2ℓ + 1 possible values of mℓ, ranging from −ℓ to ℓ:
−ℓ ≤ mℓ ≤ ℓ or
The following explicitly lists the possible values of mℓ for the possible values of ℓ:
The particular value of mℓ dictates the orientation of
an electron’s distribution in space. When ℓ is zero,
mℓ can be only zero, so there is only one possible
orientation. When ℓ is 1, there are three possible
orientations for an electron’s distribution. When ℓ is
2, there are five possible orientations of electron
distribution. This goes on and on for other values of
ℓ, but we need not consider any higher values of ℓ
here. Each value of mℓ designates a certain orbital.
Thus, there is only one orbital when ℓ is zero, three orbitals when ℓ is 1, five orbitals when
ℓ is 2, and so forth. The mℓ quantum number has no effect on the energy of an electron
unless the electrons are subjected to a magnetic field—hence its name.
The ℓ quantum number dictates the general shape of electron distribution in space
(Figure 1 “Electron Orbitals”). Any s orbital is spherically symmetric (part (a) in Figure 8.6
“Electron Orbitals”), and there is only one orbital in any s subshell. Any p orbital has a two-
lobed, dumbbell-like shape (part (b) in Figure 8.6 “Electron Orbitals”); because there are
three of them, we normally represent them as pointing along the x-, y-, and z-axes of
Cartesian space. The d orbitals are four-lobed rosettes (part (c) in Figure 8.6 “Electron
Orbitals”); they are oriented
differently in space (the one
labeled d_{z^2} has two
lobes and a torus instead of
four lobes, but it is
equivalent to the other
orbitals). When there is
more than one possible
value of mℓ, each orbital is
labeled with one of the
possible values. It should
be noted that the diagrams
in Figure 8.6 “Electron
Orbitals” are estimates of
the electron distribution in
space, not surfaces
electrons are fixed on.
40 | P a g e
Figure 1. Electron Orbitals
(a)The lone s orbital is spherical in distribution. (b) The three p orbitals are shaped like dumbbells,
and each one points in a different direction. (c) The five d orbitals are rosette in shape, except for
the dz2 orbital, which is a “dumbbell + torus” combination. They are all oriented in different
directions.
Example 5
Example: If n=3, and l=2, then what are the possible values of ml ?
Answer:
Since ml must range from –l to +l, then ml can be: -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2.
The Electron Spin Quantum Number ( ms)

The final quantum number is the spin quantum number (ms). Electrons and other
subatomic particles behave as if they are spinning (we cannot tell if they
really are, but they behave as if they are). Electrons themselves have two
possible spin states, and because of mathematics, they are assigned the
quantum numbers +1/2 and −1/2. These are the only two possible choices
for the spin quantum number of an electron.
Unlike n , l , and ml , the electron spin quantum number ms does not depend on
another quantum number. It designates the direction of the electron spin and may have a
spin of +1/2, represented by↑, or –1/2, represented by ↓. This means that when ms is
positive the electron has an upward spin, which can be referred to as "spin up." When it is
negative, the electron has a downward spin, so it is "spin down." The significance of the
electron spin quantum number is its determination of an atom's ability to generate a
magnetic field or not. (Electron Spin.)
Example 6
List the possible combinations of all four quantum numbers when n=2, l=1, and ml=0 .
Answer
The fourth quantum number is independent of the first three, allowing the first three quantum numbers of two electrons
to be the same. Since the spin can be +1/2 or =1/2, there are two combinations: n=2, l=1, ml =0, ms=+1/2 and n=2, l=1,
ml=0 ms=-1/2
Example 7
Can an electron with ms=1/2 have a downward spin?
Answer
No, if the value of ms is positive, the electron is "spin up."
A Closer Look at Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals

Principal Shells
The value of the principal quantum number n is the level of the principal electronic shell
(principal level). All orbitals that have the same n value are in the same principal level. For
41 | P a g e
example, all orbitals on the second principal level have a principal quantum number of
n=2. When the value of n is higher, the number of principal electronic shells is greater.
This causes a greater distance between the farthest electron and the nucleus. As a result,
the size of the atom and its atomic radius increases.
Because the atomic radius increases, the

electrons are farther from the nucleus. Thus it
is easier for the atom to expel an electron n=1
n=2
because the nucleus does not have as strong
a pull on it, and the ionization n=3
energy decreases.
Example 8
Which orbital has a higher ionization energy,
one with n=3 or n=2 ? n=4
Answer
The orbital with n=2, because the closer the electron is to the nucleus or the smaller the atomic radius, the more energy
it takes to expel an electron.
Subshells
The number of values of the orbital angular number ℓ can also be used to identify the
number of subshells in a principal electron shell:
• When n = 1, ℓ = 0 (ℓ takes on one value and thus there can only be one subshell)
• When n = 2, ℓ = 0, 1(ℓ takes on two values and thus there are two possible subshells)
• When n = 3, ℓ = 0, 1, 2 (ℓ takes on three values and thus there are three possible
subshells)
After looking at the examples above, we see that the value of n is equal to the number of
subshells in a principal electronic shell:
• Principal shell with n = 1 has one subshell

• Principal shell with n = 2 has two subshells
• Principal shell with n = 3 has three subshells
To identify what type of possible subshells n has, these subshells have been assigned
letter names. The value of l determines the name of the subshell:
Name of Subshell Value of ℓ

s subshell 0
p subshell 1
d subshell 2
f subshell 3
42 | P a g e
Therefore:
Principal shell with n = 1 has one s subshell (ℓ = 0)
Principal shell with n = 2 has one s subshell and one p subshell (ℓ = 0, 1)
Principal shell with n = 3 has one s subshell, one p subshell, and one d subshell (ℓ = 0, 1, 2)
We can designate a principal quantum number, n, and a certain subshell by combining the
value of n and the name of the subshell (which can be found using ℓ). For example, 3p
refers to the third principal quantum number (n=3) and the p subshell (ℓ =1).
Example 9
What is the name of the orbital with quantum numbers n=4 and ℓ =1?
Answer
Knowing that the principal quantum number n is 4 and using the table above, we can conclude that it is 4p.
Example 10
What is the name of the oribital(s) with quantum number n=3?

