Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

International Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 3
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………… 1
3.2 TRIANGLES – SINE AND COSINE RULES ...………………………………………… 5
3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 10
3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS …………………….. 15
3.5 SINΘ, COSΘ, TANΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE…………………………………………… 19
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS .……………………………….. 26
3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 36
Only for HL
3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS – IDENTITIES ………….………………. 49
3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………. 54
3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION …………………………………………. 59
3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 66
3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS …………… 73
3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 78
3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 85
3.15 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ………………………………………………………….… 89
3.16 PLANES ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 94
3.17 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ……….…………………………101
3.18 DISTANCES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 107
June 2019
TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
♦ 3D COORDINATE GEOMETRY
We know that a point in the Cartesian plane has the form P(x,y).
In 3D space we add one more coordinate, thus a point has the
form P(x,y,z).
The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

by
dAB = (x 1 − x 2 ) 2 + (y1 − y2 ) 2 + (z 1 − z 2 ) 2
while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by
x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2 z1 + z 2
M( , , )
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find
(a) the distance between A and B

(b) the distance between A and B
(c) the coordinates of the midpoint M of the line segment [AB]
(d) the coordinates of point C given that B is the midpoint of [AC]
Solution
(a) dAB = (1 − 2) 2 + (0 − 3) 2 + (5 − 1) 2 = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26
(b) dOA = 1 2 + 0 2 + 5 2 = 26
1+ 2 0 +3 5 +1 3 3
(c) M( , , ) i.e. M( , ,3 )
2 2 2 2 2
(d) C(3,6,-3)
Notice: the coordinates of A,B,C (B midpoint) form arithmetic sequences
x: 1,2,3
y: 0,3,6
z: 5,1,-3
1
♦ VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS
The volumes and the surface areas of 5 known solids are given
below:
Solid Volume Surface area
Cuboid
V = xyz S = 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
Pyramid
1 S = (sum of areas
V= (area of base) × (height)
3 of the faces)
Cylinder
2
V = πr 2 h S = 2π rh + 2π r
Cone
S = πrL + πr2
1
V= πr 2 h where
3
L = r 2 + h2
Sphere
4
V= πr 3 S = 4π r 2
3
Notation
x, y, z : length-width-height
r: radius of circular base
h: vertical height
2
EXAMPLE 2
The volume and the surface area for the following solids
Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x
x
x x
Cube: V = xxx = x 3 S = 6x 2
Cuboid of square base: V = x2y S = 2x 2 + 4xy
EXAMPLE 3
Given that the volume of a cylinder is 25,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the surface area in terms of r
Solution
25
(a) V = πr 2 h ⇒ πr 2 h = 25 ⇒ h =
π r2
25 50
(b) 2
S = 2π rh + 2π r = 2π r 2
+ 2π r 2 = + 2π r 2
πr r
EXAMPLE 4
Given that the surface area of a cylinder is 100π,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the volume in terms of r
Solution
50 - r 2
(a) 2 2
S = 2π rh + 2π r ⇒ 2π rh + 2π r = 100π ⇒ h =
r
50 - r 2
(b) V = πr 2 h = πr 2 = πr(50 - r 2 ) = 50π r - 50r 3
r
3
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume and the surface area of a right pyramid of square
base of side 6 and vertical height 4.
Solution
The vertical height is h=4.
For the slant height AM we use the Pythagoras theorem on ANM.
AM 2 = AN 2 + NM 2 ⇔ AM 2 = 4 2 + 3 2 ⇔ AM = 5
The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

1 1
A= × ED × AM = × 6 × 5 = 15
2 2
The volume is
1 1
V= (area of base) × (height) = × 6 2 × 4 = 48
3 3
The surface area is
S = (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) = 96
4
3.2 TRIANGLES – SINE AND COSINE RULES
♦ BASIC NOTIONS
a b
θ
B c A
b opposite c adjacent
sinθ = = cosθ = =
a hypotenuse a hypotenuse
b opposite c adjacent
tanθ = = cotθ = =
c adjacent b opposite
Pythagoras’ theorem a2 = b2 + c2 sin 2 θ + cos 2θ = 1
Indeed,
2 2
2 2b c b2 + c2 a 2
sin θ + cos θ =   +   = = 2 =1
a a a2 a
Notice also
sinθ cosθ
tanθ = cotθ =
cosθ sinθ
♦ A PRACTICAL REMINDER FOR SIN, COS, TAN of basic angles:
0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

SIN 0 /2 1/2 2 /2 3/2 4 /2
COS same results in the opposite order
TAN obtained by the division SIN/COS
5
Hence,
θ sinθ cosθ tanθ cotθ
0o 0 1 0 -
30o 1/2 3/2 1/ 3 3
45o 2 /2 2 /2 1 1
60o 3/2 1/2 3 1/ 3
90o 1 0 - 0
1 3 1
Notice that = (multiply both terms of by 3)
3 3 3
REMARKS:
• If we know the result sinθ we can find the angle θ itself by using
the inverse function sin-1 in our GDC. Similarly for cosθ and
tanθ. For example,
If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o
If cosθ = 0.3 then θ = cos-1 0.3 = 72.5o
• sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cotθ are defined not only for acute angles
(where θ < 90ο) but also for obtuse angles (where θ > 90ο). The
definitions will be given later on. At the moment, it is enough to
know that supplementary angles (i.e. their sum=180) have equal
sines but opposite cosines:
If A + B = 180o then sinA = sinB while cosA = -cosB
e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5
cos30o = 3/2 cos 150o = - 3/2
• The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.
E.g., sinθ cannot be 1.5. Indeed, GDC gives sin-1 1.5 = error!
6
♦ SINE RULE - COSINE RULE
Consider the following triangle
c b
B a C
sinA sinB sinC

SINE RULE = =
a b c
COSINE RULE a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA
Notice: the cosine rule can be also expressed as
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2ca ⋅ cosB
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab ⋅ cosC
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following triangle
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
We confirm that the SINE RULE holds:
sinA sin 104.5

= = 0.242
a 4
sinB sin 46.6
= = 0.242
b 3
sinC sin 28.9
= = 0.242
c 2
7
We confirm that the COSINE RULE holds

a 2 = 42= 16 b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA = 32+22-12cos 104.5 = 16
b 2 = 32= 9 c 2 + a 2 − 2ca ⋅ cosB = 22+42-16cos 46.6 = 9
c 2 = 22= 4 a 2 + b 2 − 2ab ⋅ cosC = 42+32-24cos 28.9 = 4
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following right-angled triangle
A
90o
c b
B a C
sin90 o sinB sinC 1 sinB sinC

Then = = ⇒ = = and so
a b c a b c
b c
sinB = and sinC =
a a
as expected by the definition of sinθ
Also, a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cos90 o implies a 2 = b 2 + c 2
that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.
Moreover
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2ca ⋅ cosB ⇒ b 2 = c 2 + (b 2 + c 2 ) − 2ca ⋅ cosB
c
⇒ - 2c 2 = −2ca ⋅ cosB ⇒ cosB =
a
b
as expected by the definition of cosθ. Similarly we get cosC =
a
Consequently,
SINE RULE is a generalisation of the definition of sinθ

COSINE RULE is a generalization of the definition of cosθ
COSINE RULE is a generalization of Pythagoras’ theorem
8
♦ THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
Any triangle possesses 6 basic elements: 3 angles and 3 sides.
If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

we are able to find the remaining 3 elements by using the sine rule
or the cosine rule appropriately.
Notice
Given We use
(3 sides) OR (2 sides and 1 included angle) COSINE RULE
otherwise SINE RULE
In fact,
we use the SINE RULE only if we know an angle-opposite side pair.
EXAMPLE 3 (given 3 sides)
2 3
B 4 C
We use COSINE RULE (since we don’t know any pair of angle-side):

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA ⇒ 42 = 22 + 32 - 12 cosA
⇒ 3 = -12cosA
⇒ cosA = - 0.25
⇒ A = 104.5o
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2ca ⋅ cosB ⇒ 32 = 22 + 42 - 16 cosB
⇒ -11 = -16cosB
⇒ cosB = 0.6875
⇒ B = 46.6o
Finally C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o-46.6o, thus C = 28.9o
9
Notice: We may sometimes have no solutions at all. For example, if

a=10, b=3, c=2 it is not possible to construct such a triangle!
Indeed, the cosine rule gives us cosA = -7.25 which is not possible!
EXAMPLE 4 (given 2 sides and 1 included angle)
104.5o
2 3
B a C
We use COSINE RULE:
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA = 22 + 32 - 12 cos 104.5o = 16
Thus a = 4
Then we know all the three sides and hence B and C can be
estimated as above: B = 46.6o and C = 28.9o
EXAMPLE 5 (given 1 side and 2 angles)
104.5o
c 3
46.60
B a C
We can easily fine the third angle:
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o- 46.6o, thus C = 28.9o
Now we can use the sine rule twice
sin 46.6 sin 104.5 0.968

= ⇒ 0.242 = ⇒ a = 4
3 a a
sin 46.6 sin 28.9 0.483
= ⇒ 0.242 = ⇒ c = 2
3 c c
10
It remains to see what happens if we are given 2 sides and 1 non-

included angle. In this case we may have
Two triangles as a solution
One triangle
No triangle at all
This is because the sine rule will provide two values for an unknown
angle. For example if we find sinC = 0.5 then
C = 30o (this is sin-1C)
or C΄ = 180o - 30o = 150o
and these two values may result to different solutions
The following examples will be clarifying.
EXAMPLE 6 (given 2 sides and 1 non-included angle)
2 3
46.60
B a C
We use the sine rule
sin 46.6 sin C sin C

= ⇒ 0.242 = ⇒ sinC = 0.484
3 2 2
Hence, C = 28.9o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 28.9o = 151.1o
But C΄ = 151.1o is rejected since B + C΄ = 46.6o + 151.1o > 180o
The solution C = 28.9o implies
A = 180o - 46.6o - 28.9o, that is A = 104.5o
Then side a can be found either by sine or by cosine rule! It is a=4
11
5 4
300
B a C
We use the sine rule:

sin 30 sin C sin C
= ⇒ 0.125 = ⇒ sinC = 0.625
4 5 5
Hence, C = 38.7o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 38.7o = 141.3o
(1) If C = 38.7o then A = 180o - 30o - 38.7o, thus A = 111.3o
(2) If C΄ = 141.3o then A΄ = 180o - 30o - 141.3o, thus A΄ = 8.7o
For each case we can estimate the value of side a respectively by
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA
CASE (1) gives C = 38.7o , A = 111.3o , a = 7.45
CASE (2) gives C΄ = 141.3o , A΄ = 8.7o , a΄ = 1.21 .
5 1
300
B a C
We use the sine rule:
sin 30 sin C sin C

= ⇒ 0.5 = ⇒ sinC = 2.5 which is impossible!
1 5 5
Hence, there is no such a triangle!
12
♦ THE AMBIGUOUS CASE
In example 7, given B=30o, c=5, b=4 we found two solutions.

Indeed, the two triangles satisfying theses conditions look like
5 4 4
300
B C΄ C
Notice that b=4 can be placed in two different ways while B=30o
and c=5 are still valid! For the two possible values of angle C it
holds C+C΄=180o)
♦ THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
A
1
c b Area = b ⋅ c ⋅ sinA
2
B a C
Notice that two sides and the included angle are involved in the
formula! Thus, we can derive two similar versions for this formula:
1 1
Area = absinC Area = acsinB
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
In example 1 we have: A=104.5, B=46.6, C=28.9, a=4, b=3, c=2
Hence
1
Area = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ sin104.5 o = 2.9
2
The other two versions give the same result! (verify the result!)
13
3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION
♦ ANGLE OF ELEVATION – ANGLE OF DEPRESSION
Suppose that an object is above the horizontal level of an observer.

The angle of elevation θ to the object is shown below:
Object
θ
Observer horizontal
If the object is below the level of the observer the angle of

depression θ to the object is shown below:
Observer horizontal
θ
Object
We very often see these notions in 3D shapes. For example,
The angle of elevation from A to G is the angle BAˆ G.

ˆ F (explain why!)
The angle of elevation from A to F is the angle CA
The angle of depression from H to B is the angle GHˆ B.

ˆ C (explain why!)
The angle of depression from H to C is the angle FH
10
EXAMPLE 1
P
30 45
horizontal
B A
An object P is above a hill. Two observers A and B are situated as

in the diagram above.
The angle of elevation from A is 45o.
The angle of elevation from B is 30o.
The distance between A and B is 10m.
Find the vertical height of the object P above the ground.
Solution
Consider the triangle
P
30 45
10 x K
B A
h 1 h
tan30 = ⇔ = ⇔ x + 10 = h 3 ⇔ x = h 3 − 10
x + 10 3 x + 10
h 1 h
tan45 = ⇔ = ⇔x =h 2
x 2 x
Therefore,
10
h 3 − 10 = h 2 ⇔ h( 3 − 2 ) = 10 ⇔ h = ≅ 31.5 m
3− 2
11
EXAMPLE 2
An observer is situated at point A.

