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Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 3
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
Only for HL
VECTORS
December 2022
TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3D COORDINATE GEOMETRY
We know that a point in the Cartesian plane has the form P(x,y).
In 3D space we add one more coordinate, thus a point has the
form P(x,y,z).
x1 x 2 y1 y2 z1 z 2
M( , , )
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
Solution
(a) dAB (1 2) 2 (0 3) 2 (5 1) 2 1 9 16 26
(b) d OB 2 2 3 2 1 2 14
1 2 0 3 5 1 3 3
(c) M( , , ) i.e. M( , ,3)
2 2 2 2 2
(d) C(3,6,-3)
Notice: the coordinates of A,B,C (B midpoint) form arithmetic sequences
x: 1,2,3
y: 0,3,6
z: 5,1,-3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
The volumes and the surface areas of 5 known solids are given
below:
Cuboid
V xyz S 2xy 2yz 2zx
Pyramid
1 S (sum of areas
V (area of base) (height)
3 of the faces)
Cylinder
2
V πr 2 h S 2π rh 2π r
Cone
S πrL πr2
1
V πr 2 h where
3
L r 2 h2
Sphere
4
V πr 3 S 4π r 2
3
Notation
x, y, z : length-width-height
r: radius of circular base
h : vertical height
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
The volume and the surface area for the following solids
x
x x
Cube: V xxx x 3 S 6x 2
Cuboid of square base: V x 2y S 2x 2 4xy
EXAMPLE 3
Given that the volume of a cylinder is 25,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the surface area in terms of r
Solution
25
(a) V πr 2 h πr 2 h 25 h
π r2
25 50
(b) 2
S 2π rh 2π r 2π r 2π r 2 2π r 2
πr 2
r
EXAMPLE 4
Given that the surface area of a cylinder is 100π,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the volume in terms of r
Solution
50 - r 2
(a) S 2π rh 2π r 2 2π rh 2π r 2 100π h
r
50 - r 2
(b) V πr 2 h πr 2 πr(50 - r 2 ) 50π r - 50r 3
r
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume and the surface area of a right pyramid of square
base of side 6 and vertical height 4.
Μ΄
Solution
The vertical height is h=4.
For the slant height AM we use the Pythagoras theorem on ANM.
AM 2 AN 2 NM 2 AM 2 4 2 3 2 AM 5
ˆ
Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AMN
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
BASIC NOTIONS
a b
θ
B c A
we define the sine, the cosine and the tangent of angle θ by:
b opposite c adjacent
sinθ = = cosθ = =
a hypotenuse a hypotenuse
b opposite
tanθ = =
c adjacent
Clearly
sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
It also holds
Pythagoras’ theorem a 2 b 2 c2
sin 2θ cos 2 θ 1
Indeed,
2 2
b c b 2 c2 a 2
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ 2 1
a a a2 a
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
C 4
sinB =
5
5 4 3
cosB =
5
θ 4
tanB =
B 3 A 3
Every angle has a fixed sine, cosine and tangent. For example
1 3 1 3
sin30o = , cos30o = , tan30o =
2 2 3 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
SIN, COS, TAN for basic angles: 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o
Hence,
REMARKS:
For an acute angle (θ < 90ο) if we know the result sinθ we can
find the angle θ itself by using the inverse function sin-1 in our
GDC. Similarly, for cosθ and tanθ. For example,
sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cotθ are also defined for obtuse angles (θ> 90ο).
At the moment, it is enough to know that
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
c b
B a C
a b c
SINE RULE = =
sinA sinB sinC
b 2 c2 a 2 2 ca cos B c2 a 2 b 2 2 ab cos C
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following right-angled triangle
A
90o
c b
B a C
Then
a b c b c
o
= = a = =
sin90 sinB sinC sinB sinC
and so
b c
sinB = and sinC =
a a
a 2 b 2 c2
Moreover
b 2 c 2 a 2 2ca cosB b 2 c 2 (b 2 c 2 ) 2ca cosB
- 2c 2 2ca cosB
c
cosB =
a
b
as expected by the definition of cosθ. Similarly we get cosC =
a
Consequently,
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Roughly speaking
If we know we use
In other words
we use the SINE RULE when we know an angle-opposite side pair.
2 3
B 4 C
42 = 22 + 32 - 12 cosA 32 = 22 + 42 - 16 cosB
3 = -12cosA -11 = -16cosB
cosA = - 0.25 cosB = 0.6875
A = 104.5o B = 46.6o
Finally,
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o-46.6o,
Thus
C = 28.9o
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
104.5o
2 3
B C
BC 2 = 22 + 32 - 12 cos 104.5o = 16
Thus BC = 4
Then we know all the three sides and hence B and C can be found
as above: B = 46.6o and C = 28.9o
104.5o
3
46.60
B C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
2 3
46.60
B C
Then
A = 180o - 46.6o - 28.9o, that is A = 104.5o
Two triangles
One triangle
No triangle at all
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
This is because the sine rule provides two values for an unknown
angle. For example if we find sinC = 0.5 then
5 4
300
B C
and then
BC 2 5 2 4 2 2(5 )(4)cos111.3 BC = 7.45
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
5 1
300
B a C
5 4 4
300
B C΄ C
C+C΄=180o
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
c b
1
Area = bc sinA
2
B a C
Notice that two sides and an included angle are involved in the
formula!
We can derive two similar versions for this formula:
1 1
Area = ab sinC Area = a c sinB
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
Look at again the triangle in example 1:
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
1
Area = 2 3 sin104.5 o 2.90
2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Object
θ
Observer horizontal
Observer horizontal
θ
Object
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2 4 2 3 2 AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G 3 BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2 4 2 5 2 AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2 41 3 2 AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF 3 ˆ =25.1o
CAF
41
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
P
30 45
horizontal
B A
30° 45°
B 10 A x K
h h
tan45 1 h x
x x
h h 1
tan30 h 3 x 10
x 10 x 10 3
Therefore,
10
h 3 = h 10 h( 3 1) = 10 h 13.7 m
3 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2 4 2 3 2 AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G 3 BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2 4 2 5 2 AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2 41 3 2 AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF 3 ˆ =25.1o
CAF
41
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NAVIGATION - BEARING
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
North
50o
EXAMPLE 3
A car travels:
from point A to point B in bearing 50o,
then from point B to point C with bearing 1500,
then goes back to point A with bearing 270o.
The distance AC is 10km.
Draw a diagram to show the details find the distances AB and AC.
Solution
B 1500
500 300
500 300
A 10 km C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
90o
120o 60o
135o 45o
150o 30o
+
0o
180o
360o
210o 330o
225o 315o
240o 300o
270o
In fact, each value on the circle indicates the angle between the
corresponding radius and the positive x-axis radius (red arrow).
