Topic 3A. Trigonometry

International Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Applications and Interpretation SL (and HL)
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 3
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
3A. Trigonometry
3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………… 1
3.2 TRIANGLES – BASIC NOTIONS ……………………………………………………………. 5
3.3 THE SINE RULE AND THE COSINE RULE ………………………...………………… 9
3.4 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 16
3.5 ARCS AND SECTORS …………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Only for HL
3.6 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ANGLE IN RADIANS .…………………….. 27
3.7 SINΘ AND COSΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE………………………………………………. 33
3.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 38
March 2021
TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
 3D COORDINATE GEOMETRY
We know that a point in the Cartesian plane has the form P(x,y).
In 3D space we add one more coordinate, thus a point has the
form P(x,y,z).
The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

by
dAB  (x 1  x 2 ) 2  (y1  y2 ) 2  (z 1  z 2 ) 2
while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by
x1  x 2 y1  y2 z1  z 2
M( , , )
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find
(a) the distance between A and B

(b) the distance between O and B
(c) the coordinates of the midpoint M of the line segment [AB]
(d) the coordinates of point C given that B is the midpoint of [AC]
Solution
(a) dAB  (1  2) 2  (0  3) 2  (5  1) 2  1  9  16  26
(b) d OB  2 2  3 2  1 2  14
1 2 0 3 5 1 3 3
(c) M( , , ) i.e. M( , ,3 )
2 2 2 2 2
(d) C(3,6,-3)
Notice: the coordinates of A,B,C (B midpoint) form arithmetic sequences
x: 1,2,3
y: 0,3,6
z: 5,1,-3
1
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS
The volumes and the surface areas of 5 known solids are given
below:
Solid Volume Surface area
Cuboid
V  xyz S  2xy  2yz  2zx
Pyramid
1 S  (sum of areas
V (area of base)  (height)
3 of the faces)
Cylinder
2
V  πr 2 h S  2π rh  2π r
Cone
S  πrL  πr2
1
V πr 2 h where
3
L  r 2  h2
Sphere
4
V πr 3 S  4π r 2
3
Notation
x, y, z : length-width-height
r: radius of circular base
h : vertical height
2
EXAMPLE 2
The volume and the surface area for the following solids
Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x
x
x x
Cube: V  xxx  x 3 S  6x 2
Cuboid of square base: V  x 2y S  2x 2  4xy
EXAMPLE 3
Given that the volume of a cylinder is 25,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the surface area in terms of r
Solution
25
(a) V  πr 2 h  πr 2 h  25  h 
π r2
25 50
(b) 2
S  2π rh  2π r  2π r 2
 2π r 2   2π r 2
πr r
EXAMPLE 4
Given that the surface area of a cylinder is 100π,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the volume in terms of r
Solution
50 - r 2
(a) S  2π rh  2π r 2  2π rh  2π r 2  100π  h 
r
50 - r 2
(b) V  πr 2 h  πr 2  πr(50 - r 2 )  50π r - 50r 3
r
3
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume and the surface area of a right pyramid of square
base of side 6 and vertical height 4.
Μ΄
Solution
The vertical height is h=4.
For the slant height AM we use the Pythagoras theorem on ANM.
AM 2  AN 2  NM 2  AM 2  4 2  3 2  AM  5
The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

1 1
A  ED  AM   6  5  15
2 2
1 1
The volume is V (area of base)  (height) =  6 2  4  48
3 3
The surface area is S  (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96
Notice about the angles between lines and planes:

ˆ
Angle between line AM and plane BCDE = angle AMN
Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle ADN

ˆ
ˆ
Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AMN
ˆ  = 2× MAN
Angle between the planes ACB and ADE = angle MAM ˆ
4
3.2 TRIANGLES – BASIC NOTIONS
For any right-angled triangle
a b
θ
B c A
we define the sine, the cosine and the tangent of angle θ by:
b opposite c adjacent
sinθ = = cosθ = =
a hypotenuse a hypotenuse
b opposite
tanθ = =
c adjacent
It also holds
Pythagoras’ theorem a 2  b 2  c2
EXAMPLE 1
C 4
sinB =
5
5 4 3
cosB =
5
θ 4
tanB =
B 3 A 3
We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem:
5 2 = 32  4 2 (both sides give 25)
5
Every angle has a fixed sine, cosine and tangent.