(a) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(b) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2 = 4 2 + 3 2 ⇒ AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G = 3 ⇒ BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2 = 4 2 + 5 2 ⇒ AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2 = 41 + 3 2 ⇒ AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF = 3 ˆ =25.1o
⇒ CAF
41
12
♦ NAVIGATION - BEARING
When we navigate on a map we should have in mind the four main

directions
North, East, South, West
as well as the four intermediate directions as shown below.
The angle between any consecutive directions is 45o.
Thus, for example,
• if two persons walk towards the North and East directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 90o.
• if two persons walk towards the North and Southeast directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 135o.
Another keyword in navigation is the bearing. Suppose that a

moving body goes from point A to point B.
The bearing of the course AB is the clockwise angle

between the North direction and AB.
The following diagram will clarify this notion.
13
According to the diagram:

North
North
50o
the bearing of the course AB is 50o

the bearing of the course BA is 230o (explain why!)
EXAMPLE 3
A car travels
from point A to point B in bearing 50o,
then from point B to point C with bearing 1500,
then goes back to point A with bearing 270o.
The distance AC is 10km. Draw the triangle ABC and find all its
details.
In fact, the information we have is (explain why)
B 1500
500 300
500 300
A 10 km C
ˆ = 40o
BAC ˆ = 80o
ABC ˆ = 60o
BCA
Then, by using the sine rule we can easily calculate the sides
AB = 8.79km and BC = 6.53km
14
3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS
♦ DEGREES AND RADIANS
Consider the following circle of radius r =1 (unit circle).
θ
A
O
The circumference of the circle is 2πr = 2π.
What is the length of the arc AB?

If θ = 0ο then AB=0
If θ= 360ο then AB=2π (full circle)
If θ= 180ο then AB=π (semicircle)
If θ= 90ο then AB=π/2 (quarter of a circle)
Thus, an alternative way to measure the angle θ=AÔB is to

measure the corresponding arc AB. The new unit of measurement
is called radian.
DEGREES (deg) RADIANS (rad)
90o π/2
60o π/3
45o π/4
30o π/6
180o 0o π 0
O 360o O 2π
270o 3π/2
15
NOTICE:
The ratio between degrees and radians is given by
degrees 180 0
=
radians π
EXAMPLE 1
Let θ1 =300, θ2 =800, θ3 =270. Transform in radians.
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
30 o 180 0 30π π
For θ1: = ⇒ 180x = 30π ⇒ x = = rad
x π 180 6
80 o 180 0 80π 4π
For θ2: = ⇒ 180x = 80π ⇒ x = = rad
x π 180 9
27 o 180 0 27π
For θ3: = ⇒ 180x = 27π ⇒ x = =0.471rad
x π 180
EXAMPLE 2
π 4π
Let θ1 = rad, θ2 = rad, θ3 =2 rad. Transform in degrees.
3 9
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
x 180 0 180π
For θ1: = ⇒ πx = ⇒ x = 60ο
π/3 π 3
x 180 0 4 ⋅ 180π
For θ2: = ⇒ πx = ⇒ x = 80ο
4π /9 π 9
x 180 0 360
For θ3: = ⇒ πx = 360 ⇒ x = =114.6ο
2 π π
NOTICE (not necessary to remember though!!!)
180 π
1 rad = = 57.3o 1o = = 0.0174 rad
π 180
16
♦ ARCS AND SECTORS
Consider a circle of radius r. Let θ be the angle shown below

measured in radians!
B
r
θ
O
A
The length of the arc AB is given by L=θr
1 2
The area of the sector OAB is given by A= θr
2
In particular, if we consider θ=2π (complete circle), we obtain
L = θr = 2πr (the circumference of the circle)

1 2
A = θr = πr2 (the area in the circle)
2
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the following sector of a circle with r=5m and θ=0.6rad:
5
0.6
Then
Length of arc: L = θr = 5(0.6) = 3
1 2 1
Area of sector: A = θr = 5(0.6)2 = 0.9 m2
2 2
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3+5+5 = 13m
17
EXAMPLE 4
3
30o
A
O
Let r =3cm and θ=30ο. Find

a) the length of the arc AB b) the area of the sector OAB
c) the distance AB d) the area of the triangle OAB
Solution
π
First of all we have to transform θ in radians: θ =
6
π π
a) L = θr = 3= = 1.57 cm
6 2
1 2 1 π 2 3π
b) Asector = θr = 3 = = 2.36 cm2
2 2 6 4
c) For AB we use COSINE RULE:
π
AB2 = 32 + 32-2.3.3cos = 2.41 ⇒ AB = 2.41 = 1.55 cm
6
1 π
d) Atriangle = 3.3sin = 2.25 cm2
2 6
Notice in the example above

• length of arc AB > length of side AB : 1.57 > 1.55
• area of sector OAB > area of triangle OAB : 2.36 > 2.25
as expected!
Furthermore, the area of the segment between side AB and arc AB
is the difference Asector-Atriangle =2.36-2.25=0.11.
In general,
1 2
Asegment = r (θ-sinθ)
2
(can you explain why?).
18
3.5 SINΘ, COSΘ, ΤΑΝΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
♦ SINΘ, COSΘ
Consider again the unit circle (radius r =1) on the Cartesian plane.
P(x,y)
y
θ
-1 O 1
x
-1
Let P(x,y) be moving along the circle,

OP = r = 1
θ = angle between OP and x-axis
Then
opposite y adjacent x
sinθ = = =y and cosθ = = =x
hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1
Thus, if we think the angle θ as a point on the circle:
sinθ θ
sinθ = y coordinate of θ
cosθ = x coordinate of θ cosθ
19
This description helps us to define sinθ and cosθ not only for angles
within 00≤θ ≤900, but for any value of θ on the circumference.
900< θ <1800 1800< θ <2700 2700< θ <3600

2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
P P
sinθ
cosθ θ θ cosθ
θ
cosθ sinθ sinθ
It will be helpful to move the y-axis which represents sinx to the

left of the circle:
sinθ
1 900
0.5 1500 300
0 1800 00 or 3600
-0.5
2100 3300
-1
2700
sinθ is the y-coordinate of θ

x 00 300 900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3300 3600
sinθ 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0
This picture explains why supplementary angles have equal sines.
20
Similarly, it will be helpful to move the x-axis which represents

cosx under the circle:
900
1200 600
1800 00
3600
2400 3000
2700
cosθ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
cosθ is the x-coordinate of θ

x 00 600 900 1200 1800 2400 2700 3000 3600
cosθ 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
This picture explains why opposite angles have equal cosines.
NOTICE
• The value of θ can be any real number positive or negative.
In that sense, any point on the circumference has infinitely many

names! For example, the point where 300 is situated, is also called
3900, 7500, …. (we add 3600)
or -3300, -6900, … (we subtract 3600)
In general, the same point on the circles represents the angles
300+3600k
Speaking in radians the same point represents the angles
π
+ 2kπ
6
Since sin300 = 0.5, the sine of all these angles is also 0.5
Similarly, the cosine of all these angles is 3/2
21
As far as the values of sinθ and cosθ,
-1 ≤ sinθ ≤ 1 -1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1
sinθ
+ + - +
0
- - - +
-1
cosθ
-1 0 1
♦ TANΘ
Consider now the unit circle below and an additional vertical axis
passing through point A.
O 1
A
Then
opposite AB
tanθ = = =AB
adjacent 1
22
Thus
tanθ
3 =1.73
900
1
600
450 1 = 0.58
3
300
0
x 00 300 450 600 900
tanθ 0 1/ 3 1 3 +∞
Again, this description helps us to define tanθ not only for angles θ
within 00≤θ ≤900 .
tanθ
1
1350 450
1800 0
2250 3150
-1
x 00 450 1350 1800 2250 3150 3600
tanθ 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0
It is clear that diametrically opposite angles have equal tangents.
23
NOTICE
• Not only θ, but all values
θ + 180k ο (in degrees)
θ + kπ (in radians)
have equal tangents (we just add or subtract semicircles).
• It is obvious that tanθ is not defined for θ=900 or θ=-900. In
fact, tanθ is not defined for
π
90 ο + 180k ο (in degrees) + kπ (in radians)
2
For any other value of θ,
-∞
∞ < tanθ < +∞
∞
+∞
∞
tanθ
- +
0
+ -
-∞
∞
It is worthwhile to notice that for opposite angles, θ and –θ
-θ
cos(-θ) = cosθ
sin(-θ) = -sinθ
tan(-θ) = -tanθ
24
♦ COTΘ (only for HL)
Working as in tanθ, consider now the unit circle below and an

additional horizontal axis passing through point A.
A B
O 1
Then
cotθ = AB
Very similar observations to tanθ can be made.
♦ SECΘ , CSCΘ (only for HL)
Two new trigonometric numbers are defined as follows
1 1
Secant: secθ = Cosecant: cscθ =
cosθ sinθ
Also remember that
1
Cotangent: cotθ =
tanθ
25
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS
♦ IDENTITIES
We have already seen the fundamental identity
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
If we divide by cos2θ we obtain
1
tan2θ + 1 =
cos 2θ
The following identities concerning the double angle 2θ are useful:
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
cos2θ = 2cos2θ- 1 2tanθ

sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ tan2θ =
1- tan 2θ
cos2θ = 1-2sin2θ
EXAMPLE 1
3
Let sinθ = . Find
5
cosθ, tanθ, sin2θ, cos2θ, tan2θ
if
(a) θ < 90o (acute)
(b) 90o < θ < 180o (obtuse)
Solution
By the fundamental identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1, we obtain
2
3 9 16
cos2θ = 1- sin2θ = 1-   = 1- = ,
5  25 25
thus
4
cosθ = ±
5
4 4
If θ is acute (1st quadrant) cosθ = , if θ is obtuse cosθ =-
5 5
26
(a) Since θ < 90o

4
cosθ =
5
sinθ 3
tanθ = = ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 =
5 5 25
2 2
4 3 7
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ =   -  =
5  5  25
sin2θ 24
tan2θ = = .
cos2θ 7
(b) Since 90o<θ<180o
4
cosθ =-
5
sinθ 3
tanθ = = - ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 (- ) = -
5 5 25
2 2
 4 3 7
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
= −  -  =
 5  5  25
sin2θ 24
tan2θ = = - .
cos2θ 7
NOTICE
Consider the double angle identity
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ
That means
sin30o = 2sin15ocos15o
sin100o = 2sin50ocos50o
or
sin4θ = 2sin2θcos2θ
sin10θ = 2sin5θcos5θ
Similar variations can be obtained by the other identities, e.g.
cos30o = 1-2sin215o
cos4θ = 1-2sin22θ
27
♦ TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Remember that
SAME SIN SAME COS SAME TAN
1800-θ θ θ θ
-θ
θ±1800
In radians
SAME SIN SAME COS SAME TAN
θ and π-θ θ and -θ θ and θ±π
1 1
For example, not only sin30o = but also sin150o =
2 2
Furthermore, for any angle θ=30o+360k,

or θ=150o+360k, [k = 0,±1,±2, …]
1 1 1 1
it is sinθ = (e,g. sin390o = , sin450o = , sin(-330o)= )
2 2 2 2
These diagrams help us to solve equations of the form
sinx=a cosx=a tanx=a
EXPESS AS IN DEGREES IN RADIANS
x=θ + 360οk x=θ +2kπ

sinx=sinθ
x=180ο-θ + 360οk x=π-θ + 2kπ
x=θ + 360οk x=θ + 2kπ

cosx=cosθ
x=-θ + 360οk x=-θ + 2kπ
tanx=tanθ x=θ + 180οk x=θ + kπ
28
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equations

