IMPACT OF AVOCADO (Persea americana Mill.

) TREE CANOPY
MANAGEMENT AND HONEY BEE POPULATION DENSITY ON
AVOCADO FRUIT AND HONEY PRODUCTION
BY:

TESEMA YOHANIS

SUPERVISOR(S)
Dr. Meseret Tesema Terfa (PhD)
Dr. Alemu Dessa (PhD)

A THESIS PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE

STUDIES OF HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PLANT AND HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE
(SPECIALIZATION: HORTICULTURE)

SEPTEMBER, 2021
HAWASSA, ETHIOPIA
 APPROVAL SHEET

HAWASSA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

SCHOOL OF PLANT AND HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE

Thesis proposal Approval sheet

The Research Proposal Entitled as “Impact of Avocado Tree Canopy Management and Honey
Bee Population Density on Avocado Fruit and Honey Production In case of Tereri Kela, Sidama
Regional State, Ethiopia”. Has been approved by school of plant and horticultural science for
partial fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in plant and
horticultural science (Specialization: Horticulture)

Submitted by:-

Tesema Yohanis
------------------------------------------------- ------------------- -------------------------
Name of student Signature Date

Approved by:-
Dr. Meseret Tesema(PhD)
---------------------------------------------------- -------------- -----------------------------
Name of major advisor Signature Date

Dr. Alemu Dessa (PhD)

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------------
Name of co-advisor Signature Date

---------------------------------------------------- ------------------ ----------------------------

Name of school head Signature Date

----------------------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------

School of graduate studies Signature Date
List of Tables...................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................vi
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background and Justification................................................................................................1
1.3. Objective of the Study...........................................................................................................5
1.3.1. General Objective...........................................................................................................5
1.3.2. Specific Objectives.........................................................................................................5
1.4. Research Question.................................................................................................................5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................8
2.1. The avocado fruit tree...........................................................................................................8
2.1.1. History and Distribution.................................................................................................8
2.1.2. Ecology of avocado fruit tree: Climate and Soils...........................................................8
2.1.3. Avocado fruit Uses and Composition..........................................................................10
2.1.4. Avocado fruit tree Production......................................................................................11
2.1.3.1. World avocado fruit tree production......................................................................11
2.1.3.2. Avocado fruit tree production in Ethiopia.............................................................12
2.2. Avocado fruit tree and canopy management.......................................................................13
2.3 Avocado fruit tree light interception and light use efficiency.............................................14
2.3.1 Light interception and photosynthesis of avocado fruit tree canopy.............................14
2.3.2. The Avocado fruit trees response to light....................................................................15
2.4 . Avocado tree flower, pollination mode and pollinizers................................................16
2.4.1. Avocado tree flower and Flowering.............................................................................16
2.4.1.1. Avocado tree flower..............................................................................................16
2.4.1.2 Avocado tree flowering..........................................................................................17
2.4.2. Avocado tree pollination Modes..................................................................................18
2.4.2.1. Cross-pollination....................................................................................................18
2.4.2.2. Close-pollination....................................................................................................18
2.4.2.3. Self-pollination......................................................................................................19
2.4.3. Avocado tree pollinizer................................................................................................19
2.5. Avocado fruit orchard and Honey bee population..............................................................20
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS.................................................................................................22
3.1. Description of the Study Area.............................................................................................22
3.2. Experimental Design and procedure...................................................................................22
3.3. Data collection....................................................................................................................23
3.3.1. Phenology parameters..................................................................................................23
3.5.1.2. Days to Flowering(count):.....................................................................................23
3.5.1.2. Day to Fruiting (count)..........................................................................................23
3.5.1.3. Days to Fruit maturity (count):..............................................................................23
3.5.3. Physiological data.........................................................................................................23
3.5.3.1. Leaf gas exchange parameters...............................................................................23
3.5.3.2. Determination of leaf chlorophyll fluorescence....................................................24
3.5.3.3. Chlorophyll content...............................................................................................24
3.5.3.3. Stomatal conductance............................................................................................25
3.5.4. Light Quality and Intensity Data..................................................................................25
3.5.4.1. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)............................................................25
3.3.5. Yield and yield component parameters........................................................................25
3.3.5.1. Number of buds.....................................................................................................25
3.3.5.2. Number of buds converted to flowers...................................................................25
3.3.5.3. Number of flower..................................................................................................25
3.3.5.4. Percentage of fruit set initial (PFSI)......................................................................25
3.3.5.5. Percentage of fruit set final (PFSF):......................................................................25
3.3.5.6. Total number of fruits per tree (NFTT):................................................................25
3.3.5.7. Density of bees per tree (BPT)..............................................................................26
3.3.5.8. Pollination rate (PR)..............................................................................................26
3.3.5.9. Pollination efficiency( PE)....................................................................................26
3.3.6. Fruit Quality parameters...............................................................................................26
3.3.6.1. Fruit Maturity:.......................................................................................................26
3.3.6.2. skin color...............................................................................................................26
3.3.6.3. Firmness.................................................................................................................26
3.3.6.4. Texture...................................................................................................................26
3.3.6.5. Moisture Content:..................................................................................................26
 3.4 Statistical Analysis.............................................................................................................26
4. WORK PLAN............................................................................................................................27
5. BUDGET BREAKDOWN........................................................................................................28
6. REFERENCE............................................................................................................................30
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Avocado production of the top 12 producing countries in 2000 and 2008....................9
Table 2.2. Africa top 10 avocado producing countries (2008-2012, in mt)....................................9
Table 4.1. Work plan schedule......................................................................................................25
Table 5.1. Stationery.....................................................................................................................26
Table 5.2. Transport Cost.............................................................................................................26
Table 5.3. Farm and laboratory inputs...........................................................................................26
Table 5.4. Labor cost....................................................................................................................27
Table 5.5. Personnel cost...............................................................................................................27
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ANOVA Analysis of variance

CSSE Crop Science Society of Ethiopia
CSA Central Statistical agency
BPT Density of Bees Per Tree
EARO Ethiopian agricultural research Organization
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of agricultural research
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FAOSTAT Food and Agricultural Organization Statics
LSD Least Significance difference
LAI Leaf Area Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
NFTT Total number of fruits per tree
PAR Photosynthetically Active Radiation
PE Pollination Efficiency
PFSF Percentage of Fruit Set Final
PFSI Percentage of Fruit Set Initial
PR Pollination Rate
RCBD Random complete Block design
SAS Statistical application of science
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background and Justification

The avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is an evergreen subtropical fruit tree native to Central
America and Mexico (Chen et al., 2009). It contains many vitamins, fat-soluble, protein,
potassium and unsaturated fatty acid that are less common in other fruits and it is used in the
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as a raw material (Duarte et al., 2017). Avocado trees are
variable in shape, from tall upright specimens to widely spreading forms with multiple branches
(Chanderbali et al., 2013).
Total world production is more than 4.5 million tones, with about 25% of the crop traded around
the globe (Bost et al., 2013). Mexico is the largest producer, with a total production of about 1.5
million tones (28% of world production). Other important producing countries are Chile (8%),
Dominican Republic (7%), Indonesia (6%), Colombia (5%), Peru (5%), United States (5%),
Brazil (4%), Kenya (4%) and Rwanda (3%) (FAOSTATS, 2010a).
Avocado was first introduced to Ethiopia in 1938 by private orchardists in Hirna and Wondo-
genet (Edossa, 1997; Woyessa and Berhanu, 2010; and Zekarias, 2010). Annual avocado
production in Ethiopia is 25633.16 tons (Edossa, 1997; Woyessa and Berhanu, 2010; and
Zekarias, 2010). The production and productivity of avocado in Ethiopia remained low compare
to world average.
The low production and productivity of avocado in Ethiopia in general and in study area are the
results of various factors. Among which lack of improved varieties, poor canopy management
practices, pests and diseases and low pollinator visits or lack of efficient pollinators are
important factors (MoA, 2005).
Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality
fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning,
affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of
leaf area to incoming radiation. An ideal training strategy centers around the arrangement of
plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of
sunlight and promotes productivity (Gorakh Singh 2010). Due to its flowering and fruiting
characteristics the avocado tree must produce new growth each year to remain productive
(Whiley and Schaffer, 1994). However, if left unchecked the orchard eventually becomes
crowded with a loss in yield and fruit quality. The basic problem with overcrowded orchards is
insufficient light penetration through the canopy (Stadler and Stassen, 1985).

