An Overview of HVDC Technology

energies
Review
An Overview of HVDC Technology
Neville R. Watson 1, * and Jeremy D. Watson 2
1 Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800,
Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
2 Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington St, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK;
jdw69@cam.ac.uk
* Correspondence: neville.watson@canterbury.ac.nz

Received: 18 July 2020; Accepted: 16 August 2020; Published: 21 August 2020
Abstract: There is a growing use of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) globally due to the many
advantages of Direct Current (DC) transmission systems over Alternating Current (AC) transmission,
including enabling transmission over long distances, higher transmission capacity and efficiency.
Moreover, HVDC systems can be a great enabler in the transition to a low carbon electrical power
system which is an important objective in today’s society. The objectives of the paper are to give a
comprehensive overview of HVDC technology, its development, and present status, and to discuss
its salient features, limitations and applications.
Keywords: high voltage direct current transmission; multiterminal HVDC; current source converters;
voltage source converters
1. Introduction
Initially one of the reasons Alternating Current (AC) systems displaced Direct Current (DC)
was because transformers allowed efficient conveyance of electricity by increasing the voltage for
transmission and reducing the voltage to a level needed for utilization. Regardless of whether AC or
DC is used there is always a need to use a voltage level appropriate for transmission distance and
power being conveyed. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems have significant
advantages over AC transmission, as will be outlined later. The advances in solid-state devices,
converter topology and control methods have accelerated the deployment of HVDC schemes in recent
years. New converter topologies and control systems, and advances in semiconductor technology
are increasing the benefits of HVDC systems. Therefore, in the foreseeable future the power system
will continue to be AC with the penetration of DC systems increasing over time. Not only is DC well
established for High Voltage (HV) systems, but there is increasing interest internationally in using DC
also for medium and low voltage systems (MVDC and LVDC systems) [1].
A high penetration of DC systems into AC transmission and distribution networks will provide
many benefits for the transition to a low carbon power system. This is particularly true when
considering the connection of off-shore windfarms, where undersea cables are required [2,3]. Moreover,
by connecting two AC power systems the best energy resources can be utilized, whereas when
uncoupled, polluting generation resources would have to be used. A number of HVDC schemes were
built to allow hydro generation to be exploited rather than using non-renewable thermal generation to
meet the load requirement.
In the field of power electronics there are numerous converter technologies and a basic classification
of AC/DC converters is given in Figure 1; however, only those more suitable for HVDC will be elaborated
upon in this paper. In order to appreciate the historical developments in HVDC a brief review of
HVDC technology is given in Section 2. Having set the scene, the historical background of HVDC
Energies 2020, 13, 4342; doi:10.3390/en13174342 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 4342 2 of 35
systems is presented
Energies 2020, in Section
13, x FOR PEER REVIEW3. Some of the innovations made to the standard schemes are detailed
2 of 35
in Section 4. Section 5 discusses areas where further developments are needed in HVDC systems.
standard
Finally, schemes
a few are detailed
concluding in Section
comments 4. Section
are made 5 discusses
in Section 6. areas where further developments are
needed in HVDC systems. Finally, a few concluding comments are made in Section 6.
Power Converters
Current Source Voltage Source
Load
Current Source Multilevel Multilevel
Commutated PWM 2-Level VSI
Converter (CSC) Converters Converters
Inverter (LCI)
Neutral Point
MultiLevel Current Flying Capacitor Cascaded Hybrid Multi-level MultiLevel Voltage
6-pulse 12-pulse >12-pulse Clamped (NPC) or
Reinjection Converter (FC) Technologies Technologies PWM Reinjection Converter
Diode Clamped
(MLCR-CSC) (MLVR-VSC)
Higher Cascaded Modular Multilevel

3-Level VSI
levels H-Bridge Converter (MMC)
Multiple DC Sources
Figure 1. Alternating
Figure 1. Current (DC)
Alternating Current (AC)/Direct Current (DC) Converter
Converter classification.
classification.