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
θ
A
O
If θ = 0ο then AB=0
If θ= 360ο then AB=2π (full circle)
If θ= 180ο then AB=π (semicircle)
If θ= 90ο then AB=π/2 (quarter of a circle)
90o π/2
180o 0o π 0
O 360o O 2π
270o 3π/2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
π/2
2π/3 90o π/3
6 120o 60o
3π/4 π/4
135o 45o
5π/6 π/6
150o 30o
+
π 0o 0
180o
360o 2π
210o 330o
7π/6
11π/6
225o 315o
5π/4 7π/4
240o 300o
4π/3 270o 5π/3
3π/2
-π -180o 0o 0
-150o -30o
-5π/6 -π/6
-135o -45o
-3π/4 -π/4
-120o -60o
-2π/3 -90o -π/3
-π/2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
The ratio between degrees and radians is given by
degrees 180 0
radians π
EXAMPLE 1
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
30 o 180 0 30π π
For θ1: 180x = 30π x = = rad
x π 180 6
80 o 180 0 80π 4π
For θ2: 180x = 80π x = = rad
x π 180 9
27 o 180 0 27π
For θ3: 180x = 27π x = =0.471rad
x π 180
EXAMPLE 2
π 4π
Let θ1 = rad, θ2 = rad, θ3 =2 rad. Transform in degrees.
3 9
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
x 180 0 180π
For θ1: = πx = x = 60ο
π/3 π 3
x 180 0 4 180π
For θ2: = πx = x = 80ο
4π /9 π 9
x 180 0 360
For θ3: = πx = 360 x = =114.6ο
2 π π
180 π
1 rad = = 57.3o 1o = = 0.0174 rad
π 180
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
at 30ο+360ο =390ο
and then again at 30ο+360ο×2 =750ο
and so on.
In this way, the same point has infinitely many angle values:
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
B
r
θ
O
A
1 2
The area of the sector OAB is given by A= r θ
2
EXAMPLE 3
5
0.6
Then
Length of arc: L = rθ = 5(0.6) = 3
1 2 1 2
Area of sector: A = r θ = 5 (0.6) = 7.5 m2
2 2
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3+5+5 = 13m
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
3
30o
A
O
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Consider again the unit circle (radius r =1) on the Cartesian plane.
y P(x,y)
θ
-1 O x 1
-1
Then
opposite y adjacent x
sinθ = = =y and cosθ = = =x
hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1
sinθ θ
sinθ = y coordinate of θ
cosθ = x coordinate of θ cosθ
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
This description helps us to define sinθ and cosθ not only for angles
within 00θ 900, but for any value of θ on the circumference.
θ sinθ
cosθ cosθ
cosθ
sinθ sinθ
θ θ
Let us move the y-axis (which shows sinx) to the left of the circle:
sinθ
1 900
0 1800 00 or 3600
-0.5
2100 3300
-1
2700
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Let us move now the x-axis (which shows cosx) under the circle:
900
1200 600
1800 00
3600
2400 3000
2700
cosθ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
NOTICE
As we have said, any point on the circle represents infinitely many
angle values. In that sense, all these angles have the same sine and
the same cosine.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
We understand that
-1 sinθ 1 -1 cosθ 1
sinθ
+ + - +
0
- - - +
-1
cosθ
-1 0 1
tanθ
Consider now the unit circle below and an additional vertical axis
passing through point A (it is tangent to the circle!)
O 1
A
Then
opposite AB
tanθ = = =AB
adjacent 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Thus, the value on this axis indicates the value of the tangent:
tanθ
3 =1.73
900
1
600
450 1 = 0.58
3
300
0
tanθ 0 1/ 3 1 3 +
Again, this description helps us to define tanθ not only for angles θ
within 00 θ 900 .
tanθ
1
1350 450
1800 0
2250 3150
-1
tanθ 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
Not only θ, but all values
θ 180k ο (in degrees)
θ kπ (in radians)
have equal tangents (we just add or subtract semicircles).
It is obvious that tanθ is not defined for θ=900 or θ=-900. In
fact, tanθ is not defined for
π
90 ο 180k ο (in degrees) kπ (in radians)
2
For any other value of θ,
- +
0
+ -
-
-θ
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
EXAMPLE 1
3
Let sinθ = . Find
5
cosθ, tanθ, sin2θ, cos2θ, tan2θ
if
(a) θ < 90o (acute)
(b) 90o < θ < 180o (obtuse)
Solution
By the fundamental identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1, we obtain
2
3 9 16
cos2θ = 1- sin2θ = 1- = 1- = ,
5 25 25
thus
4
cosθ =
5
4 4
If θ is acute (1st quadrant) cosθ = , if θ is obtuse cosθ =-
5 5
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
Consider the double angle identity
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ
That means
sin30o = 2sin15ocos15o
sin100o = 2sin50ocos50o
or
sin4θ = 2sin2θcos2θ
sin10θ = 2sin5θcos5θ
cos30o = 1-2sin215o
cos4θ = 1-2sin22θ
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
If we divide the Pythagorean identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 by cos2θ,
we obtain
1
tan2θ + 1 =
cos 2 θ
This identity connects tanθ with cosθ. Τhus, all three trigonometric
numbers sinθ, cosθ, tanθ are interconnected.
However, we can easily obtain this interconnection by using the
right-angled triangle method:
2
For example, let θ be an angle in the first quadrant with sinθ = .
3
We construct a right-angled triangle to represent this information.
3
2
2 5 2
sinθ = . cosθ = . tanθ = .
3 3 5
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Remember that
π-θ θ θ θ
1800-θ θ θ θ
-θ
θ±1800
-θ
θ±π
Methodology:
1
Equation: sinx =
2
Think: sinx = sin30o [you may skip this step]
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
sinx=a
cosx=a
tanx=a
sinx=sinθ
cosx=cosθ
tanx=tanθ
x= θ + 360οk x= θ + 2kπ
cosx=cosθ
x=-θ + 360οk x=-θ + 2kπ
EXAMPLE 2
1
Solve the equations: (a) sinx= , 0° x 360°
2
1
(b) cosx= , 0° x 360°
2
Solution
1
(a) sinx= sinx=sin30°
2
150o 30o
General solution: x=30o + 360ok
x=150o + 360ok
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
1
(b) cosx= cosx=cos60° 60o
2
General solution: x=60o + 360ok
x=-60o + 360ok
-60o
Within the given domain:
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation tanx=1
(a) for 0° x 360°
(b) for -180° x 180°
(c) for -180° x 450°
Solution
x=45o x=225o
x=-135o x=45o
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
Particularly for the equations
sinx=0 and cos x=0
90o
180o 0o
-90o
x = 0°+360°k x = 0+2kπ
sinx=0
x = 180°+360°k x = π+2kπ
sinx=0 x = 180°k x = kπ
x = π +2kπ
x = 90°+360°k 2
cosx=0
x = -90°+360°k x = π +2kπ
2
(c) Practically,
solutions of sinx=0 solutions of cosx=0
..., -180°, 0°, 180°, 360° , … ..., -90°, 90°, 270° , 450° …
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
General solution
Equation Basic solution
in degrees in radians
π
x 2kπ
1 π x 30 360k 6
sinx 30 =
2 6 5π
x 150 360 k x 2kπ
6
π
x 2kπ
2 π x 45 360k 4
sinx 45 =
2 4 3π
x 135 360 k x 2kπ
4
π
x 2kπ
3 π x 60 360 k 3
sinx 60 =
2 3 2π
x 120 360 k x 2kπ
3
π
x 2kπ
x 30 360k 6
sinx
1
- 30 = - π
2 6 5π
x 150 360 k x 2kπ
6
π
x 2kπ
x 45 360k 4
sinx
2 - 45 = - π
2 4 3π
x 135 360 k x 2kπ
4
π
x 2kπ
3 π x 60 360k 3
sinx - 60 = -
2 3 2π
x 120 360 k x 2kπ
3
Extreme cases
π π
sinx 1 90 = x 90 360k x 2k π
2 2
π π
sinx 1
- 90 = - x 90 360k x 2k π
2 2
For sinx 0
sinx 0 0 x 180k x kπ
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
General solution
Equation Basic solution
in degrees in radians
1 π π
cosx 60 = x 2kπ
2 3 x 60 360k 3
2 π π
cosx 45 = x 45 360k x 2kπ
2 4 4
3 π π
cosx 30 = x 30 360k x 2kπ
2 6 6
1 2π 2π
cosx 120 = x 2kπ
2 3 x 120 360 k 3
2 135 =
3π 3π
cosx x 135 360k x 2kπ
2 4 4
3 5π 5π
cosx 150 = x 2kπ
2 6 x 150 360k 6
Extreme cases
cosx 1 0 = 0 x 360k x 2k π
For cosx 0
π π
90 = x kπ
cosx 0 2 x 90 180k 2
General solution
Equation Basic solution
in degrees in radians
π π
60 = x kπ
tanx 3 3 x 60 180 k 3
45 = π π
tanx 1 x 45 180k x kπ
4 4
30 = π π
tanx 1/ 3 x 30 180k x kπ
6 6
tanx 0 0 = 0 x 180k x kπ
-30 = π π
tanx 1/ 3 x 30 180k x kπ
6 6
-45 = π π
tanx 1 x 45 180k x kπ
4 4
-60 = π π
tanx 3 x 60 180k x kπ
3 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
3
Solve the equation sin2x= ,
2
(a) in the domain 0o x 360o (in degrees)
Solution
π
(b) sin2x=sin .