For example,
1
sin30o =
2
3
cos30o = (Confirm by GDC).
2
1 3
tan30o = 
3 3
If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

(i.e. θ<90), we can find the angle θ by using the inverse functions of
our GDC:
sin-1, cos-1 and tan-1
For example,
1 1
if we know that sinθ = then sin-1 = 30o
2 2
EXAMPLE 2
In the triangle of Example 1 we found

4 3 4
sinB = cosB = tanB =
5 5 3
Therefore,
4
B= sin-1 = 53.1°
5
3 4
Notice that cos-1 and tan-1 give the same result.
5 3
Then
C=90°–53.1° = 36.9°
For two angles A and B
A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o
A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o
6
 SIN, COS, TAN for basic angles: 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o
Although we can find these values by using a GDC, it is worth to

mention a practical way for their calculation:
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

0 1 2 3 4
sinθ
2 2 2 2 2
For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order
For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.
Hence,
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

1 2 3 Notice
sinθ 0 1
2 2 2 1 3

3 2 1 3 3
cosθ 1 0
2 2 2 1 2

2 2
1
tanθ 0 1 3 -
3
REMARKS:
 sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cotθ are also defined for obtuse angles (θ> 90ο).
At the moment, it is enough to know that
supplementary angles have
equal sines but opposite cosines:
1 1
e.g. sin30o = , sin 150o =
2 2
3 3
cos30o = cos 150o = -
2 2
 The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.
7
 THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

Consider the following (not right-angled) triangle.
c b
B a C
The area of the triangle is given by
1
Area = b  c  sinA
2
Notice that two sides and an included angle are involved in the
formula! We can derive two similar versions for this formula:
1 1
Area = absinC Area = acsinB
2 2
EXAMPLE 3
Look at again the triangle in example 1:
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
1
Area = 2  3  sin104.5 o  2.90
2
The other two versions give the same result:

1
Area = 2  4  sin46.6o  2.90
2
1
Area = 3  4  sin28.9o  2.90
2
(you may notice little deviations on the result due to rounding!)
8
3.3 THE SINE RULE AND THE COSINE RULE

For any triangle two rules always hold:
c b
B a C
sinA sinB sinC

SINE RULE = =
a b c
COSINE RULE a 2  b 2  c2  2b c cos A
Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:
b 2  c2  a 2  2 ca cos B c2  a 2  b 2  2 ab cos C
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following triangle
A
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:
sinA sinB sinC

= 0.242 = 0.242 = 0.242
a b c
We also confirm the three versions of the COSINE RULE:
42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)

32= 22+42-2(2)(4)cos 46.6 (LHS = 9 RHS = 9)
22= 42+32-2(4)(3)cos 28.9 (LHS = 4 RHS = 4)
9
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following right-angled triangle
A
90o
c b
B a C
Then
sin90 o sinB sinC 1 sinB sinC
= =  = =
a b c a b c
and so
b c
sinB = and sinC =
a a
as expected by the definition of sinθ
Also, a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc  cos90 o implies
a 2  b 2  c2
that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.
Moreover
b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca  cosB  b 2  c 2  (b 2  c 2 )  2ca  cosB
 - 2c 2  2ca  cosB
c
 cosB =
a
b
as expected by the definition of cosθ. Similarly we get cosC =
a
Consequently,
SINE RULE generalizes the definition of sinθ
COSINE RULE generalizes of the definition of cosθ

and Pythagoras’ theorem
10
 THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
Any triangle has 6 basic elements: 3 angles and 3 sides.
If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