The
Thedevelopment
development of HVDC
of HVDC systems is of paramount
systems importance
is of paramount in achieving
importance efficient conveyance
in achieving efficient
ofconveyance
electricity,ofinterconnecting different AC systems, as well as the integrating
electricity, interconnecting different AC systems, as well as the integratingrenewable energy
renewable
resources [4,5]. The
energy resources basics
[4,5]. The of converters
basics are given
of converters in various
are given power
in various electronic
power textbooks
electronic [6–13],
textbooks [6–
while references
13], while [14–27]
references are dedicated
[14–27] to various
are dedicated aspectsaspects
to various of HVDC transmission
of HVDC systems.
transmission The review
systems. The
papers
review[28–36]
papersare also are
[28–36] insightful.
also insightful.
2.2.HVDC
HVDCTechnology
TechnologyOverview/Background
Overview/Background
Before
Beforediscussing
discussingthe
thebasic
basictopologies,
topologies,it it
is is
helpful to to
helpful know some
know someof the reasons
of the HVDC
reasons HVDCis used [37].
is used
These will be elaborated upon more when discussing the characteristics of the technology.
[37]. These will be elaborated upon more when discussing the characteristics of the technology.
2.1.
2.1.Advantages
Advantages of
of HVDC
HVDC
The
Themain
mainadvantages
advantagesofofHVDC
HVDCover
overHigh
HighVoltage
VoltageAlternating Current
Alternating (HVAC)
Current transmission
(HVAC) are:
transmission
•are: Asynchronous connection (can connect two AC systems of different frequency).
•• Overcoming
Asynchronous technical limitations.
connection HVDCtwo
(can connect canAC
supply via aoflong
systems cable frequency).
different system when an AC system
• cannot. This is due to the high cable capacitance causing a large
Overcoming technical limitations. HVDC can supply via a long cable system when capacitive current
an AC(reactive
system
cannot.flow)
power Thisthat
is due to the
leaves high cable
reduced capacitance
current capacity forcausing a large capacitive
the transmission of realcurrent (reactive
power when AC
power flow) isthat
transmission leaves reduced current capacity for the transmission of real power when AC
used.
• transmission
No increase inisshort-circuit
used. capacity (there is no need to upgrade protection equipment due to
• the Nolink).
increase in short-circuit capacity (there is no need to upgrade protection equipment due to
• the link).
Controllable real power transfer (independent of Z, V & f). The ability supply power to any
• pre-specified
Controllable criteria
real power(thetransfer (independent
controller can be set toofaZ,variety
V & f).ofThe ability supply power to any pre-
functions).
• specified
Lower criteria
losses (the controller
(as shown in Figurecan be set to a variety of functions).
2) [36,38].
• Lower losses (as shown in Figure 2) [36,38].
• Higher power transfer for a given conductor.
• Higher power transfer for a given conductor.
• No stability distance limitation.
• No stability distance limitation.
•• The Thelack
lackofofreactive
reactive voltage
voltage drop
dropmeans
meansbetter voltage
better voltageregulation
regulationfor for
bothboth
heavy loading
heavy and and
loading light
loading (no Ferranti effect).
light loading (no Ferranti effect).
•• Narrower
Narrowerright-of-way
right-of-way(better(betterland
land use).
use).
•• Higher
Higher power transfer for a given conductor.
power transfer for a given conductor.
•• Advanced
Advanced control
control features
features cancan improve
improve the stability
stability ofof the
the AC
AC systems
systems and
and act
act as
as aa fast
fast
generation
generationreserve.
reserve.
Energies
Energies 2020,
2020, 13,
13, x4342
FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of
of 35
35
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 35
Total DC Connection Cost

Total DC
Total DC Line
Connection
Cost Cost
Total
Total AC
DC Connection
Line Cost Cost Break-even
Total AC
AC Line
Connection distance
Break-even
Total Cost Cost
distance
Total AC Line Cost
DC Losses
DC Losses
Cost
Cost ($m)
($m)
DC Line Cost
DC Line Cost
AC Losses
AC Losses
DC Terminal Cost
AC Line Cost DC Terminal Cost
AC Line Cost
AC Terminal Cost
0 AC Terminal Cost 50 km Cable
0 ≈ 600 Overhead Line
km Cable
50 km
Distance ≈ 600 km Overhead Line
Distance
Figure 2. Comparative cost of AC and DC transmission systems.
2.2.