3
The general solution is
π π π + 6kπ
2x= +2kπ x= + kπ= (1)
3 6 6
2π π π + 4kπ
2x= +2kπ x= + kπ (2)
3 3 3
π 7π π 4π
(1) gives x= x= (2) gives x= x=
6 6 3 3
EXAMPLE 5
Solution
cos3x=cos900.
The general solution is
3x=90o+180ok x=30o+60ok
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 6
2
Solve the equation cos2x= 0 x 2π
2
Solution
π
cos2x=cos
4
π π π +8π
Hence 2x= +2kπ x= +kπ = (1)
4 8 8
π π -π +8π
2x= +2kπ x= +kπ = (2)
4 8 8
π 9π 7π 15π
(1) gives x= , x= (2) gives x= , x= .
8 8 8 8
EXAMPLE 7
Solution
(a) tan3x=tan60o
(c) tan3x=tan60o
π π kπ π 3kπ
Hence 3x= +kπ x= +
3 9 3 9
π 4π 7π
For k=0,1,2, ... we obtain x= , x= , x=
9 9 9
2π 5π 8π
For k=-1,-2, ... we obtain x=- , x=- , x=-
9 9 9
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
sin2x=sinx 2sinxcosx=sinx
2sinxcosx-sinx=0
sinx(2cosx-1)=0
sinx=0 or 2cosx-1=0
sinx=0 or cosx=1/2
Hence, the equation has five solutions 0o, 60o, 180o, 300o, 360o .
REMARKS:
If the equation is given in radians under the restriction 0 x 2π
we obtain
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
If you let y=cosx, the given equation has the form 2y2-3y+1=0
The roots of this equation are y=1 and y=1/2
Thus
cosx=1. This equation has only one solution: x=0
cosx=1/2. This equation has only one solution: x=π/3
EXAMPLE 10
(We wish to have only cosx or only sinx. Hence, we use the
Pythagorean identity to substitute sin2x by 1-cos2x)
3(1-cosx)=2(1-cos2x) 3-3cosx=2-2cos2x
2cos2x-3cosx+1=0
B
Equations of the form Asinx=Bcosx, take the form tanx=
A
EXAMPLE 11
1
It takes the form tanx= .
3
π
The general solution is x= +κπ
6
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) = sinx
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 0 1 0 -1 0
We have:
Domain: xR
Range: y [-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1 (distance between max and central line)
Period: T= 2π (the length of a complete cycle)
Notice that
ymax ymin
Amplitude = ymax-central value (it is also )
2
Period=2π means that the curve is repeated every 2π units
Use your GDC to see the graph and compare with the curve above
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) = cosx
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 1 0 -1 0 1
NOTICE:
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) = tanx
π π π π
x - - 0 …
2 4 4 2
f(x) - -1 0 1 -
We have:
π 3π
Domain: x R- { , ,…}
2 2
Range: yR [there is no min, no max, no amplitude]
Central line: y=0
Period: T =π
π π
Vertical asymptotes: x= , x= , etc
2 2
NOTICE
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Clearly, Amplitude = 3
Range: y [-3,3] [ymin=-3 and ymax=3]
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Now, Period: T = π
f(x) = AsinBx + C
Notice:
f(x) ranges between the values C±A
Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = AsinBx + C, is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
ymax ymin
Central line at =5, so C=5
2
Amplitude = ymax-C =15, so A=15
2π 2π
Period Τ= π, hence B = =2
T π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x) + 5
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.
Amplitude = 15
2π
Period: T=π hence B=
=2
π
The function of type –sinx (y-int central/going down), so A=-15
f(x) = -15sin(2x) + 5
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = 5sin2x+7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution
Central value = 7
Amplitude = 5
max=12, min=2 (since f(x) ranges between 7±5)
2π
Period T = = π
2
Thus, we have to draw two periods.
The function is of type sinx (y-intercept central/going up).
The graph is
sin(x-D)
translation D units to the right
cos(x-D)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
D4 for -cosx
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph of a trigonometric function given below.
14 y
12
10
2
x
π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2
f(x)= -5cos2x+7
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
TRANSFORMATIONS OF tanx
In a similar way,
f(x) = AtanBx +C
EXAMPLE 6
f(x)= 10tan4x +30
central value= 30
Finally,
f(x) = Atan[B(x-D)] +C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
ONLY FOR
HL
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
1 1
secant: secθ = cosecant: cscθ =
cosθ sinθ
1
cotangent: cotθ =
tanθ
A B
O 1
cotθ = AB
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
1
by cos2θ we obtain tan2θ + 1 = = sec2θ
cos 2 θ
1
by sin2θ we obtain cot2θ + 1 = = csc2θ
sin 2θ
For the sum A+B and the difference A-B of two angles it holds
tanA tanB
tan(A ± B)=
1 ∓ tanAtanB
EXAMPLE 2
Find sin75o and tan15o by using appropriate identities.