we are able to find the remaining 3 elements by using the sine rule
or the cosine rule appropriately.
Roughly speaking
If we know we use
(three sides) OR (two sides and an included angle) COSINE RULE
otherwise SINE RULE
In other words
we use the SINE RULE when we know an angle-opposite side pair.
EXAMPLE 3 (given three sides)
2 3
B 4 C
We use COSINE RULE
42 = 22 + 32 - 12 cosA 32 = 22 + 42 - 16 cosB
 3 = -12cosA  -11 = -16cosB
 cosA = - 0.25  cosB = 0.6875
 A = 104.5o  B = 46.6o
Finally,
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o-46.6o,
Thus
C = 28.9o
11
Notice: We may sometimes have no solutions at all. For example, if

a=10, b=3, c=2 it is not possible to construct such a triangle!
Indeed, the cosine rule gives us cosA = -7.25 which is not possible!
EXAMPLE 4 (given two sides and an included angle)
104.5o
2 3
B C
We use COSINE RULE:
BC 2 = 22 + 32 - 12 cos 104.5o = 16
Thus BC = 4
Then we know all the three sides and hence B and C can be found
as above: B = 46.6o and C = 28.9o
EXAMPLE 5 (given one side and two angles)
104.5o
3
46.60
B C
In fact, we know the third angle as well:
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o- 46.6o, thus C = 28.9o
Now we can use the sine rule twice
sin 46.6 sin 104.5 0.968

=  0.242 =  BC = 4
3 BC BC
sin 46.6 sin 28.9 0.483
=  0.242 =  AB = 2
3 AB AB
12
EXAMPLE 6 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
2 3
46.60
B C
We use the sine rule
sin 46.6 sin C sin C

=  0.242 =  sinC = 0.484
3 2 2
Hence, C = 28.9o (by GDC)
Then
A = 180o - 46.6o - 28.9o, that is A = 104.5o
The side BC can be found either by sine or cosine rule! It is BC=4
Notice: In fact, we obtain two values for C.
C = 28.9o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 28.9o = 151.1o
(since supplementary angles have equal sines).
But C΄ = 151.1o is rejected since
B + C΄ = 46.6o + 151.1o > 180o
But this is not always the case!
 THE AMBIGUOUS CASE (only for HL)
If we are given two sides and a non-included angle (as above) we

may have as a solution
 Two triangles
 One triangle
 No triangle at all
13
This is because the sine rule provides two values for an unknown
angle. For example if we find sinC = 0.5 then
C = 30o (this is sin-1C)

or C΄ = 180o - 30o = 150o
and these two values may result to different solutions.
In example 6 we found only one solution. But in the following

example we will find two solutions.
EXAMPLE 7 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
5 4
300
B C
We use the sine rule:

sin 30 sin C sin C
=  0.125 =  sinC = 0.625
4 5 5
Hence,
C = 38.7o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 38.7o = 141.3o
CASE (1): If C = 38.7o then
A = 180o - 30o - 38.7o, thus A = 111.3o
and then
BC 2  5 2  4 2  2(5 )(4)cos111.3  BC = 7.45
CASE (2): If C΄ = 141.3o then
A΄ = 180o - 30o - 141.3o, thus A΄ = 8.7o

and then
BC2  5 2  4 2  2(5 )(4)cos8.7  BC΄ =1.21
14
We may, sometimes, obtain no solution at all.
EXAMPLE 8 (given 2 sides and a non-included angle)
5 1
300
B a C
We use the sine rule:
sin 30 sin C sin C

=  0.5 =  sinC = 2.5
1 5 5
which is impossible!
Hence, there is no such a triangle!
 JUSTIFICATION OF THE AMBIGUOUS CASE (only for HL)
In example 7, we were given B=30o, AB=5, AC=4 and we found

two solutions for C, and thus two possible triangles: ABC and ABC΄.
Indeed, the two triangles satisfying theses conditions are shown

below
5 4 4
300
B C΄ C
Notice that AC=4 can be placed in two different positions.
For the two possible values of angle C it holds
C+C΄=180o
(can you explain why?)
15
3.4 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION
 ANGLE OF ELEVATION – ANGLE OF DEPRESSION
Suppose that an object is above the horizontal level of an observer.

