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KVPY MATHEMATICS
01. NUMBER SYSTEM 1

02. ALGEBRA 3

03. TRIGONOMETRY 10

04. INEQUALITIES 12

05. GEOMETRY 14
CHAPTER # 01 NUMBER SYSTEM
• For integers a, b, c
(i) If a | b then a | b c.
(ii) If. a | b and b | c then a | c.
(iii) If a, b are natural numbers and if a | b and b | a, then a = b
(iv) If a | b and a | c then a | (b p + c q) for all integral values of p and q.
b | a means b is a factor of a (or a is a multiple of b).
• Number of divisors of a natural number
If N = p n1 p n 2 p n 3 .......p n k then the number of divisors of N, d(N) = (n +1) (n +1) (n +1)...... (n +1)
1 2 3 k 1 2 3 k

• Sum of divisors of a natural number  (N)

1  p n1 1 1  p n2 1
..........1  p k
n k 1
  N  1 2
1  p1 1  p2 1  pk
• Product of divisors of N
1
(n 1)( n 1).......( n 1)
1 2 k
Product of divisors of N = N 2

1
[d(N) divisors of N can be grouped in to d(N) pairs such that product of each pair is equal to n.]
2
• Perfect number
A natural number N is said to be perfect if sum of all divisors of N, (N) = 2N
Eg:– (i) 28 is a perfect number.
1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 + 28 = 56 = 2 × 28
(ii) 496 is a perfect number.
496 = 24 × 31
  1  2 1  31
5 2

496    992  2  496

1  2 1  31
• Sum of the reciprocals of divisors of a perfect number
Let d1, d2, d3,...... , dn be all divisors of the perfect number N[including 1 and N].
1 1 1  ........  1 d1  d2  ..........  dn 2N
    2
d1 d 2 d3 dn N N
[L.C.M. of d1, d2, d3,.........., dn = N and d1 + d2 + d3 +. ........ + dn = 2N]
• Sum of reciprocals of factors of 28
1 1 1 1 1 1 28 14  7  4  2  1 56
       2
1 2 4 7 14 28 28 28
• Amicable numbers
Two numbers are said to be amicable if the sum of the divisors of one, excluding itself is equal to the other.
220 and 284 are amicable numbers.
220 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 1 +142
284 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110
Sum of divisors of 220 (excluding 220) is 284 and Sum of divisors of 284(excluding 284) is 220.
• Highest power of a prime number p contained in N!
 N  N   N 
The highest power of a prime number p contained in N ! =    .........
 p   p   p 
2 3
     
• Cube Root:
b c
3
abc = + c = x + y , where x3 + 3xy = a
3
Note: 1) Above formula can be applied only if x3 + 3xy = a

2) 3
(x  3y) x  (3x  y) y = x  y

• Important Results:

1 a 2 / 3  (ab)1/3  b 2/ 3
(1) =
3
a3b a b

1 a 2 / 3  (ab)1/3  b2 / 3
(2) =
3
a b3
a b
2 2
(3) If (a  b ) x k
+ (a  b ) x k
= 2a and a2 – b = 1, then x2 – k = ± 1
 2 2 x2  k
(4) If (a  b ) x k + (a  b ) x k
= 2(a2 + b), then  1
2
1 4a 1
(5)(5) a  a  a  ....  = (a > 0)
2
4a 1 1
(6)(6) a a  a  ..  = (a > 0)
2

(7)(7) a a a......  = a
2n 1
2n
(8)(8) a a a ...... n times = a
• Greatest integer function :
(a) [x] represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
f(x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function.
(b) {x} is fractional part of x and is defined as {x} = x – [x].
• Properties of Greatest integer function :

(a) [x]  x < [x] + 1 and x –1 < [x]  x, 0  x (b) If x  0, [x] = 1 p  i  x

(c) [x + m] = [x] + m, if m is an integer. (d) [x] + [y]  [x + y]  [x] + [y] + 1
(e) [x] + [–x] = 0, if x is an integer and –1 other wise.
n
(f) The number of positive integers less than or equal to n and divisible by m is given by  
 m 

 n 
(g) If p is prime number and e is the largest exponent of p such that pe /n! then e   i 
i1  p 

(h) The number of zeroes at the end of n! is given by the least of the Highest powers of 2 and 5.
CHAPTER # 02 ALGEBRA

• Number of functions from A to B:

Let n(A) = m and n(B) = n. Under a function f, an element of A can be associated to any of the
n elements of the set B.

i.e., each element of A can be associated to an element of B in n ways.