Solution
sin75o = sin(45o+30o) = sin45ocos30o + cos45osin30o
2 3 2 1 6 2
= + =
2 2 2 2 4
tan60 o tan45 o
tan15o = tan(60o-45o) =
1 tan60 o tan45 o
3 1 3 1
= =
1 3 1 3 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
A=B+2kπ
If sinA=sinB
A=(π-B)+2kπ
A=B+2kπ
If cosA=cosB
A=-B+2kπ
If tanA=tanB A=B+kπ
The basic trigonometric equations we have seen so far, can take the
form of the equations above:
sinx=a sinx=sinθ
cosx=a cosx=cosθ (where θ is the principal solution)
tanx=a tanx=tanθ
EXAMPLE 2
The trigonometric equation
sin(10x)=1/2
can take the form
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation sin3x=sinx, 0 x 2π
3x = x + 2kπ
sin3x=sinx
3x = π - x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
4x = π + 2kπ
π 2kπ
x=kπ or x=
4
Hence, the solutions are
π 3π 5π 7π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= , x= , x= .
4 4 4 4
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation cos3x=cosx, 0 x 2π
3x = x + 2kπ
cos3x=cosx
3x = -x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
4x = 2kπ
kπ
x=kπ or x=
2
Hence, the solutions are
π 3π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= .
2 2
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation tan3x=tanx, 0 x 2π
kπ
tan3x=tanx 3x=x+kπ 2x=kπ x=
2
Hence, the solutions are
π 3π
x=0, x= , x=π, x= , x=2π.
2 2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Remember that
π π π π
sin =cos and cos = sin
3 6 3 6
This is true for any pair of complementary angles. Therefore,
π
cosA=sinB can take the form cosA=cos( -B)
2
EXAMPLE 6
π
We can write sinx as cos( -x). Thus
2
π
3x = - x + 2kπ
π 2
cos3x= cos( -x)
2 3x = - π x + 2kπ
2
π
4x = 2 + 2kπ
2x = - π + 2kπ
2
π kπ π
x= + or x =- + kπ
8 2 4
Hence, the solutions are
π 5π 9π 13π 3π 7π
x= , x= , x= , x= and x= , x= .
8 8 8 8 4 4
Hence,
sinA=-sinB can take the form sinA=sin(-B)
tanA=-tanB can take the form tanA=tan(-B)
However,
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
1
secx=a is equivalent to the equation cosx=
a
1
cscx=a is equivalent to the equation sinx=
a
1
cotx=a is equivalent to the equation tanx=
a
EXAMPLE 8
in radians in degrees
π π
x= +2kπ, x=- +2kπ x=60o+360ok, x=-60o+360ok
3 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
sin-1x
f(x)=sinx f-1(x)=sin-1x
1 π
2
π π
0 -1 0 1
2 2
π
-1
2
π π
DOMAIN f: x [- , ] DOMAIN f-1: x [-1,1]
2 2
π π
RANGE f: y [-1,1] RANGE f-1: y [- , ]
2 2
cos-1x
f(x)=cosx f-1(x)=cos-1x
1 π
0 π
-1
-1 0 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
tan-1x
π π
Similarly, if we restrict f(x)=tanx to (- , ), we may define f-1.
2 2
f(x)=tanx f-1(x)=tan-1x
y y
π
2
π π
0 0
2 2
π
2
π π
DOMAIN f: x (- , ) DOMAIN f-1: x R
2 2
π π
RANGE f: y R RANGE f-1: y(- , )
2 2
arcsinx=y siny=x
arccosx=y cosy=x
arctanx=y tany=x
Notice
Mind the difference between
sin-1x which is the inverse function (arcsinx)
1
which is the reciprocal (secx)
sinx
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE:
Since sinx and arcsinx are inverse to each other (and similarly for
the other functions) it clearly holds
sin(arcsinx)=x
cos(arccosx)=x
tan(arctanx)=x
π π
Notice however that arcsin(sinx)=x holds only for - ≤x≤ )
2 2
Indeed,
π 1 π
arcsin(sin ) = arcsin =
6 2 6
5π 1 π 5π
but arcsin(sin ) = arcsin = ≠
6 2 6 6
EXAMPLE 2
π
Show that arctan3-arctan0.5=
4
Hence,
π
arctan3-arctan0.5 =
4
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Find
2
A=tan(arctan )
3
2
B=sin(arctan )
3
2
C=cos(arctan )
3
Then
2
Β=sinθ=
13
3
C=cosθ=
13
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
are on
VECTORS
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
DEFINITION
We distinguish two kinds of quantities in nature:
SCALARS vs VECTORS
(magnitude) (magnitude and direction)
examples: examples:
age
(28) length force
(4m)
velocity
(7N)
temperature
35m/sec)
(25oC)
a letter: u or two letters: AB
[A=tail, B=head]
B
u
A
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EQUAL VECTORS
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Thus, two equal vectors must be parallel.
u
u=v
v
A B AB DC AD BC
BA CD DA CB
D C
ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
In order to add two vectors we must place them one after the
other (head to tail)
u v
Then the sum u + v is given by the following shape
u
v
u+v
A AB BC AC
C
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
u -u
It has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. Again, the
two vectors are parallel. It is more convenient to use the head and
tail notation
B
AB BA
A
NOTICE:
From now on in the head and tail notation we will be writing
AB instead of AB as the direction from A to B is obvious.
It is easy to verify that
u+ v = v + u (commutative law)
u +( v + w ) = ( v + u )+ w (associative law)
Head and tail notation helps to add several vectors even without
drawing them:
AB+CD+BC = AB+BC+CD = AD
AB-AC=AB+CA=CA+AB=CB
If | u |=5 and | v |=3 then | u + v | is not necessarily 8. It is expected
to be less than 8. Indeed, the triangle inequality gives
u
v
u+v | u + v | | u |+| v |
Only if u and v have the same direction it holds: | u + v |=| u |+| v |
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: k u
Instead of u + u we can write 2 u .
u
2u
In general, if k is any positive scalar (k R ) the product k u is
defined as a new vector of the same direction and magnitude k| u |.
u
ku
For k<0 the vector k u simply has the opposite direction.
Thus for two vectors u and v
u // v u =k v for some kR
NOTICE:
It is easy to verify that
k( u + v ) = k v +k u (distributive law)
(k+m) u = k u +m u (distributive law)
k(m u ) = (km) u
1u = u
0u = 0
k0 = 0
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following cube
E H
F G
D C
A B
Let a =AB, b =AD c =AF.
Any other edge can be corresponded to a , b , c .
Namely,
a =AB=DC=FG=EH.
b =AD=BC=FE=GH
c =AF=BG=DE=CH
Can you express FC in terms of a , b and c ?
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
If we can consider the Cartesian Plane, any vector on the plane can
be moved so as to start from the origin O.
B
A
Thus any vector on the plane can be written in the form OA.
b A
u
O a
a
We agree to denote the vector u =OA by
b
a
We say that u =OA= is the position vector of the point A(a,b).
b
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following vector u and its equivalent vector OA.