Light interception and light quality in mature orchards represent a function of several factors,
including: row orientation, tree spacing, tree height, clear alley width ratio, tree shape, Leaf Area
Index (LAI) within the canopy, location and age of tree where flowers and fruit initiate and set,
training system and pruning strategy (Rom, 1991 and Khemira, 1993).

Limb removing, canopy pruning and opening techniques offer one management tool to maintain
canopies in a condition which facilitates optimal light interception in closely spaced orchards.
Several pruning techniques improve an orchard's light distribution, to ensure optimal
photosynthesis and resource allocation to large numbers of high quality fruit (Heinicke 1966;
Smart and Robinson, 1991). For sun-exposed fruit at harvest, we observed higher dry matter and
oil content, and higher levels of calcium, magnesium and potassium. In addition, the fatty acid
makeups of oil in these fruit were also found to be different (Woolf et al., 1999b). In mango there
is evidence that moderate pruning (10 to 15 cm of shoot tip) and remotion of branches in the
center of the crown, light penetration into leaves increases between 40 - 60% (Schaffer and
Gaye, 1989). In avocado, Hadari (2004) showed that maximum light penetration through a
healthy canopy was 1m, suggesting that canopy management should aim at restricting the
thickness of the foliage. Regarding pruning intensity, several studies agree that the trimming of
apical shoots increases fruit production. In Mango 'Amrapali' there was an increase of up to 60
kg tree-1 with trimming of 30 to 60 cm (Sharma and Singh, 2006; Das and Jana, 2012).

In many orchard crops, light penetration is important for the development of quality
characteristics in apples (Palmer, 2004) and it is also linked with flower bud development
(Palmer, 2004), dormancy, shoot growth and leaf morphology (Bastias & Corelli-Grappadelli,
2012) in addition to its role in assimilation. Monteith (1977) demonstrated a fundamental
correlation between crop dry matter production and seasonal accumulated light interception.

Shading within the canopy has direct detrimental effects on assimilation when shaded leaves
become sinks for energy due to a negative net photosynthetic rate and are effectively parasitic
(Hadari, 2004). Increased levels of canopy shading at higher planting densities decrease apple
fruit dry weight accumulation and fruit quality factors such as: apple skin color , fruit weight
soluble solids and firmness (Wagenmakers and Callesen, 1995). Decreases in apple fruit weight
at higher density plantings may result from reductions in carbohydrate supply to fruits (Stuart
Tustin et aL, 1992), or higher fruit densities per unit canopy area (Wagenmakers and Callesen,
1995). Reduced firmness and total concentrations of soluble solids apparent in fruit derived from
trees planted at high densities suggests that high levels of canopy shading not only interfere with
assimilation, but with partitioning of assimilates to developing fruits.

Light quality refers to the availability of particular wavelengths of light in the photosynthetically
active portion of the spectrum (Ferree et al, 1993). Frequently a strong relationship exists
between changes in light quality and quantity within canopies. This correlation makes separation
of the influence of each factor experimentally difficult (Lakso, 1994). Marked reductions in blue
and red wavelengths and a shift in the red: far-red ratio characterizes declining light quality at
increasing depths within the canopy (Palmer, 1977; Gratani, 1997). Decreases in the red: far red
ratio through the canopy profile result from low levels of transmission of red light compared to
that of the infra-red (Palmer, 1977a; 1977b). Reduced levels of red wavelengths at increasing
depths within the canopy have the potential to significantly alter the photosynthetic capacity of
leaves as some of these wavelengths are required for the photosynthetic action spectrum
(Salisbury and Ross, 1985). Differences in the red: far-red ratio can significantly alter tree
development and physiology (Raven et aL, 1986). For example, using different red: far red ratios
(at the same level of irradiance) resulted in significant delays in bud break and reduced
branching frequency in peach (Erez and Kadman-Zahavi, 1972). While delayed apple fruit
abscission occurs following exposure to short periods of red light during the night (Greene et aL,
1986). The influences of changes in light quality through an orchard canopy on both floral
initiation and fruit retention have not been extensively studied in tree crops. Significant advances
have been made in the development of mechanized pruning and growth retardants in avocado
orchards. However, recommendations on canopy management strategies for Ethiopian growers
have not yet been identified.

In
recognition of its nutritional quality
and economic
importance, the crop has been
distributed to the rest of
the world since the last 400 years.
During the last
century, it has been widely distributed
to more than 50
countries around the world, which
mainly includes
sub-tropical and tropical areas such as
sub-Saharan
Africa. Ethiopia is one of the top five
avocado
producers in sub-Saharan Africa.
Avocado was first
introduced to Ethiopia around 1938 by
private
orchardists in Hirna (Eastern
highlands of Ethiopia)
and Wondo-genet (Southern
Highlands of Ethiopia).
Gradually, it has been distributed to
different agro-
ecologic conditions where the crop
could be adapted
(Edossa 1997; Megersa and Alemu
2013; Woyessa
and Berhanu 2010). Despite its long
history since
introduction and the diverse agro-
ecologic conditions
of Ethiopia, its distribution is still
limited to few areas
of the country (CSA 2014). Currently
the main
avocado producing areas include
Sidama and Wolay-
ita areas in the South, Jimma and
Mizan areas in south-
western and Hararge area in eastern
region of the
country (CSA 2014; Megersa and
Alemu 2013).
In Ethiopia, avocado trees are mainly
grown as an
integral component of coffee (Coffea
Arabica L.) and
enset (Ensetventricosum) agroforesrty
systems and to
a lesser extent in combination with
other crops like
maize (Moges 2009; Shumeta 2010).
As coffee
requires shade trees and known for its
shade-tolerance,
smallholder producers consider
avocado as one of the
important shade trees while also
benefiting a lot from
the sale of the avocado fruits
(Kahuranga et al. 1993;
Moges 2009; Shumeta 2010). It is also
grown as
individual trees around the court yards
where it is used
also as shades for people and
livestock.
The Sidama Highland in Southern
Ethiopia is known
for the traditional coffee- and enset-
based agroforestry
system (Abebe et al. 2009; Asfaw and
Agren 2007;
Asfaw and Lemenih
2010; M o g e s 2009). This zone is
one of the areas where avocado was
first introduced to
Ethiopia (Megersa and Alemu
2013; Z e k a r i a s 2010).
The Sidama highlands have suitable
agro-ecological
conditions for rainfed avocado
production. It accounts
about 36 % of the national annual
avocado production
(CSA 2014). Therefore, the Sidama
highlands are
important sources of avocado fruits for
major cities
such as Hawassa and Addis Ababa
In
recognition of its nutritional quality
and economic
importance, the crop has been
distributed to the rest of
the world since the last 400 years.
During the last
century, it has been widely distributed
to more than 50
countries around the world, which
mainly includes
sub-tropical and tropical areas such as
sub-Saharan
Africa. Ethiopia is one of the top five
avocado
producers in sub-Saharan Africa.
Avocado was first
introduced to Ethiopia around 1938 by
private
orchardists in Hirna (Eastern
highlands of Ethiopia)
and Wondo-genet (Southern
Highlands of Ethiopia).
Gradually, it has been distributed to
different agro-
ecologic conditions where the crop
could be adapted
(Edossa 1997; Megersa and Alemu
2013; Woyessa
and Berhanu 2010). Despite its long
history since
introduction and the diverse agro-
ecologic conditions
of Ethiopia, its distribution is still
limited to few areas
of the country (CSA 2014). Currently
the main
avocado producing areas include
Sidama and Wolay-
ita areas in the South, Jimma and
Mizan areas in south-
western and Hararge area in eastern
region of the
country (CSA 2014; Megersa and
Alemu 2013).
In Ethiopia, avocado trees are mainly
grown as an
integral component of coffee (Coffea
Arabica L.) and
enset (Ensetventricosum) agroforesrty
systems and to
a lesser extent in combination with
other crops like
maize (Moges 2009; Shumeta 2010).
As coffee
requires shade trees and known for its
shade-tolerance,
smallholder producers consider
avocado as one of the
important shade trees while also
benefiting a lot from
the sale of the avocado fruits
(Kahuranga et al. 1993;
Moges 2009; Shumeta 2010). It is also
grown as
individual trees around the court yards
where it is used
also as shades for people and
livestock.
The Sidama Highland in Southern
Ethiopia is known
for the traditional coffee- and enset-
based agroforestry
system (Abebe et al. 2009; Asfaw and
Agren 2007;
Asfaw and Lemenih
2010; M o g e s 2009). This zone is
one of the areas where avocado was
first introduced to
Ethiopia (Megersa and Alemu
2013; Z e k a r i a s 2010).
The Sidama highlands have suitable
agro-ecological
conditions for rainfed avocado
production. It accounts
about 36 % of the national annual
avocado production
(CSA 2014). Therefore, the Sidama
highlands are
important sources of avocado fruits for
major cities
such as Hawassa and Addis Ababa
Avocado is one of at least 105 crops that receive yield benefits from animal pollination (Rader et
al., 2020). Inadequate pollination has been suggested as an important factor in the limiting of the
avocado (Persea americana Mill.) yield. Avocado cultivars are classified into complementary
flowering groups A and B, based on their daily flowering pattern. The type A flowers open as a
female in the morning and close in the afternoon but then open again in the masculine form in
the afternoon of the following day. The type B flowers open as a female in the afternoon; then
close and reopen the following morning as a male flower (Sedgley, 1979; Ish-Am, 2004). The
adoption of dichogamy as a breeding strategy implies that for an effective transfer of pollen,
insects should visit the flowers in both sexual states. (Malerbo-Souza et al., 2000). Avocado
flowers are visited by a variety of insects including bees, flies, wasps, beetles and thrips
(Vithanage, 1990).
The honey bee A. mellifera is considered as the main pollinating agent of the avocado
(Castañeda et al., 1999; Peña, 2003; Can-Alonso et al., 2005; Goodwin, 2012). However, despite
this and in comparison with other fruit trees, bees do not work efficiently in avocado flowers as
they get more attracted by flowers of wild plants grown in orchards (Ish-Am & Eisikowitch,
1993). An avocado tree produces about one million flowers and 10000 to 40000 female flowers
open each day (Lahav & Zamet, 1999). A good seasonal crop of 400 to 600 fruits per tree
requires the pollination and fertilization of about the same number of flowers, which may be
accomplished with only two or three forager honey bees. However, in practice a measurable
initial fruit set under field condition demands the work of at least five to ten honey bees per tree
throughout the female bloom (Ish-Am, 2004). In avocado orchards, it is common practice to
introduce colonies of bees to promote pollination (Pérez-Balam et al., 2012). In New Zealand,
four to ten hives/ha is recommended (Evans, Goodwin, & Mcbrydie, 2010), while in Israel, it the
optimal number of hives/ha has been found to be eight, placed at distances not less than 100 m
between them (Bergh, 1977). Goodwin (2012) recommended the introduction of hives when the
crop presented between 5 and 10 % of flowering, guaranteeing its persistence in the flowers.
Honey bee pollinator number density is the most important of the several factors that contribute
and change to increase productivity. Research has shown that pollination by honey bee increases
the fruit set in avocados (Ish-Am & Eisikowitch, 1993; Goodwin, 2012). So a poor canopy
management and insufficient pollination are the major problem that affects the avocado
productivity. This issue has been raising concerns that the livelihoods of avocado farmers will be
badly affected. Despite these concerns, there is scarcity of information on avocado canopy
manipulation for light interception in the avocado fruit tree and hive bee population density on
pollination of avocado fruit tree in study area and in Ethiopia are not well understood. Therefore,
this study deals with avocado canopy management to attain good sunlight distribution through
the avocado tree canopy for better fruiting and honey bee visitation activity per tree will be
evaluates and recommends avocado manipulation method and optimum honey bee density per
tree for better avocado tree productivity and fruit quality at study area.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objective