Answer
3s, 3p, and 3d. Because n=3, the possible values of l = 0, 1, 2, which indicates the shapes of each subshell.
Orbitals
The number of orbitals in a subshell is equivalent to the number of values the magnetic
quantum number ml takes on. A helpful equation to determine the number of orbitals in a
subshell is 2ℓ +1. This equation will not give you the value of ml, but the number of possible
values that ml can take on in a particular orbital. For example, if ℓ =1 and mℓ can have
values -1, 0, or +1, the value of 2 ℓ +1 will be three and there will be three different orbitals.
The names of the orbitals are named after the subshells they are found in:
s orbitals p orbitals d orbitals f orbitals
l 0 1 2 3
ml 0 -1, 0, +1 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
Number of orbitals in
1 3 5 7
designated subshell
In the figure on the right, we see examples of two

orbitals: the p orbital (blue) and the s orbital (red).
The red s orbital is a 1s orbital. To picture a 2s
orbital, imagine a layer similar to a cross section of
a jawbreaker around the circle. The layers are
depicting the atoms angular nodes. To picture a 3s
The shape of the
orbital, imagine another layer around the circle, and The shape of the
wavefunction when l
so on and so on. The p orbital is similar to the wavefunction when l
=0 (s orbital)
shape of a dumbbell, with its orientation within a =1 (p orbital)
subshell depending on ml. The shape and
orientation of an orbital depends on l and ml.
43 | P a g e
To visualize and organize the first three quantum numbers, we can think of them
as constituents of a house. In the following image, the roof represents the principal
quantum number n, each level represents a subshell l, and each room represents the
different orbitals ml in each subshell. The s orbital, because the value of ml can only be 0,
can only exist in one plane. The p orbital, however, has three possible values of ml and so
it has three possible orientations of the orbitals, shown by Px, Py, and Pz. The pattern
continues, with the d orbital containing 5 possible orbital orientations, and f has 7:
Another helpful visual in looking at the possible orbitals and subshells with a set of
quantum numbers would be the electron orbital diagram. The characteristics of each
quantum number are depicted in different areas of this diagram.
Restrictions
• Pauli Exclusion Principle: In 1926, Wolfgang Pauli discovered that a set of

quantum numbers is specific to a certain electron. That is, no two electrons can
have the same values for n, l, ml, and ms. Although the first three quantum numbers
44 | P a g e
identify a specific orbital and may have the same values, the fourth is significant
and must have opposite spins.
• Hund's Rule: Orbitals may have identical energy levels when they are of the same
principal shell. These orbitals are called degenerate, or "equal energy." According
to Hund's Rule, electrons fill orbitals one at a time. This means that when drawing
electron configurations using the model with the arrows, you must fill each shell with
one electron each before starting to pair them up. Remember that the charge of an
electron is negative and electrons repel each other. Electrons will try to create
distance between it and other electrons by staying unpaired. This further explains
why the spins of electrons in an orbital are opposite (i.e. +1/2 and -1/2).
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: According to the Heisenberg Uncertainty

Principle, we cannot precisely measure the momentum and position of an electron
at the same time. As the momentum of the electron is more and more certain, the
position of the electron becomes less certain, and vice versa. This helps explain
integral quantum numbers and why n=2.5 cannot exist as a principal quantum
number. There must be an integral number of wavelengths (n) in order for an
electron to maintain a standing wave. If there were to be partial waves, the whole
and partial waves would cancel each other out and the particle would not move. If
the particle was at rest, then its position and momentum would be certain. Because
this is not so, n must have an integral value. It is not that the principal quantum
number can only be measured in integral numbers, it is because the crest of one
wave will overlap with the trough of another, and the wave will cancel out.
E What is more?
Answer the following questions: (Total: 30 pts)
1. State the four quantum numbers and the possible values they may have. (8 pts)
2. Name the orbitals described by the following quantum numbers. (3 pts)
A. n=3 ; ℓ = 0 Ans: 3s C. n=3 ; ℓ =2
B. n=3 ; ℓ = 1 D. n=5 ; ℓ =0
3. Give the n and ℓ values for the following orbitals. (4 pts)
A. 1s Ans. n=1; ℓ = 0 D. 4d
B. 3s E. 5f
C. 2p
4. Write the needed information to complete the table: (15 pts)
n ℓ m(possible) Orbital letter Number of orbital
1 0 0 s 1
2
3
4
5
45 | P a g e
E What I can do?
Label each of the following sets of four quantum numbers as either VALID, which indicates
that the set is legitimate set of quantum numbers for an electron, or INVALID, which
would indicate that the set is NOT a possible set of quantum numbers for an electron.
n ℓ mℓ ms Valid or
Invalid?
1 0 0 ½ (1) VALID
1 1 1 -½ (2)
2 0 0 -½ (3)
2 2 -2 ½ (4)
2 1 -1 ½ (5)
3 2 -1 ½ (6)
3 1 0 0 (7)
3 0 1 ½ (8)
3 0 0 -½ (9)
1 2 -3 ½ (10)
m E What else I can do?

MAKING ANALOGIES
Choose an item/ material that can be likened to the electron and quantum numbers. You
may refer to the example at the start of the lesson (concert tickets). In 2-3 sentences,
explain its characteristics and/ or properties that make it similar to the electron and
quantum numbers.

MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. Which quantum number represent a specific orbital in an atom?

A. n C. ml
B. l D. ms
46 | P a g e
2. What happens to the energy levels in an atom as you go farther away from the nucleus?
A. get closer together to each other C. same distance from each other
B. get farther apart from each other D. remain separated by a constant distance
3. How many electrons can the first energy level (n=1) hold?
A. 0 C. 2
B. 1 D. 8
4. What is the value the azimuthal quantum number, l, for the d-subshell?
A. 0 C. 2
B. 1 D. 3
5. Which of the following orbital is the BEST way to describe the image in the
figure?
A. s C. d
B. p D. f
6. Which of the following states that "No two electrons in an atom can have the same set
of n, l, ml and ms quantum numbers."?
A. Aufbau principle C. Hund's rule
B. Bohr's theory D. Pauli’s exclusion principle
7. What orbitals are possible for the principal quantum number n = 4?

A. only an s orbital C. only s, p and d orbitals.
B. only s and p orbitals D. only s, p, d and f orbitals.
8. Which set of quantum numbers uniquely defines one of the electrons in an atomic orbital
with n = 2 and l = 0?
A. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +½ C. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1
B. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 1, ms = +½ D. n = 2, l = 0, ml = 1, ms = +1
9. For a principal quantum number n, how many atomic orbitals are possible?
A. n + 1 C. 2n
B. n D. n2
10. Which quantum number(s) do 2s and 2p orbitals have in common?

A. n and l C. l
B. n D. l and ml
47 | P a g e
Lesson ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
3
I What is new?
Activity 1: Captioning
In not more than 3 sentences, explain the chemistry of firework colors based on the picture
below. Use your own words.
48 | P a g e
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. What accounts for the magnetic properties of a given element?

A. atomic size C. number of electrons
B. electron configuration D. ionization energy
2. How are permanent magnets formed?