4 A u
x
O
3
3
In practice, by a vector u = we imply that we are moving
4
3 units in the x-direction and
4 units in the y-direction
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
2- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
a
A vector u is a pair of numbers in column form: .
b
a
A vector u = is represented on the Cartesian plane as an arrow
b
from the origin O to the point P(a,b). We say that u =OP is the
position vector of the point P.
b P
u
O a
The magnitude of a vector u is defined by | u |= a 2 b 2
EXAMPLE 1
3 - 3 1 0
Consider the vectors u = , v = , w = , r =
4 4 1 0
The corresponding magnitudes are
| u |= 3 2 4 2 25 5 | v |= (-3) 2 4 2 25 5
| w |= 1 2 1 2 2 |r |= 0 2 0 2 0
ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
a1 a2 a1 a 2
If u = and v = then u + v =
b
1 b
2 b
1 b 2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
a - a
If u = then - u =
b - b
a ka
If k R (scalar) and u = then k u =
b kb
If k>0, we say that u and k u have the same direction
If k<0, we say that u and k u have the opposite direction
EXAMPLE 2
3 2
Consider the vectors u = , v = . Then
4 5
3 2 5 3 2 1 2 3 -1
u + v = + = , u - v = + = , v - u = - =
4 5 9 4 5 -1 5 4 1
3 6 15 - 9 - 3
2 u =2 = , 5 u = , -3 u = , -1 u =- u =
4 8 20 - 12 - 4
3 2 6 6 12
2 u +3 v =2 +3 = + =
4 5 8 15 23
NOTICE
3 6
For u = , it is | u |=5. For 2 u = , |2 u |= 6 2 82 100 =10.
4 8
1
Similarly, the magnitude of 10 u is 50, the magnitude of u is 1.
5
In general, the magnitude of k u is |k| times the magnitude of u ,
that is
|k u |= |k|| u |
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
3 2
Consider the vectors u = , v = . Then
4 5
| u |= 3 2 4 2 25 5 | v |= 2 2 5 2 29
Since | u |= 5 , the vector a =4 u has magnitude 20
Since | v |= 29 , it is less obvious to find b . The general method is
to find the unit vector v̂ first (which has magnitude 1) and then
we multiply by the required legnth: b =20 v̂ = 20 v
29
THE NOTATION u =a i +b j
a
A vector u = may also be written in the form u =a i +b j
b
1 0
where i = , j =
0 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXPLANATION FOR u =a i +b j
a
Notice that any vector on the x-axis has the form
0
0
any vector on the y-axis has the form
b
1
Especially, the unit vector on the x-axis is i =
0
0
the unit vector on the y-axis is j =
1
3 0
Consider for example the vectors u 1= , u 2=
0 4
u
u2
j
O i u1
3 3 3 0
Then u = can be written as u = u 1+ u 2 [indeed, = + ]
4 4 0 4
But u 1=3 i and u 2=4 j , thus the vector u can be expressed as
u =3 i +4 j
In general,
a
= a i +b j
b
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
For u + v
3 5 8
Let u = and v = . Then u + v =
4 - 2 2
Geometrically, let us draw u and v , starting from the origin, so
that u and v are consecutive:
for u we are moving 3 units horizontally, 4 units vertically
for v we are moving 5 units horizontally, -2 units vertically
then we observe that
for u + v we are moving 8 units horizontally 2 units vertically
v
u
u+ v
O
Hence, the geometric description of u + v that we have seen in
paragraph 4.1 keeps up with the algebraic description in this
paragraph.
For k u
a
If u = is a vector of magnitude m
b
2a
then clearly 2 u = is a vector in
2b
the same direction with magnitude 2m
Again, the geometric and the algebraic definitions of 2 u (and
k u in general) coincide!
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
In the 3-dimensional space a vector has the following form
a
u= b or equivalently u =a i +b j +c k
c
1 0 0
where i = 0 , j = 1 , k = 0
0 0 1
z
u
y
c
b
k j
O
x
a
i
The magnitude of u is defined by | u |= a 2 b 2 c 2
All the other notions (eg u + v , k u , unit vector) are defined in an
analogue way!
EXAMPLE 4
1 2
Consider the vectors u = 2 , v = 5 . Then
3 - 4
1 2 3 4 7
3 u +2 v =3 2 +2 5 = 6 + 10 = 16
3 - 4 9 - 8 1
| u |= 1 2 2 2 3 2 = 14
1/ 14
1
The unit vector corresponding to u is û= u = 2/ 14
|u|
3/ 14
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
2D 3D
Points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2)
x 1 x 2 y1 y 2 x 1 x 2 y1 y 2 z 1 z 2
Mid-point M( , ) M( , , )
2 2 2 2 2
position x1 x2
x1 x2
vectors OA= , OB= OA= y1 , OB= y 2
y1 y2
of A and B z1 z2
x 2 x1 x 2 x1
x 2 x1 x 2 x1
vector AB - =
y y
y 2 - y1 = y 2 y1
2 1 y 2 y1
z2 z1 z2 z1
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the (x 1 x 1 ) 2 (y 1 y 2 ) 2 (x 1 x 1 ) 2 (y 1 y 2 ) 2 (z 1 z 2 ) 2
magnitude |AB|
EXAMPLE 5
2D 3D
Points A(1,2) and B(3,4) A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6)
5 7 9
Mid-point M(2,3) M( , , )
2 2 2
1 4
position vectors 1 3
OA= , OB= OA= 2 , OB= 5
of A and B 2 4 3 6
4 1 3
3 1 2
vector AB - = 5 - 2 = 3
4 2 2 6 3 3
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the 22 22 8 3 2 3 2 3 2 27
magnitude |AB|
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
θ
u
The dot product (or scalar product) of u and v is defined to be a
number given by
u . v =| u || v |cosθ
For example, if u and v are vectors of magnitudes 5 and 4
respectively and the angle between them is θ=600 then
u . v =| u || v |cosθ=(5).(4).(0.5) = 10
Thus, the dot product can take any value between the minimum
value -| u || v | and the maximum value | u || v |
In particular, the product u . u is denoted by u 2. Since the angle
between u and itself is 0, u 2 is equal to | u || u |, hence
u 2=| u |2
1 0
Notice that for the unit vectors i= and j= it holds
0 1
i2= 1 , j2=1, i.j= 0 and j.i=0
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
2 5
For example, if u = and v = then u. v =2.5+3.4=22
3 4
BASIC PROPERTIES
It can be shown that the dot product satisfies the following basic
rules:
o u. v = v . u (commutative law)
o u .( v 1 + v 2 )= u . v 1 + u . v 2 (distributive law)
o k( u . v )=(k u ). v = u . (k v )
Hence, if we are given two vectors u and v , we can easily calculate
| u | , | v | and the dot product u. v by using the “pretty” definition
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
3 1
Consider the vectors u = , v = .
4 - 2
Find
a) their magnitudes
b) their dot product u. v
c) the angle θ between them
We have
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 5
b) u. v = 3.1+4.(-2)=-5
uv 5 1
c) cosθ = = = , and the GDC gives θ=116.560
| u || v | 5 5 5
The dot product is a nice tool to verify whether two vectors are
perpendicular or not:
(perpendicular vectors)
u v u. v =0
u// v u=k v for some kR (parallel vectors)
EXAMPLE 2
3 4
a) Show that u = , v = are perpendicular
4 - 3
2
b) Find some perpendicular vectors to the vector u =
5
Solution
a) u. v =3.4+4.(-3)= 0, hence u v . Indeed, look at the following
diagram
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3
u =
4
4
v =
- 3
b - b a
b) In general both and are perpendicular to u = since
-a a b
the dot product for both pairs is a.b-ab=0.