 To evaluate avocado canopy management, for sunlight distribution and honey bee
population on avocado fruiting at Sidama Region Tefer Kela Woreda.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 To evaluate the effect of canopy management on sun light interception and the avocado
trees yield
 To determine the appropriate canopy size/management methods for efficient light
distribution and avocado tree productive
 To determine contribution of honey bee population on efficient pollination, fertilization
and fruit set of the avocado
 To determine the honey bee hive population/density per avocado tree number for
effective fruit and honey production

1.4. Research Questions

a) What is the impact of canopy management on avocado fruiting at study area?
b) Is the avocado canopy manages affect the amount of light interception through trees
canopy?
 c) What is the effect of honey bee population on avocado pollination and fruiting at
study area?
d) What is the appropriate honey bee density for efficient and effective avocado fruiting?
e) What are the current evidence, gaps and what should be the future focus of avocado
fruit tree research from canopy management and honey bee population point of views

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. The avocado fruit tree

2.1.1. History and Distribution

The avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a polymorphic tree species that originated in a broad
geographical region stretching from the Pacific coast of Central America through Guatemala to
the eastern and central highlands of Mexico (Popenoe, 1920). Three distinct and separate taxa or
sub-species now termed the Guatemalan, Mexican and West Indian or Antillean races have been
selected over millennia (Knight, 2002). Archaeological evidence shows that when the climatic
conditions changed during the Paleocene glaciations, avocado ancestors migrated from North
America to the south and became established in the more hospitable habitats of Mesoamerica
(Bergh, 1992; 1995). Evidence suggests that the complex geological history of Mexico has been
the main evolutive factor for the avocado (Ramamoorthy et al., 1993). The avocado has been
consumed in Mesoamerica by human groups since prehistoric times (Mac Neish, 1964). Buckler
et al. (1998) documented that from 16,000 to 8,000 BC the weather in this region was
appropriate for avocado development. Today the avocado is cultivated all over the world. In
1856 avocados were brought to California by Nicaraguan settlers. In Israel, the first avocado was
introduced in 1908. From 1933 to 1998 avocado selections were introduced in Central America,
the Caribbean, North and South America, Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Europe (Knight, 2002). In
recent years, the avocado has become the fourth most important tropical fruit in the world, and it
continues to increase in importance in many places (Bergh, 1992). China, for example, produced
45,000 tons in 1996, whereas in 1991 there was no avocado production reported (Knight, 2002).
At present, Mexico is the main producer (Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA, 2006) with
1,021,515 tons in 2005 (SIAP, 2007). Current varieties and rootstocks for avocado cultivation in
the world are the products of various breeding programs based on exploration, collections,
conservation, and evaluation trials throughout their regions of origin and dispersion (Mijares and
López, 1998).

2.1.2. Ecology of avocado fruit tree: Climate and Soils

Avocado first became an important orchard crop early in the twenty century. It is therefore a
relatively new or ‘young’ crop, at an early stage of domestication. It possesses residual eco
physiological features that are adaptive to competing in a neotropical rainforest (often at high
altitude), which can be counter-productive to the needs of modern orcharding (Wolstenholme
and Whiley,1999). Mexican ecotypes are reported to be indigenous to highland areas between
19° and 24°N, i.e. borderline subtropical highland to semi-tropical highland (Storey et al., 1986).
Wild Guatemalan avocados range from 14–16°N in mountainous terrain, i.e. truly tropical
highland. The most tropical ecotype, the West Indian or Lowland (Antillean), extends from 8–
15°N in lowland coastal areas on the Pacific coast, and the term West Indian is a misnomer. A
latitudinal range of 8–24°N and altitudes from sea level to over 2500 m is therefore presumed for
wild avocados. In contrast, avocados are cultivated commercially from about 40°N on the coast
of the Black Sea in the Batoum region (Gaillard, 1987), to the Bay of Plenty on the North Island
in New Zealand (c.39°S), a huge latitudinal spread. Praloran (1970) summarized climatic data
for the three ‘races’ of avocado. Three representative climate types were chosen: the Mexican
highlands at 1400–2700 m; the Guatemalan highlands at 1500–2350 m; and the Colombian
lowlands at 100–450 m (today not considered as the centre of origin of the West Indian race, but
representative of a tropical lowland climate). Praloran (1970) concluded that a common feature
of indigenous avocado areas was the marked dry season in which flowering took place.
Abundant rain during flowering (as in the humid tropics) results in a prolongation of the
flowering period. Flowering often lasts 4–6 months in the humid tropical lowlands of the Ivory
Coast and Cameroon, which indicates weak climatic synchronization of flowering and may be a
response to high temperatures. Mexican and Guatemalan ecotypes therefore have a more
synchronized flowering period (about 1 month) when flowering occurs in a cool (mean 12.7–
21°C) and dry period. West Indian ecotypes are better adapted to hot and relatively dry (but with
high relative humidity) conditions during flowering. Praloran (1970), citing the pollination study
of Lesley and Bringhurst (1951) in California, also noted that ideally temperatures should be
above 6.5/19°C and 10/20°C (min./max.) for cultivars with Group A and B floral behaviour,
respectively. Rainfall in the areas of origin was mostly moderate to high, from about 650 mm (at
high altitudes) to over 1500 mm (Praloran, 1970). Samson (1986) suggested that 1800 mm is a
likely optimum for tropical (lowland) conditions, but noted the absence of data. Discussing the
responses of avocado to rainfall and humidity, Gaillard and Godefroy (1995) state that the
Mexican race has a relatively low water requirement, while Guatemalan and West Indian races
have an average water requirement.