2.2. Power
PowerElectronic
Electronic Switches
Switches
2.2. Power Electronic Switches
The
The fundamental
fundamentalcomponentcomponentininanan AC/DC
AC/DC converter
converter is aisswitch
a switchcan can
either be inbe
either thein“on”
the (i.e.,
“on”
(i.e., The
conducting) fundamental
conducting)or “off” component
state
or “off” [39].
stateThe in
[39]. an
first
The AC/DC
switches converter
used for
first switches is afor
HVDC
used switch cansystems
systems
HVDC either bewere
in the
were mercury-arc “on” (i.e.,
valves.
mercury-arc
conducting)
These
valves.were
These orwere
then “off” statereplaced
replaced
then [39].
by Thebyfirst
thyristors switches
(shown
thyristors in used for
Figure
(shown HVDC
in3a). systems
A valve
Figure 3a).or were
Athyristor
valve or mercury-arc
is a switchisin
thyristor avalves.
which
switch
These
turn-on were
in whichisturn-onthen replaced
controlled by thyristors
by a gate pulse
is controlled (shown
but turn-off
by a gate pulse butin Figure
naturally 3a).
turn-offoccursA valve
when
naturally or thyristor
the current
occurs is
when the a switch
drops in which
to zero.
current dropsIn
turn-on
other
to zero. is
Incontrolled
words, theywords,
other by athey
cannot gate
be pulse but
turned-off
cannot beby turn-off naturally
a gate signal
turned-off by aandgateoccurs
are when
hence
signal the hence
referred
and are current drops
to asreferred
Line to
to zero.
commutated
as LineIn
other words,
switches. they
Because cannot
of the be turned-off
voltage levels by
in a gate
HVDC signal
schemes,and are
one hence
switch
commutated switches. Because of the voltage levels in HVDC schemes, one switch in the converter referred
in the to as
converter Line commutated
(termed valve
switches.
for
(termed Because
historical
valve reasons)of the voltage
consisted
for historical levels
of
reasons) many inthyristors
HVDC
consisted of schemes,
in series.
many one switch
thyristors in the converter (termed valve
in series.
for historical
By
By contrast,reasons)
contrast, consisted
Insulated
Insulated Gate
Gate of manyTransistors
Bipolar
Bipolar thyristors
Transistorsin(IGBTs)
series.
(IGBTs) have the ability
have to have
the ability both their
to have both turn-
their
on By contrast,
and turn-off
turn-on Insulated
controlled
and turn-off Gate Bipolar
by a gateby
controlled signalTransistors
and are
a gate (IGBTs)
termed
signal have the
andself-commutated ability to have both their
switches (Figureswitches
are termed self-commutated turn-
3b). An
on and turn-off
anti-parallel
(Figure Ancontrolled
3b). free-wheeling
anti-parallelby afree-wheeling
diode gateis signal
usually and are termed
connected
diode self-commutated
between
is usually the emitter
connected switches (Figure
and collector
between the to3b).
emitter An
allow
and
anti-parallel
bidirectional
collector to allow free-wheeling
current diode
flow through
bidirectional is the
current usually connected
combination.
flow through between
Gate
the thethyristors
turn-off
combination. emitter and collector
(GTO),
Gate turn-off to(GTO),
allow
Metal-oxide-
thyristors
bidirectional
semiconductor current flow
(MOS)-controlled
Metal-oxide-semiconductor through the combination.
thyristors (MCT)
(MOS)-controlled Gate turn-off
and (MCT)
thyristors integrated thyristors (GTO),
gate-commutated
and integrated Metal-oxide-
thyristors
gate-commutated
semiconductor
(IGCT)
thyristorsare(IGCT) (MOS)-controlled
also self-commutated thyristors
switches
are also self-commutated [40]. (MCT)[40].
switches and integrated gate-commutated thyristors
(IGCT) are also self-commutated switches [40].
Anode Collector
Anode Collector
Gate
Gate
Gate
Cathode Gate Emitter
Cathode Emitter
(a) Thyristor or SCR (b) IGBT
(a) Thyristor or SCR (b) IGBT
Figure 3.