2
Thus, some perpendicular vectors to u = are the following
5
5 10 15 5 - 10 - 15
, , and , ,
- 2 - 4 - 6 2 4 6
EXAMPLE 3
3 x
Let u = . Find the value of x if v = is
4 - 6
a) perpendicular to u b) parallel to u
Solution
a) u v u. v = 0 3x+4(-6)=0 3x=24 x=8
3 x
b) u// v =λ for some λ.
4 - 6
But it is more practical to say that the ratios of the corresponding
coordinates are equal:
x 6
3 4
9
Therefore, x=-
2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
THE PROPERTY | u |2= u 2
EXAMPLE 4
For two non-zero vectors u and v it holds | u+ v |=| u- v |. Show
that u and v are perpendicular.
| u+ v |=| u- v | | u+ v |2=| u- v |2 [just squaring]
2 2
( u+ v ) =( u- v ) [property | u |2= u 2]
u2+2 u. v + v 2= u2-2 u. v + v 2
4 u. v =0 u. v =0 u v
3D VECTORS
a a2
1
For two vectors u= b1 and v = b 2 the dot product is given by
c
1 c2
u. v =a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
EXAMPLE 5
4 5
Show that u = 2 , v = - 3 are perpendicular. Indeed
- 1 14
u. v = 4.5+2(-3)+(-1)(14) = 0, thus u v
EXAMPLE 6
1 1
Find the angle between u = 1 and v = 2 . We have
1 3
uv 6
cosθ = = =0.926, hence θ=cos-1(0.926)= 22.20
| u || v | 3 14
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
VECTOR EQUATION
a1
Let A(a1,a2) be a point with position vector a =
a2
b
b = 1 be a vector
b2
There is a unique line passing through A which is parallel to b .
A(a1,a2)
b
1
b =
b
2
x
The position vector r = of the random point P(x,y) in this line is
y
given by
or x a1 b1
r = a +λ b = +λ
y a2 b2
where λ is a parameter.
SHORT EXPLANATION
x
r =
a1 y
a = P
a2
A b
1
b =
b2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
x a1 b1 x=a1+λb1
= +λ gives
y a2 b2 y=a2+λb2
CARTESIAN EQUATION
x a1 y a2
If we solve both equations for λ we get λ= and λ= .
b1 b2
Therefore, the relation between the parameters x,y is
x a1 y a 2
=
b1 b2
EXAMPLE 1
3
Let A(1,2) be the given point and b = be the direction vector.
4
Then the line passing through A, parallel to b is
1 3 x 1 3
Vector equation: r = +λ or = +λ
2 4 y 2 4
Parametric equations: x=1+3λ
y=2+4λ
Now solve for λ and get
x 1 y2
Cartesian equation: =
3 4
ax+by=c or y=mx+c
4 2
If we solve for y we obtain the traditional form: y= x
3 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
x 1 3
Let us consider again the equation = +λ
y 2 4
3
It is the line which is parallel to b = and passes through A(1,2).
4
1 3
(the given one) (the given one)
2 4
4 6
(for λ=1)
6 8
7 9 3
(for λ=2) multiples of
10 12 4
- 2 - 3
(for λ=-1)
- 2 - 4
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the line which passes through A(1,2) and B(4,7)
1 4- 1 3
We consider a = and b =AB= =
2 7 - 2 5
Hence, the line is
1 3
r = +λ
2 5
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the line y=3x+2. Find a vector equation of the line.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
L1 b2
P
θ
b1
L2
Methodology:
set r1 = r2 ,
find λ (or μ),
Substitute to L1 (or L2) to find the point.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the intersection point of the lines
1 3 2 1
r1 = +λ and r2 = +μ
2 4 - 2 4
1 3λ 2 μ 3λ μ 1 3λ μ 1
r1 = r2 =
2 4λ - 2 4μ 4λ 4μ 4 λ μ 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
It is enough to find the angle between b1 and b 2
(since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 )
EXAMPLE 6
Find the angle between the lines
1 3 2 1
r1 = +λ and r2 = +μ
2 4 - 2 4
3 1
It suffices to find the angle between b1 = , and b 2 =
4 4
We have
b1 . b 2 = 3.1+4.4=19 and | b1 |= 5, | b 2 |= 17
so
19
cosθ = =0.922, and the GDC gives θ=22.80
5 17
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
Suppose that a body is moving according to the equation
1 3
r = +t
2 4
where time is measured in seconds and distance in meters.
3
The velocity vector is v =
4
The speed is | v |= 32 4 2 =5 m/sec
NOTICE
If r = a +λ b is an equation of line, the direction vector b can be
substituted by any multiple of b .
If r = a +t b is an equation of motion, the velocity vector b CANNOT
be substituted by a multiple of b .
This is because the velocity vector corresponds to one unit of time t.
To explain the difference, consider the following situations:
Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 1
second at position B(5,8). Then
4 1 4
velocity vector: v =AB= , equation of motion: r = +t
6 2 6
Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 2
4
seconds at position B(5,8). Then the direction vector b =AB=
6
corresponds to 2 seconds, hence
1 2 1 2
Velocity vector: v = b = , equation of motion: r = +t
2 3 2 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
x=1+4λ
parametric equations:
y=2+5λ
z=3+6λ
x 1 y2 z 3
Cartesian equations*: = =
4 5 6
The rest analysis is similar! Let us find for example the line which
passes through two given points:
EXAMPLE 1
(a) Find the line which passes through A(1,2,3) and B(5,2,-1)
(b) Does the point C(21,2,-17) lie on the line?
Solution
1 5 - 1 4
(a) We consider a = 2 and b =AB= 2 - 2 = 0
3 - 1- 3 - 4
Hence, the line is r = a +λ b , that is
* We just solve the parametric equations for λ and equate the results
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
1 4
r = 2 +λ 0
3 - 4
(b) The point C lies on the line if
21 1 4
2 = 2 +λ 0 for some λ
- 17 3 - 4
We obtain three equations:
21=1+4λ λ=5
2=2 (which is true anyway)
-17=3-4λ λ=5
Methodology:
If b1 // b 2 the lines are parallel (moreover, if they have a
common point they coincide); otherwise
Set r1 = r2 . We obtain a system of 3 equations for λ and μ
Consider the first two equations and find λ and μ,
If λ and μ satisfy the third equation the lines intersect;
substitute λ to L1 (or μ to L2) to find the point
If λ and μ do not satisfy the third equation the lines are skew
(nether parallel nor intersecting)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the intersection point of the lines:
1 3 1 6
a) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 1 +μ 8
3 5 1 10
1 3 7 6
b) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 10 +μ 8
3 5 13 10
1 3 1 2
c) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +μ 2
3 5 4 3
1 3 1 2
d) r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +μ 2
3 5 4 2
We have
6 3
a) the lines are parallel since 8 =2 4 . Since (1,2,3) does not
10 5
lie on the second line (it does not satisfy the equation) the
lines are not identical.