2.1.3. Avocado fruit Uses and Composition

Avocados have significantly higher lipid content (8–25%) as compared to other fruits. The
avocados have diverse fats yet they are one of the best foods one can eat. They are full of
nutrients and heart-healthy compounds. According to USDA report in 2004, each 100g (3.5oz) of
avocado pulp gives 670KJ (160Kcal) of energy; 75% of which is from its fat. It contains 2.13g
saturated fatty acid, 9.80g monounsaturated and 1.82g polyunsaturated fatty acids. 2g of that
amount was protein while water was 73.23g. The avocado also contains many vitamins and
minerals; especially it contains 35% more potassium than banana which has 358mg per 100g.
75% of the high fibre content is insoluble while 25% is soluble (Naveh et al., 2002). The health
benefits of avocados are quite obvious, from their nutritional components and hence cannot be
overemphasized. High intake of avocados lowers blood cholesterol levels (low density
lipoprotein, harmful cholesterol) due to its high content of High density lipoproteins (HDL),
helpful cholesterol (Naveh et al., 2002). The avocados are a great source of liteine, a carotenoid
that works as an antioxidant and helps protect against eye disease. Avocado helps in weight loss
because the monounsaturated fats make one feel full and resist temptation to eat. It contains good
amount of fiber both soluble and insoluble. Fiber is needed by the digestive system to run
smoothly. Oleic acid is a fat that activates the part of the brain that makes one feel full, and it is
also present in avocado. Oleic acid in avocado has been shown to produce greater level of satiety
than less healthy saturated fats and Trans fats contained in processed food. The processed
products of avocado pulp include the paste, puree, and guacamole. Guacamole is a fruit pulp
seasoned with salt, onion, lemon, pepper and tomato, being produced not only in an artisanal
way but also marketed by some US companies (Daiuto et al., 2011). The sensory quality of
guacamole of Hass variety made without chemical additives and stored under refrigeration was
evaluated according to the type of packaging used. A greater consumers’ acceptance was
observed for the product stored in container with gas barrier when compared to that stored in
polyethylene package (Daiuto et al., 2011). Although these authors have also considered that the
heat treatment may have been effective on the polyphenol oxidase inactivation, it can result in
the development of bitterness and off-flavors in avocado, which changes the guacamole texture,
negatively contributing to a mashed appearance. Chaves et al. (2013) studied avocado pulp
Margarida variety dehydrated and defatted by cold pressing and avocado oil to partially replace
wheat flour and butter, respectively, in whole grain crackers. The authors reported that the flour
from avocado pulp, in general, showed characteristics similar to those of conventional flour and
whole wheat flour. The biscuits had higher minerals and fiber levels, with good sensory
acceptance. Meat derivatives can also be supplemented with avocado pulp, since most of these
processed foods contain relatively high levels of saturated fats in the formulation whose
consumption is restricted by health issues. Thus, an alternative to reduce and enhance fatty acids
balance is the incorporation of fats or vegetable oils in emulsified meat products. The
replacement of animal fats by vegetable oils in meat products has been studied with positive
effects on the chemical, physical and sensory characteristics of the products, but with negative
effects on water activity and texture (Lugo, 2006).

2.1.4. Avocado fruit tree Production

2.1.3.1. World avocado fruit tree production

World production of avocados has increased more than fourfold over the past four decades,
according to FAO. World production in 2010 production was about 3,581,711 metric tons (mt) it
increased to 4,188,912mt in 2012. Although the origin of this crop is Central America, avocado
is nowadays widely cultivated throughout the world (Alcaraz and Hormaza, 2007; Alcaraz et al.,
2011). The world’s leading producers are Mexico (31.1%), Dominican Republic (8.2%),
Colombia (6.4%), Peru (6.1%), and Indonesia (5.9%). Considering these numbers, it is evident
that the American continent conquers the avocado production (70.3%), being also the continent
with the highest amount of harvested hectares (ha), followed by Africa (15.2%), Asia (10.9%),
Europe (1.9%), and Oceania (1.6%) (Statistics Division of the Food and Agriculture
Organization for the United Nations, 2013). The main countries producing avocado fruit within
each continent, where it has been illustrated the fact that Kenya, Mexico, Indonesia, Spain and
Australia are those with remarkably higher production. As this fruit has distinctive and pleasant
sensory attributes, and it is perceived by buyers as beneficial to health, its demand has underwent
an increase over the past few years, a fact that has consequently caused an increase of the area
harvested (Rodrı´guez-Fragoso et al., 2011). In 2013, the world production of avocado was of
about 4.7 million tonnes, increasing 5% over the previous year (Statistics Division of the Food
and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations, 2013). An important agricultural parameter
is the crop yield, which refers to the measure of the production of a specific crop per unit area of
land cultivation. The higher the crop yields, the better the land quality or the higher the
cultivation efficiency. The crop yield for avocado fruit is, globally, of about 9.5 t/ha. The
principal avocado producers present higher values; around 9.5_13.8 t/ha for Mexico, Colombia,
Peru and Indonesia, and 30.0 t/ha for Dominican Republic.
Table 2.1. Avocado production of the top 12 producing countries in 2000 and 2008
(FAOSTATS, 2010a)

2.1.3.2. Avocado fruit tree production in Ethiopia

Fruits have significant importance with a potential for domestic and export markets and
industrial processing in Ethiopia. The main fruits produced and exported are banana, citrus fruits,
mango, avocado, papaya and grape fruits (Zeberga, 2010). Owing to its shortest introduction to
Ethiopia, these days the crop is produced in several countries where Ethiopia stands the 10th
leading producer and 6th most important consumer in the world (FAOSTAT, 2010).
Avocado was first introduced to Ethiopia in 1938 by private orchardists in Hirna and Wondo-
genet and production gradually spread into the countryside where the crop was adapted to
different agro-ecologies (Edossa, 1997). Annual avocado production in Ethiopia is 25633.16
tons. The crop is now produced by 1,149,074.00 farmers countrywide who collectively farm
more than 8938.24 ha of land (CSA, 2012/13). According to Garedew (2010) even though
avocado has economically and socially play a significant role its production is confronted by a
number of constraints;- this are degeneration of fruits, disease problem and absence of
agronomic practices.
According to FAO, (2010) description of some varieties introduced in Ethiopia and presently
available includes: Hass: high yielding, resistant to main pests and diseases. not presenting a
marked biennial fruiting behavior. Fruit size variable; oil % in the fruit: medium, month to ripen:
9, seed size: small; cold tolerance: medium. Pinkerton: high yielding; fruit size; medium; oil %
in the fruit: high; month to ripen: 6-8; seed size: big; cold tolerance: medium. Fuerte: a Mexican
Guatemalan cross; medium yielding, fruit size , small to medium; oil % is high; month to ripen
5-6; seed size : tolerant to frost. Bacon: high yielding; medium size fruit; oil % high; tolerant to
cold -5oC. Ettinger: a Mexican Guatemalan cross, resistant to cold Nabal: Guatemalan type, big
size fruit; suitable for warm climate. In general, fruit production is still backward, the business is
underdeveloped and the private sector is not much attracted. In connection with this lack of
access to improved varieties, production is exclusively based on distribution of mixed materials;
consequently the local seed system has come out as best-bet arena and is now a common route
for seedling dissemination (Ayelech, 2011 ). CSA (2013) indicated Avocado as one of the
second potential fruit crop produced in Ethiopia.

