POST GRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE

Collage of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Department of plant Science
Horticulture program

Course: Physiology of Horticultural Crops (PLHO -542)

Term Pepper Tittle: Major Annual and Perennial Spice

Crops Production and Export Status in Ethiopia

Compiled by: Hayu Hassen (Msc. Horticulture Program Student)

ID No: Pgp/395/13

Submitted to: Dr. Wasu Muhammed

HARAMAYA, ETHIOPIA
July, 2021
 Table of Contents
Contents Page
Table of Contents..................................................................................................................I
List of Abbreviations...........................................................................................................II
Abstract..............................................................................................................................III
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1
2. Literature Review.............................................................................................................3
2.1 Ethiopian Spice History..........................................................................................3
2.2 Spice Crops production Opportunities and Constraints in Ethiopia.......................4
2.3 Major Annual and Perennial Spice crop production in Ethiopia............................5
2.4 Status of Spice Crops Export in Ethiopia...............................................................6
2.5 why does Spice production and Export are still infant in Ethiopian.......................7
3. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................8
4. References........................................................................................................................9

I
 List of Abbreviations

EMI = Ethiopian Ministry of Industry

GDP = Gross Domestic Product
ISO = International Standardization Organization
USD/US$ = United States Dollar
ATA = Agricultural Transformation Agency
FAOSTAT=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Database

II
 Abstract

Spice are nutritionally insignificant dried seed, fruit, root, bark or vegetative substances
product which are used as food adjuncts to add flavor, aroma, pungency and to prevent
harmful bacteria. Additionally, spice is source of essential oil, source of color and source
of income for many smallholders, mainly cultivated as mixed planted within main crops
and source of employment in many countries. India, China, Turkey, Bangladesh and
Indonesia are respectively the world leading spice producing country. Based on their
growing season spice are classified as annual, perennial and Bi-perennial. Ethiopia is a
long history of spice production and export and it is a source of more than 50 spice
crops, which are standardized by ISO. Some of these spices are; Korarima, long pepper
or chilli pepper, black cumin, vanilla, Bishops, fennel, fenugreek, sage, white cumin, coriander,
Cardamom, turmeric, ginger, black pepper, saffron, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and mustard. The
country has a total production potential of 356,000 tons from 207,000 ha and ranked 9th
in the world spices production and export. The country has an opportunities as well as
challenges for growing many spice crops. Spice production and export earns more than
1.5% in foreign exchange and it is source of income generation and employment in
Ethiopia. The spice production in Ethiopia is 98% grown under smallholder farmers and 2%
grown under private farms. The main spice-producing area in Ethiopia are SNNPR region,
Oromia region and Amhara region. Historically, the most commonly exported spices in
Ethiopia are ginger, turmeric and chili. However, ginger and chili production are
currently decreased due to bacterial wilt diseases. It was estimated that, in 2009 spice
export was earns US$ 18.568 million to the country economy. While in 2012, it earns
US$ 28 million. In 2018, the spice Export earns more than US$ 50 million. China,
Somalia, USA, Saudi Arabia, Germany and The Netherlands are Ethiopia’s top trading
partners in terms of total Ethiopian exports.

III
Key Words: Spice crops, Perennial Spice, Annual Spice, Export status,

IV
 1. Introduction

Spice are nutritionally insignificant dried seed, fruit, root, bark or vegetative substances
product which are used as food adjuncts to add flavor, aroma, pungency and to prevent
harmful bacteria in food items (Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A. 2019). They have also
nutritional and medicinal value being processed in many pharmaceutical, Perfumery,
cosmetics and several oleoresin industries (Chhetri P. et.al., 2018). Additionally, spice is
source of essential oil, source of color and source of income for many smallholders,
mainly cultivated as mixed planted within main crops and source of employment in many
countries (Spice sub-sector strategy for Ethiopia 2010). As Titus S. and Wojtek D. (2020).
Globally, in 2018 year spice production reach's 12.8 million tons, while Chilli was the
leading spice with total production of 4.1 million tons in the year 2018 (32%) out of
produced spice crops. According to (FAOSTAT 2019) state India, China, Turkey,
Bangladesh and Indonesia are respectively the leading spice producing country (Tsegaye
S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020).