6 3
b) the lines are parallel since 8 =2 4 . Since (1,2,3) lies on
10 5
the second line (it satisfies the equation for μ=-1) the lines
coincide.
1 3λ 1 2μ 3λ 2μ 0
c) r1 = r2 2 4λ = 4 2μ 4λ 2μ 2
5λ 3μ 1
3 5λ 4 3μ
The first two equations give λ=2, μ=3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5λ-3μ=1, so the lines intersect. For λ=2 the first
7
equation line gives r1 = 10 . Point of intersection: P(7,10,13).
13
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
1 3λ 1 2μ 3λ 2μ 0
d) r1 = r2 2 4λ = 4 2μ 4λ 2μ 2
5λ 2μ 1
3 5λ 4 2μ
The first two equations give λ=2, μ=3. These values do not
satisfy the third equation 5λ-2μ=1, so the lines are skew.
The angle between two lines is the angle between the direction
vectors b1 and b 2 (since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 ). In fact, there are
two supplementary angles. We usually ask for the acute one. Thus,
if we find θ > 90o we consider 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the angle between the two intersecting lines (see Exercise 2(c))
1 3 1 2
r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +μ 2
3 5 4 3
3 2
We find the angle between the direction vectors b1 = 4 , b 2 = 2 .
5 3
We have
b1 . b 2 = 3.2+4.2+5.3 = 29 and | b1 |= 50 , | b 2 |= 17
so
29
cosθ = = 0.995, and the GDC gives θ=5.73°
50 17
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the angle between the following lines is 90°:
1 3 1 - 4
r1 = 2 +λ 4 and r2 = 4 +μ 3
3 5 4 0
The dot product of the direction vectors is 3(-4)+4.3+5.0 = 0.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
u v
n
That is, u v is a new vector perpendicular to both u and v (and
so to the plane determined by u and v ) with magnitude | u || v |sinθ
and direction n .
u
u v
v v
u
u v
u v = -v u
†If we place a screw at the common starting point of u and v and rotate it
form u to v , then the screw will move in the direction of n .
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
a1 a2
Let u = b1 and v = b 2 be two vectors. The cross product (or
c
1 c2
vector product) of u and v is given by
b 1 c 2 b 2 c1
u v = c1 a 2 c 2 a 1
a b a b
1 2 2 1
a 1 a 2 b 1 c 2 b 2 c1
b1 b 2 =
c
1 c2
Then you carry on in a similar way for the 2nd and the 3rd row.
Mind though the order of the operations for the three rows:
NOTICE
For those who know determinants, the definition can be given in
the form
i j k
u v = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
b c1 a 1 c1 a 1 b1
u v = 1 i j k
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
1 4
Let u = 2 and v = 5 . Then
3 6
.
a) find u v ,
b) find u v and v u (by using the “pretty” definition)
c) verify that u v is perpendicular to both u and v
a) u . v = 4+10+18=32
1 4 12 - 15 - 3
b) u v = 2 5 = 12 - 6 = 6
3 6 5 - 8 - 3
4 1 15 - 12 3
v u = 5 2 = 6- 12 = - 6 . That is v u = - u v
6 3 8- 5 3
c) u v u and u v v
-3 1 -3 4
since 6 2 =-3+12-9 = 0, 6 5 =-12 +30-18 = 0
-3 3 -3 6
EXAMPLE 2
3 1
Let u = 2 and v = 4 . Then
0 0
a) find u v by using the “pretty” definition
b) find the angle θ between u and v
c) find the unit vector n .
d) find u v by using the “ugly” definition
e) verify that u v is perpendicular to both u and v
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3 1 0
a) u v = 2 4 = 0
0 0 10
uv 11
b) cosθ= = 0.74, hence θ = 42.27ο
| u || v | 13 17
c) both vectors u and v are on the plane Oxy so the unit vector n
is parallel to axis Oz (if we draw u and v we will realize n is in
the positive direction so
0
n =0
1
0
d) u v = (| u || v |sinθ) n = ( 13 17 sin42.3 ) n = 10 n = 0
ο
10
e) clearly u v is parallel to n and thus perpendicular to both u
and v .
THE MAGNITUDE | u v |
Notice that the ugly definition u v = (| u || v |sinθ) n implies
| u v | = | u || v |sinθ
since n is a unit vector.
But, if we consider the triangle determined by u and v
v
θ
u
1
we know that its area is given by | u || v |sinθ.
2
Therefore, the area of this triangle is given by
1
Area of triangle = |u v |
2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
In other words, the magnitude of the cross product u v gives
directly the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v
v
u
Area of parallelogram = | u v |
EXAMPLE 3
1 4 - 3
For u = 2 and v = 5 , we have seen that u v = 6
3 6 - 3
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v is
given by
Area = | u v | = 9 36 9 = 7.35
1
Also, the area of the corresponding triangle is (7.35)=3.67
2
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(1,1,1), B(1,3,1) and (-3,3,4)
A C
It suffices to find the area of the triangle determined by any two
vectors; let’s choose the vectors AB and AC.
0 - 4 0 - 4 6
AB = 2 , AC = 2 and so AB AC= 2 2 = 0
0 3 0 3 8
Hence,
1 1
Area of triangle = |AB AC| = 36 0 64 = 5
2 2
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
VECTOR EQUATION
a1
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a = a 2 )
a
3
b c1
1
Two vectors b = b 2 , c = c2 (which are non-parallel)
c
b3 3
There is a unique plane passing through A, parallel to both b and c
b
A c
x
The position vector r = y of any point P(x,y,z) of this plane is
z
given by
r = a +λ b +μ c
or
a1 b1 c1
r = a 2 +λ b 2 +μ c2
a c
3 b3 3
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
SHORT EXPLANATION
If P(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then AP lies in fact on the
plane determined by b and c .
P(x,y,z)
c
A
b
Hence
AP = λ b +μ c (for some λ,μ).
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
x a1 b1 c1 x=a1+λb1+μc1
y = a 2 +λ b 2 +μ c2 gives y=a2+λb2+μc2
z a c
3 b3 3 z=a3+λb3+μc3
CARTESIAN EQUATION
If we eliminate λ and μ we will obtain an equation of the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,2,3) be the given point
4 7
b = 5 and c = 8 be the parallel vectors
6 8
Then the plane passing through A, parallel to b and c is
Vector equation:
1 4 7
r = 2 +λ 5 +μ 8
3 6 8
Parametric equations:
x=1+4λ+7μ (1)
y=2+5λ+8μ (2)
z=3+6λ+8μ (3)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
n
P
A
Indeed, if P(x,y,z) is a random point of the plane then AP n
But AP =OP-OA= r - a , and so
AP . n =0 ( r - a ). n =0 r . n - a . n =0 r . n = a . n
NOTICE
The equation r . n = a . n derives immediately the Cartesian form
Ax+By+Cz=D
x Α
Indeed, r n = y Β = Ax+By+Cz
z C
while a n is a constant scalar, say D
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the plane passing through A(1,2,3) which is
8
perpendicular to n = 10 (normal vector)
-3
. .