Figure Basic Solid-state
3. Basic Solid-state switches
switches (a)
(a) Thyristor
Thyristor or
or Silicon
Silicon Controlled
Controlled Rectifier
Rectifier (b)
(b) Insulated
Insulated Gate
Gate
Figure
Bipolar 3. Basic Solid-state
Transistor.
Bipolar Transistor. switches (a) Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (b) Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor.
Any figure
Any figure of
of device
device ratings,
ratings, such
such as
as Figure
Figure 44 which
which displays
displays the
the voltage
voltage current
current rating
rating of
of the
the
various devices,
Anydevices,
various figure ofquickly becomes
devicebecomes
quickly out-of-date
ratings, out-of-date
such as Figuredue4to
due towhich
improvements
displays the
improvements in technology;
in technology; nonetheless,
voltage current rating ofititthe
nonetheless, is
is
informative
various to
devices,see the comparative
quickly becomes ratings of
out-of-date devices
due to as it gives
improvements insight
in into their
technology;application.
nonetheless,
informative to see the comparative ratings of devices as it gives insight into their application. it is
informative to see the comparative ratings of devices as it gives insight into their application.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 4 of 35
Thyristor
Thyristor
8 kV
8 kV
7 kV
IGCT
7 kV
6 kV IGCT
6 kV
GTOs
5 kV
GTOs
(kV) (kV)
5 kV
4 kV
Rating
IGBTs
4 kV
Rating
3 kV
IGBTs
Voltage
3 kV M
2 kV C
Voltage
T BJTs
Ms 1 kHz
en ue g
2 kV C
qu reqingchin
y
1 kV T BJTs 10 kHz
cy nc
MO
s 1 kHz
SFE
Fre FitcShwit
Ts
100 kHz
1 kV
MO
10 kHz
SFE 2000
1 MHz
4000 6000 100 kHz
Sw
Ts
Current Rating (Amperes) 1 MHz
2000 4000 6000
Current Rating (Amperes)

Figure 4. Voltage and current rating of solid-state switches.
2.3. Current Source Converters
Semiconductor devices are only required to have controllable turn-on as they naturally turn off
Semiconductor devices are only required to have controllable turn-on as they naturally turn off
when the current drops
Semiconductor devicesto zero due required
are due
only to turning on thecontrollable
next device turn-on
on the same side of the converter.
when the current drops to zero to turningto onhave
the next as they
device on the same sidenaturally turn off
of the converter.
This commutation
whencommutation
the current dropsprocess depends
to zero due to on the AC system’s voltages and impedances and hence these
This process depends onturning
the ACon the next
system’s device on
voltages andthe same side of
impedances andthehence
converter.
these
devices
This are also frequently
commutation referred to
processreferred
depends as Line Commutated Converters (LCC) [17]. Figure 5 illustrates
devices are also frequently toon
as the
LineAC system’s voltages
Commutated and(LCC)
Converters impedances and hence
[17]. Figure these
5 illustrates
the DCare
devices voltage
also (Vdc0) that results
frequently referredfrom
to the
as converter
Line conversion
Commutated process.
Converters To match
(LCC) [17]. a level5DC
Figure voltage
illustrates
the DC voltage (Vdc0 ) that results from the converter conversion process. To match a level DC voltage
(VdcDC
the ) a DC smoothing
voltage reactor
(Vdc0) that is necessary
results [17]. This large
from the converter DC reactor
conversion makes
process. the converter
To match a level current
DC voltagestiff,
(V dc ) a DC smoothing reactor is necessary [17]. This large DC reactor makes the converter current stiff,
hence
(V dc) a DCthesmoothing
term Current Source
reactor Converter (CSC).
is necessary
hence the term Current Source Converter[17]. This large DC reactor makes the converter current stiff,
(CSC).
hence the term Current Source Converter (CSC).
Vdc
Vdc 0 Vdc
Vdc 0
t t
t t
1 3 5
Van
Van
1 3 5
V Vdc
Vbn
Vbn
Vdcdc00 Vdc
Vcn 4 6 2
Vcn 4 6 2
α
α Firing
Firing
Controller
Controller
Figure5.5.AA6-pulse
Figure 6-pulse(Graetz)
(Graetz)bridge
bridgeas
asaaCurrent
CurrentSource
SourceConverter
Converter(CSC).
(CSC).