1
(a) sinx= , 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o (c) tanx=1, 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o
2
1
(b) cosx= , 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o (d) tanx=1, 180o ≤ x ≤ 180o
2
(a) The principal solution is x=30o 150o 30o
So sinx=sin30o
The general solution is x=30o + 360ok

x=150o + 360ok
In the given interval the solutions are x=30o x=150o
60o
(b) The principal solution is x=60o
So cosx=cos60o
-60o
x=-60o + 360ok
45o
(c) The principal solution is x=45o
So tanx=tsn45o
(d) From (c) The general solution is x=45o + 180ok
In the given interval the solutions are x=45o x=-135o
29
The general solutions of the basic trigonometric equations are

provided below.
principal General solution

Equation
solution in degrees in radians
π
x= + 2kπ
1 π x = 30 + 360 k
o o
6
sinx = 30 o or
2 6 5π
x = 150 o + 360 o k x= + 2kπ
6
π
x= + 2kπ
2 π x = 45 o + 360 o k 4
sinx = 45 o or
2 4 3π
x = 135 o + 360 o k x= + 2kπ
4
π
x= + 2kπ
3 π x = 60 o + 360 o k 3
sinx = 60 o or
2 3 2π
x = 120 o + 360 o k x= + 2kπ
3
π
x=− + 2kπ
1 π x = −30 + 360 k
o o
6
sinx = − - 30 o or −
2 6 5π
x = −150 o + 360 o k x=− + 2kπ
6
π
x=− + 2kπ
2 π x = −45 + 360 k
o o
4
sinx = − - 45 o or −
2 4 3π
x = −135 o + 360 o k x=− + 2kπ
4
π
x=− + 2kπ
3 π x = −60 + 360 k
o o
3
sinx = − - 60 o or −
2 3 2π
x = −120 o + 360 o k x=− + 2kπ
3
Extreme cases
sinx = 0 0 o or 0 x = 1 80 o k x = kπ
90 o or π π
sinx = 1 x = 90 + 360 o k x= + 2k π
2 2
- 90 o or π π
sinx = −1 − x = −90 + 360 o k x=− + 2k π
2 2
30

Equation
1
60 o or π π
cosx =
x = ±60 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 3 3
2 45 o or π π
cosx = x = ±45 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 4 4
3 30 o or π π
cosx = x = ±30 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 6 6
1
120 o or 2π 2π
cosx = −
x = ±120 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 3 3
2 135 o or 3π 3π
cosx = − x = ±135 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 4 4
3 150 o or 5π 5π
cosx = − x = ±150 o + 360 o k x=± + 2kπ
2 6 6
Extreme cases
90 o or π π
cosx = 0 x = 90 + 180 o k x= +kπ
2 2
cosx = 1 0 o or 0 x = 360 o k x = 2k π
cosx = −1 180 o or π x = 180 o + 360 o k x = π + 2k π

Equation
60 o or π π
tanx = 3 x = 60 o + 180 o k x= + kπ
3 3
45 o or π π
tanx = 1 x = 45 o + 180 o k x= + kπ
4 4
30 o or π π
tanx = 1/ 3 x = 30 o + 180 o k x= + kπ
6 6
tanx = 0 0 o or 0 x = 1 80 o k x = kπ
- 30 o or π π
tanx = −1/ 3 − x = −30 o + 180 o k x=− + kπ
6 6
- 45 o or π π
tanx = −1 − x = −45 o + 180 o k x=− + kπ
4 4
- 60 o or π π
tanx = − 3 − x = −60 o + 180 o k x=− + kπ
3 3
31
Let us see some slightly different equations of this form.
EXAMPLE 3
3
Solve the equation sin2x= ,
2
(a) in the domain 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π (in radians)
(a) The equation takes the form sin2x=sin600 .

The general solution is
2x=60o+360ok (1)
2x=120o+360ok (2)
Then we solve for x and obtain the solutions for k=0,±1,±2 etc.
(1) gives x=30o+180o k therefore x=30o x=210o
(2) gives x=60o+180o k therefore x=60o x=240o

π
(b) The equation takes the form sin2x=sin .
3
The general solution is
π
2x= +2kπ (1)
3
2π
2x= +2kπ (2)
3
π π 7π
(1) gives x= + kπ therefore x= x=
6 6 6
π π 4π
(2) gives x= + kπ therefore x= x=
3 3 3
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation cos3x=0, -180o ≤ x ≤ 180o
The equation takes the form cos3x=cos900.
The general solution is 3x=90o+180ok. Hence x=30o+60ok
Therefore x=30o x=90o x=150o x=-30o x=-90o x=-150o
32
EXAMPLE 5
2
Solve the equation cos2x= 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
2
π
The equation takes the form cos2x=cos
4
Thus
π
2x= +2kπ (1)
4
π
2x= − +2kπ (2)
4
π π 9π
(1) gives x= +kπ Therefore x= , x=
8 8 8
π 7π 15π
(2) gives x= − +kπ Therefore x= , x= .
8 8 8
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equation tan3x= 3
(a) in the domain -180o ≤ x ≤ 180o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain -π ≤ x ≤ π (in radians)
(a) The equation takes the form tan3x=tan60o. Thus
3x=60o+180ok ⇔ x=20o+60ok
The solutions are, x=20o , x=80o , x=140o
But also for negative values of k, x=-40o , x=-100o , x=-160o

π
(b) The equation takes the form tan3x=tan . Thus
3
π π kπ π + 3kπ
3x= +kπ ⇔ x= + =
3 9 3 9
π 4π 7π
The solutions are, x= , x= , x=
9 9 9
2π 5π 8π
But also for negative values of k, x=- , x=- , x=-
9 9 9
33
More complicated trigonometric equations usually reduce to simple

equations as above.
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation sin2x=sinx, 0o ≤ x ≤ 360o
LHS, sin2x, can be simplified by using the double angle formula.
sin2x=sinx ⇔ 2sinxcosx=sinx
⇔ 2sinxcosx-sinx=0
⇔ sinx(2cosx-1)=0
⇔ sinx=0 or 2cosx-1=0
⇔ sinx=0 or cosx=1/2
We solve the two simple equations
• sinx=0 ⇔ x=0o , or x=180o or x=360o
• cosx=1/2 ⇔ x= 60o or x=300o
Hence, the equation has five solutions 0o, 60o, 180o, 300o, 360o .
REMARKS:
• If the equation is given in radians under the restriction 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
we obtain
sinx=0 ⇔ x=0, or x=π or x=2π
cosx=1/2 ⇔ x= π/3 or x= 5π/3
Thus the five solutions are 0, π/3, π, 5π/3 and 2π
• If 180o ≤ x ≤ 180o or -π ≤ x ≤ π, then x=0o , x=±60o , x=±180o

or x=0, x=±π/3, x=±π respectively.
An interesting example is the following where the trigonometric

equation has a quadratic form.
34
EXAMPLE 8 (Quadratic form)
Solve the equation 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0, 0≤x≤π
If you let y=cosx, the given equation has the form 2y2-3y+1=0
The roots of this equation are y=1 and y=1/2
Thus
• cosx=1. This equation has only one solution: x=0
• cosx=1/2. This equation has only one solution: x=π/3
Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
EXAMPLE 9
Solve the equation 3(1-cosx)=2sin2x, 0≤x≤π
(Our wish is to have only cosx or only sinx. Hence, we use the
fundamental identity in order to replace sin2x by 1-cos2x)
3(1-cosx)=2(1-cos2x) ⇔ 3-3cosx=2-2cos2x
⇔ 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0
This is in fact the equation in example 8 above.

Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
B
Equations of the form Asinx=Bcosx, take the form tanx=
A
EXAMPLE 10
Solve the equation 3 sinx=cosx, 0≤x≤π
1 π π
It becomes tanx= ⇔ tanx=tan ⇔ x= +κπ
3 6 6
There are two solutions: x=π/6, and x=7π/6.
35
3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
♦ f(x) = sinx
Let us construct the graph of this function in the traditional way,

that is in the Cartesian plane Oxy.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 0 1 0 -1 0
x
π 3π
-2π 0 π 2π 4π
2 2
-1
We have:
Domain: x∈ R
Range: y ∈ [-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
For functions of this form we also define

ymax + ymin
Central line: y =
2
ymax − ymin
Amplitude = (or = ymax-central value )
2
Period = length of a complete cycle (it is denoted by T)
Thus, for f(x)=sinx
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 2π (that is, the graph is repeated every 2π)
36
♦ f(x) = cosx
Similarly, let us now construct the graph of this function.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 1 0 -1 0 1
x
π 3π
-2π 0 π 2π 4π
2 2
-1
Again we have:
Domain: x∈ R
Range: y ∈ [-1,1] [ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 2π
NOTICE:
• sinx and cosx have similar graphs. The graph of cosx is a
horizontal translation of sinx by π/2 units to the left.
• For both functions y=sinx and y=cosx
distance between two consecutive max = 2π (one period)

distance between two consecutive min = 2π (one period)
distance between consecutive max and min = π (half a period)
37
♦ f(x) = tanx
Similarly, we construct the graph of this function.

π π π π
x - - 0 …
2 4 4 2
f(x) - -1 0 1 -
1
x
π π π π 3π
− − 0 π 2π
2 4 4 2 2
-1
We have:
π 3π
Domain: x ∈ R- { ± , ± ,…}
2 2
Range: y∈ R [there is no min, no max, no amplitude]
Central line: y=0
Period: T=π
π π
Vertical asymptotes: x= , x= − , etc
2 2
NOTICE: Remember our discussion about asymptotes in Topic 2.
It is enough to know that a vertical line x=a is an asymptote of the

graph y=f(x) if
• the function is not defined at x=a, and

• for values of x very close to a the value of y=f(x)
approaches + ∞ or - ∞
38
♦ TRANSFORMATIONS OF sinx, cosx, tanx
Consider the function f(x) = sinx + 2.

Its graph is a vertical translation of sinx, 2 units up:
1
x
0 π 2π
Clearly, Central line at y=2 (also min = 1, max = 3)

Amplitude = 1
Period: T = 2π
Consider the function f(x) = 3sinx.

Its graph is a vertical stretch of sinx with scale factor 3:
1
x
0 π 2π
-3
Clearly, Central line at y=0 (also min = -3, max = 3)

Amplitude = 3
Period = 2π
Notice: the amplitude of f(x)=-3sinx the amplitude is still 3
39
Consider f(x) = sin2x.

Its graph is a horizontal stretch of sinx with scale factor 1/2:
0 π 2π
-1
Now, Central line at y=0 (also min = -1, max = 1)

Amplitude = 1
Period: T = π
In general, the function
f(x) = AsinBx + C
(with A>0, B>0) is a sequence of three transformations of sinx:

a vertical stretch with scale factor A,
a horizontal stretch with scale factor 1/B,
a vertical translation by C units (up or down),
Mind that, if A<0 we start with a reflection in x-axis;

Consequently,
|A| The new amplitude
C The new central value. The central line is y=C

2π 2π
T= The new period. Hence B =
B T
Notice:
• f(x) ranges between the values C±A
• Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C
40
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = AsinBx + C is given below. Find A,B,C.
20
15
10
0 4 8 x
• Central line at y=15, so C=15

• Amplitude = 5, so A=5
2π 2π π
• Period T= 8, hence B = = =
T 8 4
π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 5sin( x) + 15
4
EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below. Find A,B,C.
y
20
0 π x
-10
max + min 20 − 10
• Central line at 5, so C=5 (since = =5)
2 2
• Amplitude = 15, so A=15 (since max-C =15)
2π 2π
• Period Τ= π, hence B = = =2
T π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x) + 5
41
Mind the following basic forms
sinx -sinx cosx -cosx
y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept

central going up central going down max min
Hence, the coefficient A could be negative.
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.
20
0 π x
-10
We can easily find that
Central line: y=5
Amplitude = 15
Period: T=π
But the function looks like -sinx (y-intercept central going down)
2π
Hence C=5, A=-15, B= =2
π
Therefore, the equation of the function is
f(x) = -15sin(2x) + 5
42
Conversely, if we are given a trigonometric function we can easily

draw the graph
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = 5sin2x+7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution
Central value = 7
Amplitude = 5
max=12, min=2 (since f(x) ranges between 7±5)
2π
Period T = = π
2
Thus, we have to draw two periods. The starting point, that is the
y-intercept, is on the central line (going up).
The graph is
Finally, remember the horizontal transformations f(x-a):
sin(x-D)
translation D units to the right
cos(x-D)
Therefore, for the functions
f(x) = Asin[B(x-D)] + C f(x) = Acos[B(x-D)] + C
A,B,C are determined as above.

D shows a horizontal translation.
43
Practically, for the value of D, whenever we see a graph like
D1 for sinx
D2 for cosx
D3 for -sinx
D4 for -cosx
we spot the points shown above!
The x-coordinate of the appropriate point is the value of D.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph of a trigonometric function given below.
14 y
12
10
8
2
x
π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2
Central value = 7, thus C =7

Amplitude = 5, thus |A|=5
Period T = π , thus B=2π/π = 2
As it starts from a min, the most appropriate form (without D) is
f(x)= -5cos2x+7
However, the same function can be expressed as

π
f(x)= 5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
π
f(x)= 5cos[2(x- )]+7
2
3π
f(x)= -5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
44
In a similar way,
f(x) = AtanBx +C
is a transformation of tanx, where
|A| Scale factor of vertical stretch

π
T= The new period
B
C The new central value (units up or down)
EXAMPLE 6
f(x)= 10tan4x +30
central value= 30
NO min, NO max (10 simply shows a vertical stretch of tanx)
π
Period =
4
Finally,
tan(x-D) translation D units to the right or left
Therefore, for the function
f(x) = Atan[B(x-D)] +C
A,B,C are determined as above.