And A contains m elements.

n 3
Therefore total number of functions from A to B = 0 3n1
n3 3 ... 
...3 3
2 n  nm
m times

NOTE : Number of functions from A to A = [n(A)]n(A)

• Finding remainders when divisor is of second or third degree.

Remainder is always one degree less than divisor.

If the divisor is linear expression of the form (ax + b), the remainder is a numerical number i.e. a constant.

But when the divisor is of second degree like (x – a)(x – b) or third degree like (x – a)(x – b) (x – c)
the remainders will be (px + q) or (px2 + qx + r) respectively.

In the above cases, the division identity will be

f(x) = (x – a)(x – b) (x) + (px + q) (or)

f(x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) (x) + (px2 + qx + r)

We can find the value of p, q and r by substituting x = a, x = b and x = c in the above identities. We
shall get equations involving p, q and r.

The values of p, q, r will enable us to write the required remainder.

Using factor theorem the following concepts can be proved.

1. (ak + bk) is divisible by (a + b) if k is odd.

2. (ak – bk) is divisible by (a – b) if k  N

Many problems can be solved using these two concepts, but they need tactful algebraical manipulation
as can be seen from the following examples.

As per binomial theorem

(1 + x)n = 1 + nC1x1 + nC2 x2 + ...... + nCnxn

= 1 + nx + nC2 x2 + .... +nCnxn (nC1 = n)

This concept is used occasionally in coordination with the concepts given in the above model.
 Theory of equations
• Relation between the roots and the coefficients of an equation
Let f(x)  a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + .................+an = 0 be the given nth degree equation and let 1, 2,
3,..........,n be its n roots, then we have
a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 +................... +an

0(x–1) (x–2) ...............(x–n)

a
 a  x n    .x n1     .x n2    . . x n3 ...........   1    ...... 
n

0  1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 n 


Equating coefficients of like powers of x on both sides, we get

a1
a
0
 1
=a   
1

1
a0
a   =a 
a2
0 1 2 2   1 2 a0
a
 3
a 0 123 = a3   1 2  3 a0
............................................................................................... ...............................................................................................

............................................................................................... ...............................................................................................

............................................................................................... ...............................................................................................
 an
    ....... =  1
n
(–1)n     ....... = 
0   3 n n   3 n a0
• If the roots of the equation a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + ....................+ an = 0 are all positive then the
coefficients a0, a1, a2,....................., an will be alternately positive and negative.
Let a0 > 0.
a1
Since the roots of the equation are all positive   0  
1
 0 a < 0
1
a0
a2
 1 is also positive   0  a2  0 and so on.
a0
2
• If the roots of the equation a 0 x n  a1 x n 1  a 2x n 2 ..............  a n  0 are all negative then the coeffi-
cients a0, a1, a2,..........., an will be all positive.

a1
Since the roots of the equation are all negative  1 0  
a0
 0  a1  0 Π a0 > 0

a2
  12 is positive  > 0  a2  0 and so on.
a0
Note :
(i) If there is only one change of sign in f(x), the equation f(x) = 0 has one and only one positive
root.
(ii) If there is only one change of sign in f(– x), the equation f(x) = 0 has one and only one negative root.
(iii) Let f(x) = 0 is an equation of degree n with non–zero constant term and the number of sign changes
in f(x) = 0 be p and that in f(– x) = 0 be q. Then f(x) = 0 has at least n – (p + q) complex roots.
• Condition that two quadratic equations may have one common root
Let a1x2 + b1 x + c1 = 0 and a2 x2 + b2 x + c2 = 0 be the two given quadratic equations and let  be the
common root. Then,

a1 2  b1  c1  0 ...(1)

a 22  b2   c2  0 ...(2)
From (1) and (2) , by the rule of cross multiplication.