2.2. Avocado fruit tree and canopy management

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality
fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning,
affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of
leaf area to incoming radiation. An ideal training strategy centers around the arrangement of
plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of
sunlight and promotes productivity. The basic problem with overcrowded orchards is insufficient
light (Stadler and Stassen, 1985). There are several systems to manage tree size and improve
light interception and penetration, including selective limb removal (individual limbs are
removed to maintain tree size and inter-row access); mechanical pruning (trees are pruned to
form a hedgerow); stag-horning (trees are pruned back to a stump and allowed to re-grow); tree
thinning (alternate rows or trees within a row are removed as orchards begin to crowd) and tree
removal (whole blocks removed after 10-15 years and replaced with new trees). With avocado
there remains opportunity and challenges to reduce the time between planting and full canopy
development as well as maintain a productive orchard once an effective full canopy has been
attained. Orchard planting densities varying from about 90 to 1600 trees ha−1, with trial
plantings in Chile of up to 2500 trees ha−1, emphasize uncertainty in orchard design, aggravated
by big differences in climate and soil. Recent studies of the light regime in an avocado canopy
(Hadari, 2004; Heath et al., 2005) emphasize the importance of canopy light exposure
optimization over the life of the orchard.

2.3 Avocado fruit tree light interception and light use efficiency

2.3.1 Light interception and photosynthesis of avocado fruit tree canopy

Avocado canopies consist of relatively long lived leaves that are exposed to varying light
conditions throughout their lifespan. Because of the flushing nature of avocado shoots, most
leaves will develop in full sun then exist in deep shade after re-growth has occurred, while other
leaves develop in and remain in shaded portions of the canopy. Leaves that develop in shade
have lower chlorophyll a/b ratios and lower carotenoid concentrations (Förster et al., 2009).
Shade leaves of avocado have lower photosynthetic rates not due to differences in stomatal
density (Mickelbart et al., 2000), but due to reduced stomatal conductance at lower light levels
(Sterne et al., 1977).The connection between increased light interception and yield has been
studied intensively, especially in apple orchards. Dry matter productions as well as various
parameters dealing with quality and quantity of fruits were reported to have an empirical
relationship with the amount of light falling on the orchard (Barritt et al., 1991; Wunsche et al.,
1996). However, the agreement was better for the primary biomass production than for the fruit
yield, due to the additional parameters affecting the yield (Palmer, 1999). Full canopies of
orchard crops intercept only 65% to 70% of the available radiant energy, thereby creating an
upper limit to the production potential (Jackson, 1980). It appears that maximum photosynthetic
rate occurs when leaves are exposed to at least 0.3 of the full sunlight intensity (Heinecke, 1966).
The fraction of the total sunlight intensity mentioned above is evidently not always adequate for
the normal development of vegetative and reproductive buds. Palmer (1977) found that flower-
bud differentiation in apple trees is more sensitive to shading than vegetative growth. Heinecke
(1966) reported insufficient coloring of apples when the light intensity was below 0.4 and when
it was lower than 0.5 fruit size was adversely affected. Jackson (1978) confirms that high light
interception is a prerequisite for maximal yield, whereas shading causes a reduction in flower-
bud formation, fruit size, and fruit color. In Florida, rejuvenation of crowded Avocado orchards
as a result of topping and tree removal, proved to be successful. Although the orchard was less
dense (130 trees ha-1 instead of 276 trees ha-1) and the tree height was reduced to 4.8m, the
yield increased from 6.9 t ha-1 to 19.8 t ha-1 (Crane et al., 1992). The result from this
experiment emphasized the great importance of light interception, since it is the main reason for
the increase in yield. Reports from South African Avocado pruning trials (Stassen et al., 1999)
showed improvement in the yield from pruned hedgerows. The yield response to pyramid
shaping and lowering of the tree height was considerable. Both practices aimed at increasing the
light intercepted by the hedgerow. The pyramidal shape improved canopy-sun grazing angle and
the height lowering prevented inter-row shading. In a pruning trial aimed at testing the effect of
lowering the height of Avocado trees (Thorp and Stowell, 2001), 6 trees were pruned down to 4
and 6 meters and fruit yield was collected from various heights. Reducing tree height resulted in
a shift in the location of most of the Avocado fruits. The same amount of fruit previously found
in the 4-6 m height layer in the 6m high trees was found in the 2-4 m height layer in trees pruned
to 4 m height. In a research done in New Zealand the harvest quality of fruit exposed to sun was
compared with that of completely shaded fruit. Significant differences were found between the
two fruit types and between the different sides of fruits exposed to sun. Namely, fruits exposed to
sun had higher dry matter and higher levels of potassium, calcium, magnesium and oil (Woolf et
al., 1999).

2.3.2. The Avocado fruit trees response to light

Due to its rain forest origin, characterized by competition for light, the Avocado (Persea
americana Mill.) tree have a natural vegetative bias towards greater allocation of
photoassimilates to shoot growth than to reproductive organs (Schaffer and whiley, 2002). This
vegetative bias result in rapid production of short-lived leaves and increased shading of the
canopy, thus reducing the number of well-lit terminal shoots capable of flowering (Schaffer and
Whiley, 2003). The growth of Avocado reproductive organs consumes large amounts of energy,
which is then being stored. Indeed, CV. Fuerte fruits with 17% oil content and a flesh-to-seed
ratio of 4:1 (fresh mass) store Energy equivalent value of 8 GJ ton-1 compared to 2.9 GJ ton-1
for Valencia oranges and 2.6 GJ ton-1 for apples. The leaves can also store large amounts of
carbohydrates and minerals, with episodic growth flushes resulting in leaves of varying age and
photosynthetic efficiency (Wolstenholme, 1987). It is generally agreed that the low yielding
potential of Avocado orchards is due to two main factors: the high oil content of the fruit (oil is
2-3 times more energy-expensive than carbohydrate) and the large seed with its concentrated
food reserves (Wolstenholme, 1987).

2.4 . Avocado tree flower, pollination mode and pollinizers

2.4.1. Avocado tree flower and Flowering

2.4.1.1. Avocado tree flower

The avocado flower is circular, about 1 cm in diameter. It is bisexual, having both female and
male reproductive organs. The flower consists of one pistil and six trimerous alternate whorls:
two whorls of greenish-yellow tepals, three of stamens and one of short arrow-shaped
staminodes . Each of the nine stamens bears an anther with four pollen sacs. The valves of the
pollen sacs turn up while opening, and draw out a pack of pollen grains attached to them. The
avocado pollen grain is spherical and is covered with numerous conical spinules. A pair of oval,
yellow- orange nectaries is located at the base of each of the three inner-stamen filaments. The
three yellow-orange staminodes also function as nectaries. The pistil is located centrally, and
consists of a greenish, ball-shaped, superior ovary, a hairy, slender, cylindrical style and a cone-
shaped stigma, 0.3 to 0.6 mm in diameter. The stigmatic surface is composed of elongated
papilla cells. Usually, it is somewhat depressed in its center. All cultivars have a similar flower
structure, though they may differ slightly with respect to flower size and some other features
(Nirody, 1922; Stout, 1933; Bergh, 1969; McGregor, 1976; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and
Eisikowitch, 1991b). The flowers are carried on terminal panicles. A typical panicle carries a few
hundred to more than a thousand flowers. New flowers open daily during the long flowering
period. Each flower opens twice (dianthesis), usually on two successive days, in a dichogamous-
protogynous rhythm . During the first female (pistillate) opening, the stigma is exposed and
white. The stamens with the closed valves are parallel and close to the tepals and nectar is
secreted by the three staminodes. At the beginning of the second male (staminate) opening the
tepals are 10% to 20% longer. The three inner stamens move towards the style, and their
filaments lengthen until their anthers more or less cover the stigma. The six outer stamens also
lengthen, move up and hold a position of about 45° to the pistil. Anther dehiscence takes place
about 1 to 2 h later, first by the two lower valves of each anther, and about 1 h later by the two
upper valves. Nectar is secreted by the six nectaries, while the three staminodes move closer to
the ovary and turn brown. The stigma gradually shrinks, and also turning brown (Nirody, 1922;
Stout, 1933; Bergh, 1969; McGregor, 1976; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b).
During anthesis, flower shape changes gradually in a regular sequence, which was divided by
Ish-Am and Eisikowitch (1991b) into ten distinct morphological stages. These flower stages are
similar in all cultivars, and are somewhat influenced by the weather. On hot and dry days, the
male flower stigma and staminodes dry upon anthesis, and the tepals bend towards the pedicel.
In cool weather, however, both stigma and staminodes of the male-stage flower stay fresh during
the first dehiscence stages and the tepals spread upright to the style, or even remain only partially
open. Under cool conditions, some cultivars open their female flower only partially or not at all
(Nirody, 1922; Stout, 1933; Bergh, 1969; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b).