D shows a horizontal translation.
45
46
ONLY FOR
HL
47
48
3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS - IDENTITIES (for HL)
The following relations may help in solving trigonometric equations
A=B+2kπ
sinA=sinB
A=(π-B)+2κπ
A=B+2kπ
cosA=cosB
A=-B+2κπ
tanA=tanB A=B+κπ
where k∈Z (integer)
REMARK If the equations above are given in degrees:

2kπ becomes 360ok
kπ becomes 180ok
We have seen that a trigonometric function of the form sinbx=a

can be seen in this way.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the general solution of
sin10x=1/2
in radians in degrees
π
sin10x=sin sin10x=sin30o
6
π 5π
10x= +2kπ, 10x= +2kπ 10x=30o+360ok, 10x=150o+360ok
6 6
Thus Thus
π kπ 5π kπ
x= + , x= + x=3o+36ok, x=15o+36ok,
60 5 60 5
49
However, we can also deal with equations where both the

expressions A and B involve the unknown x.
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation sin3x=sinx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
3x = x + 2kπ
sin3x=sinx ⇒ 
3x = π - x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
⇒ 
4x = π + 2kπ
π + 2kπ
⇒ x=kπ or x=
4
Hence, the solutions are
π 3π 5π 7π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= , x= , x= .
4 4 4 4
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation cos3x=cosx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
3x = x + 2kπ
cos3x=cosx ⇒ 
3x = -x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
⇒ 
4x = 2kπ
kπ
⇒ x=kπ or x=
2
π 3π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= .
2 2
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation tan3x=tanx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
kπ
tan3x=tanx ⇒ 3x=x+kπ ⇒ 2x=kπ ⇒ x=
2
π 3π
x=0, x= , x=π, x= , x=2π.
2 2
50
Notice also that for complementary angles the sine of the one is the
cosine of the other. For example
sin30o=cos60o and sin60o=cos30o

Thus
π
cosA=sinB takes the form cosA=cos( -B)
2
or cosA=cos(90o-B)
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation cos3x=sinx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
π
We can write sinx as cos( -x). Thus
2
 π
π  3x = 2 - x + 2kπ
cos3x= cos( -x) ⇒ 
2 3x = - π + x + 2kπ
 2
 π
 4x = 2 + 2kπ
⇒ 
2x = - π + 2kπ
 2
π kπ π
⇒ x= + or x =- + kπ
8 2 4
π 5π 9π 13π 3π 7π
x= , x= , x= , x= and x= , x= .
8 8 8 8 4 4
Finally, sinx is an odd function, thus
-sinx=sin(-x)
For -cosx we can use the identity
-cosx=cos(π-x)
51
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equation sin3x=-sinx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
We can write -sinx as sin(-x). Thus

 3x = -x + 2kπ
sin3x= sin(-x) ⇒ 
3x = π + x + 2kπ
 4x = 2kπ
⇒ 
2x = π + 2kπ
kπ π
⇒ x= or x= + kπ
2 2
π 3π
x=0, x= , x= π , x= , x=2 π
2 2
For the reciprocal trigonometric functions, notice that
1
• secx=a is equivalent to the equation cosx=
a
1
• cscx=a is equivalent to the equation sinx=
a
1
• cotx=a is equivalent to the equation tanx=
a
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation secx=2.
This is equivalent to cosx=1/2
Thus the general solutions are
in radians in degrees
π π
x= +2kπ, x=- +2kπ x=60o+360ok, x=-60o+360ok
3 3
52
♦ MORE IDENTITIES
If we divide the fundamental identity by cos2θ or by sin2θ we

respectively receive
1 1
tan2θ + 1 = 2
= sec2θ cot2θ + 1 = 2
= csc2θ
cos θ sin θ
As for the sum A+B and the difference A-B of two angles the
following formulas hold:
sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB

sin(A-B) = sinAcosB - cosAsinB
cos(A+B) = cosAcosB - sinAsinB

cos(A-B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
tanA + tanB
tan(A+B)=
1- tanAtanB
tanA − tanB
tan(A-B)=
1 + tanAtanB
Notice that if we set A=B=θ we obtain the double-angle identities

in the beginning of this section.
EXAMPLE 8
Find sin75o and cos15o by using appropriate identities.
Solution
sin75o = sin(45o+30o) = sin45ocos30o + cos45osin30o
2 3 2 1 6+ 2
= + =
2 2 2 2 4
tan60 o − tan45 o
tan15o = tan(60o-45o) =
1 + tan60 o tan45 o
3 −1 3 −1
= =
1 + 3 ⋅1 3 +1
53
3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (for HL)
♦ sin-1x
Look at f(x)=sinx. This is not a “1-1” function (since a horizontal

line may meet sinx several times).
π π
However, if we restrict f(x)=sinx to [- , ], we may define f-1.
2 2
f(x)=sinx f-1(x)=sin-1x
1 π
2
π π
− 0 -1 0 1
2 2
π
−
-1 2
π π
DOMAIN f: x∈ [- , ] DOMAIN f-1: x∈ [-1,1]
2 2
π π
RANGE f: y∈ [-1,1] RANGE f-1: y∈ [- , ]
2 2
♦ cos-1x
Similarly, if we restrict f(x)=cosx to [0,π], we may define f-1.
f(x)=cosx f-1(x)=cos-1x
1 π
0 π
-1
-1 0 1
DOMAIN f: x∈ [0,π] DOMAIN f-1: x∈[-1,1]
RANGE f: y∈ [-1,1] RANGE f-1: y∈ [0,π]
54
♦ tan-1x
π π
Similarly, if we restrict f(x)=tanx to (- , ), we may define f-1.
2 2
f(x)=tanx f-1(x)=tan-1x
y y
π
2
π π
− 0 0
2 2
π
−
2
π π
DOMAIN f: x∈ (- , ) DOMAIN f-1: x∈R
2 2
π π
RANGE f: y∈R RANGE f-1: y∈(- , )
2 2
♦ cot-1x
A similar description applies
NOTICE:
sin-1x is also denoted by arcsinx
cos-1x is also denoted by arccosx
tan-1x is also denoted by arctanx
cot-1x is also denoted by arccotx
Therefore,
arcsinx=y ⇒ siny=x
arccosx=y ⇒ cosy=x
arctanx=y ⇒ tany=x
arccotx=y ⇒ coty=x
55
Notice also that
arcsinx lies in arccosx lies in arctanx lies in

the semicircle the semicircle the semicircle
EXAMPLE 1
By using the trigonometric tables of known angles

π π
arcsin0.5= arcsin(-0.5)= -
6 6
π 2π
arccos0.5= arccos(-0.5)=
3 3
π π
arctan1= arctan(-1)= -
4 4
π
arcsin0= 0 arccos0= arctan0= 0
2
Other values are obtained by GDC, e.g. arcsin0.8=0.927
NOTICE:
Since sinx and arcsinx are inverse to each other, sin and arcsin
eliminate each other (under the appropriate restrictions), that is
sin(arcsinx)=x (always)
π π
arcsin(sinx)=x (given that - ≤x≤ )
2 2
Similar properties can be derived for

arccosx, arctanx, arccotx
56
REMARK
Remember that f and f-1 always eliminate each other. That is,
f(f-1(x))=x and f-1(f(x))=x
For example, (under the appropriate restrictions)
f f-1 elimination
x2 x ( x )2=x ( x 2 )=x (for x ≥ 0)
ex lnx elnx=x lnex=x
2x log2x 2 log2 x =x log22x=x
tanx arctanx tan(arctanx)=x arctan(tanx)=x (for- π ≤x≤ π )

2 2
EXAMPLE 2
π
Show that arctan3-arctan0.5=
4
Let A= arctan3, B= arctan0.5 and

x=A-B=arctan3-arctan0.5
Then
tanA − tanB 3 − 0.5

tanx = tan(A-B) = = = 1
1 + tanAtanB 1 + 3(0.5)
Thus x is either π/4 or -3π/4.
But x is positive since

arctan3, arctan0.5 are both positive,
arctan3 > arctan0.5.
Hence,
π
arctan3-arctan0.5 =
4
57
EXAMPLE 3
Find
2
A=tan(arctan )
3
2
B=sin(arctan )
3
2
C=cos(arctan )
3
The first result is immediate

2
A=
3
For the other two results it helps to let
2
θ=arctan
3
so that
2
tanθ=
3
We represent this information on a triangle:
13 We found the third side by using

2 Pythagoras theorem.
θ
3
Then
2
Β=sinθ=
13
3
C=cosθ=
13
58
3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION (for HL)
♦ DEFINITION
We distinguish two kinds of quantities in nature:
SCALARS vs VECTORS
(magnitude) (magnitude and direction)
examples: examples:
age
(28) length force
(4m)
velocity
(7N)
temperature
35m/sec)
(25oC)
Thus, for a vector it is not enough to know the magnitude. We also

need to know its direction (eg 35m/sec towards southeast)
Geometrically, a vector is represented by an arrow and denoted by
r
a letter: u or two letters: AB
[A=tail, B=head]
r
u B
A
The length of the vector is called magnitude (it is a scalar).

r
It is denoted by |u | or | AB |
Until now, we used to play with numbers: add numbers, multiply

numbers etc. In this topic, we will “play with vectors: we will add
vectors, multiply vectors etc.
59
♦ EQUAL VECTORS
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Thus, two equal vectors must be parallel.
r r r
u u=v
r
v
In other words, a vector does not have a specific position; it is

exactly the same as long as it is translated in a parallel position.
Hence, in a parallelogram
A B AB = DC AD = BC
BA = CD DA = CB
D C
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
In order to add two vectors we must place them one after the
other (head to tail)
r r
u v
r r
Then the sum u + v is given by the following shape
r
u r
v
r r
u+v
Here, it is more convenient to use the head and tail notation
A AB + BC = AC
C
[think as follows: If you go from A to B (vector AB) and then from B to C

(vector BC), the result is that you go from A to C (vector AC)]
60
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r r
u -u
It has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. Again, the
two vectors are parallel. It is more convenient to use the head and
tail notation
B
AB = −BA
A
NOTICE:
• From now on in the head and tail notation we will be writing
AB instead of AB as the direction from A to B is obvious.
• It is easy to verify that
r r r r
u + v = v +u (commutative law)
r r r r r r
u +( v + w ) = ( v +u )+ w (associative law)
• A vector AB can be written as a sum of consecutive vectors in

several ways. For example:
AB=AC+CB
AB=AC+CD+DE+EB etc
The only thing we preserve is to start from A and finish at B.
• Head and tail notation helps to add several vectors even without
drawing them:
AB+CD+BC = AB+BC+CD = AD
AB-AC=AB+CA=CA+AB=CB
r r r r
• If |u |=5 and | v |=3 then | u + v | is not necessarily 8. It is expected
to be less than 8. Indeed, the triangle inequality gives
r
u r
v
r r r r r r
u+v |u + v | ≤ |u |+| v |
r r r r r r
Only if u and v have the same direction it holds: |u + v |=| u |+| v |
61
♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

It is a vector of zero magnitude and no direction!
Notice that
r r
u -u = 0 or AB-AB = AB+BA = AA = 0
r
♦ MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: ku
r r r
Instead of u +u we can write 2u .
r
u r
2u
Similarly, if k is a natural number

r r r r
ku = u +u +…+u (k times)
r
In general, if k is any positive scalar (k ∈ R + ) the product ku is
r
defined as a new vector of the same direction and magnitude k| u |.
r
u r
ku
r
For k<0 the vector ku simply has the opposite direction.
r r
Thus for two vectors u and v
r r r r
u // v ⇔ u =k v for some k∈R
NOTICE:
It is easy to verify that
r r r r
k(u + v ) = k v +ku (distributive law)
r r r
(k+m) u = ku +m u (distributive law)
r r
k(m u ) = (km) u
r r
1u = u
r
0u = 0
k0 = 0
62
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following cube
E H
F G
D C
A B
r r r
Let a =AB, b =AD c =AF.
r r r
Any other edge can be corresponded to a , b , c .
Namely,
r
a =AB=DC=FG=EH.
r
b =AD=BC=FE=GH
r
c =AF=BG=DE=CH
r r r
Can you express FC in terms of a , b and c ?
First of all we must find a path from F to C: FC=FG+GB+BC

