INTRODUCTION

A metal (from Greek métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when

freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and
conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they
can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A metal
may be a chemical element such as iron, or an alloy such as stainless steel.

In physics, a metal is generally regarded as any substance capable of conducting

electricity at a temperature of absolute zero. Many elements and compounds that
are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures. For
example, the nonmetal iodine gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between
40 and 170 thousand times atmospheric pressure. Equally, some materials regarded
as metals can become nonmetals. Sodium, for example, becomes a nonmetal at
pressure of just under two million times atmospheric pressure.

In chemistry, two elements that would otherwise qualify (in physics) as brittle
metals—arsenic and antimony—are commonly instead recognised as metalloids,
on account of their predominately non-metallic chemistry. Around 95 of the 118
elements in the periodic table are metals (or are likely to be such). The number is
inexact as the boundaries between metals, nonmetals, and metalloids fluctuate
slightly due to a lack of universally accepted definitions of the categories involved.

In astrophysics the term "metal" is cast more widely to refer to all chemical

elements in a star that are heavier than the lightest two, hydrogen and helium, and
not just traditional metals. A star fuses lighter atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium,
into heavier atoms over its lifetime. Used in that sense, the metallicity of an
astronomical object is the proportion of its matter made up of the heavier chemical
elements.
Metals comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present in many aspects of
modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their frequent
use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most
vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious
metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern era, coinage
metals have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements.

The history of metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years
ago. Gold, silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use
before the first known appearance of bronze in the 5th millennium BCE.
Subsequent developments include the production of early forms of steel; the
discovery of sodium—the first light metal—in 1809; the rise of modern alloy
steels; and, since the end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated
alloys.

HISTORY OF METALS

Copper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal discovered
given its distinctive appearance, heaviness, and malleability compared to other
stones or pebbles. Gold, silver, and iron (as meteoric iron), and lead were likewise
discovered in prehistory. Forms of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc made by
concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period (although
pure zinc was not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of the solid
metals led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons.
Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in some
respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the 1880s
when alloy steels become prominent.

The discovery of bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin) enabled people to
create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible.
Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were
harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors.
Initially, bronze was made of copper and arsenic(forming arsenic bronze) by
smelting naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic. The
earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium
BCE.[28] It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper
ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE. Pure tin itself was first
isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese metalworkers.

Mercury was known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BCE, and found
in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BCE.

The earliest known production of steel, an iron-carbon alloy, is seen in pieces of

ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük)
and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BCE. From about 500 BCE
sword-makers of Toledo, Spain were making early forms of alloy steel by adding a
mineral called wolframite, which contained tungsten and manganese, to iron ore
(and carbon). The resulting Toledo steel came to the attention of Rome when used
by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. It soon became the basis for the weaponry of
Roman legions; their swords were said to have been "so keen that there is no
helmet which cannot be cut through by them."

In pre-Columbian America, objects made of tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold,

started being produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300–500 CE. Small
metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of tumbaga (and gold)
ornaments comprised the usual regalia of persons of high status.
At around the same time indigenous Ecuadorians were combining gold with a
naturally-occurring platinum alloy containing small amounts of palladium,
rhodium, and iridium, to produce miniatures and masks composed of a white gold-
platinum alloy. The metal workers involved heated gold with grains of the
platinum alloy until the gold melted at which point the platinum group metals
became bound within the gold. After cooling, the resulting conglomeration was
hammered and reheated repeatedly until it became as homogenous as if all of the
metals concerned had been melted together (attaining the melting points of the
platinum group metals concerned was beyond the technology of the day).