A. atom is stable C. magnetic field is present
B. unpaired electrons are present D. atom is large
3. How many valence electrons does an element with Z = 11 possess?

A. 3 C. 4
B. 1 D. 2
4. Which atom has the electron configuration of: 1s22s22p63s23p3?

A. P C. C
B. S D. K
5 . Which choice lists two elements with electron configurations that are well-known
exceptions to the Aufbau principle?
A. Cu and C
B. Cr and Cu
C. Cs and Cl
D. Rb and Co
E. Fe and Co
6. Element Z has the ground state electronic configuration 1s22s22p3. In which group does
it belong?
A. 5 C. 3
B. 15 D. 13
7. Which 'rule for filling' is being ignored in the orbital

diagram shown here?
A. Aufbau
B. Hund's Rule
C. Pauli Exclusion Principle
D. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
8. What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?

A. An atomic orbital can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons, each with opposite spins
B. An atomic orbital can hold a minimum of 6 electrons, each with opposite spins
C. An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of 6 electrons, each with the same spin
D. An atomic orbital can hold a minimum of 2 electrons, each with opposite spins
49 | P a g e
9. According to the Aufbau Principle, which sublevel should start filling with electrons
before the 3p sublevel?
A. 3s D. 4s
B. 2p D. 4p
10. Which electron configuration correctly denotes an atom in its ground state?
What is in?
D
Activity 2: Fill in the blanks. Write the needed information to complete the table.
D What is it?
Have you ever wondered where all the colors in a fireworks display are coming
from? In order to answer this question, we must first review the atomic theory. The atom
is comprised of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are contained
50 | P a g e
within the nucleus while the electrons exist in discrete energy levels outside of the nucleus.
When an atom is exposed to enough energy, such as the heat created within a firework
explosion, an electron can absorb this energy and get promoted to a higher energy level.
Shortly after, the electron will fall back down to a lower energy level, releasing energy in
the form of light. Therein lies the key to colorful fireworks! As it turns out, the brilliant colors
we see in fireworks are due to just a handful of salts (a metal-nonmetal compound, such
as calcium chloride). See below for the list of compounds responsible for each color:
Red: strontium salt or lithium salt
Orange: calcium salt
Yellow: sodium salt
Green: barium salt
Blue: copper salt
Purple: copper salt and strontium salt, potassium salt, or rubidium salt
Energies of the Orbitals

After understanding the shapes and sizes of atomic orbitals, it is imperative to
understand the relative energies of the orbitals and how it affects the actual arrangement
of electrons in atoms.
1. Orbital energy levels in a hydrogen atom
The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom depends solely on its principal

quantum number, n. The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is given by:
where RH is equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. Therefore, the energies of the hydrogen atom increase
according to the following
Orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n, have the same energy. It means that
in a hydrogen atom, the lowest energy is 1s. It is the most stable condition, or termed as
the ground state. An electron in the ground state is most strongly held by the nucleus.
51 | P a g e
The 2s, and the three 2p-orbitals have the same energy. We refer to orbitals with the same
energy as degenerate. When an external energy hits a hydrogen atom, the electron in the
1s orbital, can jump to the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals and this electron is said to be in the
excited state. Similarly, the 3s, the three 3p-orbitals and the five 3d-orbitals are degenerate
and have higher energy than the orbitals in the 2nd energy level.
2. Orbital energy levels for many-electron atoms

For atoms containing more than one electron (many-electron atoms), the energy depends
on other factors. These include the potential energy of repulsion among the electrons, the
attraction between the nucleus and the other electrons, and the kinetic energies of the
many electrons. Thus the orbital energies of many-electron atoms depend not only on n
but also on ℓ. Note that the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals are no longer degenerate to each other.
The 3d orbital energies are even lower than those of the 4s orbitals.
Electron Configuration
The four quantum numbers n, ℓ, ml, and ms are very useful in labelling an electron
in any orbital in an atom much like giving the address of an electron in an atom. In the
case of hydrogen, there is only one electron. In the ground state, the one electron of
hydrogen will occupy the 1s orbital, the one with the lowest energy. This electron is
represented by the set of quantum numbers: n = 1, ℓ =0, ml = 0, and ms = ½ or -½. By
convention, the set of quantum numbers is written as (1, 0, 0, ½) or (1, 0, 0, -½). The ms
52 | P a g e
value does not affect the energy, orientation, or size of the orbital but is important in
describing the arrangement of electrons in the atom. It is possible to represent this
arrangement of the electron in hydrogen in terms of the electron configuration or in terms
of the orbital diagram. The electron configuration shows how the electrons of an atom are
distributed among the atomic orbitals. The orbital diagram shows the spin of the electron.
For the electron in the ground state of hydrogen, the electron configuration is given as
In an orbital diagram, a 1s orbital can be represented as a box with 1 arrow up (up-

spin) or arrow down (down-spin)
In filling up the orbitals, the lower energy levels are filled up first before the higher
energy levels. For many-electron atoms, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is used. This
states that in an atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the same four electronic
quantum numbers. Consequently, an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons,
the two electrons must have opposing spins. This means if one is assigned an up-spin
(+1/2), the other must be down-spin (-1/2).
Consider the case of He with 2 electrons.
PRACTICE Answer :
1. Give the electron configuration of Be. Draw the orbital diagram.
2. Give the electron configuration of B. Draw the orbital diagram.
53 | P a g e
HUND’S RULE
For carbon, the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p2. But the orbital diagram shows three
ways in which the last electron can be placed in the orbitals which do not violate the Pauli’s
exclusion principle as shown in the following:
However, each arrangement provides a different energy value. The one with the
lowest energy has the greatest stability. Hund’s rule is the guide in determining the most
stable distribution. Hund’s rule: The most stable arrangement of electrons in the
subshells is the one with the most number of parallel spins.
Based on Hund’s rule, the third option is the most favorable arrangement for the
electron to attain the greatest stability. In the first option, the presence of two electrons
with opposing spins in one orbital results in a greater mutual repulsion than when they
occupy separate orbitals. Hund’s Rule is followed in d and f orbitals as well.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be tested by simple observation. Measurements of

magnetic properties provide the most direct evidence for specific electronic configurations
of elements. Paramagnetic materials are those that contain unpaired electrons or spins
and are attracted by a magnet. Diamagnetic materials are those with paired spins and
are repelled by a magnet.
Any atom with an odd number of electrons will contain one or more unpaired spins,
and are therefore attracted by a magnet, thus, can be classified as paramagnetic. For an
even number of electrons like helium, if the two electrons in the 1s orbitals had parallel
spins, their net magnetic fields should strengthen each other. But experimental results
showed that the helium atom in its ground state has no net magnetic field.
This observation supports the pairing of two electrons with opposite spins in the 1s
orbital. Thus, helium gas is diamagnetic. Lithium, on the other hand, has an unpaired
electron and is paramagnetic. The orbital diagram provides information on the diamagnetic
or paramagnetic characteristic of an element.
54 | P a g e
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus
to build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The order of
filling up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to highest energy. Within the same
principal quantum number, the order of energies of the atomic orbitals is
For example, for n = 3, the order is E3s < E3p < E. For multi-electron atoms, the
general order of filling up orbitals can be diagrammed as follows:
The electron configuration of elements