Then we observe
r r r
FC= a - c + b
♦ VECTORS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE
Remember that a parallel translation of any vector results to an

equal vector:
63
If we can consider the Cartesian Plane, any vector on the plane can
be moved so as to start from the origin O.
B
A
Thus any vector on the plane can be written in the form OA.
Suppose that the coordinates of the point A are: A(a,b)
b r A
u
O a
r a
We agree to denote the vector u =OA by  
b 
r a
We say that u =OA=   is the position vector of the point A(a,b).
b 
Notice also that the length of OA is a 2 + b 2 (according to the

r
Pythagoras’ Theorem). This is in fact the magnitude of u =OA.
64
EXAMPLE 2
r
Consider the following vector u and its equivalent vector OA.
r
4 A u
x
O
3
Notice that the point A has coordinates (3,4)

3 
The position vector of the point A(3,4) is OA=  
4
r 3 
In practice, by a vector u =   we imply that we are moving
4
3 units in the x-direction and
4 units in the y-direction
This description introduces an alternative approach for vectors in

the following paragraph.
65
3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION (for HL)
♦ 2- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
r a
A vector u is a pair of numbers in column form:   .
b 
r a
A vector u =   is represented on the Cartesian plane as an arrow
b 
r
from the origin O to the point P(a,b). We say that u =OP is the
position vector of the point P.
b r P
u
O a
r r
The magnitude of a vector u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2
EXAMPLE 1
r  3  r - 3  r  1  r  0 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   , w =   , r =  
4 4  1 0
The corresponding magnitudes are
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= (-3) 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5
r r
| w |= 1 2 + 1 2 = 2 |r |= 0 2 + 0 2 = 0
r r
♦ ADDITION OF VECTORS: u + v
r  a1  r  a2  r r  a1 + a 2 
If u =   and v =   then u + v =  

 b1   b2   b1 + b 2 
66
r
♦ THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
r a r - a 
If u =   then -u =  
b  - b 
♦ THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

0
0 =  
0
r
♦ MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: k u
r a r  ka 
If k ∈ R (scalar) and u =   then ku =  
b   kb 
r r
If k>0, we say that u and ku have the same direction
r r
If k<0, we say that u and ku have the opposite direction
EXAMPLE 2
r 3  r  2 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   . Then
4 5 
r r 3   2  5  r r  3   2  1  r r  2   3  -1
u + v =   +   =   , u - v =   +   =  , v -u =   -   =  
 4   5  9   4   5  -1  5   4  1 
r 3  6  r  15  r - 9  r r - 3 
2u =2   =   , 5u =   , -3u =   , -1u =-u =  
4
    8  20  - 12  - 4 
r r 3   2   6   6   12 
2u +3 v =2   +3   =   +   =  
4  5  8   15   23 
NOTICE
r 3  r r 6  r
For u =   , it is | u |=5. For 2 u =   , |2u |= 6 2 + 82 = 100 =10.
4 8 
r 1 r
Similarly, the magnitude of 10u is 50, the magnitude of u is 1.
5
r r
In general, the magnitude of k u is |k| times the magnitude of u ,
that is
r r
|ku |= |k|| u |
67
♦ THE UNIT VECTOR

r
The unit vector corresponding to u is defined by
1 r
û= u
|u|
It is in fact a vector in the same direction with magnitude 1.
EXAMPLE 3
r 3  r  2 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   . Then
4 5 
r r
|u |= 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5 | v |= 2 2 + 5 2 = 29
The corresponding unit vectors are

1 r  3/5  1  2   2/ 29 
û= u =   , v̂ =   =
5  4/5  29  5   5/ 29 
We can easily confirm that the magnitudes of the unit vectors û
and v̂ are both equal to 1.
r r r
Question: Can you find a vector a parallel to u and a vector b
r
parallel to v , both of them having magnitude 20?
r r r
Since |u |= 5 , the vector a =4u has magnitude 20
r r
Since | v |= 29 , it is less obvious to find b . The general method is
to find the unit vector v̂ first (which has magnitude 1) and then
r
we multiply by the required legnth: b =20 v̂ = 20 v
r
29
r r r
♦ THE NOTATION u =a i +b j
r a r r r
A vector u =   may also be written in the form u =a i +b j
b 
r 1  r  0 
where i =   , j =  
0 1 
Notice: In practice, whenever we see an expression like that, say

r r
u =3 i +4 j , we will be using the column vector form, that is u =  3  ,
r r
 4
to make our life easier!!!
68
r r r
♦ EXPLANATION FOR u =a i +b j
a
Notice that any vector on the x-axis has the form  
0  
0
any vector on the y-axis has the form  
b 
r 1
Especially, the unit vector on the x-axis is i =  
0
r 0
the unit vector on the y-axis is j =  
1 
r 3  r  0 
Consider for example the vectors u 1=   , u 2=  
0 4
r
r u
u2
r
j
r r
O i u1
r 3  r r r 3  3   0 
Then u =   can be written as u = u 1+u 2 [indeed,   =   +   ]
4 4 0 4
r r r r r
But u 1=3 i and u 2=4 j , thus the vector u can be expressed as
r r r
u =3 i +4 j
In general,
a r r
  = a i +b j
b 
♦ CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOMETRIC AND ALGEBRAIC

REPRESENTATION
In paragraph 4.1 we gave a geometric description of a vector and

r r r
the operations u + v and ku .
In this paragraph we have presented an algebraic description of
these notions. Do these descriptions agree?
69
We will make use of some examples to demonstrate this connection.
r r
• For u + v
r 3  r 5  r r 8 
Let u =   and v =   . Then u + v =  
4 - 2  2
r r
Geometrically, let us draw u and v , starting from the origin, so
r r
that u and v are consecutive:
r
for u we are moving 3 units horizontally, 4 units vertically
r
for v we are moving 5 units horizontally, -2 units vertically
then we observe that
r r
for u + v we are moving 8 units horizontally 2 units vertically
r
v
r
u
r r
u+ v
O
r r
Hence, the geometric description of u + v that we have seen in
paragraph 4.1 keeps up with the algebraic description in this
paragraph.
r
• For ku
r a
If u =   is a vector of magnitude m
b 
r  2a 
then clearly 2u =   is a vector in
2b
 
the same direction with magnitude 2m
r
Again, the geometric and the algebraic definitions of 2u (and
r
ku in general) coincide!
70
♦ 3- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
In the 3-dimensional space a vector has the following form
a
r   r r r r
u = b  or equivalently u =a i +b j +c k
c 
 
r  1  r  0  r  0 
where i =  0  , j =  1  , k =  0 
0 0 1 
     
z
r
u
y
c
r r b
k j
O
x
r a
i
r r
The magnitude of u is defined by |u |= a 2 + b 2 + c 2
r r r
All the other notions (eg u + v , k u , unit vector) are defined in an
analogue way!
EXAMPLE 4
1  2 
r   r  
Consider the vectors u =  2  , v =  5  . Then
3  - 4 
   
1   2   3   4  7 
r r          
• 3u +2 v =3  2  +2  5  =  6  +  10  =  16 
3  - 4  9  - 8   1 
         
r
• |u |= 1 2 + 2 2 + 32 = 14
 1/ 14 
r 1 r  
• The unit vector corresponding to u is û= u =  2/ 14 
|u|  
 3/ 14 
 
71
♦ POINTS AND VECTORS
2D 3D
Points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2)
x + x 2 y1 + y 2 x + x 2 y1 + y 2 z 1 + z 2
Mid-point M( 1 , ) M( 1 , , )
2 2 2 2 2
position  x1   x2 
 x1   x2     
vectors OA=   , OB=   OA=  y1  , OB=  y2 
 y1   y2     
of A and B  z1   z2 
 x 2   x1   x 2 − x1 
 x 2   x1   x 2 − x1       
vector AB   -   =    y2  -  y1  =  y2 − y1 
y  y  
 2   1   y 2 − y1       
 z 2   z1   z 2 − z1 
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the (x 1 − x 1 ) 2 + (y1 − y 2 ) 2 (x 1 − x 1 ) 2 + (y1 − y 2 ) 2 + (z 1 − z 2 ) 2
magnitude |AB|
EXAMPLE 5
2D 3D
Points A(1,2) and B(3,4) A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6)
5 7 9
Mid-point M(2,3) M( , , )
2 2 2
1  4
position vectors 1  3     
OA=   , OB=   OA=  2  , OB=  5 
of A and B 2 4 3  6 
   
 4  1   3
3  1   2       
vector AB   -   =   5  -  2  =  3
4 2 2 6  3   3
     
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the 22 + 22 = 8 3 2 + 3 2 + 3 2 = 27
magnitude |AB|
72
3.12 DOT PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS (for HL)
♦ THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the ugly one!)

r r
Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors
r
v
θ r
u
r r
The dot product (or scalar product) of u and v is defined to be a
number given by
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ
r r
For example, if u and v are vectors of magnitudes 5 and 4
respectively and the angle between them is θ=600 then
r r r r
u . v =|u || v |cosθ=(5).(4).(0.5) = 10
Mind that the result is a number (scalar) and not a vector.

Notice that
r r r r
If θ=900 then u . v =0 [ u ⊥ v , perpendicular vectors]
r r r r r r
If θ=0o then u . v =|u || v | [ u ↑↑ v , parallel-same direction]
r r r r r r
If θ=1800 then u . v =-|u || v | [ u ↑↓ v , parallel-opposite direction]
Thus, the dot product can take any value between the minimum
r r r r
value -|u || v | and the maximum value |u || v |
r r r
In particular, the product u . u is denoted by u 2. Since the angle
r r r r
between u and itself is 0, u 2 is equal to |u ||u |, hence
r r
u 2=|u |2
1  0
Notice that for the unit vectors i=   and j=   it holds
0 1 
i2= 1 , j2=1, i.j= 0 and j.i=0
73
♦ THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the pretty one!)

r  a1  r  a2 
Let u =   and v =   be two vectors. The scalar product (or dot
 b1   b2 
r r
product) of u and v is given by
r r
u. v =a1a2+b1b2
r 2 r 5  r r
For example, if u =   and v =   then u. v =2.5+3.4=22
3  4
♦ BASIC PROPERTIES
It can be shown that the dot product satisfies the following basic
rules:
r r r r
o u. v = v .u (commutative law)
r r r r r r r
o u .( v 1 + v 2 )= u . v 1 + u . v 2 (distributive law)
r r r r r r
o k(u . v )=(ku ). v = u . (k v )
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION FOR THE “PRETTY” DEFINITION

r  a1  r  a2 
Let u =   =a1i+b1j and v =   = a2i+b2j. Then
 b1   b2 
r r
u. v = (a1i+b1j).(a2i+b2j)= a1a2i2 + a1b2i.j + b1a2j.i + b1b2j2= a1a2+b1b2
(since i2=j2=1 and ij=ji=0)
♦ THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