2  1 2 2
   c a  c a  b c  b c
  a b  a b 
2
b c b c c a c a a b a b
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 21 1 2 21 1 2 2 1 1 2 21

Hence the condition is (c1a2–c2a1)2 = (b1c2–b2c1)(a1b2–a2b1)

c a c a
The common root = a1b2 a 2b 1
1 2 2 1

• Condition that two quadratic equations may have both roots in common
Let : a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2= 0 be the two quadratic equations, and
let  and  be the common roots.
b1 c1 b2 c2
Then   ,  , Also     , 
a1 a1 a2 a2

b1 b2 i.e. a1 b1 and c1 c2 i.e. = a1 c1

    
a1 a2 a2 b2 a1 a2 a 2 c2

Hence the condition is a1 b1 c1

 
a2 b2 c2

• Reciprocal equations
Equations in which coefficients of terms equidistant from either extremity are equal, are known as
reciprocal equations.
Example 2x4 – 9x3 + 14 x2 – 9x + 2 = 0
• Solution set of inequalities
Solution set of inequalities ax2 + bx + c > 0 and ax2 + bx + c < 0, a 0
The solution set of inequality ax + bx + c > 0 is the set of values of x for which the portion of the
2

graph of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is above the x–axis.

y 2 2
y =x –7x+6

x
O1 6
 The solution set of inequality ax2 + bx + c < 0 is the set of values of x for which the portion of the
graph of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is below the x–axis.

2
y y=x –7x+6

x
O1 6

• The graph of ax2 + bx + c = 0 for different possible cases of the solution set.
(i) a > 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is {  }
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is {x/x <  or x > }
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c < 0 is {x/  < x < }

 

(ii) a > 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is {}.

The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is {x / xR – {}}
The solution set of ax2 +bx+c < 0 is null set.


(iii) a > 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is empty set.
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is set of all real numbers.
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c < 0 is empty set.

(iv) a < 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is {  }

The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is {x /  < x < } .
The solution set of ax2 +bx + c < 0 is {x/x <  or x > }

0   x

y
 (v) a < 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is {}
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is empty set.
The solution set of ax2 + bx + c < 0 is {x/x  R – {}}

0 
x

(vi) a < 0 and the solution set of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is empty set.

The solution set of ax2 + bx + c > 0 is empty set.
The solution set of ax2 + bx+ c < 0 is set of all real numbers.

0 x

• Solutions of equations reducible to quadratic form

Equations which are not quadratic at a glance but can be reduced to quadratic equations by suitable
transformations.
Some of the common types are :
Type-I : ax4 + bx2 + c = 0
This can be reduced to a quadratic equation by substituting x2 = y i.e., ay2 + by + c = 0
e.g. Solve 2x4 – 5x2 + 3 = 0
Putting x2 = y, we get 2y2 – 5y + 3 = 0
3
 (2y – 3) (y – 1) = 0  y = or 1
2

3 3
 x2 = or 1  x = ±
2
or ± 1
2

Type-II : a{p(x)}2 + b.p (x) + c = 0 where p(x) is an expression in 'x'

Put p(x) = y, {p(x)}2 = y2 to get the quadratic equation ay2 + by + c = 0.
e.g. Solve (x2 + 3x)2 – (x2 + 3x) – 6 = 0, x  R
Putting x2 + 3x = y, we get y2 – y – 6 = 0
Solving, we get y = 3 or – 2
 x2 + 3x = 3 or x2 + 3x = – 2

–3  21
 x or x = – 2 or – 1.
2
 b
Type-III : ap(x) + p(x) = c, where p(x) is an expression in x.

Put p(x) = y to obtain the quadratic equation ay2 – cy + b = 0

x
e.g. Solve x  1 34
 
x 1 x 15

x 1 34
Putting = y, we get, y + 
x 1 y 15

5 3
 15y2 – 34y + 15 = 0  y = 3 or 5

x 5 x 3 –5 3
 = or = x= or
x1 3 x 1 5 2 2

 1  1  1  1
Type-IV : (i) a x2 + +b x+ + c =0 (ii) a x2 + +b x –

+c= 0
 x2   x   x2   x 

 1 1  2 1
2
If the coefficient of b in the given equation contains x + , then replace x2  by  x  2  – 2
x 
2
x x

1 1 1  1 2 1
and put x + x = y. In case the coefficient of b is x – x
, then replace x2  2 by x –  + 2 and put x – x = y.
x x
 1  1
e.g. Solve 9 x2  

– 9  x   – 52  0
1 x2  x
Putting x +
x = y, we get : 9(y2 – 2) – 9y – 52 = 0
10 7 1 10 1 7
 y= or y = – x+ = or x + =– ,
3 3 x 3 x 3

1 –7 
 x= or 3 or x =  13 .
3 6

Type-V : (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k = 0, such that a + b = c + d.