higher than hydrogen and helium can be
represented using the noble gas core. In the
periodic table, the noble gases are found in the last
column named as Group 8A (or Group 18 in the
IUPAC convention). These are 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar,
36Kr, 54Xe, 86Rn.
The smallest noble element is helium, so the shortened electronic configuration can
be written as follows for the given elements:
55 | P a g e
The elements in the 4th period, starting from potassium will have argon as the noble
gas core
19K: [Ar]4s1
20Ca: [Ar] 4s2
The 4s orbital has lower energy than the 3d orbitals; it is first filled with electrons
before the 3d orbitals. Elements scandium to copper are transition metals. These elements
will have incompletely filled d subshells or readily gives electrons and form cations that
have incomplete filled d subshells. There will be some irregularities in the electron
distribution of this series as seen in Cr and Cu.
Elements scandium to copper are transition metals. These

elements will have incompletely filled d subshells or readily gives
electrons and form cations that have incomplete filled d subshells.
There will be some irregularities in the electron distribution of this
series as seen in Cr and Cu.
The irregularities in Cr and Cu are due to experimental results that show that there
is a greater stability associated with the half-filled (3d5) and the completely filled (3d10)
subshells. Similar observations are also found in the higher d and f-orbitals.
Gallium is the next element after Zn, its electronic configuration is:
Important data that can be gathered from the shortened electronic configuration are
the following:
a. Valence configuration: The electronic configuration representing the outermost
subshells.
b. Valence electrons: the number of electrons in the outermost subshells.
Determining the valence electrons is important to understand the behavior of the

elements especially in their bonding patterns to be discussed in the next lessons.
56 | P a g e
THE QUANTUM NUMBERS AND THE ARRANGEMENTS OF ELEMENTS IN THE
PERIODIC TABLE
It was mentioned earlier that the complete set of quantum numbers specifies the
address of an electron in an atom. This can be seen in the arrangement of elements in the
periodic table. The periodic table is designed such that elements with valence
configurations in the s orbitals are found in the first two columns on the left, the ones with
p-orbitals are found on the right. The transition metals have d-orbitals and are found at the
middle and the elements with f-orbitals as valence configurations are found at the bottom.
E What is more?
ACTIVITY. Write the needed information to complete the table.
Element Atomic No. of Electron Noble Gas Valence Orbital No. of Paramagnetic
No. Electrons Configuration Configuration configuration diagram of unpaired or
valence electrons Diamagnetic
configuration
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Which of the elements has the highest magnetic properties (most paramagnetic)?
57 | P a g e
E What I can do?
ACTIVITY: Apartment Analogy
Imagine you are the landlord of a very strange apartment building. Your job is to fill the
apartments in the building in the most efficient way possible. You are required by the owner
of the building to fill the rooms in a certain way. The rules you have to follow are as strange
as the building because quantum mechanics is not like anything you might have expected.
Write the electron rule that corresponds to the apartment rule. Explain your answer.
Apartment Rules Electron Rule

From the Bottom Up: Rooms must be filled from the ground floor up. Fill the one
room on the first floor before starting to put new tenants on the second floor. Then
fill the s room before the p rooms. At higher floors the order might change a bit.
Singles First: the owner of the building wants to have the tenants spread out as
much as possible. For that reason singles are placed in rooms before couples. If
couples must be placed into a room then all of the other rooms on that floor must
already have a single in them.
Opposite Gender Only: When two people are placed in a room they must be of
opposite genders. No men may room together and no women may room together.
This is an arbitrary rule on the part of the owners: in a just world we wouldn’t have
to follow it. But quantum mechanics has nothing to do with justice.

MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. Which atom has the electron configuration of: 1s22s22p63s23p3?

A. P C. C
B. S D. K
2 . Which choice lists two elements with electron configurations that are well-known
exceptions to the Aufbau principle?
A. Cu and C
B. Cr and Cu
C. Cs and Cl
D. Rb and Co
E. Fe and Co
3. What accounts for the magnetic properties of a given element?

A. atomic size C. number of electrons
B. electron configuration D. ionization energy
58 | P a g e
4. How are permanent magnets formed?
A. atom is stable C. magnetic field is present
B. unpaired electrons are present D. atom is large
5. How many valence electrons does an element with Z = 11 possess?

A. 3 C. 4
B. 1 D. 2
6. Element Z has the ground state electronic configuration 1s22s22p3. In which group does
it belong?
A. 5 C. 3
B. 15 D. 13
7. What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?

A. An atomic orbital can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons, each with opposite spins
B. An atomic orbital can hold a minimum of 6 electrons, each with opposite spins
C. An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of 6 electrons, each with the same spin
D. An atomic orbital can hold a minimum of 2 electrons, each with opposite spins
8. According to the Aufbau Principle, which sublevel should start filling with electrons
before the 3p sublevel?
A. 3s D. 4s
B. 2p D. 4p
9. Which electron configuration correctly denotes an atom in its ground state?
10. Which 'rule for filling' is being ignored in the orbital diagram shown here?
A. Aufbau
B. Hund's Rule
C. Pauli Exclusion Principle
D. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
59 | P a g e
Week
MODULE 3:
Ionic Bonds and Lewis Structures

Module 3 serves as an application of the knowledge of valence electrons in
chemical bonding, specifically in the formation of ionic bonds. A short discussion of the
octet rule and its role in the formation of ionic compounds will open the lesson. It is followed
by a review of the groups of elements in the periodic table. This is to emphasize that
valence electrons are the determinants of an element’s chemical behavior. The lesson
ends with an explanation of the properties of ionic compounds.
The module contains 1 lesson: Lewis structure of Ions and Ionic Bonding
Lesson 1: Ionic Bonds and Lewis Structures

1. Relate the stability of noble gases to their electron configuration;
2. State the Octet Rule
3. List the properties of ionic compounds and explain these properties in terms of their
structure
4. Draw the Lewis structure of ionic compounds
Lesson LEWIS STRUCTURE OF IONS AND

1 IONIC BONDING
I What is new?
ACTIVITY: ANALYZING DATA
60 | P a g e
Guide Questions:
1. To what group in the periodic table do these elements belong?
2. These elements are called the noble gases. Why? What is the common characteristic
of these gases?
3. Light bulbs are filled with Ar gas rather than oxygen gas. Why?
4. From the electron configuration, how many valence electrons do noble gases have?
5. Can we relate the number of valence electrons with the stability of the element?
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. Which of the following is the correct Lewis dot structure for arsenic?
A. D.
B. E.
C. F.
2. Which combination of atoms is most likely to produce a compound with ionic bonds?
A. Al and F C. Si and O
B. P and H D. S and Br
C. C and O
3. Which atom is most likely to form a 1- ion?