2.4.1.2 Avocado tree flowering

All avocados display unique flowering behaviour, which may be termed ‘diurnally synchronous
dichogamous protogyny, with intermediate closing’. The flower opens twice, first as a female
and then as a male. Each flower-stage opening and closing occurs nearly synchronously within
the tree (and the cultivar). Based on flowering rhythm, all avocado cultivars are divided into two
complementary flowering groups: In warm weather, ‘Group A’ cultivars open female-stage
flowers from the morning till noon, and male-stage flowers during the afternoon. ‘Group B’
cultivars, on the other hand, open female-stage flowers in the afternoon and male-stage flowers
during the morning hours. This flowering rhythm may be termed ‘temporal dioecy’ (Clark, 1923;
Stout, 1923, 1933; Robinson and Savage, 1926; Bergh, 1969; McGregor, 1976; Papademetriou,
1976b; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b). Many avocado cultivars also present
a daily phase of overlap within the tree, of coinciding dehisced male-stage and open female-stage
flowers, which usually takes place for a period of 1 to 3 h. In some cultivars this overlap period
is almost constant, regardless of temperature, but in others it gets shorter during warmer weather
and may disappear on hot days. In cool weather, there is a significant delay in the whole daily
flowering sequence, which may result in complete reversal of the times of day when female-and
male-stage flowers are open (Clark, 1923; Stout, 1923, 1933; Robinson and Savage, 1926;
Lesley and Bringhurst, 1951; Gustafson and Bergh, 1966; Bergh, 1969; McGregor, 1976;
Papademetriou, 1976b; Sedgley, 1977; Sedgley and Annells, 1981; Sedgley and Grant, 1983;
Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b). Although the beginning (and the end) of
each flower-stage manifestation is synchronized within the tree and among trees of a cultivar, the
individual flowers do not open and close simultaneously. Rather, they proceed through each
stage individually; over a period of 2 to 3 h. Flowers that open earlier also proceed earlier to the
following stages. Therefore, during most of the flowering day, several consecutive flower stages
occur concurrently within the panicle (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b).

2.4.2. Avocado tree pollination Modes

2.4.2.1. Cross-pollination
Cross-pollination occurs between group B male-stage and group A female-stage flowers in
the morning (in warm weather), and vice versa in the afternoon. It may also occur among
different cultivars of the same flowering group, when there is a period of overlap between female
and dehiscing male openings (Stout, 1923, 1933; Robinson and Savage, 1926; Bergh, 1969;
Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991a,b). Cross-pollination effectiveness depends on
the distance between the ‘pollenizer’ (pollen donor) and the pollinated trees, on the effective
overlap period between female and male openings, and on pollinator mobility, density and
effectiveness. In many cases, cross-pollination of a group A cultivar by a group B one is more
efficient than the other way around, due to the greater overlap period between group A female
and group B male flowering relative to that between the opposite blooms (Stout, 1933; Ish-Am,
1994; Papademetriou, 1976b; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b).

2.4.2.2. Close-pollination
Close-pollination occurs during the phase of female- and dehisced male-stage flower overlap
within the tree (Stout, 1923, 1933; Robinson and Savage, 1926; Lesley and Bringhurst, 1951;
Bergh, 1969; Snir, 1971; Papademetriou, 1976b; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch,
1991a,b). Since close-pollination takes place when male- and female-stage flowers are in close
proximity, its efficiency may be very high. It depends on both length and effectiveness of the
overlap period within the tree, and on pollinator density and effectiveness. Most Mexican- and
Guatemalan-type cultivars, and their hybrids, present a daily effective period of overlap within
the tree. Generally, close-pollination is more efficient in group A cultivars, since their open
female flowers overlap with young pollen-releasing male flowers, and less so in group B types,
where newly opened female flowers overlap with old male flowers, which have finished pollen
release and are closing (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991b; Ish-Am, 1994).

2.4.2.3. Self-pollination
Self-pollination occurs when pollen released at the male stage, reaches the stigma within the
same flower. This process does not necessarily demand pollinator involvement, and may be
facilitated by wind or gravity. Self-pollination of the male flower is a common phenomenon, but
in most cases does not lead to fertilization (Stout, 1923, 1933; Robinson and Savage, 1926;
Bergh, 1969; Snir, 1971; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991a,b). However,
Davenport (Davenport, 1985, 1989; Davenport et al., 1994) concluded that in south Florida,
spontaneous self-pollination is the predominant means for fruit set.

2.4.3. Avocado tree pollinizer

Various pollinating agents visit the avocado flowers for nectar and pollen. These include the
honey bee, various species of wild bees, wasps, flies, and hummingbirds (Chapman 1964). The
consensus of various research workers who have studied the flowering and fruiting of the
avocado is that only honey bees are sufficiently abundant on the blossoms at all times to set
satisfactory crops of fruit (Clark 1923,1924; Clark and Clark 1926; Boyden 1930; Traub et al.
1941; Lemmerts 1942; Lesley and Bringhurst 1951; Winslow and Enderud 1955; Lecomte 1961;
Popenoe 1963). Many observers have noted that a bee tends to visit a single tree and thus fails to
afford the cross-pollination desired. This can occur when the trees are separated by some
distance, for example, when they are small or spaced too far apart (Bergh 1966). It also occurs
when there is an insufficiency of bees in relation to the number of blooms available. When the
flowers per bee ratio is low, the bees are required to visit many flowers to obtain a load of food
and their efficiency as cross-pollinating agents is increased. Ruehle (1958) stated that good crops
are set consistently in groves a considerable distance from any bee hives hut that the presence of
trees would increase production. Wolfe et al., (1942, 1946) stated that it is quite possible that a
hive of bees per acre with sets of five in the middle of each 5-acre tract would materially increase
production. Popenoe (1963) stated that honey bees are probably necessary for good pollination
unless there is an abundance of wild bees in the area. In an excellent survey of the reasons for
low yield of avocados in California, Bergh (1967) unequivocally stated: "Practically every
avocado fruit set means that a honey bee transferred pollen to that flower from some other
flower. Gravity or wind may act, but they are so rare they can be ignored by the practical
avocado grower." Further on, he stated, "At the present time the California avocado industry is
dependent upon the honey bee. The greater the bee population, the more likely the bees are to
travel from flower to flower and so make the best of such inter-flower overlap in male and
female stages as may be present. This is probably the chief source of avocado set in California."