Rewrite the equation in the form
{(x + a) (x + b)} · {(x + c) (x + d)} + k = 0
Put x2 + x(a + b) = x2 + x(c + d) = y to obtain a quadratic equation in y i.e. (y + ab) (y + cd) = k.
e.g. Solve (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) = 120
Π 1 + 4 = 2 + 3, we write the equation in the following form :
{(x + 1) (x + 4)} {x + 2) (x + 3)} = 120  (x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 5x + 6) = 120
Putting x2 + 5x = y, we get (y + 4) (y + 6) = 120
 y = – 16 or 6
 x2 + 5x = – 16 or x2 + 5x = 6
 x = – 6 or 1 (x2 + 5x + 16 has no real solution)
Type-VI : ax +b = (cx + d)
Square both sides to obtain (ax + b) = (cx + d)2
or c2x2 + (2cd – a) x + d2 – b = 0
Reject those values of x, which do not satisfy both ax + b  0 and cx + d  0.
e.g. Solve : 2x  9  x  13
 (2x + 9) = (13 – x)2 (on squaring both sides)
 x2 – 28x + 160 = 0  x = 20 or 8
x = 20 does not satisfy 2x + 9  0. So, x = 8 is the only root.

Type-VII : ax2 + bx + c = dx + e

Square both sides to obtain the quadratic equation x2 (a – d2) + x (b – 2de) + (c – e2) = 0. Solve it and
reject those values of x which do not satisfy ax2 + bx + c  0 and dx + e  0.
e.g. Solve 3x2  x  5  x  3

 3x2 + x + 5 = (x – 3)2 (On squaring both sides)

1
 2x2 + 7x – 4 = 0  x = or – 4
2
No value of x satisfy 3x2 + x + 5  0 and x – 3  0
Type-VIII : ax+ b ± cx+ d = e
Square both sides and simplify in such a manner that the expression involving radical sign on one
side and all other terms are on the other side. Square both sides of the equation thus obtained and
simplify it to obtain a quadratic in x. Reject these values which do not satisfy ax + b  0 and cx + d 
0.
e.g. Solve : 4 x  x  9  5

 4 x =5– x9

 x + 15 = 5 x9 (on squaring both sides)

 (x + 15)2 = 25 (x + 9) (on squaring both sides)
 x = 0 or – 5
Clearly, x = 0 and x = – 5 satisfy 4 – x  0 and x + 9  0.
Hence, the roots are 0 and – 5.
CHAPTER # 03 TRIGONOMETRY
• Systems of Measurement of angles:
1 right angle = 90° (ninety degrees)
1° = 60' (sixty minutes)
1' = 60'' (sixty seconds)
(i) In Sexagesimal System: (British System)
1 full revolution = 360° (360 degrees)
1° = 60' ( 60 minutes)
1' = 60'' ( 60 seconds)
1 right angle = quarter revolution = 90°
(ii) In Centesimal System: (French System)
1 full revolution = 400g (400 grades)
1 right angle = quarter revolution
= 100 grades
1 grade = 100' (100 minutes)
1' = 100'' (100 seconds)
(iii) In Radian Measure: (Circular System)
Radian: It is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an A
arc whose length is equal to be radius of the circle. The radian r
is a constant angle. r
O
The angle AOB is taken as the unit of circular system.
r
This angle is called a radian and is denoted by 1c.
B
Relation between Sexagesimal and Circular system:
1.  radians = 2 right angles = 180°
c 180 
2. 1  and 1 =
0
radians = 0.01745 radians
 180
3. 1c = 57017' 44.8''
• Relation between any two of sexagesimal, Centesimal and circular system.