The equation r n = a n implies
x 8 1 8
y 10 = 2 10
z -3 3 -3
or directly
-8x+10y-3z =-8+20-9 and finally -8x+10y-3z =3
NOTICE
In examples 1 and 2 we obtained the same plane: -8x+10y-3z =3
We had:
1 4
7
EXAMPLE 1: Point: a = 2 Parallel vectors: b = 5 and c = 8
3 6 8
1 8
EXAMPLE 2: Point: a = 2 Normal vector: n = 10
3 -3
Indeed, if we consider as n the cross product b c
(which is to both b , c and hence perpendicular to the plane)
we obtain
4 7 8
n = 5 8 = 10
6 8 -3
Thus, given the vector equation of the plane, the Cartesian equation
can be easily derived in this way instead of following the
elimination process of λ and μ.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
If we know the Cartesian form Ax+By+Cz=D
Α
n = Β
we also know a normal vector of the equation. It is
C
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the plane 3x-2y+z = 6
a) Find a normal vector n
b) Find three points on the plane
c) Find two vectors b and c parallel to the plane
d) Confirm that n b and n c
e) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
3
a) n = -2
1
b) For y=z=0 it is x=2, thus we obtain the point A(2,0,0).
Similarly we obtain the points B(0,-3,0) and C(0,0,6)
0 2 -2 0 2 -2
c) Let b =AB= -3 - 0 = -3 and c =AC= 0 - 0 = 0
0 0 0 6 0 6
. .
d) We can easily see that n b =-6+6 = 0 and n c =-6+6 = 0
2 -2 -2
e) Vector form: r = a +λ b +μ c or r = 0 +λ -3 +μ 0
0 0 6
Parametric form: x=2-2λ-2μ, y=-3λ, z=6μ
3
.
Normal form: r -2 =6 [since a . n =6]
1
Cartesian form: 3x-2y+z = 6
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the plane
3 1 5
r = 1 +λ 2 +μ 0
2 3 2
a) Find two parallel vectors b and c
b) Find three points on the plane
c) Find a normal vector n
d) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
1 5 4
c) Let n = b c = 2 0 = 13
3 2 -10
3 1 5
d) Vector form: r = a +λ b +μ c or r = 1 +λ 2 +μ 0
2 3 2
Normal form: r .n =a.n
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
TWO LINES
Given: Lines L1: r1 = a1 +λ b1
L2: r2 = a 2 +μ b 2
parallel Check if b1 // b2
Check if b1 // b 2
coincide
+ a common point
Intersect r1 = r2
at some point has a solution
r1 = r2
skew
has no solution
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Notice: if the line and the plane are given in other forms, we
transform them into the forms L: r1 = a +λ b and Π: Ax+By+Cz=D
EXAMPLE 1
1 4
Consider the line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 and the plane Π: 2x+5y-3z=18
3 6
Find the the angle between L and Π and the point of intersection.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
1 4
Show that line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 is parallel to plane Π: 2x+2y-3z=1
3 6
4 2
Method A: If b = 5 and n = 2 , then
6 - 3
b n =0 b n L //Π
The point (1,2,3) of the line does not satisfy 2x+2y-3z = 1, hence
the line does not lie on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=1:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=1 0λ=4
EXAMPLE 3
1 4
Show that line L: r1 = 2 +λ 5 lies on plane Π: 2x+2y-3z = -3
3 6
Method A: Again b n =0 b n L //Π
But this time, the point (1,2,3) of the line satisfies the equation
2x+2y-3z = -3, hence the line lies on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=-3:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=-3 0λ=0
The last equation is true for any λ, so the line lies on the plane.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
TWO PLANES
Α
1
Given: Planes Π1: A1x+B1y+C1z=D1 so n 1 = Β1
C
1
Α2
Π2: A2x+B2y+C2z=D2 so n 2 = Β2
C
2
Planes Look like Method
Find two common points
n2
and thus the line
n1
intersecting or
into a line one common point a and
r = a +λ b direction vector b = n 1 n 2
or
solve simultaneous equations
parallel Check if n 1 // n 2
Check if n 1 // n 2
+
coincide
The equations are
multiple to each other
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the planes
x+2y+3z=6
4x+5y+6z=15
Find the angle between the two planes and the line of intersection.
n1 n 2 32
For the angle: cosθ= = θ=12.93ο
| n 1 || n 2 | 14 77
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
The two points A,B determine the equation of the intersecting line
0 1
r = 3 +λ - 2
0 1
Method Β: We find only one common point, say A(0,3,0) and as a
1 4 - 3 1
direction vector we consider n 1 n 2 = 2 5 = 6 which is // - 2
3 6 - 3 1
Method C: We solve the system of the two linear equations (GDC or
Gauss elimination). The general solution is x λ, y 3 2λ , z λ .
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10
2x+4y+6z=30
1 2
Their normal vectors 2 and 4 are clearly parallel.
3 6
Moreover, the two planes do not have a common point (since one
equation is not a multiple of the other).
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10 and 2x+4y+6z=20
The two planes coincide (one is a multiple of the other)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
THREE PLANES
Given: Planes A1x+B1y+C1z=D1
A2x+B2y+C2z=D2
A3x+B3y+C3z=D3
SYSTEM CONCLUSION
No common point:
No solution The planes form a triangular prism
or 2 of the planes are parallel
EXAMPLE 7
14 16
The solution represents the line r = - 5 +λ 7 .
0 1
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
B(5,7,9)
A(1,2,3)
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3 4 3λ 3
AP L AP 2 5 2λ 2
1 1
6 λ
3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
14λ=-28
λ=-2
d(A,P)= (1 1) 2 (2 3) 2 (3- 7) 2 = 21
Consider
1 6 5 3
Line L1: r = 2 +μ 4 and line L2: r = 7 +λ 2
3 2 9 1
The lines are clearly parallel.
A(1,2,3)
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
Consider
1 4 5 3
Line L1: r = 2 +μ 5 and line L2: r = 7 +λ 2
3 0 9 1
It is given that the lines are skew
b1 P(1+4μ,2+5μ,3)
b2 Q(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
4 3λ - 4μ
We first find foots P and Q. Notice that PQ= 5 2λ - 5μ
6 λ
4 3λ - 4μ 4
a) PQ L1 5 2λ - 5μ 5
0
6 λ
4(4+3λ-4μ)+5(5+2λ-5μ)+0(6+λ)=0
22λ-41μ=-41
4 3λ - 4μ 3
b) PQ L2 5 2λ - 5μ 2
1
6 λ
3(4+3λ-4μ)+2(5+2λ-5μ)+(6+λ)=0
14λ-22μ=-28
41 7
The system gives λ= , and μ=
15 15
13 1 16 23 94
Hence we find P( , ,3) and Q( , , )
15 3 5 15 15
and hence we can find the distance |PQ|.
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
A(3,4,6)
n
P
d(A,P)= (3- 1) 2 (4 - 1) 2 (6 - 1) 2 = 38
A(3,4,6)
n
P
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TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
We just find a point of plane Π1: for x=y=0, z=2, hence A(0,0,2)
Then we find the distance of point A from plane Π2
(as in case D above).
d(A,P)= (2 - 0) 2 (3- 0) 2 (7 - 2) 2 = 38
125