The angle of elevation θ to the object is shown below:
Object
θ
Observer horizontal
If the object is below the level of the observer the angle of

depression θ to the object is shown below:
Observer horizontal
θ
Object
We very often see these notions in 3D shapes. For example,
The angle of elevation from A to G is the angle BAˆ G.

ˆ F (explain why!)
The angle of elevation from A to F is the angle CA
The angle of depression from H to B is the angle GHˆ B.

ˆ C (explain why!)
The angle of depression from H to C is the angle FH
16
EXAMPLE 1
An observer is situated at point A.

(a) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(b) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2  4 2  3 2  AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G  3  BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2  4 2  5 2  AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2  41  3 2  AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF  3 ˆ =25.1o
 CAF
41
17
EXAMPLE 2
P
30 45
horizontal
B A
An object P is above a hill. Two observers A and B are situated as

in the diagram above.
The angle of elevation from A is 45o.
The angle of elevation from B is 30o.
The distance between A and B is 10m.
Find the vertical height h of the object P above the ground.
Solution
Consider the triangle
P
30° 45°
B 10 A x K
h h
tan45   1 h  x
x x
h h 1
tan30     h 3  x  10
x  10 x  10 3
Therefore,
10
h 3 = h  10  h( 3  1) = 10  h   13.7 m
3 1
Notice: Another approach is to work in triangle ABP first, to find

h
AP=19.318 and then by sin 45  , we find h  13.7
19.318
18
 NAVIGATION - BEARING
When we navigate on a map we should have in mind the four main

directions
North, East, South, West
as well as the four intermediate directions as shown below.
The angle between any consecutive directions is 45o.
Thus, for example,
 if two persons walk towards the North and East directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 90o.
 if two persons walk towards the North and Southeast directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 135o.
Another keyword in navigation is the bearing. Suppose that a

moving body goes from point A to point B.
The bearing of the course AB is the clockwise angle

between the North direction and AB.
The following diagram will clarify this notion.
19
According to the diagram:

North
North
50o
the bearing of the course AB is 50o

the bearing of the course BA is 230o (explain why!)
EXAMPLE 3
A car travels:
from point A to point B in bearing 50o,
then from point B to point C with bearing 1500,
then goes back to point A with bearing 270o.
The distance AC is 10km.
Draw a diagram to show the details find the distances AB and AC.
Solution
B 1500
500 300
500 300
A 10 km C
According to the diagram Â = 40o, B̂ = 80o, Ĉ = 60o
Then, by using the sine rule

10 AB BC
 
sin80 sin60 sin40
we find AB = 8.79km and BC = 6.53km
20
3.5 ARCS AND SECTORS
Consider a circle of radius r. Let θ be the angle shown below
A
r
θ
O
B
θ
The length of the arc AB is given by L= × 2πr
360
θ
The area of the sector OAB is given by A= × πr 2
360
(where θ is measured in degrees).
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following sector of a circle with r=5m and θ=36°:
5
36°
Then
36
Length of arc: L = × 2π5 = π = 3.14159  3.14 m
360
36 5π
Area of sector: A = × π5 2 = =7.85398  7.85 m2
360 2
Moreover,
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3.14+5+5 = 13.14m
21
EXAMPLE 2
A
3 B
30o
Let r =3cm and θ=30ο. Compare
a) the lengths of the arc AB and the chord AB (distance AB)