If we combine the “ugly” and the “pretty” definitions we obtain a
nice way to calculate the angle between two vectors. The “ugly”
definition gives
r r
u⋅v
cosθ = r r
| u || v |
r r
Hence, if we are given two vectors u and v , we can easily calculate
r r r r
| u | , | v | and the dot product u. v by using the “pretty” definition
and the formula above gives the angle θ.
74
EXAMPLE 1
r 3  r 1 
Consider the vectors u =   , v =   .
4 - 2 
Find
a) their magnitudes
r r
b) their dot product u. v
c) the angle θ between them
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 5
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.(-2)=-5
r r
u⋅v −5 1
c) cosθ = r r = =− , and the GDC gives θ=116.560
| u || v | 5 5 5
The dot product is a nice tool to verify whether two vectors are
perpendicular or not:
♦ PERPENDICULAR VECTORS AND PARALLEL VECTORS

r r
Recall two basic properties: For two non-zero vectors u and v :
r r r r (perpendicular vectors)
u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v =0
r r r r
u// v ⇔ u=k v for some k∈R (parallel vectors)
EXAMPLE 2
r 3  r  4 
a) Show that u =   , v =   are perpendicular
4 - 3 
r 2
b) Find some perpendicular vectors to the vector u =  
5 
Solution
r r r r
a) u. v =3.4+4.(-3)= 0, hence u ⊥ v . Indeed, look at the following
diagram
75
r 3 
u =  
4
r 4 
v =  
- 3 
b  - b  r a
b) In general both   and   are perpendicular to u =   since
-a a  b 
the dot product for both pairs is a.b-ab=0.
r 2
Thus, some perpendicular vectors to u =   are the following
5 
 5   10   15   − 5  - 10  - 15 
  ,   ,   and   ,   ,  
- 2  - 4  - 6   2   4  6 
EXAMPLE 3
r 3  r x 
Let u =   . Find the value of x if v =   is
4 - 6 
r r
a) perpendicular to u b) parallel to u
Solution
r r r r
a) u ⊥ v ⇔ u. v = 0 ⇔ 3x+4(-6)=0 ⇔ 3x=24 ⇔ x=8
r r 3   x 
b) u// v ⇔   =λ   for some λ.
 4  - 6 
But it is more practical to say that the ratios of the corresponding
coordinates are equal:
x −6
=
3 4
9
Therefore, x=-
2
76
r r
♦ THE PROPERTY |u |2= u 2
This property very often helps us to get rid of magnitudes. Look at

the following example!
EXAMPLE 4
r r r r r r
For two non-zero vectors u and v it holds | u+ v |=| u- v |. Show
r r
that u and v are perpendicular.
r r r r r r r r
| u+ v |=| u- v | ⇒ | u+ v |2=| u- v |2 [just squaring]
r r 2 r r 2 r r
⇒ ( u+ v ) =( u- v ) [property |u |2=u 2]
r r r r r r r r
⇒ u2+2 u. v + v 2= u2-2 u. v + v 2
r r r r r r
⇒ 4 u. v =0 ⇒ u. v =0 ⇒ u ⊥ v
♦ 3D VECTORS
a   a2 
r  1 r  
For two vectors u =  b1  and v =  b 2  the dot product is given by
c   
 1  c2 
r r
u. v =a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
Whatever we said about 2D vectors also applies here!
EXAMPLE 5
4  5 
r   r  
Show that u =  2  , v = - 3  are perpendicular. Indeed
- 1   14 
   
r r r r
u. v = 4.5+2(-3)+(-1)(14) = 0, thus u ⊥ v
EXAMPLE 6
1 1 
r   r  
Find the angle between u =  1  and v =  2  . We have
1 3 
   
r r
u⋅v 6
cosθ = r r = =0.926, hence θ=cos-1(0.926)= 22.20
| u || v | 3 ⋅ 14
77
3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D (for HL)
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
r  a1 
Let A(a1,a2) be a point with position vector a =  
 a2 
r b 
1
b =   be a vector
 b2 
r
There is a unique line passing through A which is parallel to b .
A(a1,a2)
r b 
1
b =  
 b2 
r x
The position vector r =   of the random point P(x,y) in this line is
y
given by
r r r
or  x   a 1   b1 
r = a +λ b   =   +λ  
 
 y   a 2   b2 
where λ is a parameter.
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
r x
r =  
r  a1  y
a =   P
 a2 
A r b 
1
b =  
 b2 
The position vector of the point P(x,y) is

r
r =OP=OA+AP
r r r
But OA= a and AP // b ⇒ AP=λ b for some λ ∈ R. Thus
r r r
r = a +λ b
78
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
 x   a 1   b1  x=a1+λb1
  =   +λ   gives
 
 y   a 2   b2  y=a2+λb2
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
x − a1 y − a2
If we solve both equations for λ we get λ= and λ= .
b1 b2
Therefore, the relation between the parameters x,y is
x − a1 y − a 2
=
b1 b2
EXAMPLE 1
r 3 
Let A(1,2) be the given point and b =   be the direction vector.
4
r
Then the line passing through A, parallel to b is
r 1  3   x  1  3 
Vector equation: r =   +λ   or   =   +λ  
2 4 y  2  4
Parametric equations: x=1+3λ
y=2+4λ
Now solve for λ and get
x −1 y−2
Cartesian equation: =
3 4
The Cartesian equation may be written in more traditional forms:
ax+by=c or y=mx+c
Indeed, the last equation gives

x −1 y−2
= ⇔ 4x-4=3y-6 ⇔ 4x-3y=-2
3 4
4 2
If we solve for y we obtain the traditional form: y= x+
3 3
79
NOTICE
 x  1  3 
Let us consider again the equation   =   +λ  
y  2  4
r 3 
It is the line which is parallel to b =   and passes through A(1,2).
4
As λ changes we obtain several points of the line.
Some points of the line Some direction vectors
1  3 
  (the given one)   (the given one)
2 4
4 6 
  (for λ=1)  
6  8 
7  9  3 
  (for λ=2)   multiples of  
 10   12  4
- 2  - 3 
  (for λ=-1)  
- 2  - 4 
Hence, if we consider another point from the first column and

another vector from the second column the resulting line is still the
same! For example the vector equation
 x  7   6 
  =   +λ  
 y   10  8 
describes the same line!
(Confirm that the Cartesian equation derived is exactly the same)
♦ GIVEN TWO POINTS A(a1,a2) AND B(b1,b2)

What is the equation of the line passing through A and B?
For the first bracket we choose one of the points: say A(a1,a2)
r  b   a1 
As a direction vector we consider the vector b =AB=  1  -  
 b2   a 2 
Then
r r r
r = a +λ b .
80
EXAMPLE 2
Find the line which passes through A(1,2) and B(4,7)
r 1  r  4- 1   3 
We consider a =   and b =AB=   =  
2 7 - 2   5 
Hence, the line is
r 1  3 
r =   +λ  
 2  5 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the line y=3x+2. Find a vector equation of the line.
Firstly, let us find two points of this line:

For x=0, y=2 and for x=1, y=5
Hence, we are looking for the line which passes through A(0,2) and
B(1,5).
r  0  1
r =   +λ  
 2  3
1
(since AB=   )
3
EXAMPLE 4 (the inverse of EXAMPLE 3)

Let
r  0  1
r =   +λ  
 2  3
Find the Cartesian equation.
The parametric equations are
x=0+1λ
y=2+3λ
Solving both equations for λ we find
x −0 y−2
(λ= ) =
1 3
That is, 3x=y-2, or y=3x+2 as expected!
81
If we are given two lines

r r r
r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r r r
r2 = a 2 +µ b 2 (L2)
two questions arise:
1) Find the intersection point P of these lines
2) Find the angle θ between these lines (usually the acute angle)
r
L1 b2
P
θ
r
b1
L2
♦ INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
Methodology:
r r
• set r1 = r2 ,
• find λ (or µ),
Substitute to L1 (or L2) to find the point.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the intersection point of the lines
r 1  3  r 2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +µ  
2 4 - 2  4
r r  1 + 3λ   2 + µ  3λ − µ = 1 3λ − µ = 1
r1 = r2 ⇔   = 
 - 2 + 4µ  ⇔  ⇔
 2 + 4λ    4λ − 4µ = −4  λ − µ = −1
The solution of this system is λ=1 and µ=2

r 4
For λ=1 the first vector equation gives r1 =  
6 
Therefore, the intersection point is (4,6).
82
♦ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

r r
It is enough to find the angle between b1 and b 2
r r
(since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 )
Notice: We usually consider the acute angle between the lines.

Hence, if θ>90 we consider the angle 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the angle between the lines
r 1  3  r 2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +µ  
2 4 - 2  4
r 3  r 1 
It suffices to find the angle between u=   , and v =  
4 4
We have
r r
a) | u | = 5, | v | = 17
r r
b) u. v = 3.1+4.4=19
r r
u⋅v 19
c) cosθ = r r = =0.922, and the GDC gives θ=22.80
| u || v | 5 17
A nice application of the line equation is the following:
♦ VELOCITY AND SPEED

Suppose that a body is moving along a straight line with a constant
velocity and its position at time t is given by
r r r
r = a +t b
Then
r
a is the position of the body at time t=0
r r
b is the velocity vector of the body (usually v )
r r
|b | is the speed of the body (usually | v |)
83
EXAMPLE 7
Suppose that a body is moving according to the equation
r 1  3 
r =   +t  
2 4
where time is measured in seconds and distance in meters.
The initial position (at t=0) of the body is (1,2).

So it is 1 2 + 2 2 = 5 =2.23m far from the origin.
The position at time t=1sec is (4,6)

So it is 4 2 + 6 2 = 52 =7.21m far from the origin.
r 3 
The velocity vector is v =  
4
r
The speed is | v |= 3 2 + 4 2 =5 m/sec
NOTICE
r r r r
If r = a +λ b is an equation of line, the direction vector b can be
r
substituted by any multiple of b .
r r r r
If r = a +t b is an equation of motion, the velocity vector b CANNOT
r
be substituted by a multiple of b .
This is because the velocity vector corresponds to one unit of time t.
To explain the difference, consider the following situations:
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 1
second at position B(5,8). Then
r 4 r 1   4 
velocity vector: v =AB=   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
6   2  6 
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 2
r 4
seconds at position B(5,8). Then the direction vector b =AB=  
6 
corresponds to 2 seconds, hence
r 1 r 2 r 1   2 
Velocity vector: v = b =   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
2 3   2  3 
84
3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D (for HL)
Working in a similar way:

4
r  
The line passing through A(1,2,3) and parallel to b =  5  has
6 
 
vector equation: x 1 4

r r r      
r = a +λ b or  y  =  2  +λ  5 
 z   3  6 
     
x=1+4λ
parametric equations:
y=2+5λ
z=3+6λ
x −1 y−2 z −3
Cartesian equations*: = =
4 5 6
The rest analysis is similar! Let us find for example the line which
passes through two given points:
EXAMPLE 1
Find the line which passes through A(1,2,3) and B(5,2,-1)
Does the point C(21,2,-17) lie on the line?
1  5 - 1   4 
r   r    
We consider a =  2  and b =AB=  2 - 2  =  0 
3  - 1- 3  - 4 
     
Hence, the line is

1 4 
r r r    
r = a +λ b =  2  +λ  0 
 3  - 4 
   
* We just solve the parametric equations for λ and equate the results
85
The point C lies on the line if

 21   1   4 
     
 2  =  2  +λ  0  for some λ
- 17   3  - 4 
     
We obtain three equations:
21=1+4λ
2=2
-17=3-4λ
The second equation is always true! The first one gives λ=5, which
satisfies the third equation as well! Hence, C lies on the line.
Let us see what happens when we are given two lines

r r r
r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r r r
r2 = a 2 +µ b 2 (L2)
♦ INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
In the 3D space, three cases may occur:

• The lines are parallel (special case: they coincide)
• The lines intersect
• The lines are skew (neither parallel nor intersecting)
Methodology:
r r
• If b1 // b 2 the lines are parallel (moreover, if they have a
common point they coincide); otherwise
r r
• Set r1 = r2 . We obtain a system of 3 equations for λ and µ
• Consider the first two equations and find λ and µ,
• If λ and µ satisfy the third equation the lines intersect;
substitute λ to L1 (or µ to L2) to find the point
• If λ and µ do not satisfy the third equation the lines are skew
(nether parallel nor intersecting)
86
EXAMPLE 2
Find the intersection point of the lines:
1  3  1 6 
r     r    
a) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  1  +µ 8 
3  5  1  10 
       
1  3  7  6 
r     r    
b) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  10  +µ 8 
3  5   13   10 
       
1  3  1  2
r     r    
c) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 3 
       
1  3  1  2
r     r    
d) r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 2
       
We have
6  3 
   
a) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) does not
 10  5 
   
lie on the second line (it does not satisfy the equation) the
lines are not identical.
6  3 
   
b) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) lies on
 10  5 
   
the second line (it satisfies the equation for µ=-1) the lines
coincide.
 1 + 3λ   1 + 2µ  3λ − 2µ = 0
r r     
c) r1 = r2 ⇔  2 + 4λ  =  4 + 2µ  ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
    5λ − 3µ = 1
 3 + 5λ   4 + 3µ  
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5λ-3µ=1, so the lines intersect. For λ=2 the first
7 
r  
equation line gives r1 =  10  . Thus the point is (7,10,13).
 13 
 
87
 1 + 3λ   1 + 2µ  3λ − 2µ = 0
r r     
d) r1 = r2 ⇔  2 + 4λ  =  4 + 2µ  ⇔ 4λ − 2µ = 2
    5λ − 2µ = 1
 3 + 5λ   4 + 2µ  
The first two equations give λ=2, µ=3. These values do not
satisfy the third equation 5λ-2µ=1, so the lines are skew.
♦ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
If the lines intersect, it is enough to find the angle between the

r r r r
direction vectors b1 and b 2 (since L1// b1 and L2// b 2 )
Notice: if θ > 90o we consider 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the angle between the lines
1  3  1  2
r     r    
r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  2 
3  5  4 3 
       
We have seen that the lines intersect (exercise 2c above). It suffices
3  2
r   r  
to find the angle between u=  4  , and v =  2 
5  3 
   