Ethiopia is a source of many annual and perennial spice crops, with a long history of
production and export to the world market because of suitable diverse agro-ecology
(Abdu M., et.al., 2017). Ethiopia Produces More than 50 Spices Crops among 109;
spices, herbs and aromatic plants which are Internationally certified (Listed) by
International Organizations for Standardization (ISO), out of 50 spices 23 are trading as
export items (Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A. 2019). Spices grown in Ethiopia is known
for its unique aroma, taste and hot flavor. Most of these spice species are grown in home
gardens or cultivated as field crops (Fikadu F., 2009). Ethiopia is the first leading country
in East African countries in both production and export. In the country Spice production
was expanded between 1995 and 2011 from 107,000 to 153,000 tons with annual growth
rate of 9.5% (Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020). According to FAOSTAT data in 2018,
Ethiopia has total spice production capacity of 356,000 tons from 207,000 ha. According
to recent data Chilies (294,000 MT), turmeric (39,000 MT), ginger (11,000 MT) and
black pepper (4,000 MT) are 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th are respectively the mainly produced and
exported spices in Ethiopia (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020).

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Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy as it contributes 34.1% to the gross
domestic product (GDP) and offers about 79% of foreign exchange earnings and creating
job opportunity for about 79% for the nation of the country (Tsegaye S. 2021). Spices
production is traditionally known and has a long trade history of high valued horticultural
cash crop in Ethiopia. Their production potential is increase due to suitable climatic
condition, abundant cultivable land, cheap labor and proximity to European and Middle
East market (Abdu M., et.al., 2017). Since Spices are a cash crop, it increase the
smallholder farmers economy, create and expand employment opportunities and
distribute income and foreign exchange earnings and thus also help in poverty reduction
and ensuring food security in Ethiopia (Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020). The total
value of spice exports earnings was estimated at (USD) 18.568 million in 2009/10 and it
shows increase from year to year (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). According to FAO
2012/13 states, in 2012, (USD) 28 million was obtained from the export of 23,518 tons of
spices and by this, the country ranked 9th in world spices production and export (Abdu
M., et.al., 2017). From 2013 on wards, the Ethiopian spice exports have shown a declining trend
due to different bacterial, fungal and viral epidemic disease that considerably affect quality and
quantity of spice production especially in ginger (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020; Tsegaye S.H. and
Tasisa T.T. 2020). However, inspite of the suitable agro-ecology base for spice production and a long
history of spice cultivation and marketing in Ethiopia, the status of spice production and export in the
country is far below expectation (Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020).
This pepper is written to review the major annual and perennial Spice crops produced in
Ethiopia and their export status and economic influence in Ethiopia.

2. Literature Review
A spice is any processed or unprocessed plant`s dried seed, fruit, flower, root, bark or
vegetative substance used as a food adjuncts for the purpose of flavoring, add aroma, and
sometimes color. Sometimes spice are used as a preservative and medicine by killing or

2
preventing harmful infectious bacteria, fungus, nematodes, virus and others from human
being, animals and plants. They can also used for religious rituals, cosmetics and
perfumery. Based on their growing season spice are classified as annual, perennial and
Bi-perennial. Spice classified under annual has bear only one growing season to be
harvested. These are; coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ajowan Bishop and black
cumin and mustard.