b) the areas of the sector OAB and the triangle OAB
Solution
30 π
a) L = × 2π3 = = 1.57 cm
360 2
For AB we use COSINE RULE:
π
AB2 = 32 + 32-2.3.3cos = 2.41  AB = 2.41 = 1.55 cm
6
The length of the arc AB is slightly greater than chord AB (as
expected)
30 3π
b) Asector = × π32 = = 2.36 cm2
360 4
1
Atriangle = 3.3sin30ο = 2.25 cm2
2
We observe that the area of the sector is slightly greater than
the area of the triangle (as expected)
The region between the chord AB and the arc AB is known as

segment.
A
The area of this segment is
Asector-Atriangle = 2.36-2.25 = 0.11
22
NOTICE. The formulas hold for the major sector OACB and the
major arc ACB.
We simply set θ = 360°-30° =330°.
3 B
30o
O
330o
330 33π
Amajor-sector = × π32 = = 25.9 cm2
360 4
330 11π
Lmajor-arc = × 2π3 = = 17.3 cm
360 2
Finally, the perimeter of the major sector is
L+r+r = 17.3 + 3 + 3 = 23.3
23
24
ONLY FOR
HL
25
26
3.6 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ANGLE IN RADIANS
The values of the angles can be represented well on the following

trigonometric circle:
90o
120o 60o
135o 45o
150o 30o
+
0o
180o
360o
210o 330o
225o 315o
240o 300o
270o
In fact, each value on the circle indicates the angle between the
corresponding radius and the positive x-axis radius (red arrow).
The angle formed after a complete circle is 360°.
The angle formed after half a circle is 180°.
However, after completing a full circle (1st period) we can continue

counting:
361°, 362°, 263° and so on
The next full circle (2nd period) finishes at 2×360° = 720°.
Similarly, we can move clockwise, considering negative angles:
-1°, -2°, -3° and so on
For example, 270° can also be seen as -90°.
Therefore, an angle may have any value from - ∞ to +∞.
27
 DEGREES AND RADIANS

Consider the following circle of radius r =1 (unit circle).
θ
A
O
The circumference of the circle is 2πr = 2π.
Start from point A and move anticlockwise. What is the length of

the arc AB?
If θ = 0ο then AB=0
If θ= 360ο then AB=2π (full circle)
If θ= 180ο then AB=π (semicircle)
If θ= 90ο then AB=π/2 (quarter of a circle)
Thus, an alternative way to measure the angle θ=AÔB is to

measure the corresponding arc AB. The new unit of measurement
is called radian.
DEGREES (deg) RADIANS (rad)
90o π/2
180o 0o π 0
O 360o O 2π
270o 3π/2
28
Let us see the basic angles, in degrees and radians, on the

trigonometric circle.
π/2
2π/3 90o π/3
6 120o 60o
3π/4 π/4
135o 45o
5π/6 π/6
150o 30o
+
π 0o 0
180o
360o 2π
210o 330o
7π/6
11π/6
225o 315o
5π/4 7π/4
240o 300o
4π/3 270o 5π/3
3π/2
We can also move in the opposite direction (clockwise) and consider

negative angles:
-π -180o 0o 0
-150o -30o
-5π/6 -π/6
-135o -45o
-3π/4 -π/4
-120o -60o
-2π/3 -90o -π/3
-π/2
29
NOTICE:
The ratio between degrees and radians is given by
degrees 180 0

radians π
EXAMPLE 1
Let θ1 =300, θ2 =800, θ3 =270. Transform in radians.
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
30 o 180 0 30π π
For θ1:   180x = 30π  x = = rad
x π 180 6
80 o 180 0 80π 4π
For θ2:   180x = 80π  x = = rad
x π 180 9
27 o 180 0 27π
For θ3:   180x = 27π  x = =0.471rad
x π 180
EXAMPLE 2
π 4π
Let θ1 = rad, θ2 = rad, θ3 =2 rad. Transform in degrees.
3 9
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
x 180 0 180π
For θ1: =  πx =  x = 60ο
π/3 π 3
x 180 0 4  180π
For θ2: =  πx =  x = 80ο
4π /9 π 9
x 180 0 360
For θ3: =  πx = 360  x = =114.6ο
2 π π
NOTICE (not necessary to remember though!!!)
180 π
1 rad = = 57.3o 1o = = 0.0174 rad
π 180
30
 THE ANGLE VALUES OF A POINT ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
Consider the point on the unit circle corresponding to 30ο.
Let’s start from 0ο and move anticlockwise. We pass through 30ο