D G 2C
= 100 = , where D stands for degree, G stands for grade and C stands for radian.
90 
• The law of Sine
a b c
In any ABC,    2R , where R is the radius of Circumcircle of ABC.
sinA sinB sinC
• The Law of Cosine
In any ABC, a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc CosA
b2 = a2 + c2– 2ac CosB
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab CosC
• Projection Formulae
In any ABC, a = b Cos C + c Cos B
b = c CosA + a Cos C
c = a CosB + b Cos A
• The radius r of the in–circle of a triangle.
 A B C
(i) r = (ii) r = (s–a) tan = (s–b) tan = (s–c) tan
s 2 2 2
A B C
(iii) r = 4R Sin Sin Sin
2 2 2
• Area of triangle

1
 2 bcSinA

1
Area of triangle ABC, =  acSinB
2
1
abSinC
2

• Radii of the escribed circles

 A B C A
(i) r1 =  4RSin Cos Cos  s tan
sa 2 2 2 2
 A B C B
(ii) r2 =  4RCos Sin Cos  s tan
sb 2 2 2 2

 A B C C
(iii) r3 =  4RCos Cos Sin  s tan
sc 2 2 2 2
CHAPTER # 04 INEQUALITIES
• AM  GM and AM, GM, HM form a decreasing Geometric progression.
a  b  0
2

a  b  2 ab  0
a+b2 ab
ab 
 ab
2
AM  GM 
AM.HM = a  b  2ab  ab  GM2
a b


2
 AM, GM, HM form a Geometric Progression.
a  b
2

AM–GM =
a b
 ab =
 0
2 2
 AM, GM, HM form a decreasing Geometric Progression.
• The arithmetic mean of n positive numbers which are not all equal to one another, is greater than their geometric
mean.
a1  a 2  a 3  ............  an
n > (a1 a2 a3 ....................an)1/n
 Arithmetic mean > Geometric mean
In particular if a1 = a2 = a3 = ...................= an then Arithmetic mean = Geometric mean.
Hence in general Arithmetic mean  Geometric mean
• Logarithmic function
If a > 1 then loga x is an increasing function.
ie If a > 1 and x > y > 0, then loga x > loga y.
If 0 < a < 1 then loga x is a decreasing function.
ie, If 0 < a < 1 and x > y > 0, then loga x < loga y.
• Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
Let a1,a2,... , an and b1,b2,..... , bn be two sets of real numbers.,then
  
(a1b1 + a2b2 + ... + anbn)2  a 21  a 22  ...  a 2n b12  b22  ...  bn2 and the equality holds if and only if
a1 a2 a
  ...  n .
b1 b2 bn
• Tchebychef’s inequality
If a1,a2 .... an.,b1,....bn are any set of real numbers such that a1  a2  ....  an;b1 b2  ... bn.
then
 a1b1  a 2 b 2   ..  a n b n   a1  a2 ....  an  b1  b2  ...  bn .
   
n  n  n 
(i.e.,) The arithmetic mean of the product of corresponding pairs of ai, bi is greater than or equal to the product
of the arithmetic mean of ai and bi taken separately.
• Power mean theorem m
a m  b m  a  b
 .
(1) If a,b are positive reals then for 0 < m < 1. 2  2 
This can be remembered as, when 0 < m < 1 then the Arithmetic mean of the m th powers of a and b is
less than or equal to m th power of the arithmetic mean of a and b.
The equality holds when a = b.
 m
am  bm  a  b
 .
(2) If a,b are positive reals then for m < 0 or m > 1. 2  2 
The equality holds when a = b.
• Nesbitt’s inequality
The following inequality was given by Nesbitt in 1903 from England. If a,b,c are positive real numbers,
a b c  3/2
prove  
bc ca a b
The equality holds when a = b = c.
• Inequalities pertaining to triangles
There are numerous interesting inequalities regarding the various elements of a triangle.
The basic inequality regarding the sides of a triangle ABC are a + b > c,b + c > a,c + a > b. Some of the
inequalities are given in the exercise.
The following is an interesting inequality regarding the sides a,b,c of a triangle ABC.
1 ab  bc  ca
  1.
2 a 2  b2  c 2
• Important Concept
a1  a2  ........a n  1  1  1   n2
a a a 
 1 2 n 
AM  HM
a  a  ......  a n
AM  1 2
n
Let us find the HM between a1, a2, a3 ....... an
If a1, a2 .............. an are in HP
then 1 , 1 ..... 1 are in AP
a1 a 2 an
1 1 1
 ... 
a a2 an
AM  1
n
n
HM between a1a2 ..... a n  1 1 1
 .....
a1 a 2 an
Since AM  HM
n

a1  a2 ....  a n

n  a  a  ....  a   n2
1 2 n
n 1 1 ..... 1 1 1 1

a1 a 2 an a1 a.....
2 an
CHAPTER # 05 GEOMETRY
• Stewart's theorem :- If A,B,C are three collinear points and P any other point, then
PA2 . BC + PB2. CA – PC2. AB – BC . CA. AB = 0 P