2.1 Ethiopian Spice History

Ethiopians Produce and export spices to European countries and Egypt before 1500 (B.C)
years ago (Fikadu F., 2009). The use of spices is probably as old as mankind. Spices are
started to be used as medicine as long as 5000 years ago by the Chinese emperors and
later by the ancient Egyptians (Mathewos A., 2016). Egyptians use them to honor their
gods and embalm the dead (Fikadu F., 2009). Although some Spice have long production
history in Ethiopia, but most of them are introduced to Ethiopia and its neighbor
countries during 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries by merchants and European travelers or
discoveries. Spices trade and market was strengthen Ethiopian relationship between
foreign countries like Arabians, Persia, Europe, America, India and other Asians (Fikadu
F., 2009). Nowadays, Traditionally various perennial and seed spices are grown in
different parts of the country. Most of these spice crops are cultivated by smallholder
farmers mainly for income generation and, have considerable importance to the country’s
economy as export commodities and as sources of employment (Abdu M., et.al.,
2017).Due to Ethiopians location along the spice trade route and diversified favorable
agro-ecological zones, spice market playing a crucial role in Ethiopian economic
development (Mathewos A., 2016).

2.2 Spice Crops production Opportunities and Constraints in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has many opportunities for growing different perennial and annual spice crops.
These are; plenty diverse agro-climatic condition, abundant cultivable land and cheap
labor, proximity to potential export market (European and Middle East) and has a
favorable policy environment which support growing of many spices crops in Ethiopia

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(Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020). Additionally, Spice production and export earns
more than 1.5% in foreign exchange and it is source of income generation and
employment in Ethiopia (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). Peoples use spices to flavor
bread, butter, meat, soups, and vegetables and to make medicines and perfumes and
Ethiopia is the largest consumer of spice in Africa (Mathewos A., 2016). There is small
number of processing companies, Investors involved on extracting and packing, although
a number of Processed spices products could be further used in the food industry and
pharmaceutical industry (Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A. 2019). However, the country
could not use this opportunities (Ethiopian ministry of Industry (EMI) 2015).

Although spices have various utilization and market demand in Ethiopia, It phases many
Challenges such as; very poor traditional cultivation practices, absence of Improved high
yield and disease resistant planting materials, lack of irrigation facilities, absence of
research which recommend different agronomic practices and poor attention given for the
sector (Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020; Tiru T., et.al., 2017). This causes, poor
awareness on spice production, processing, storage and marketing among producers and
even Investors (Tiru T., et.al., 2017). Additionally, there also is poor marketing system
linkage. The price of spice was decided by traders, rather than by the demand, supply and
price information which give incentive to producer(Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A.
2019). There is also less innovated technologies popularized for farmers on spice crops,
and disease like; fusarium wilt, blight, powdery mildew, downy mildew, leaf spot, root
rot, damping-off, rust, stem gal, grain mold, and pests such as aphids, mites, stick-bugs,
leaf eating caterpillars are also constraints that led to overall reduction in productivity and
quality of spices in Ethiopia (Tsegaye S.H. and Tasisa T.T. 2020). Poor quality decrease
the demand of spice market by making weak business linkage among stakeholders in the
chain including farmers, traders, processors and leads to weak market research and
promotion for natural and processed spices products (Masresha Y. 2010).

2.3 Major Annual and Perennial Spice crop production in Ethiopia

Based on their growing season spice are classified as annual, perennial and Bi-perennial.
Annual Spices has bear only one growing season to be harvested, those are; coriander,
cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ajowan, black cumin and mustard. While perennial spice are

4
take more than two years for harvest, those are; Cardamom, turmeric, ginger, black
pepper, saffron, clove, nutmeg, korarima and cinnamon (Chhetri P., et.al., 2018). Ethiopia
has a long history in spice production and it is the leading country in both production and
export in East Africa by producing 244,000 tons per year (Tsegaye S. 2021; Tiru T., et.al.,
2017). As this a country is the home land for more than 50 spice crops among 109 listed
spices, which are standardized by ISO (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020; Tiru T., et.al., 2017).
Some of these spice crops are; Korarima, long pepper or chilli pepper, black cumin,
vanilla, Bishops, fennel, fenugreek, sage, white cumin, coriander, Cardamom, turmeric, ginger, black
pepper, saffron, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and mustard (Tsegaye S. 2021; International Trade Centre,
2010; Tiru T., et.al., 2017; Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020).