We have
r r r r
a) u. v = 3.2+4.2+5.3=29 b) | u | = 50 5, | v | = 17
r r
u⋅v 29
c) cosθ = r r = = 0.995, and the GDC gives θ=5.730
| u || v | 50 17
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the following lines are perpendicular
1  3  1  - 4 
r     r    
r1 =  2  +λ  4  and r2 =  4  +µ  3 
3  5  4 0 
       
The dot product of the direction vectors is 3(-4)+4.3+5.0 = 0.
88
3.15 CROSS PRODUCT (for HL)
This definition applies only for 3D vectors.
♦ THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the “ugly” one)

r r
Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors ( where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π).
r r
The cross product (or vector product) of u and v is defined to be a
vector given by
r r r r r
u × v = (|u || v |sinθ) n
r r r
where n is the unit vector which is perpendicular to both u and v
and follows the “screw rule”†:
r r
r v u
n
r r
u v
r
n
r r r r
That is, u × v is a new vector perpendicular to both u and v (and
r r r r
so to the plane determined by u and v ) with magnitude |u || v |sinθ
r
and direction n .
r
r r u
u× v
r r
v v
r
u r r
u× v
Notice that the commutative law does not hold. However,
r r r r
u × v = -v × u
r r
†If we place a screw at the common starting point of u and v and rotate it
r r r
form u to v , then the screw will move in the direction of n .
89
♦ THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the “pretty” one)
 a1   a2 
r   r  
Let u =  b1  and v =  b 2  be two vectors. The cross product (or
c   
 1  c2 
r r
vector product) of u and v is given by
 b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1 
r r  
u × v =  c1 a 2 − c 2 a 1 
a b − a b 
 1 2 2 1
Well, it doesn’t look as pretty as the title promised! But the is a

kind of symmetry in it!
r r
For the first row of the result, you forget the first rows of u and v
and you move along the arrow below
 a 1   a 2   b1 c 2 − b 2 c 1 
     
 b1  ×  b 2  =  
c     
 1   c2   
Then you carry on in a similar way for the 2nd and the 3rd row.
Mind though the order of the operations for the three rows:
NOTICE
For those who know determinants, the definition can be given in
the form
r r r
i j k
r r
u × v = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
expanded in terms of the first row vectors, i.e.
r r b c1 r a1 c1 r a1 b1 r
u× v = 1 i − j+ k
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
90
EXAMPLE 1
1  4
r   r  
Let u =  2  and v =  5  . Then
3  6 
   
r. r
a) find u v ,
r r r r
b) find u × v and v × u (by using the “pretty” definition)
r r r r
c) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
r r
a) u . v = 4+10+18=32
 1   4   12 - 15  - 3 
r r        
b) u × v =  2  ×  5  =  12 - 6  = 6 
 3   6   6- 12  - 3 
       
 4   1   15 - 12  3 
r r         r r r r
v × u =  5  ×  2  =  6- 12  = - 6  . That is v × u = -u × v
 6   3   12 - 6  3 
       
r r r r r r
c) u × v ⊥ u and u× v ⊥ v
-3  1  -3  4 
       
since 6  ⋅  2  =-3+12-9 = 0, 6  ⋅  5  =-12 +30-18 = 0
-3  3  -3  6 
       
Notice that the “ugly” definition cannot be applied directly as we

r
need the unit vector n . Let us choose below two more convenient
r r
vectors u and v in order to compare the two definitions.
EXAMPLE 2
3  1 
r   r  
Let u =  2  and v =  4  . Then
0 0
   
r r
a) find u × v by using the “pretty” definition
r r
b) find the angle θ between u and v
r
c) find the unit vector n .
r r
d) find u × v by using the “ugly” definition
r r r r
e) verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v
91
3  1   0 
r r      
a) u × v =  2  ×  4  =  0 
 0   0   10 
     
r r
u⋅v 11
b) cosθ= r r = = 0.74, hence θ = 42.27ο
| u || v | 13 17
r r r
c) both vectors u and v are on the plane Oxy so the unit vector n
r r r
is parallel to axis Oz (if we draw u and v we will realize n is in
the positive direction so
0
r  
n =0
1 
 
0 
r r r r r r r  
d) u × v = (| u || v |sinθ) n = ( 13 17 sin42.3ο ) n = 10 n =  0 
 10 
 
r r r r
e) clearly u × v is parallel to n and thus perpendicular to both u
r
and v .
r r
♦ THE MAGNITUDE | u × v |
r r r r r
Notice that the ugly definition u × v = (|u || v |sinθ) n implies
r r r r
|u × v | = | u || v |sinθ
r
since n is a unit vector.
r r
But, if we consider the triangle determined by u and v
r
v
θ r
u
1 r r
we know that its area is given by |u || v |sinθ.
2
Therefore, the area of this triangle is given by
1 r r
Area of triangle = |u × v |
2
92
r r
In other words, the magnitude of the cross product u × v gives
r r
directly the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v
r
v
r
u
r r
Area of parallelogram = |u × v |
EXAMPLE 3
1  4 - 3 
r   r   r r  
For u =  2  and v =  5  , we have seen that u × v =  6 
3  6  - 3 
     
r r
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v is
given by
r r
Area = |u × v | = 9 + 36 + 9 = 7.35
1
Also, the area of the corresponding triangle is (7.35)=3.67
2
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(1,1,1), B(1,3,1) and (-3,3,4)
A C
It suffices to find the area of the triangle determined by any two

vectors; let’s choose the vectors AB and AC.
0 - 4   0  - 4  6 
         
AB =  2  , AC =  2  and so AB × AC=  2  ×  2  = 0
0 3   0  3  8 
         
Hence,
1 1
Area of triangle = |AB × AC| = 36 + 0 + 64 = 5
2 2
93
3.16 PLANES (for HL)
♦ VECTOR EQUATION
 a1 
r  
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a =  a 2  )
a 
 3
b   c1 
r  1 r  
Two vectors b =  b 2  , c =  c 2  (which are non-parallel)
  c 
 b3   3
r r
There is a unique plane passing through A, parallel to both b and c
P(x,y,z)
A
r
c
r
b
x
r  
The position vector r =  y  of any point P(x,y,z) of this plane is
 z
 
given by
r r r r
r = a +λ b +µ c
or
 a 1   b1   c1 
r      
r =  a 2  +λ  b 2  +µ  c 2 
 a    c 
 3   b3   3
where λ,µ are two parameters.
94
♦ SHORT EXPLANATION
If P(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then AP lies in fact on the
r r
plane determined by b and c : ‡
r
c P
A r
b
Hence
r r
AP = λ b +µ c (for some λ,µ).
Then, the position vector of P is given by
r r r r
r =OP=OA+AP= a +λ b +µ c
♦ PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
 x   a 1   b1   c1  x=a1+λb1+µc1
       
 y  =  a 2  +λ  b 2  +µ  c 2  gives y=a2+λb2+µc2
 z   a    c 
   3   b3   3 z=a3+λb3+µc3
♦ CARTESIAN EQUATION
If we eliminate λ and µ we will obtain an equation of the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
Remark: Although the method of eliminating λ and µ is not

necessary (a much easier method will be given in a while!) we
will demonstrate the procedure by using the example below, just
to persuade ourselves. The steps are as follows
• Eliminate λ from equations (1) and (2)
• Eliminate λ from equations (2) and (3)
• Eliminate µ from the two resulting equations
r r
‡ Since b and c may be moved parallelly and placed on the plane in question
95
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,2,3) be the given point
4 7 
r   r  
b =  5  and c = 8  be the parallel vectors
6  8 
   
r r
Then the plane passing through A, parallel to b and c is
Vector equation: 1   4  7 
r      
r =  2  +λ  5  +µ 8 
3  6  8 
     
Parametric equations: x=1+4λ+7µ

y=2+5λ+8µ
z=3+6λ+8µ
Now we eliminate λ from equations (1) and (2)

5 × (1)-4 × (2): 5x-4y=5(1+4λ+7µ)-4(2+5λ+8µ)
5x-4y=-3+3µ
6 × (2)-5 × (3): 6y-5z=6(2+5λ+8µ)-5(3+6λ+8µ)
6y-5z=-3+8µ
Next, we eliminate µ from

5x-4y=-3+3µ (4)
6y-5z=-3+8µ (5)
Thus
8 × (4)-3 × (5): 8(5x-4y)-3(6y-5z)=8(-3+3µ)-3(-3+8µ)
40x-50y+15z=-15
We simplify the equation by dividing by 5 and we obtain
Cartesian equation: 8x-10y+3z =-3
As we said, a much easier process will give the same result!
96
♦ VECTOR EQUATION IN NORMAL FORM

 a1 
r  
Given: Point A(a1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a =  a 2  )
a 
 3
 Α
r  
Normal vector n =  Β 
C 
 
r
There is a unique plane passing through A, perpendicular to n .
r
n
P
A
The equation of the plane is

r r r r
r .n =a.n
r
Indeed, if P(x,y,z) is a random point of the plane then AP ⊥ n
r r
But AP =OP-OA=r - a , and so
r r r r r r r r r r r r
AP . n =0 ⇒ (r - a ). n =0 ⇒ r . n - a . n =0 ⇒ r . n = a . n
NOTICE
The equation
r r r r
r .n =a.n
derives the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
 x   Α
r r   
Indeed, r n =  y   Β  = Ax+By+Cz
 z  C 
  
 a1   Α 
r r   
while a n =  a 2   Β  is a constant scalar, say D
 a  C 
 3 
97
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the plane passing through A(1,2,3) which is
 8
r  
perpendicular to n = - 10  (normal vector)
 3
 
r. r r. r
The equation r n = a n implies
x  8  1   8 
     
 y  - 10  =  2  - 10 
 z  3  3   3 
     
and so
8x-10y+3z =8-20+9 or finally 8x-10y+3z =-3
NOTICE
In examples 1 and 2 we obtained the same plane: 8x-10y+3z =-3
We had:
1  4
r   7 
r   r  
EXAMPLE 1: Point: a =  2  Parallel vectors: b =  5  and c = 8 
3  6  8 
     
1   8
r   r  
EXAMPLE 2: Point: a =  2  Normal vector: n = - 10 
3   3
   
r r r
Indeed, if we consider as a normal vector the vector n = b × c
r r
(which is ⊥ b , c hence perpendicular to the plane)
we obtain
 4  7   8 
r      
n =  5  × 8  = - 10 
 6  8   3 
     
Thus, the Cartesian equation of the plane may easily be found by

r r r r
r . n = a . n , instead of applying the elimination process of λ,µ!
98
NOTICE
If we know the Cartesian form Ax+By+Cz=D
 Α
r  
we also know a normal vector of the equation. It is n = Β 
C 
 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the plane
3x-2y+z = 6
r
a) Find a normal vector n
b) Find three points on the plane
r r
c) Find two vectors b and c parallel to the plane
r r r r
d) Confirm that n ⊥ b and n ⊥ c
e) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
3 
r  
a) n = - 2 
1 
 
b) For y=z=0 it is x=2, thus we obtain the point A(2,0,0).
Similarly we obtain the points B(0,-3,0) and C(0,0,6)
 0   2  - 2   0   2  - 2 
r       r      
c) Let b =AB= - 3  -  0  = - 3  and c =AC=  0  -  0  =  0 
0  0 0  6   0  6 
           
r.r r .r
d) We can easily see that n b =-6+6 = 0 and n c =-6+6 = 0
 2  - 2  - 2 
r r r r r      
e) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r =  0  +λ - 3  +µ  0 
0 0  6 
     
Parametric form: x=2-2λ-2µ, y=-3λ, z=6µ
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
Cartesian form: 3x-2y+z = 6
99
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the plane
3  1  5 
r      
r =  1  +λ  2  +µ  0 
 2  3  2
     
r r
a) Find two parallel vectors b and c
b) Find three points on the plane
r
c) Find a normal vector n
d) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
1 5  A(3,1,2) (the obvious one)

r   r  
a) b =2 , c = 0 b) B(4,3,5) for λ=1,µ=0
3  2
    C(8,1,4) for λ=0, µ=1
 1   5  4 
r r r      
c) Let n = b × c =  2  ×  0  = 13 
 3   2  -10
     
3  1  5 
r r r r r      
d) Vector form: r = a +λ b +µ c or r =  1  +λ  2  +µ  0 
 2  3  2
     
Parametric form: x=3+λ+5µ, y=1+2λ, z=2+3λ+2µ
r r r r
Normal form: r .n =a.n
Cartesian form: 4x+13y-10z = 5

4 
  r r
since 13  is a normal vector and a . n =12+13-20 = 5
-10
 
100
3.17 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES (for HL)
In this section we will study the relative position between