and after completing a full circle, we pass through the same point
at 30ο+360ο =390ο
and then again at 30ο+360ο×2 =750ο and so on.
In other words, we add (or subtract) multiples of 360ο:
In this way, the same point has infinitely many angle values:
30ο+360οk where kZ
Thus, for k = … -1, 0, 1, 2, … we obtain the values
…, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, … [in degrees]
NOTICE
If we consider only the positive values of the angles, we have in fact

an arithmetic sequence with u1 = 30ο and d=360 ο
Working in radians, we add multiples of 2π, so that the point has

the infinitely many angle values:
π
+2kπ where kZ
6
11π π 13π 25π
…,  , , , , … [in radians]
6 6 6 6
Again, if we consider the positive values, we have an arithmetic
π
sequence with u1 = and d=2π.
6
31
 ARCS AND SECTORS (when θ is in radians)
Suppose that the angle θ of the sector below is given in radians!
B
r
θ
O
A
The length of the arc AB is given by L=θr
The area of the sector OAB is given by 1 2

A= θr
2
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the following sector of a circle with r=5m and θ=0.6rad:
0.6
Then
Length of arc: L = rθ = 5(0.6) = 3
1 2 1 2
Area of sector: A = r θ= 5 (0.6) = 7.5 m2
2 2
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3+5+5 = 13m
Notice
 If θ = angle of minor sector then 2π-θ = angle of major sector.
 For the area of a segment (between arc and chord) we have
1 2 1 2 1 2
Asegment = r θ- r sinθ= r (θ-sinθ)
2 2 2
32
3.7 SINΘ AND COSΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
 SINΘ, COSΘ
Consider again the unit circle (radius r =1) on the Cartesian plane.
y P(x,y)
θ
-1 O 1
x
-1
Let P(x,y) be a point on the circle,

OP = r = 1
θ = angle between OP and x-axis
Then
opposite y adjacent x
sinθ = = =y and cosθ = = =x
hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1
Thus, if we think the angle θ as a point on the circle:
sinθ θ
sinθ = y coordinate of θ
cosθ = x coordinate of θ cosθ
33
This description helps us to define sinθ and cosθ not only for angles
within 00θ 900, but for any value of θ on the circumference.
900< θ <1800 1800< θ <2700 2700< θ <3600

2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
θ sinθ
cosθ cosθ
cosθ
sinθ sinθ
θ θ
Let us move the y-axis (which shows sinx) to the left of the circle:
sinθ
1 900
0.5 1500 300
0 1800 00 or 3600
-0.5
2100 3300
-1
2700
sinθ is the y-coordinate of θ

θ 00 300 900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3300 3600
sinθ 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0
This picture explains why supplementary angles have equal sines.
34
Let us move now the x-axis (which shows cosx) under the circle:
900
1200 600
1800 00
3600
2400 3000
2700
cosθ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
cosθ is the x-coordinate of θ

θ 00 600 900 1200 1800 2400 2700 3000 3600
cosθ 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
This picture explains why opposite angles have equal cosines.
NOTICE
As we have said, any point on the circle has infinitely many angle
values. In that sense, all these angles have the same sine and the
same cosine.
For example, the point on the unit circle corresponding to 300 has
also the values
300+3600k: …, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, …
Check by your GDC:

sin300 = 0.5 cos300 = 3/2
sin3900 = 0.5 cos3900 = 3/2
sin7500 = 0.5 etc cos7500 = 3 / 2 etc
A similar observation applies when θ is in radians!
35
We understand that
-1  sinθ  1 -1  cosθ  1
sinθ
+ + - +
0
- - - +
-1
cosθ
-1 0 1
The values of sinθ and cosθ are connected by the so-called
Pythagorean identity sin 2 θ  cos 2 θ  1
 TANΘ
The trigonometric number tanθ (for any θ) is defined by
sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
It can take any real:

- < tanθ < +
The following diagram gives the sign of tanθ in the four quadrants
- +
+ -
It is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.