A. I C. P
B. S D. Na
C. Ag E. Cu
4. For an atom of a main group element, the number of valence electrons is equal to
A. eight minus its group number. D. period number.
B. group number. E. principal quantum number of its outer shell
C. number of core electrons.
5. When a metal and a nonmetal react, the __________ tends to lose electrons and the
__________ tends to gain electrons.
A. metal, metal D. nonmetal, metal
B. nonmetal, nonmetal E. none of the above
C. metal, nonmetal
61 | P a g e
6. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic?
A. SF6 D. NH3
B. H2O E. CaO
C. CO2
7. Which of the following is TRUE about ionic compounds?

A. Conduct electricity when dissolved in water
B. Formed from 2 nonmetals
C. Good conductor of heat
D. Low melting and boiling points
8. In the ground state, which of the following has a completely filled valence electron shell?
A. Hydrogen C. Radium
B. Potassium D. Xenon
9. When an atom of aluminum forms an ion, what happens to it, and what is its charge?
A. loses 3 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 3-
B. loses 3 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 3+
C. gains 5 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 5-
D. loses 5 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 5+
10. When the elements aluminum and fluorine combine to form an ionic compound, the
electron configurations within this compound match the electron configuration of which
element?
A. Argon C. Neon
B. Helium D. Nitrogen
What is in?
D
ACTIVITY. Brainstorming
Think of 3 situations when you cannot add another because it is already full.
Example:
You had a great meal but cannot put another bite in your mouth because there is no place
for it to go.
You cannot be accommodated in a jeepney bound to Crossing Calamba because it’s

seating capacity of 10 is already full.
1.
2.
3.
Guide question:
How are these situations similar to the concept of valence electrons?
62 | P a g e
D What is it?
OCTET RULE AND LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
According to Lewis, atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electron
configuration. This maximum stability is attained when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble
gas. Except for He, the noble gases have eight outer electrons or an octet of electrons.
The Octet Rule states that when atoms of elements combine to form compounds, they
tend to lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve the same electron arrangement as the
noble gas nearest them in the periodic table.
In combining with other atoms, only outer electrons, the valence electrons, are
involved. To keep track of these valence electrons, the Lewis dot symbol is used. The
Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the element. See examples below.
63 | P a g e
The Lewis dot symbols of the representative elements are shown in the table below.
All elements belonging to the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
They have the same number of dots around the element symbol. For example, all Group
1A elements have only one valence electron represented by one dot. All Group 7A
elements have 7 valence electrons represented by 7 dots.
IONS FORMED FROM REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Ionization energy and electron affinity have been discussed in earlier lessons. Ionization
energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
Energy + X(g) —> X+ (g) + e–
64 | P a g e
Ionization energy increases from left to right across a period. It increases from bottom to
top in a group as shown in the figure below.
Elements with small ionization energies tend to easily give up electrons to form positive
ions or cations. From the positions in the periodic table, these elements would be the
metals particularly those in Groups 1A and 2A. The larger the metal atom, the easier it is
to lose valence electrons and the more reactive the metal.
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy change
that occurs when a gaseous atom accepts
an electron, or the ionization energy of a
negative ion. The more positive the electron
affinity, the greater the tendency to accept
an electron and form an ion.
Generally, the electron affinity increases
across a period from left to right. The
electron affinity generally decreases going
down a group.
Therefore, the elements on the right hand side of the periodic table, the non-metals, have
a high tendency to accept electrons and form negative ions, or anions. The smaller the
nonmetal atom, the greater the tendency to attract electrons, and the higher the reactivity
of the nonmetal. Using dot symbols and their electron configuration, the formation of the
anions are shown in the equations below.
IONIC BOND FORMATION
From the previous section we saw that atoms with low ionization energies tend to form
cations while atoms with high electron affinities tend to form anions. These cations and
anions combine to form ionic compounds. An ionic bond is “the electrostatic force that
holds ions together in an ionic bond.” The formation of the ionic compound, LiF, can be
represented using the Lewis dot symbols.
The two ions, Li+ and F- , now attract each other to form Li+F- or LiF.
65 | P a g e
EXAMPLE
Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond
formation for Ca2+O2- or CaO.
DRILL
Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Na2O.
LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
The stability of the ionic compound depends on the strength of the interaction among all
the ions in an ionic solid. This stability is measured by the lattice energy of the compound.
The lattice energy is defined as the amount of energy required to completely separate one
mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.
Therefore, the stronger the interaction among the ions in the ionic compound, the harder
to separate them, the larger the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond. The lattice
energy is proportional to the product of the charges of the ions and inversely proportional
to r, the distance of separation between the ions (Coulomb’s law). In the case of LiF, for
example, the lattice energy is proportional to
where are charges of Li+ and F, k is the proportionality constant. Therefore, the
higher the ion charges, the stronger the bond; the shorter the distance between ions, the
stronger the bond.
The lattice energy is correlated to the physical properties of ionic compounds such as the
melting points. The larger the lattice energy, the harder to separate the ions, the higher
the melting point.
DRILL
1. Which is expected to have a higher melting point? LiF or NaF?

2. Arrange the melting points of the following ionic compounds in decreasing order: LiF,
LiBr, LiI, and LiCl.
The order of melting points will be: LiF > LiCl > LiBr > LiI.
3. Which will have the higher melting point, NaCl or MgO? Explain.
Answers:
1. Both ions have +1 and -1 charges but the distances between ions are different. Na+ is larger than Li+. Therefore the internuclear
distance in LiF is shorter; hence, LiF will have the higher melting point.
2. Because all ions have +1 and -1 charges, the internuclear distance will affect the melting point.
3. Answer: MgO
66 | P a g e
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds have the following general properties:
Ionic substances form crystalline solids. In the solid state, the ions are in rigid formation in
relatively fixed positions in a crystal lattice. This makes them immobile and poor
conductors of electricity and heat. However, when they melt or are dissolved in solution,
they become good electrical conductors. Note, however, that not all ionic solids are soluble
in water.
Because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction among ions in the solid, they have
high melting points and high boiling points. (See discussion on lattice energy). Ionic solids
are hard and brittle. The electrostatic forces have to be overcome to move the ions and
shift them away from one another.
E What is more?
ACTIVITY: Write the needed information to complete the table.
Element No. of No of Number of Ion Lewis dot
electrons lost electrons electrons in symbol
gained the ion
Barium
Selenium
Silicon
Bromine
Aluminum
E What I can do?