A B D C
• Menelau's theorem :- If a transversal cuts the sides BC, CA, AB, of a triangle A B C at D, E, F respectively
BD CE AF A
then = –1.
DC EA FB
F
E

D
B C

• Ceva's theorem :- If the lines joining the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC any point S in their plane
BD CE AF
meet the opposite sides in D, E, F then DC EA FB = 1.
• Ptolemy's theorem expresses the product of the lengths of the two diagonals p and q of a cyclic quad-
rilateral as equal to the sum of the products ac and bd of opposite sides
• Nine-point circle
In geometry, the nine-point circle is a circle that can be constructed
for any given triangle. It is so named because it passes through nine
significant points defined from the triangle. These nine points are:
The midpoint of each side of the triangle
The foot of each altitude
The midpoint of the line segment from each vertex of the triangle
to the orthocenter (where the three altitudes meet; these line segments
lie on their respective altitudes).
NOTE :
1. The radius of a triangle's circumcircle is twice the radius of that triangle's nine-point circle
2. The center of any nine-point circle (the nine-point center) lies on the corresponding triangle's Euler
line, at the midpoint between that triangle's orthocenter and circumcenter.
• Apollonius theorem
In geometry, Apollonius' theorem is a theorem relating the length of a median of a triangle to the lengths
of its side. Specifically, in any triangle ABC, if AD is a median, then

AB2  AC2  2(AD2  BD2 )

It is a special case of Stewart's theorem. For an isosceles triangle the theorem reduces to the Pythagorean
theorem.
• Euler Line
In geometry, the Euler line, named after Leonhard Euler, is a line determined from any triangle that is not
equilateral; it passes through several important points determined from the triangle. It passes through the
orthocenter, the circumcenter, the centroid, and the center of the nine-point circle of the triangle. In equi-
lateral triangles, these four points coincide, but in any other triangle they do not, and the Euler line is determined
 by any two of them. The center of the nine-point circle lies midway along the Euler line between the
orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance from the centroid to the circumcenter is half that
from the centroid to the orthocenter.
• Pedal Triangle
The pedal triangle is a triangle formed by joining the feets of perpendiculars drawn from any point inside
a triangle on the sides.
• Carnot Theorem
Let ABC be an arbitrary triangle. Then the sum of the distances from F G
the circumcenter D to the sides of triangle ABC is D
r
R
DF + DG + DH = R + r
where r is the inradius and R is the circumradius. H

• Inequality in triangle
Sum of three altitudes of a triangle is less than the sum of three sides of a triangle.
• Inequality in quadrilateral
Sum of the four sides of a quadrilateral is less than the twice of the sum of diagonals.
Sum of the four sides of a quadrilateral is greater than the sum of diagonals.
• Extension of Pythagoras Theorem A
A
i) In ABC, B is obtuse
then AC2 = AB2 + BC2 - 2BC. BD where AD  BC
ii) In ABC, B is acute and AD  BC then
AC2 = BC2 + AB2 + 2BC. BD. D B C B C
D
• Common tangents :
If R, r are radii of two circles and d is the distance between the centers, then

i) Length of direct common tangents  d2  (R  r)2

ii) Length of transverse common tangents  d2  (R  r)2

Some Important results:
A
• If H is the orthocentre of ABC and AH produced meets H
BC at P and the circumcircle of ABC at Q then HP = PQ. B P C

• The triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpendiculars is Q

called the pedal or orthocentric triangle.
• In an acute angled triangle the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices to the opposite sides bisect the angles
of the pedal triangle through which they pass.
F
• The feet of the perpendiculars drawn to the three sides of a A

triangle from any point on its circumcircle are collinear. P

E
From fig FED is the line on which we have foot of perpendiculars
B
from 'P' any point on the circumcircle of ABC. Line FED is called DC

pedal line or Simpson's line.