Metal Container Manufacturing

to the different needs of the final user, diverse package designs have been
developed, from the classic open-top cans for preserves to the most complex
designs for special products such as aerosols, jerry cans, reclosable cans for
chemical products, etc. Among the different classifications of metallic containers,
the most common one takes into consideration the manufacturing technique.
Accordingly, three-piece and two-piece cans are differentiated.
Three-piece Cans
Although the conventional open-top metallic can was introduced about 200 years
ago, it is still the most widely used in food packaging. Besides the old cylindrical
can, three-piece cans are classified according to their transversal sections: circular,
rectangular, oval, or trapezoidal. Despite the fact the basic design has hardly been
altered, manufacturing technology has significantly changed with electrical weld,
robotization, and computer control of the manufacturing lines. Also, the
progressive thickness reduction of materials has led to the introduction of beading
profiles to maintain the required rigidity during container sterilization and
handling, especially in 500 g or larger formats. Manufacturing is accomplished via
a 10-step integrated process. The lateral sides of the body are welded, through
actual melting, a consequence of the application of high temperature by means of
an electric arch. With adequate control of all process variables, today's equipment
produces a perfect joint, maintaining the quality and hardness of the base material,
and at a rate faster than 1000 cans per minute. After welding, the joint is protected
with a lacquer. The body is completed with a flange on both ends of the cylinder
for attachment of the closures, and the wall is ribbed or beaded for radial strength.
The can manufacturing process ends with the application of the bottom end, which
is cut from a
plate in a shell press. The other (top) end is applied after the container is filled. A
double-seam is used to apply the ends to the can body, which is made by inserting
the end hook around the body flange. The double seam has five walls, three
belonging to the end and two to the body. Strict control of the can closure is
required, since the double seam is responsible for package hermeticity, a
fundamental requisite in most metallic package uses.
Two-piece Cans
Manufacture of the two-piece can in which the body and the bottom end are
formed from a drawing on a flat plate is an old technology used in the production
of formats with low height/diameter ratios (<0.6). These cans have been applied to
the canning of fish and meat products. New technologies have been developed to
obtain deep draw containers: drawredraw (DRD) and draw and wall ironing
(DWI). DRD cans maintain the original thickness of the flat metal sheet after the
drawing process, and therefore provide enough mechanical resistance against
deformations during sterilization. DWI cans are lighter (by 40 to 50 percent), since
the body wall thickness is significantly reduced to 0.09 mm. Thus, the DWI
process implies a greater metal reduction compared to DRD technology. Due to
their specific characteristics, DWI cans are appropriate for pressurized liquid
products (carbonated beverages, beers, etc.), as the internal pressure compensates
for the low mechanical resistance of very thin walls. They can also be used for
non-carbonated beverages by introducing liquid nitrogen into the can to generate
internal pressure. In recent years, the can manufacturing industry has been
continuously changing. Besides the introduction of new materials and
manufacturing processes, there has been a revolution in graphic and structural
design. The traditional can, a common shape with few changes over time, has been
limited to the application of easy-open closures and diverse shapes and sizes. Due
to competition with other packaging materials, today's trend is toward new designs
far from the traditional image. Quality and long shelf life are not enough to attract
the consumer's attention. Design of cans has become a fundamental aspect due to
the increasing pressure of aesthetics and innovation. Great efforts have been made
to maintain can functionality while taking into account the new trend toward
personalized designs. In line with this, the newest technologies allow for the
development of cans with expanded bodies (e.g., square body with circular ends).
Also, the image of the traditional can is being replaced by designs in which the
ends have a more reduced diameter than the body. In addition to this new look,
innovation has resulted in a significant reduction of material and a more stable can
piling. New easy-open closure systems also contribute to the new image
of tinplate cans.
Corrosion in Metal Containers
Metal cans are containers impermeable to micro-organisms. Therefore, the shelf
life of a microbiologically stabilized canned product should be unlimited. In
practice, however, shelf life is limited because of physicochemical changes in
foods, such as loss of nutrients (vitamins, proteins, etc.) or sensorial deterioration
(aroma, flavor, etc.), although most changes are caused by food/container
interactions that slowly but continuously modify product quality. Food/can
interactions are due to a mechanism of electrochemical corrosion, which occurs in
any metallic material exposed to an electrolytic medium. Corrosion is, in practice,
the main cause of canned food spoilage. The consequences of metal corrosion can
be multiple and diverse:
• Perforation of the can by a deep attack on the steel.
• Can swelling from gas accumulation in the headspace.
• Changes in food organoleptic properties (color, aroma, flavor) or nutritional
characteristics.
• Deterioration of the internal surface of the can (tinplate detinning or intense
attack in lacquered cans) and potential rejection by the consumer due package
appearance.
• Migration of metal ions (particularly iron and tin) to the packaged product.
The transfer of metal ions is the most common consequence of a corrosion process,
and is always present in canned products. In general, this process does not affect
food safety but may result in deterioration of quality. The extent of corrosion
varies depending on product aggressiveness, can characteristics, and packaging
technologies, parameters that must be taken into account to select the most
adequate material and reduce potential corrosion.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF METAL PACKAGING
Metal packaging ranges from tin biscuit containers and aluminum to steel
beverage cans. Metal is useful because it’s durable, doesn’t cost too much and is
non-toxic, making it highly suitable for storing food. However, this kind of
packaging also has a few disadvantages. Problems with metal packaging vary
according to the specific type of metal used.
Corrosion
Some types of metal packaging, such as steel, are vulnerable to the effects of
corrosion, which can cause the metal to deteriorate. Corrosion takes place as the
metal begins to transform back into its original state; for example, steel turns
back into the iron ore it came from. Corrosion is caused by oxidation, brought
about when the metal is exposed to air and water. One example of corrosion is
rust, which occurs on steel packaging and causes it to flake away. Metal
packaging is typically coated in other materials, such as chromium, to prevent
corrosion from occurring.
Storage Issues
Tin is often used for certain types of containers, including those for biscuits.
Becuase the metal packaging isn’t easily bent or squashed by hand, the containers
are difficult to store effectively, both during and after use. On the other hand, a
paper or plastic container might be easier to fold up or squash and tuck away in a
cupboard or other storage facility.
Aluminum and Acidity
Aluminum is another common choice for metal packaging. While aluminum is
impervious to corrosion when used to store food products, it does have an issue
with acidic foods such as rhubarb and tomatoes. These foods are especially acidic
and can be affected by aluminum if the metal is used to store them. The result of
using aluminum packaging for these foods is that the food will end up tasting of
aluminum.
USES OF METALS

Metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron, a heavy metal, may be
the most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals; aluminium, a light
metal, is the next most commonly refined metal. Pure iron may be the cheapest
metallic element of all at cost of about US$0.07 per gram. Its ores are widespread;
it is easy to refine; and the technology involved has been developed over hundreds
of years. Cast iron is even cheaper, at a fraction of US$0.01 per gram, because
there is no need for subsequent purification. Platinum, at a cost of about $27 per
gram, may be the most ubiquitous given its very high melting point, resistance to
corrosion, electrical conductivity, and durability. It is said to be found in, or used
to produce, 20% of all consumer goods. Polonium is likely to be the most
expensive metal, at a notional cost of about $100,000,000 per gram, due to its
scarcity and micro-scale production.

Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass,
making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage.
Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and
deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage
through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is
exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in
high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many
appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.

Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for
carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power
grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the
most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.

The thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers to heat materials over a
flame. Metals are also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from
overheating.

The high reflectivity of some metals enables their use in mirrors, including
precision astronomical instruments, and adds to the aesthetics of metallic jewelry.

Some metals have specialized uses; mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is
used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts.
Radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power
plants to produce energy via nuclear fission. Shape memory alloys are used for
applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents.
Metals can be doped with foreign molecules—organic, inorganic, biological and
polymers. This doping entails the metal with new properties that are induced by the
guest molecules. Applications in catalysis, medicine, electrochemical cells,
corrosion and more have been developed.

THE FEDERAL POLYTHENIC, ADO EKITI

EKITI STATE
NAME: VICTOR JULIET

MATRIC NO: FPA/FT/16/2-0020

DEPARTMENT: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL: ND YR 3

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PACKAGING

COURSE CODE: FST223

TOPIC: METAL AS A PACKAGING MATERIAL

LECTURAL IN CHARGE

MRS ABIONA