Ions in the human body
Ions play an important role in the body. Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and copper
ions are some key ions involved in the electrical events inside the body. Potassium is the
major positive ion inside the cell, while sodium is the major positive ion found in the fluid
outside the cell. Ionic chlorine is the most abundant negative ion.
Question (Answer in 3-5 sentences ONLY)

What will happen to our body if there is an imbalance of any of these ions or certain trace
ions in the body?
67 | P a g e
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. When a metal and a nonmetal react, the __________ tends to lose electrons and the
__________ tends to gain electrons.
A. metal, metal D. nonmetal, metal
B. nonmetal, nonmetal E. none of the above
C. metal, nonmetal
2. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic?

A. SF6 D. NH3
B. H2O E. CaO
C. CO2
3. When an atom of aluminum forms an ion, what happens to it, and what is its charge?
A. loses 3 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 3-
B. loses 3 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 3+
C. gains 5 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 5-
D. loses 5 valence electrons, and it forms an ion with a charge of 5+
4. When the elements aluminum and fluorine combine to form an ionic compound, the
electron configurations within this compound match the electron configuration of which
element?
A. Argon C. Neon
B. Helium D. Nitrogen
5. Which of the following is the correct Lewis dot structure for arsenic?
A. D.
B. E.
D. F.
6. Which combination of atoms is most likely to produce a compound with ionic bonds?
A. Al and F C. Si and O
B. P and H D. S and Br
C. C and O
7. Which atom is most likely to form a 1- ion?

A. I C. P
B. S D. Na
C. Ag E. Cu
68 | P a g e
8. For an atom of a main group element, the number of valence electrons is equal to
A. eight minus its group number. D. period number.
B. group number. E. principal quantum number of its outer shell
C. number of core electrons.
9. Which of the following is TRUE about ionic compounds?

E. Conduct electricity when dissolved in water
F. Formed from 2 nonmetals
G. Good conductor of heat
H. Low melting and boiling points
I.
10. In the ground state, which of the following has a completely filled valence electron
shell?
A. Hydrogen C. Radium
B. Potassium D. Xenon
69 | P a g e
Week
MODULE 4:
Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures

Module 4 presents a thorough discussion of covalent bond formation in terms of
atomic properties. It will start with the discussion of how covalent bond forms, followed by
the concept of electronegativity and how it used to differentiate ionic and covalent
compounds. The structure of covalent compounds will be further explained using Lewis
structures. As an application, the learners will be asked to look for examples of covalent
compounds found in their homes or in nature.
The module contains 1 lesson: Lewis structure of Covalent Compounds and

Covalent Bonding
Lesson 1: Lewis Structures of Covalent Compounds and Covalent Bonding

1. Describe covalent bonding in terms of electron sharing;
2. Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent compounds
3. Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic elements of
the representative block
4. Draw the Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds
LEWIS STRUCTURES OF
Lesson COVALENT COMPOUNDS AND
1 COVALENT BONDING
:
I What is new?
ACTIVITY. CAPTION ME
Study the “Atomic Gossip”

Cartoon and give a 3-5 word
caption for it. Then give a 1-2
sentence explanation of your
caption.
70 | P a g e
I What I know?
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?

A. Argon D. Phosphorus
B. Boron E. Sulfur
C. Carbon
2. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a

Lewis structure?
A. O D. Al
B. C E. H
C. N
3. The electron pair in a C - F bond could be considered…

A. Closer to C because C has a greater control on the electron pair
B. Closer to F because Fluorine has a higher electronegativity than Carbon
C. Closer to C because Carbon has a lower electronegativity than Fluorine
D. An inadequate model since the bond is ionic
E. Centrally located directly between the C and F
4. Considering the position of the elements in the periodic table and their relative
electronegativities and bond polarities, which bond is longest?
A. carbon - Oxygen triple bond D. carbon - Carbon double bond
B. carbon - Oxygen single bond E. carbon - Nitrogen triple bond

C. carbon - Carbon single bond
5. Which element is the least electronegative?

A. Calcium D. Barium
B. Cesium E. Potassium
C. Iron
6. Based on electronegativities, which of the following would you expect to be most ionic?
A. N2 D. CH4
B. CaF2 E. CF4
C. CO2
7. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements cannot exceed the octet rule?
B Si N P O S F Cl
A. Si, P, S, Cl D. B, Si, N, P
B. B, N, O, F E. All eight elements can exceed the octet rule.
C. O, S, F, Cl
71 | P a g e
8. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of the following statements
BEST describes this structure?
A. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
B. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
C. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
D. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
E. It exceeds the octet rule.
9. Write the correct Lewis dot structure for O2. Which statement correctly describes the
structure of the whole molecule?
A. There is a double bond and four lone pairs.
B. There is a double bond and six lone pairs.
C. There is a single bond and four lone pairs.
D. There is a single bond and six lone pairs.
E. There is a single bond, a double bond, and six lone pairs.
10. Which bond is the strongest?

A. carbon - Nitrogen triple bond D. carbon - Carbon triple bond
B. carbon - Nitrogen double bond E. carbon - Carbon single bond
C. carbon - Hydrogen bond
What is in?
D
ACTIVITY: Comparing Salt and Sugar
Using a Venn Diagram, list down the
similarities and differences of salt and sugar.
Guide questions:
1. Based on the physical appearance, are they
similar? Yes or No? Why do you say so?
2. Which has material will conduct electricity
when dissolved in water?
3. Which material will melt and boil at a higher temperature?
4. What accounts for the differences in their properties?
72 | P a g e
D What is it?
Have you ever accidentally used salt instead of sugar? Drinking coffee that has
been sweetened with salt or eating vegetables that have been salted with sugar tastes
bad! Salt and sugar may look the same, but they obviously taste very different. They are
also very different chemically. Salt is made up of sodium and chloride and is ionically
bonded. Sugar, on the other hand, is composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen and has
covalent bonds.
FORMATION OF THE COVALENT BOND

It was Gilbert Lewis who suggested that the chemical bond is formed by sharing of
electrons in atoms. For the hydrogen molecule, this is depicted by
The two electrons are shared equally between the two atoms forming a covalent bond.
The bond is typically depicted by a single line, H - H. The electrons are attracted to the
nuclei of both atoms keeping the atoms together to form a molecule. Show the formation
of the covalent bond for the F2 molecule.
The representation of the covalent compound above is called the Lewis structure. In the
Lewis structure, shared electrons that form a bond is represented by a line or a pair of
dots; lone pairs are represented by dots above the atom. Only valence electrons are
included in Lewis structures.
DRILL
A. From the Lewis structure of F2, how many electrons are around each fluorine atom in
F2?
Answer: There are eight electrons fulfilling the octet rule. By sharing the electrons, each
fluorine atom fulfils the octet rule.
Note: The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period (2s and 2p subshells
can hold 8 electrons). For hydrogen, only two electrons are needed to fulfill the noble gas
configuration.
B. How many bond pairs are there in the F2 molecule?