It is negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
36
 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Consider the trigonometric equation
1
sinx 
2
We know two basic solutions: the supplementary angles
x=30° and x=150°
We also know that all the “corresponding” angle values
300+3600k: …, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, …
1500+3600k: …, -210ο, 150ο, 510ο, 870ο, …
are also solutions.
We understand that even a simple trigonometric equation has
infinitely many solutions
Usually, they give us a specific interval where we ask for solutions.
We can use our GDC to solve such an equation.
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the following equation in degrees
1
sinx  , 0°  x  500°
2
The GDC gives (use SolveN)
x=30°, x=150°, x=390°
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the following equation in radians
1
sinx  , 0  x  2π
2
The GDC gives (use SolveN)
π 5π
x=  0.524 and x=  2.62
6 6
37
3.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 f(x) = sinx
Let us construct the graph of this function in the traditional way,

that is in the Cartesian plane Oxy.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 0 1 0 -1 0
We have:
Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
For functions of this form we also define
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1 (distance between max and central line)
Period: T= 2π (the length of a complete cycle)
Notice that
ymax  ymin
Amplitude = ymax-central value (it is also )
2
Period=2π means that the curve is repeated every 2π units
Use your GDC to see the graph and compare with the curve above
Set V-Window: x from -2π to 2π

y from -2 to 2
38
 f(x) = cosx
Let us now construct the graph of this function.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 1 0 -1 0 1
Again Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 2π
NOTICE:
 For both functions y=sinx and y=cosx, the horizontal distance
between two consecutive max = 2π (one period)

between two consecutive min = 2π (one period)
between consecutive max and min = π (half a period)
 Use your GDC to see the graph in degrees. Period = 360°
Set V-Window: x from -360° to 360°

y from -2 to 2
39
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF sinx AND cosx
Consider the function f(x) = sinx + 2.

Its graph is a vertical translation of sinx, 2 units up:
Clearly, Central line: y=2

Range: y  [1,3] [ymin=1 and ymax=3]
Amplitude=1 and Period: T=2π remain the same.
Consider the function f(x) = 3sinx.

Its graph is a vertical stretch of sinx with scale factor 3:
Clearly, Amplitude = 3
Range: y  [-3,3] [ymin=-3 and ymax=3]
Central line: y=0 and Period: T=2π remain the same
Notice: the amplitude of f(x)=-3sinx is still 3
40
Consider the function f(x) = sin2x.

Its graph is a horizontal stretch of sinx with scale factor 1/2:
Now, Period: T = π
Central line: y=0, Amplitude=1, Range: y[-1,1] remain the same
In general, the function
f(x) = AsinBx + C
with A>0, is obtained by three transformations on sinx:

a vertical stretch with scale factor A,
a horizontal stretch with scale factor 1/B,
a vertical translation by C units (up or down),
(If A<0 we also have a reflection in x-axis at the beginning)

Consequently, for the new function f(x):
C is the central value. The central line is y=C
|A| is the amplitude

2π 2π
T= Is the period. Hence B 
B T
Notice:
 f(x) ranges between the values C±A
 Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C
41
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = AsinBx + C is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
 Central line at y=15, so C=15