• two lines
• a line and a plane
• two planes
• three planes
♦ TWO LINES
r r r
Given: Lines L1: r1 = a1 +λ b1
r r r
L2: r2 = a 2 +µ b 2
We have already seen this study in paragraph 3.14. Let us

remember all possible cases.
Lines Look like Method
r r
parallel Check if b1 // b 2
r r
Check if b1 // b 2
coincide
+ a common point
r r
Intersect r1 = r2
at some point has a solution
r r
r1 = r2
skew
has no solution
θ = angle between the two lines

r r
r r b1 ⋅ b 2
θ = angle between b1 and b 2 cosθ= r r
| b1 || b 2 |
101
♦ A LINE AND A PLANE

r r r
Given: Line L: r1 = a +λ b
Α
r  
Plane Π: Ax+By+Cz=D (so n = Β  )
C 
 
Line and Plane Look like Method
r x
r
n
b r  
Intersect plug r1 =  y  into
 z
at some point  
Ax+By+Cz=D to find λ
r r r
b Check if b ⊥ n
r
parallel n or
no intersection point
r r
Check if b ⊥ n
+ a common point
Line lies on Plane
or
∞ intersection points
θ = angle between line and plane

r r r
r b ⋅n
If φ = angle between b and n
sinθ= r r
then θ = 900 - φ | b || n |
Notice: if the line and the plane are given in other forms, we
r r r
transform them into the forms L: r1 = a +λ b and Π: Ax+By+Cz=D
EXAMPLE 1
1   4 
r    
Consider the line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  and the plane Π: 2x+5y-3z=18
3  6 
   
Find the the angle between L and Π and the point of intersection.
For the angle between L and P we have

r r
b⋅n 15
sinθ= r r = =0.277, hence θ=16.10
| b || n | 77 38
102
The point of intersection lies on L, so it has the form

(x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+5y-3z=18:

2(1+4λ)+5(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=18 ⇔ 15λ+3=18 ⇔ λ =1
Hence, x=5, y=7, z=9 and the intersection point is (x,y,z)=(5,7,9).
EXAMPLE 2
1   4 
r    
Show that line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  is parallel to plane Π: 2x+2y-3z=1
3  6 
   
4 2 
r   r  
Method A: If b =  5  and n =  2  , then
6  - 3 
   
r r r r
b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
The point (1,2,3) of the line does not satisfy 2x+2y-3z = 1, hence
the line does not lie on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=1:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=1 ⇔ 0λ=4
The last equation is impossible, thus there is no intersection point.
EXAMPLE 3
1   4 
r    
Show that line L: r1 =  2  +λ  5  lies on plane Π: 2x+2y-3z = -3
3  6 
   
r r r r
Method A: Again b ⋅ n =0 ⇒ b ⊥ n ⇒ L //Π
But this time, the point (1,2,3) of the line satisfies the equation
2x+2y-3z = -3, hence the line lies on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=-3:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=-3 ⇔ 0λ=0
The last equation is true for any λ, so the line lies on the plane.
103
♦ TWO PLANES
Α 
r  1
Given: Planes Π1: A1x+B1y+C1z=D1 so n 1 =  Β1 
C 
 1
 Α2 
r  
Π2: A2x+B2y+C2z=D2 so n 2 =  Β2 
C 
 2
Planes Look like Method
r Find two common points
n2
r and thus the line
n1
intersecting or
r
into a line one common point a and
r r r r r r
r = a +λ b direction vector b = n 1 × n 2
or
solve simultaneous equations
r r
parallel Check if n 1 // n 2
r r
Check if n 1 // n 2
+
coincide
The equations are
multiple to each other
θ = angle between the two planes

r r
r r n1 ⋅ n 2
θ = angle between n 1 and n 2 cosθ= r r
| n 1 || n 2 |
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the planes
x+2y+3z=6
4x+5y+6z=15
Find the angle between the two planes and the line of intersection.
r r
n1 ⋅ n 2 32
For the angle: cosθ= r r = ⇒ θ=12.93ο
| n 1 || n 2 | 14 77
104
For the line of intersection

Method A: Let us first find two common points
For z=0 the equations become
x+2y=6 and 4x+5y=15
which give x=0, y=3. Hence, a common point is A(0,3,0).
For z=1 the equations become

x+2y=3 and 4z+5y=9
which give x=1, y=1. Hence, a common point is B(1,1,1).
The two points A,B determine the equation of the intersecting line
 0  1 
r    
r =  3  +λ - 2 
 0  1 
   
Method Β: We find only one common point, say A(0,3,0) and as a
 1   4  - 3 1 
r r        
direction vector we consider n 1 × n 2 =  2  ×  5  = 6  which is // - 2
3   6  - 3 1 
       
Method C: We solve the system of the two linear equations (GDC or
Gauss elimination). The general solution is x = λ, y = 3 − 2λ , z = λ .
These are the parametric equations of the same line.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10
2x+4y+6z=30
1  2
   
Their normal vectors  2  and  4  are clearly parallel.
3  6 
   
Moreover, the two planes do not have a common point (since one
equation is not a multiple of the other).
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10 and 2x+4y+6z=20
The two planes coincide (one is a multiple of the other)
105
♦ THREE PLANES
Given: Planes A1x+B1y+C1z=D1
A2x+B2y+C2z=D2
A3x+B3y+C3z=D3
The problem reduces to the solution of a 3x3 system of

simultaneous equations (see paragraph 1.9). Then
SYSTEM CONCLUSION
The three planes have one common

Unique solution (x,y,z)
point (x,y,z)
No common point:
No solution The planes form a triangular prism
or 2 of the planes are parallel
Planes intersect into a line

Infinitely many solutions
or at least 2 planes coincide
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the planes

2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 10
We may see (either by Gauss elimination or by a GDC) that this
system has infinitely many solutions:
x = 14 + 16λ
y = -5 + 7λ
z = λ ∈ R (free variable)
 14   16 
r    
The solution represents the line r = - 5  +λ 7  .
 0  1 
   
106
3.18 DISTANCES (for HL)
In this section we will study the distance between

• two points
• a point and a line
• two lines
• a point and a plane
• a line and a plane
• two planes
Let us present our methodology by considering particular examples:
A) Distance between Points

Consider A(1,2,3) and B(5,7,9)
B(5,7,9)
A(1,2,3)
The well-known formula gives

2 2 2
d= (5−1) +(7−2) +(9−3) = 77
B) Distance between Point and Line

Consider
5  3 
r    
point A(1,2,3) and line L: r = 7  +λ  2 
9   1 
   
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector AP is perpendicular to line L.
107
We first find the foot P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ) on the line L.
3   4 + 3λ  3 
     
AP ⊥ L ⇔ AP ⊥  2  ⇔  5 + 2λ  ⊥ 2
1    1 
  6 + λ   
⇔ 3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ=-28
⇔ λ=-2
Hence, the foot of the distance is P(-1,3,7)
The distance between the point and the line is
d(A,P)= (1 + 1) 2 + (2 − 3) 2 + (3- 7) 2 = 21
C) Distance between Lines
• If the lines are parallel:
Consider
1  6  5  3 
r     r    
Line L1: r =  2  +µ  4  and line L2: r = 7  +λ  2 
3  2 9   1 
       
The lines are clearly parallel.
A(1,2,3)
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: We select a point in line L1 and find the distance

from line L2.
Here, the distance of point (1,2,3) of Line L1 from line L2 is

exactly the case B above.
108
• If the lines are skew:
Consider
1  4 5  3 
r     r    
Line L1: r =  2  +µ  5  and line L2: r = 7  +λ  2 
3  0 9   1 
       
It is given that the lines are skew
b1 P(1+4µ,2+5µ,3)
b2 Q(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector PQ is perpendicular to both lines L1 and L2.
 4 + 3λ - 4µ 
 
We first find foots P and Q. Notice that PQ=  5 + 2λ - 5µ 
 
6 + λ 
 4 + 3λ - 4µ  4
   
a) PQ ⊥ L1 ⇔  5 + 2λ - 5µ  ⊥  5 
  0
6 + λ   
⇔ 4(4+3λ-4µ)+5(5+2λ-5µ)+0(6+λ)=0
⇔ 22λ-41µ=-41
 4 + 3λ - 4µ  3 
   
b) PQ ⊥ L2 ⇔  5 + 2λ - 5µ  ⊥  2 
  1 
6 + λ   
⇔ 3(4+3λ-4µ)+2(5+2λ-5µ)+(6+λ)=0
⇔ 14λ-22µ=-28
41 7
The system gives λ= − , and µ= −
15 15
13 1 16 23 94
Hence we find P( − , − ,3) and Q( − , , )
15 3 5 15 15
and hence we can find the distance |PQ|.
109
D) Distance between Point and Plane

Consider
point A(3,4,6) and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
Key point: Line AP is parallel to the normal vector n; the point P

lies on the plane
We first find the equation of line AP:

3   2 
r    
r =  4  +λ  3 
6  5 
   
The foot has coordinates P(3+2λ,4+3λ,6+5λ) and lies on Π, hence

2(3+2λ)+3(4+3λ)+5(6+5λ)=10 ⇔ 38λ=-38 ⇔ λ=-1
Hence the foot is P(1,1,1).

The distance is |AP|, that is
d(A,P)= (3- 1) 2 + (4 - 1) 2 + (6 - 1) 2 = 38
E) Distance between Line and Plane

This case occurs only if the line is parallel to the plane.
Consider
3  3 
r    
Line L: r =  4  +λ - 2  and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
6   0 
   
It is given that the line is parallel to the plane.
A(3,4,6)
r
n
P
We just find the distance of point A of line L from plane Π

(case D above)
110
F) Distance between Planes

This case occurs only if the planes are parallel.
Consider
Plane Π1: 2x+3y+5z=10 and Plane Π2: 2x+3y+5z=48
Clearly planes Π1 and Π2 are parallel.
We just find a point of plane Π1: for x=y=0, z=2, hence A(0,0,2)
Then we find the distance of point A from plane Π2
(as in case D above).
We first find the equation of line AP:

0 2
r    
r =  0  +λ  3 
 2  5 
   
The foot has coordinates P(2λ,3λ,2+5λ) and lies on Π2, hence
2(2λ)+3(3λ)+5(2+5λ)=48 ⇔ 38λ=38 ⇔ λ=1
Hence the foot is P(2,3,7).

The distance is
d(A,P)= (2 - 0) 2 + (3- 0) 2 + (7 - 2) 2 = 38
111

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International Baccalaureate

3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………… 1

3.2 TRIANGLES – SINE AND COSINE RULES ...………………………………………… 5

3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 10

3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS …………………….. 15

3.5 SINΘ, COSΘ, TANΘ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE…………………………………………… 19

3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS .……………………………….. 26

3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 36

3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS – IDENTITIES ………….………………. 49

3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………. 54

3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION …………………………………………. 59

3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 66

3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS …………… 73

3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 78

3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 85

3.15 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ………………………………………………………….… 89

3.16 PLANES ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 94

3.17 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ……….…………………………101

3.18 DISTANCES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 107

3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by

Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find

(a) the distance between A and B

♦ VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS

Solid Volume Surface area

Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x

The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

The surface area is

S = (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) = 96

3.2 TRIANGLES – SINE AND COSINE RULES

Pythagoras’ theorem a2 = b2 + c2 sin 2 θ + cos 2θ = 1

♦ A PRACTICAL REMINDER FOR SIN, COS, TAN of basic angles:

0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

θ sinθ cosθ tanθ cotθ

30o 1/2 3/2 1/ 3 3

60o 3/2 1/2 3 1/ 3

If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o

If cosθ = 0.3 then θ = cos-1 0.3 = 72.5o

If A + B = 180o then sinA = sinB while cosA = -cosB

e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5

cos30o = 3/2 cos 150o = - 3/2

• The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.

♦ SINE RULE - COSINE RULE

Consider the following triangle

sinA sinB sinC

COSINE RULE a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cosA

Notice: the cosine rule can be also expressed as

Consider the following triangle

We confirm that the SINE RULE holds:

sinA sin 104.5

We confirm that the COSINE RULE holds

sin90 o sinB sinC 1 sinB sinC

as expected by the definition of sinθ

Also, a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ⋅ cos90 o implies a 2 = b 2 + c 2

that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.

SINE RULE is a generalisation of the definition of sinθ

♦ THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE

Any triangle possesses 6 basic elements: 3 angles and 3 sides.

If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

(3 sides) OR (2 sides and 1 included angle) COSINE RULE

otherwise SINE RULE

EXAMPLE 3 (given 3 sides)

We use COSINE RULE (since we don’t know any pair of angle-side):