Answer: One
73 | P a g e
C. How many lone pairs are there in the F2 molecule?
Answer: Six lone pairs
E. Further illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in Cl2. How many bond pairs are
there? How many lone pairs?
Answer: _______________________
F. Illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in HCl.

Answer: _______________________
MORE EXAMPLES
1. Lewis structure for carbon dioxide,

CO2
2. Lewis structure for carbon dioxide, N2
The examples of CO2 and N2 show that there are different types of covalent bonds that
are formed. Single bonds are formed when two atoms are held together by one pair of
electrons. Multiple bonds can be formed. A double bond is from the sharing of two pairs
of electrons such as in the case of O and C in CO2. A triple bond exists in N2 where the
two N atoms are held by three pairs of electrons.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Consider the covalent bond in the molecule

Experimental evidence has shown that electrons are not equally shared between H and
F; the electrons spend more time near F rather than H. Therefore the electron density is
shifted more towards F rather than H. This leaves the F end of the molecule partially
negative, δ - , and the H end of the molecule partially positive, δ+. Such a bond is
referred to as a polar covalent bond. The polar covalent bond is somewhere between a
purely covalent (nonpolar) bond and an ionic bond (where there is almost complete
transfer of electrons).
74 | P a g e
A property that distinguishes the polarity of bonds is electronegativity, the tendency of
an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself. Electronegativity is a
theoretical concept and devised as a relative scale. That is, it can be estimated relative to,
or in comparison to, other elements in chemical bonds. Linus Pauling developed a relative
scale of electronegativities which is widely used in General Chemistry textbooks. In
contrast, ionization energies and electron affinities are physically measurable properties
of elements.
In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period. It increases as
atomic radius decreases. The most electronegative elements are those in the upper right
hand side of the periodic table with fluorine as the most electronegative. Metals especially
the ones with large atomic radii are the least electronegative.
The difference in the electronegativity values of two bonded atoms

determines the percent ionic character of the bond. If the bond is between two identical
elements, for example F—F, then the bond is purely covalent with 0 percent ionic
character. The difference in electronegativity is 0.
For the molecule H—Cl, the difference in electronegativity is 0.9 showing that the bond is
a polar covalent bond. A 50% ionic character corresponds to EN=1.7. While there is no
bond that is 100% ionic, an electronegativity difference of 2.0 or greater is usually
classified to be predominantly ionic.
Even without electronegativity values, it is possible to predict the polarity of a bond by

examining the position of the bonded elements in the periodic table.
DRILL
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent. Explain your answer in
1 sentence.
A. The C-C bond in H3CCH3
B. The K-I bond in KI
C. The C-F bond in CF4
75 | P a g e
D. The N-H bond in NH3
WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES
1. The following guidelines are used in writing the Lewis structure of covalent molecules:
a. Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule putting bonded atoms next to each other. In
general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central position. H and F usually
occupy terminal (end) positions.
b. Count the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the structure. Add
electrons corresponding to the charge for negative ions; subtract electrons corresponding
to the charge for positive ions.
c. Distribute the valence electrons to the non-central atoms such that these atoms fulfill
the octet rule. Remaining electrons are assigned to the central atom. Remember that
bonds are equivalent to 2 electrons.
d. If the valence electrons are not enough, multiple bonds may be formed.
EXAMPLES
1. Write the Lewis structure for NCl3.
a. Skeleton structure is
b. Count valence electrons:

N=5
3 Cl = 3 (7) = 21
Total = 26
c. Distribute the 26 electrons to the atoms such that they fulfill

the octet rule. Bonds are equivalent to 2 electrons. Check if
all atoms have 8 electrons around them.
2. Write the Lewis structure of OCS. C is the central atom.
a. Skeleton structure is:

b. Valence electrons: 6 for oxygen, 4 for carbon, and 6 for sulfur = 16 electron
c. Distribute the 16 electrons such that all atoms obey octet rule.
d. The Lewis structure is
3. Write the Lewis structure of CN–

.
a. Skeleton structure is
76 | P a g e
b. Valence electrons: 4 for carbon, 5 for nitrogen, and 1 for the negative charge = 10
c. Distribute the 10 electrons to the skeleton structure. The Lewis structure is:
LEWIS STRUCTURE AND RESONANCE
1. Write the Lewis structure for the ozone molecule, O 3.

a. The skeletal structure is
b. Valence electrons: 3 (6) = 18
c. Lewis structure is:
d. The Lewis structure can also be written as:
Note that the Lewis structure above has one double bond between oxygen atoms
and one single bond also with oxygen atoms. The double bonds are expected to be shorter
than a single bond. When measuring the bond lengths, we expect two values: one for the
shorter double bond and one for the longer single bond.
However, experimental results show that there is only one bond length obtained for
ozone. The bond length is between that of a single bond and a double bond. This means
the above Lewis structure is not an accurate representation of ozone. In fact, we are
unable to write the accurate representation using either the first or second Lewis structure
shown above.
To resolve this discrepancy, we represent the ozone molecule using the two structures
presented as follows:
Each of the above structures is called a resonance structure. The double sided
arrow shows that the structures are resonance structures. A resonance structure is one of
two or more Lewis structures for a molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only
one Lewis structure.
What is the correct representation for ozone? The two resonance structures shown
with the double arrow.
2. Draw the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32–. Practice with this ion. The
correct resonance structures are:
77 | P a g e
EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
The octet rule works best for second-period elements. Hence there are many exceptions.
They fall into three categories:
a. Incomplete octet
b. Odd number of electrons
c. Expanded Octet
Incomplete octet
An example of a molecule with incomplete octet is BeH2, beryllium hydride. Its structure is
There are only 4 electrons around Be and not 8. Boron and aluminum also form molecules
with incomplete octets.
DRILL
Draw the Lewis structure of aluminum triiodide, AlI 3, showing the incomplete octet.
Molecules with Odd Number of Electrons