The spice production in Ethiopia is 98% grown under smallholder farmers estimated to 1.1
million households are involved in this and 2% grown under private ownership farm such
as; Bench Maji Coffee and Andinet Farmers Cooperative Union, YSO, Nati Plc, and
Fasika Baltina. In Ethiopia Spices are mainly inter-cropped with coffee, banana and maize, and
some others (Abdu M., et.al., 2017; Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). The main spice-producing area in
Ethiopia are SNNPR region (Kaffa, Bench Maji and Gedeo Zone), Oromia region (Illubabor and
Jimma zone especially perennial spices, east and west Hararghe zone mostly annual spice crops) and
Amhara region mainly produce chilies and black cumin (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). The land
coverage by spices is around 222,700 ha which produce 244,000 tons per year. The
production of spices in Ethiopia was expanded during the years from 1995 to 2011 from
107,000 to 153,000 tons with annual growth rate of 9.5%, following global and domestic
consumption EMI (Ethiopian Ministry of Industry), 2015). In 2013 spice production in
Ethiopia was 234,000 tons from 150,000 ha and it is increased to 356,000 tons from
207,000 ha in 2018. Recently in 2018, the main spices produced in Ethiopia is; Chilies
(294,000 MT), turmeric (39,000 MT), ginger (11,000 MT) and black pepper (4,000 MT).
Chili pepper accounts for over 80% of total spice production (Tsegaye S. 2021; Titus S. and
Wojtek D. 2020).

2.4 Status of Spice Crops Export in Ethiopia

Historically, the most commonly exported spices in Ethiopia are ginger, turmeric and
chili. However, ginger and chili production are currently decreased due to bacterial wilt
diseases (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). For centuries, they have been used as one of the

5
major livelihoods and life-giving foods of both the rural and urban populations. Besides,
since most of them are labor intensive, small in bulk and so cheap to transport, and of
high value per unit, they present a special opportunity to hasten both rural and urban
development (Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A. 2019). Although, Spice production has a
great opportunities and has a crucial role in economic development of the country gave
poor attention for the sector (Tiru T., et.al., 2017; Abdu M., et.al., 2017).

Until 2003, It was estimated that the share of spice export was remained less than 1% of
total export earnings in Ethiopia. In 2003/4 it increases from1.1% to 1.4% of total export
earnings in 2004/2005, it shows slightly increasing(Masresha Y., 2010). During the
period 1997/98-2009/10, the average growth rate of 25.6% in volume and 25.3% in value
was recorded. Only in 2009/10 It was estimated that, the total value of spice exports
earnings was US$ 18.568 million (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020; Masresha Y., 2010). In
2009/10 the leading commodities which exported from the country was ginger (64.9%),
turmeric (15.4%) and cumin (8.4%) of total export earning share. While Fenugreek share
(3.8%), pepper (0.86%) and cardamom (0.75%) (Masresha Y., 2010). In 2012, 23,518
tons of spices was exported. It earns total export value of US$ 28 million and the country
ranked 9th in world spices production and export (Abdu M., et.al., 2017; FAO (2012/13)).

For long period of time Ethiopia mainly exports ginger and turmeric in the whole form
and in sliced form (Tiru T., et.al., 2017). However after 2013, ginger was damaged by
bacterial epidemic disease, this decrease the production status of ginger and affect export
value of ginger (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). Export earning of an approximately US$ 50
million per year was achieved in 2015, mainly from black cumin, chilies, ginger and
turmeric, thereby showing an increasing trend compared to the previous years 2012/13.
Although the ginger production and export value was declined just to only US$10,000 in
2017 and responsible for a negligible share of Ethiopian spice exports, the total spice
export value was increased while exported commodities (instead of ginger) substituted
with other spices such as; black cumin, chilies and turmeric (Tsegaye S. 2021; Titus S.
and Wojtek D. 2020). Currently, turmeric occupies the major share of ginger exports with
export volume increased by 64% in the year 2013 to 2017. Although the turmeric have
not get high value export as such as ginger, because it less price over market (Tsegaye S.