2.5. Avocado fruit orchard and Honey bee population

The honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) is apparently the major pollinator of avocado in all countries.
Honeybees visiting avocado flowers usually walk among neighbouring flowers, and fly between
inflorescences. While visiting the relatively small flower the bee often slips, and grasps other
parts of the inflorescence (Davenport, 1986; Vithanage, 1990; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1991a,
1993). Honeybees usually collect avocado nectar, or nectar with pollen, and rarely only pollen.
The nectar-collecting bees, as well as the nectar-with-pollen collectors, visit both female- and
male-stage flowers, and as such may serve as effective pollinators. In contrast, the pollen-only-
collecting bees visit almost exclusively male flowers, and do not contribute to pollination (Stout,
1933; McGregor, 1976; Davenport, 1986; Free, 1993; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993). While
visiting a dehisced male flower, the bee’s body becomes dusted with pollen, which the bee
cleans off after every two to four visits, whilst hovering or hanging on a leaf. The nectar-and-
pollen collectors pack the pollen into their curbiculae, forming pellets, whereas the nectar-only
collectors ‘deliberately’ unload the pollen and throw it down (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993).
The pollen-only collectors’ visits are very short: in about 1 s they touch the anthers while
hovering, or while landing for an instant. These bees may also perform one to two refueling
nectar collections per ten pollen collections, during which they may visit female flowers, if
present in the vicinity (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993). The positions of bees visiting female-
and male-stage flowers of equivalent form are very similar. Only limited and defined zones of
the bee’s body, the ‘pollinating zones’ contact the flower’s reproductive organs. While visiting
the male flower, the bee touches the exposed pollen on the open valves with its vertex,
proboscidal fossa, legs and some ventral regions collecting large amounts of pollen there. The
same ‘pollinating zones’ also touch the stigma of the female flower due to the similarity of the
female- and male-stage flowers, and to the similar location of the stigma and inner stamens’
anthers (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993).
Most honeybees that visit avocado during the period of overlap between female and male
openings within a tree, move between the male and female flowers, collect nectar and pollen, or
nectar only, and efficiently carry out close-pollination. (Clark, 1923; Gustafson and Bergh, 1966;
Gazit, 1976; Davenport, 1986; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993). For cross-pollination
implementation, honeybees need to move between pollen-releasing male- flower trees and
female-flower trees of a different cultivar. In mature avocado orchards, an average 40% of the
bees were found to move between adjacent trees in 10 min (Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1998b).
However, this constitutes short-range movement, since during foraging most honeybees visit
only one to three adjacent trees (Clark, 1923; Stout, 1923, 1933; Free and Spencer-Booth, 1964;
Bergh et al., 1966; Gustafson and Bergh, 1966; Bergh, 1967; McGregor, 1976; Davenport, 1986;
Visscher and Sherman, 1998; Vithanage, 1990; Free, 1993; Hofshi, 1995, 2000). Indeed, scout
bees move, while foraging, farther throughout the orchard; but, under avocado orchard
conditions they were found to comprise only 2 to 4% of the field bees (Stout, 1933; Ish-Am and
Eisikowitch, 1998b). Therefore, honeybees serve as efficient cross-pollinators only in the case of
neighbouring trees with complementary flower types, and their efficiency decreases sharply with
increasing distance between the pollen source and the female bloom (Ish-Am, 1994; Ish-Am and
Eisikowitch, 1998b). The attractiveness of the avocado bloom to honeybees under Mediterranean
climatic conditions appears to be low compared to numerous species that are in bloom at the
same time, such as citrus, litchi and wildflower species. Therefore, honeybee foragers from hives
placed in the avocado orchard often abandon the avocado and collect pollen and nectar from
competing blooms. In Israel, this phenomenon presents a major yield-limiting factor for the
early- and medium-blooming cultivars, which flower in March-April, during the blooming
season of citrus and many wildflower species (Clark, 1923; Stout, 1923, 1933; Gustafson and
Bergh, 1966; Bergh, 1967; Gazit, 1976; McGregor, 1976; Papademetriou, 1976b; Tzfati, 1981;
Eisikowitch and Melamud, 1982; Davenport, 1986; Shoval, 1987; Visscher and Sherman, 1998;
Vithanage, 1990; Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1998a; Hofshi, 2000). This low attractiveness to
honeybees has been attributed to the avocado flower and flowering properties, which are not
well-suited to this pollinator (Faegri and Pijl, 1979; Kevan and Baker, 1983; Vithanage, 1990;
Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993; Visscher and Sherman, 1998; Ish-Am et al., 1999). The avocado
flower is greenish-yellow, has a slightly bitter smell and its nectar is fully exposed. It has radial
symmetry, lacks a landing platform and nectar trails, and is somewhat small for the honeybee,
while the inflorescence is too sparse to be visited as a unit (Davenport, 1986; Vithanage, 1990;
Ish-Am and Eisikowitch, 1993). Moreover, neither avocado pollen nor its nectar suits fully the
honeybee’s needs (Ish-Am, 1994)

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

The study will be conducted at Sidama Regional State Teferi kela District which is located in
the southern Ethiopia about 63 km (39 miles) from Hawassa, the capital city of Sidama Regional
State and 284 km (176 miles) from the capital Addis Ababa. According to the classification used
in Ethiopia, the climatic condition of the district is characterized as Woina Dega (Mid-altitude)
Zone. The area receives a bimodal rainfall where the high rains are between March to April and
the small rains are from September to October. The major cultivated flowering fruit crop in the
district includes perennial crops including Coffee, Avocado and Mango (Agricultural and
Natural Resource Management Office, 2020). It is found at latitude of 6.50029820 and longitude
38.4000. It has an Altitude (meters), Lat (DMS), 6° 30' 0N, and Long (DMS), 38° 23' 60E. Its
geographical coordinates are 6° 30' 0" North, 38° 24' 0" East and its original name (with
diacritics) is Teferī Kēla. The soil of the experimental site is mainly clay loam. Mean annual
rainfall of the area 1600- 1800 mm, with minimum and maximum temperature of 18.5℃- 32℃ .
When the district was in the Dara Woreda and based on the 2007 census conducted by the CSA,
this woreda has a total population of 155,265, of whom 76,475 are men and 78,790 women,
10,660 or 6.87% of its population are urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants were
Protestants, with 85.54% of the population reporting that belief, 7.04% practiced Ethiopian
Orthodox Christianity, 2.55% were Muslim, 2.36% observed traditional religions, and
1.43%were Catholic.

3.2. Experimental Design and Treatments

The experiment will be carried out in factorial randomize complete block design (RCBD) with
three replication. The avocado fruit trees will be selected depending on the following criteria’s
such as: the same age group and race/variety, on average similar plant height , similar branch
number ,canopy diameter , canopy depth (from the tip of the canopy) , plant height , stage of
growth and light intensity level under canopy at study area. The factor A treatments consist of 1)
non canopy open 2) canopy opening and also will be evaluates the variation of three race/varieties
of avocado tree on light interception, namely,,,,,,,,,,,,
Measurements of light reaching the inside of the avocado canopy will be stated as percentages
relative to the amount of light above the canopy and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
data will be collected. The factor B treatments consist of 1) control without hives 2) two
hives/ha, 3) four hives/ha and 4) six hives/ha. The honey bee hives (A.m. scutellata) top-bar type
will be used and located in the center of orchard and within each orchard three sites will be
selected, covering a range of distance to the hives: 50, 100 and 150 m. At each site four trees will
samples, with a total of 12 trees in orchard. These sites will be selected to quantify the effect of the
distances from the hives to the selected avocado trees.

3.3. Data collection

Data will be collected using the standard procedures and following phenology, physiological,
light quality, fruit quality and yield and yield component parameters

3.3.1. Phenology parameters

3.5.1.2. Days to Flowering(count): It will be recorded by counting the number of
days taken from to when 50% of the plants per plot had the first open flower.

3.5.1.2. Day to Fruiting (count): It will be determined as the number of days from
date of to the date when ,,,,,

3.5.1.3. Days to Fruit maturity (count): It will be determined as the number of days
from date of to the date when 90% of the plants in each plot attained fruit maturity
when the pods had lost their green pigmentation.

3.5.3. Physiological data

3.5.3.1. Leaf gas exchange parameters

Photosynthetic gas-exchange rates will be measured using a Li-6400 portable

photosynthesis system (LICOR Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA). Measurement will be done between

10:00 AM and 12:00 PM by maintaining the following specifications: Leaf surface area was

6.25 cm2, ambient carbon dioxide concentration 386 µmol mol-1, leaf chamber mass flow
rate was 251 µmol s-1, atmospheric pressure 840 bar and photosynthetic active radiation

(PAR) at was manually fixed to 800 µmol m-2 s-1. Water use efficiency was determined

as the ratio between net CO2 assimilation rate (A) and transpiration rate (E) (Bertolde et

al.2012).

3.5.3.2. Determination of leaf chlorophyll fluorescence: Measurement will be done in

the morning between 4:00am to 6:00am with a Handy-PEA fluorimeter (Hansatech, Kings
Lynn, UK) following the methodology of (Strasser et al., 2004). Before measurement, leaves
will dark-adapted leaves will exposed to saturating actinic light (660 nm) at 1100 μmol m-2
s-1 intensity. In the fast kinetic region of fluorescence initial (Fo), maximal (Fm) and
terminal fluorescence (Ftr) will measured. The maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem
II (Fv/Fm = Fm-Fo/Fm and Fv/Fo) will be calculated. Leaves exposed to the sun received a
light intensity of > 2200 μmol m-2 s-1 shade exposed leaves received < 148 μmol m-2 s-1.