Examples are nitric oxide, NO, and dinitrogen dioxide, N2O. Their Lewis structures are
shown below. Because they have an odd number of electrons, the octet rule cannot be
followed.
The odd numbered molecules are sometimes referred to as
radicals. They are generally highly reactive.
Expanded Octets
Atoms belonging to the second period cannot have more than eight
valence electrons around the central atom because they only have the 2s
and 2p subshells. This is different for atoms of elements in the 3rd period
and beyond.
These elements have 3d orbitals that can participate in the bonding.
Hence they can have more than eight valence electrons around the central
atom. An example is SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, with the Lewis structure
shown below. SF6 has 12 electrons around the central atom.
Another example is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5, where the central

atom has 10 electrons around it.
78 | P a g e
E What is more?
ACTIVITY. Write the needed information to complete the table.
Covalent compound Use Symbol Lewis

Structure
Ethylene (ethene) • polyethylene, a widely used C2H4
plastic containing polymer
chains of ethylene units in
various chain lengths.
• important natural plant
hormone and is used in
agriculture to force the
ripening of fruits.
Acetylene • used for welding and cutting C2H2
Carbon tetrachloride • cleaning fluid CCl4

• also used in fire extinguishers
• fumigant to kill insects in grain
Carbonyl bromide • may be used by the military as COBr2
a toxic suffocant. (for the
skeletal
structure, C
is bonded to
O and Br
atoms)
Hydrogen Fluoride • used to make refrigerants, HF
herbicides, pharmaceuticals,
high-octane gasoline,
aluminum, plastics, electrical
components, and fluorescent
light bulbs.
E What I can do?

ACTIVITY. SCOUTING FOR COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Look for at least 2 examples of covalent compounds that can be found in nature or used
in everyday life. They must include the following information:
a. Brief information about the use of the covalent compound

b. Chemical formula and chemical name of the covalent compound
c. Structure of the compound
79 | P a g e
MULTIPLE CHOICE
paper.
1. The electron pair in a C - F bond could be considered…

A. Closer to C because C has a greater control on the electron pair
B. Closer to F because Fluorine has a higher electronegativity than Carbon
C. Closer to C because Carbon has a lower electronegativity than Fluorine
D. An inadequate model since the bond is ionic
E. Centrally located directly between the C and F
2. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?

A. Argon D. Phosphorus
B. Boron E. Sulfur
C. Carbon
3. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a

Lewis structure?
A. O D. Al
B. C E. H
C. N
4. Considering the position of the elements in the periodic table and their relative
electronegativities and bond polarities, which bond is longest?
A. carbon - Oxygen triple bond D. carbon - Carbon double bond
B. carbon - Oxygen single bond E. carbon - Nitrogen triple bond
C. carbon - Carbon single bond
5. Which element is the least electronegative?

A. Calcium D. Barium
B. Cesium E. Potassium
C. Iron
6. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of the following statements
BEST describes this structure?
A. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
B. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
C. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
D. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
E. It exceeds the octet rule.
80 | P a g e
7. Write the correct Lewis dot structure for O2. Which statement correctly describes the
structure of the whole molecule?
A. There is a double bond and four lone pairs.
B. There is a double bond and six lone pairs.
C. There is a single bond and four lone pairs.
D. There is a single bond and six lone pairs.
E. There is a single bond, a double bond, and six lone pairs.
8. Which bond is the strongest?

A. carbon - Nitrogen triple bond D. carbon - Carbon triple bond
B. carbon - Nitrogen double bond E. carbon - Carbon single bond
C. carbon - Hydrogen bond
9. Based on electronegativities, which of the following would you expect to be most ionic?
A. N2 D. CH4
B. CaF2 E. CF4
C. CO2
10. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements cannot exceed the octet rule?
B Si N P O S F Cl
A. Si, P, S, Cl D. B, Si, N, P
B. B, N, O, F E. All eight elements can exceed the octet rule.
C. O, S, F, Cl
81 | P a g e

GeneralChemistry1 - Quarter1 - Week 1-4

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GeneralChemistry1 - Quarter1 - Week 1-4

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Week

I What I need to know?

Lesson 1: Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them

After going through lesson 1, you are expected to:

Lesson 2: Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation and

After going through lesson 2 you are expected to:

Activity 1.1 Identifying my Physical Characteristics

3. Which type of matter is classified as a conductor of thermal energy?

6. Which of the following is NOT an example of a physical property of a material?

7. Which of the following presents the CHEMICAL PROPERTY of a candle?

8. What does a physical property tell about a substance?

9. Which of the following is NOT an EXTENSIVE property of matter?

11. Which of the following is an example of a chemical property?

13. If the size of an object decreases, what happens to its density?

Table 1. Characteristics of the Different States of Matter

Chemical properties are characteristics a substance shows as it changes into or interacts

Table 2. Some Examples of Physical Properties of Matter

Conductivity Copper conducts electricity. Glass is a poor heat conductor.

Table 3. Some Examples of Chemical Properties of Matter

Matter Chemical Property

Table 4. Some Examples of Intensive and Extensive Properties of Matter

Table 5. Classification of the Properties of Matter

1. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

E What I can do?

Material 1: _________ Material 2: _________

Physical Chemical Physical Chemical

A What I can achieve?

2. Which of the following presents the CHEMICAL PROPERTY of a candle?

3. What does a physical property tell about a substance?

5. Which of the following is NOT a physical property of matter?

6. Which of the following is an example of a chemical property?

7. Which of the following is a chemical change?

8. If the size of an object decreases, what happens to its density?

10. Which is description BEST describes the chemical property of Borax?

13. Which type of matter is classified as a conductor of thermal energy?

Lesson SIMPLE SEPARATION

Simple Separation Techniques

Mixture Components How will you separate each

Salt and Pepper

Egg yolk and egg

2. Which one of the following shows the separation technique of decanting?

Material Classification Basis of classification

Figure 2. Evaporation can be used as a separation technique.

Distillation is a separation technique used to separate

Figure 3. Distillation apparatus.

Filtration is a separation technique used to separate the

Figure 4. Filtration apparatus.

Though chromatography is a simple technique in principle, it remains the most important

Figure 5. Thin layer chromatography is

Some examples of centrifugation are:

Magnetism/ Magnetic Separation

Ideal for separating mixtures of two

Life Science Applications of Chromatography

Chromatography is widely used in various life science applications. Some important

Table 7. Appropriate Separation Methods Based on the Composition of the Mixture

Separation Components of the Mixture

2. Name the solids that will not dissolve in the

Application Specific ways I am affected

E What else I can do?

Mixture Technique Basis

A What I can achieve?

I What I need to know?

Lesson 1: Common Isotopes and Their Uses

Material 1: _ Material 2: _