6
2021). In Ethiopia Agricultural exports such as; coffee, pulses, vegetables, oil seeds and
cut flowers accounted for 62% of the total export value of US$1.6 billion in 2018,
whereas spices represented 0.42% of total export value. In general, the relative export
share of spice is increased from 15% to 24% in the period 2013–2017. China, Somalia,
USA, Saudi Arabia, Germany and The Netherlands are Ethiopia’s top trading partners in
terms of total Ethiopian exports (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020). According to FAOSTAT
data (2018), total spice production in Ethiopia increased from 234,000 MT in 2013 to
356,000 MT in 2018 and Chilies, turmeric, ginger and black pepper are respectively the
main spices produced in Ethiopia (Titus S. and Wojtek D. 2020).

2.5 why does Spice production and Export are still infant in Ethiopian
The spice sub-sector has an immense potential for economic development and poverty
reduction through creation and expansion of employment opportunities and distribution
of income and foreign exchange earnings. However, still the spice cultivation is
traditional, with no or very little research and extension support. Even, the status of spice
production and marketing in the country is not well documented (Tiru T., et.al., 2017).
The cultivation practices being practiced by farmers is not improved, no available
planting material, the production practices is traditional and high disease severity, poor
marketing linkage, less research and educated human power involvement in the
production practices (Tsegaye S. 2021; Dagnaygebaw G. and Tariku A. 2019). This
implies there is lack of awareness on spice production, Utilization, processing, storage
and marketing system. This leads to farmers are not get expected benefits from his
production and finally leads to decrease and stunt the production level of Ethiopian spice
(Tsegaye S. 2021; Tiru et.al., 2017). Hence, a radical change should be undertaken in the
system to exploit the benefit from these marginalized crops. Being cognizant of the
importance of the spices sector to Ethiopian economy (Tiru T., et.al., 2017).

3. Conclusion
Ethiopia has huge potential for growing many annual and perennial spice because of
diverse agro-ecology. The country produces many Annual Spices which are grown in one
growing season such as; coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ajowan, black cumin and

7
mustard, and perennials which take more than two years for harvest such as; Cardamom,
turmeric, ginger, black pepper, saffron, clove, nutmeg, korarima and cinnamon. In
general, Ethiopia produce more than 50 spice species out of 109 internationally
standardized by ISO and the country has a total production potential of 356,000 tons from
207,000 ha. Spices are one of traditionally grown high value horticultural cash crops in
Ethiopia. It has a crucial role in GDP or economic development of the country and It
earns more than 1.5% by foreign exchange to national economy. Ethiopia has many
opportunities for growing many perennial and annual spices such as; suitable climatic
condition, abundant cultivable land, cheap labor and proximity to European and Middle
East market. Since Spices are a cash crop, it increase the smallholder farmers economy,
create and expand employment opportunities and distribute income and foreign exchange
earnings and thus also help in poverty reduction and ensuring food security in Ethiopia.
However, the country has not well utilized this huge potential and opportunities. It phases
many Challenges such as; absence of Improved high yield and disease resistant planting
materials, lack of irrigation facilities, absence of research which recommend different
agronomic practices and poor attention given for the sector. Hence, a radical change
should be undertaken in the system to exploit the benefit from these marginalized crops.
There should be given more attention for the sub-sector. This increase the country over all
GDP and improve the farmers or producers over all income.

4. References
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Black Pepper Production in Ethiopia: Evidence from Commercial Production

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 System. International Journal of Recent Research in Commerce Economics and
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Chhetri P., Vijayan A.K., Bhat S.K., Gudade B.A.and Bora S.S.Article (2018). An
Overview of Grouping of Spices. Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Regional
Research Station, Spices Board, Tadong, Gangtok, Sikkim-737102 :
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Dagnaygebaw Goshme and Tariku Ayele (2019). Factors Affecting Production and
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