• In the triangle ABC, I is the centre of the inscribed circle and I1, I2, I3 the centres of the escribed circles
touching respectively the sides BC, CA, AB and the other sides produced.
 I3
A

I2
I
B C

I1

The following statements are true:

a) The point A, I, I1 are collinear
b) The points B, I, I2 are also collinear
c) The points I2 A I3, I3 B I1, and I1 C I2 are also collinear
d) Of the four points I, I1, I2, I3 each is the orthocentre of the triangle
whose vertices are the other three.
e) The four circles each of which passes through three of the points I, I1, I2, I3 are all equal.
• Some Interesting aspects of Nine Point Circle:
a) The centre of the nine-points circle is the middle point of the straight line which joins the orthocentre
to the circumcentre.
b) The radius of the nine-points circle is half the radius of the circumcircle.
c) The centroid is collinear with the circumcentre the nine-points centre and the orthocentre.
• Trigonometric concepts useful in Geometry:
a b c
a) Sine Rule: In ABC, if R is the circumradius, Then    2R where
sinA sinB sinc
BC = a, CA = b, AB = c respectively.
b) Cosine Rule: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
c) If r is radius of ABC and r1, r2, r3 are the radii of the circles opposite to A, B, C respectively then
 = r.s;  = r1 (s - a);  = r2 (s - b);  = r3 (s - c)
where  = area of ABC,
a  b c
s = semiperimeter.
2
• Some Geometric Inequalities:
a) ma + mb + mc < a + b + c
b) 3 (a + b + c) < 4 (ma + mb + mc)
where ma, mb, mc are medians and a, b, c are lengths of sides.
 All about Polygons :
• A polygon of 'n' sides (n > 4) can be diveded into (n - 2) Triangles with a common vertex.
When n = 6, the polygon can be divided into 4 triangles with com-
D
mon vertex 'A'. E C
Six sides and four triangles with common vertex A.
F B
• The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygon is equal to the ratio A
of the lengths of the corresponding sides of the polygon.
• The ratio of the areas of similar polygons is equal to the square of the ratio of corresponding sides.
n(n  3)
• The number of diagonals of a polygon of 'n' sides is equal to . If an is a side of a regular Polygon
2
180º 180º
inscribed in a circle of radius R and is half the central angle then, an = 2R sin .
n n
1
• If S is the area of a regular polygon, P is its perimeter and r is the radius of the inscribed circle then S  Pr .
2
360º
• If Sn is the area of a regular Polygon, R is the radius of the circumscribed circle and is the central
n
1 2 360º
angle then, Sn  nR sin . A2 A3
2 n
• i) The length of a polygon line exceeds the distance between its ends. A A
1 4

ii) In the figure below, A1A2 + A2A3 + A3A4 > A1A4. If the above condition is not satisfied. The figure
will not represent a closed figure.
e.g. Let the sides of a hexagon be 1, 2, 22, 23, 24 and 25. Can such a hexagon exist?
Now 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31
Whereas 25 = 32
since one side measuring 32 is greater then the sum of the other five sides, such a hexagon cannot
exist.
Miscellaneous
• If a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle and  denotes its area and 'R' is circumradius. Then
abc
R
4

• If  is area of triangle, 'r' is inradius and 's' is semiperimeter then r 
s
• If a parallelogram can be inscribed in a circle, then it is a rectangle.
• If a rhombus can be inscribed in a circle then it is a square.
• If two parallelograms have a common base and are between the same parallels they are equal in area.
• A triangle can be constructed in each of the following cases:
i) When all the three sides are given.
ii) When one side and two angles are given.
iii) When two sides and the included angles are given.
iv) When lengths of medians ma, mb, mc are given.
v) When lengths of two medians and an altitude are given.
vi) When the altitudes ha, hb and hc are given.
• In any triangle circumradius 'R' and inradius 'r' has the following relationship. R > 2r equality holds
when triangle is equilateral.

• Among all quadrilaterals of a given perimeter, the square has the largest area.

• In any quadrilateral, the quadrilateral obtained by joining the points of trisection of sides is a
parallelogram.

• The area of the equilateral triangle described on the side of a square is half the area of the equilateral
triangle described on its diagonal.

• If equilateral or similar triangles are drawn on the sides of a right angled triangle, then the area of
the triangle on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of triangles on the other sides.

• Diagonals of a trapezium divide each other proportionally.

• If the diagonals of a quadrilateral divide each other proportionally, then it is a trapezium.

• If two triangles are similar then the ratio of their circumradii is same as the ratio of their sides.

• If two triangles are similar by any 'axiom', then,

i) The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of the corresponding
sides.

ii) The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares of corresponding

a) Altitudes b) Medians c) Angle bisector d) Circumradii e) Inradii