3.5.3.3. Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll a and b (chl a and chl b) will determined
from leaf tissue by the method of Edelenbos et al. (2001). A Dionex DX 500 HPLC system
equipped with an AD-20 UV-Vis detector operating at 440 nm and an AS-40 auto sampler
will be used for analysis. Separations were performed on an Agilent Zorbax ODS column (5
μm; 250 x 4.6 mm i.d.) protected with an Agilent Zorbax ODS guard cartridge (5 μm; 12.5 x
4.6 mm i.d.). The column temperature was maintained at 30 °C and the mobile phases
consisted of solvent A (Methanol), solvent B (H2O), and solvent C (Ethyl Acetate).
Separations will be performed by the following solvent gradient: 0 min (64% A, 16% B, and
20% C), 2.5 min (62% A, 16.5% B, and 22.5% C), 20-22.5 min (40% A, 10% B, and 50%
C), 24-26 min (16% A, 4% B, and 80% C), 31-34 min (100% C), 42-47 min (64% A, 16% B,
and 20% C). All increases of solvent were linear programmed. The flow rate was 1 mL per
min and the injection volume 25 μL. Chlorophyll standards were purchased from Sigma
Aldrich (Chlorophyll A C5753-1MG, Chlorophyll B C5878-1MG). Retention times for Chl a
and Chl b were 26.5 and 20.5 minutes, respectively.

The following equations will be used for the quantification of Chlorophyll-a,

Chlorophyll-b.
 Ch a (µg/ml) =12.25 A663– 2.79 A646 and Ch b (µg/ml) =21.50 A646– 5.10 A663

Total chl (µg/ml) =chl a+chl b

Where; A = Absorbance, Ch a = Chlorophyll a, Chb = Chlorophyll b

3.5.3.3. Stomatal conductance: Stomatal conductance (gs) will be evaluated with a

steady state porometer (Li-Cor 1600, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA) as described by (Prive and
Janes, 2003 and Raviv et al ., 2001). It will be measured on the same leaf on which the
electrode will placed, before and after the voltage will be recorded for each treatment.

3.5.4. Light Quality and Intensity Data

3.5.4.1. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): The PAR will measure once
during the day under diffuse light conditions using an AccuPAR ceptometer (Decagon
Devices Inc.).
3.5.4.2. Red light,

3.5.4.3. Far- red

3.5.4.4. Red to fared ratio

Between 8:00 and 10:00 A.M. leaf

sections were dark adapted for 30 min.
Chlorophyll fluorescence readings
were taken with an OS-30p portable
chlorophyll fluorometer (Opti-
Sciences Hudson, NH, USA). Dark-
adapted
leaves were exposed to saturating
actinic light (660 nm) at 1100 μmol m
-2
s
-1
intensity. In the fast kinetic region
of fluorescence initial (Fo), maximal
(Fm) and terminal fluorescence (Ftr)
were measured. The maximum
quantum efficiency of photosystem II
(Fv/Fm = Fm-Fo/Fm and Fv/Fo) was
calculated. Leaves exposed to the
sun received a light intensity of >
2200 μmol m
-2
s
-1
shade exposed leaves received < 148
μmol m
-2
 s
-1
.
3.3.5. Yield and yield component parameters
3.3.5.1. Number of buds: Data will be recorded through counting all the number of
floral shoot per tree

3.3.5.2. Number of buds converted to flowers: will record by subtracting number of

flower from total number of bud per tree

3.3.5.3. Number of flower: will record after the 50% of flowering and all the number of
flower per inflorescence will be counted

3.3.5.4. Percentage of fruit set initial (PFSI): In order to determine the PFSi, the number
of flowers (flowering) and the number of fruits (four weeks after the end of flowering) will record on
five inflorescences per randomly selected tree.                        

3.3.5.5. Percentage of fruit set final (PFSF): In order to determine the PFSf, the number

of flowers (flowering) and the number of final formed fruits will be record on five inflorescences

per randomly selected tree.

3.3.5.6. Total number of fruits per tree (NFTT): The NFTT will record after the end of

flowering and all the fruits of each tree will be counted.

3.3.5.7. Density of bees per tree (BPT): The BPT will record during the flowering
period and quantify by a person walking around a tree and counting with a manual counter
the presence of the bees per minute.
3.3.5.8. Pollination rate (PR) A sample of stigmas per tree will be collected in the
female flowering stage. The pollination rate (percentage of stigmas pollinated \ total stigmas
collected).
 3.3.5.9. Pollination efficiency( PE) A sample of stigmas per tree will be collected in the
female flowering stage. Pollination efficiency (average number of pollen grains in the stigma,
only for pollinated stigmas) will quantify for each treatment.

3.3.6. Fruit Quality parameters

3.3.6.1. Fruit Maturity: Data will be recorded when fruit stalk is larger, swollen and
distinctly yellow, rather than green.

3.3.6.2.skin color : Skin colour can be measured either objectively, commonly using a
chroma meter or colorimeter or alternatively using subjective means by experienced sensory
panellists using eye colour rating.
3.3.6.3. Firmness : Firmness can be described as the resistance to penetration (Mizrach
and Flitsanov, 1999) determined by employing invasive, such as hand tactile methods,
destructive methods such as the Magness-Taylor puncture test (M-T), or non destructive
methods such as impulse response and ultrasonic methods. ,
3.3.6.4. Texture : Avocados undergo drastic changes in texture (Landahl et al., 2009; Li
et al., 2010). Chen et al. (2009) stated that the oil content is a key component in the texture of
avocados and which Hofman et al. (2002b) identified as contributing to the ‘smoothness’.
3.3.6.5. Moisture Content: The moisture content of raw avocado fruit pulp sample and
coated avocado fruit were estimated according to AOAC (2000) using the official method
925.09, by weighing of the samples in the dry and pre-weighed crucibles.
3.3.6.6. Free Fatty Acid: The free fatty acid of the avocado oil will be measured as one
of the physicochemical properties, and the method of measurement was used for sample
titration (Aurand, 2013). For the measurement, diethyl ether was used, and the indicator was
phenolphthalein. Neutralization was done by NaOH, and the total volume of the NaOH was
measured for the percentage of free fatty acid (oleic acid) content as follows

where V = volume of 0.1 N NaOH used for the sample, N = normality of NaOH used for
titration, and m = mass of the sample in grams
 3.4 Statistical Analysis
The collected data will be subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the Statistical
Analysis System (SAS) Software version (9.0). Mean separation between treatments will done
using Least Significance Difference (LSD) at 5% and 1% probability base on the ANOVA
results a indicated by Gomez and Gomez (1984).

4. WORK PLAN
All the field activities and data collection will be accomplished starting from October 2021
G.C 1st week up to end of January 2022 G.C. Data entry and write will be completed on April
2022 G.C. The detailed activity schedule is listed below (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Work plan schedule

s/no Activities to be 2021 G.C 2022 G.C

done A S O D N Jan Fe M A M Ju J
 ug ept ct ec ov b arch pril ay ne uly
1 Problem
identification

2 Proposal 

preparation

3 Proposal 

defence

4 Site selection 

5 Lay -out 

6 Data  

collection

7 Data analysis 

8 Thesis write 

up and edition

9 Thesis first 

draft submission

1 Final thesis 

0 defence

5. BUDGET BREAKDOWN
Table 5.1: Stationery

S No Item Unit Amount Cost

Unit price Total price birr
birr
1 Paper A4 size Rim 4 200 8,00
2 Pen No 20 10 2,00
3 Pencil No 20 1 20
4 Eraser No 4 8 32
5 Computer writing No 200 7 1,400
6 Photocopy No 200 2 400
Sub Total 3,052.00

Table 5.2: Transport Cost

S No Item Unit Amount Cost

Unit price Total price birr
birr
1 Fuel Lit 1000 25 25000
2 Motor oil and lubricants Lit 10 120 1200
Sub total No 26,200

Table 5.3: Farm and laboratory inputs

S No Item Unit Amount Cost

Unit price Total price

1 Kenya Top Bar Bee No 20 2000 40,000

Hive
2 Shade net No 70 1000 70000
3 Land Compensation Hec 3 3500 10,500
4 Light measurement Various
Sub total

Table 5.4: Labor cost

S No Items Units Cost

Days laborer PPD birr Total
 1 Site preparation MPD 5 60 100 30,000
2 Bee transferring MPD 5 20 100 10,000

3 Shed construction Various 10,000

Beekeepers protective 2000
clothes
Sub total

Table 5.5: Personnel cost

S No Items No of days Rate Total

1 Researcher
2 Advisors
3 Driver
Sub Total

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