 Amplitude = 5, so A=5
2π 2π π
 Period T= 8, hence B  = =
T 8 4
π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 5sin( x) + 15
4
EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
ymax  ymin
 Central line at =5, so C=5
2
 Amplitude = ymax-C =15, so A=15
2π 2π
 Period Τ= π, hence B  = =2
T π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x) + 5
42
We distinguish four basic types of trigonometric functions:
sinx -sinx cosx -cosx
y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept

central/going up central/going down max min
Notice that the amplitude is always positive but the coefficient A of

sinx or cosx can be positive or negative.
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.
We can easily find that
Central line: y=5 hence C=5
Amplitude = 15
2π
Period: T=π =2
hence B=
π
The function of type –sinx (y-int central/going down), so A=-15
Therefore, the equation of the function is
f(x) = -15sin(2x) + 5
43
Conversely, if we are given a trigonometric function we can easily

draw the graph
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = 5sin2x+7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution
Central value = 7
Amplitude = 5
max=12, min=2 (since f(x) ranges between 7±5)
2π
Period T = = π
2
Thus, we have to draw two periods.
The function is of type sinx (y-intercept central/going up).
The graph is
Finally, remember the horizontal transformations f(x-a):
sin(x-D)
translation D units to the right
cos(x-D)
Therefore, for the functions
f(x) = Asin[B(x-D)] + C f(x) = Acos[B(x-D)] + C
A,B,C are determined as above.

D shows a horizontal translation.
44
Practically, the value of D depends on the type of the function.
When we see a graph we spot the points shown below!
D1 for type sinx
D2 for type cosx
D3 for type -sinx
D4 for -cosx
The value of D is the x-coordinate of the corresponding point above
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph of a trigonometric function given below.
14 y
12
10
2
x
π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2
Central value = 7, thus C =7

Amplitude = 5, thus |A|=5
Period T = π , thus B=2π/π = 2
The most appropriate form is of type -cosx (y-intercept min).
f(x)= -5cos2x+7
However, the same function can be expressed as

π
[type sinx] f(x)= 5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
π
[type cosx] f(x)= 5cos[2(x- )]+7
2
3π
[type -sinx] f(x)= -5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
45

Topic 3A. Trigonometry

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International Baccalaureate

3.2 TRIANGLES – BASIC NOTIONS ……………………………………………………………. 5

3.3 THE SINE RULE AND THE COSINE RULE ………………………...………………… 9

3.4 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 16

3.5 ARCS AND SECTORS …………………………………………………………………………….. 21

3.6 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ANGLE IN RADIANS .…………………….. 27

3.7 SINΘ AND COSΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE………………………………………………. 33

3.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 38

3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by

Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find

(a) the distance between A and B

 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS

Solid Volume Surface area

Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x

The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

The surface area is S  (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96

Notice about the angles between lines and planes:

Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle ADN

3.2 TRIANGLES – BASIC NOTIONS

For any right-angled triangle

We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem:

5 2 = 32  4 2 (both sides give 25)

Every angle has a fixed sine, cosine and tangent.

If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

In the triangle of Example 1 we found

For two angles A and B

A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o

A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o

Although we can find these values by using a GDC, it is worth to

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order

For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

supplementary angles have

equal sines but opposite cosines:

 THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

The area of the triangle is given by

The other two versions give the same result:

3.3 THE SINE RULE AND THE COSINE RULE

sinA sinB sinC

COSINE RULE a 2  b 2  c2  2b c cos A

Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:

We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:

sinA sinB sinC

42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)

as expected by the definition of sinθ

Also, a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc  cos90 o implies

that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.

SINE RULE generalizes the definition of sinθ

COSINE RULE generalizes of the definition of cosθ

 THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE

Any triangle has 6 basic elements: 3 angles and 3 sides.

If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

(three sides) OR (two sides and an included angle) COSINE RULE

otherwise SINE RULE

EXAMPLE 3 (given three sides)

We use COSINE RULE

Notice: We may sometimes have no solutions at all. For example, if

EXAMPLE 4 (given two sides and an included angle)

We use COSINE RULE:

EXAMPLE 5 (given one side and two angles)