Figure 5. A 6-pulse (Graetz) bridge as a Current Source Converter (CSC).
Energies
2.4. 2020, 13,
Voltage 4342 Converters
Source 5 of 35
In a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) the capacitance on the DC side ensures that the voltage is
2.4. Voltage
stiff. Source
To limit Converters
the current due to the mismatch between the AC system voltage and the voltage from
the converter, an AC side inductor is used. This is illustrated in Figure 6. Ignoring the harmonic
In a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) the capacitance on the DC side ensures that the voltage is
components, the real and reactive power conveyed to the AC system is given by:
stiff. To limit the current due to the mismatch between the AC system voltage and the voltage from
the converter, an AC side inductor is used. VThisV is illustrated in Figure 6. Ignoring the harmonic
= ac ac 0tosin
components, the real and reactive powerPconveyed the AC ( )
δ system is given by: (1)
X
Vac Vac0
PVac
Q=
X
=
( δ (δ−) Vac
VacX0 sinsin( ) ) (1)
(2)
Vac
where Vac and Vac 0 are the fundamental (Vac0 sin(δ)of−the
Q = components ) terminal/grid voltage, and the AC
Vac AC (2)
X
voltageVsynthesized
where by the fundamental
ac and Vac0 are converter switching from the
components DCAC
of the voltage, respectively.
terminal/grid δ and
voltage, is thethe
angle
AC
between these fundamental
voltage synthesized by the voltages
converteronswitching
either side of the
from theinterfacing
DC voltage,reactor. X is theδ reactance
respectively. is the angle of
the interfacing reactor. The switches for this type of converter must be self-commutated
between these fundamental voltages on either side of the interfacing reactor. X is the reactance ofand have the
ability to controlreactor.
the interfacing the time instance
The of both
switches turn-on
for this typeand turn-off, which
of converter must be increases the flexibility
self-commutated andofhave
this
converter.
the ability to control the time instance of both turn-on and turn-off, which increases the flexibility of
this converter.
Vac
t
1 3 5
Vdc
Vac Vac 0 4 6 2
Vac 0 Magnitude and phase control
t
Fundamental component
Figure 6. A self-commutated Voltage Source Converter (VSC).

Figure 6. A self-commutated Voltage Source Converter (VSC).
2.5. Topologies
2.5. Topologies
For current source converters, normally each converter comprises of two 6-bridges connected in
seriesFor
oncurrent
the DC source
side and the AC is normally
converters, supplied from
each transformers with different
converter comprises of twowinding
6-bridgesconfigurations
connected in
as shown in Figure 7. This gives harmonic cancellation of some harmonic orders and reduces the
series on the DC side and the AC is supplied from transformers with different winding configurations
filtering requirements. Similarly, two 6-pulse VSCs (by using fundamental frequency
as shown in Figure 7. This gives harmonic cancellation of some harmonic orders and reduces switching)
the
can be connected
filtering in series
requirements. on the
Similarly, two AC side and
6-pulse VSCsparallel on fundamental
(by using the DC side frequency
to form a switching)
12-pulse VSC
can
converter;
be connected however,
in seriesthe
on use of Pulse
the AC Width
side and Modulation
parallel (PWM)
on the DC and/or
side to form amultilevel topologies
12-pulse VSC are
converter;
normally favoured.
however, the use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and/or multilevel topologies are normally
favoured.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 6 of 35
(a)(a) (b) (b)

Figure 7. Two 6-pulse bridges forming a 12-pulse CSC using: (a) Three-winding converter transformer
(b)Figure
Figure7.7.
Two 6-pulse
Two
Two two-winding bridges
6-pulse forming
bridges
converter a 12-pulse
forming CSCCSC
a 12-pulse
transformers. using: (a) Three-winding
using: converter
(a) Three-winding transformer
converter transformer
(b)
(b)Two
Twotwo-winding
two-windingconverter transformers.
converter transformers.
The simplest topology is a Back-to-Back (BTB) scheme as there is no transmission distance. This is
used to The
The simplest
simplest
connect twotopology
topology is aisBack-to-Back
AC systems a Back-to-Back (BTB)
asynchronously scheme
(BTB)whenschemeas there
their is noistransmission
asfrequencies
there differ ordistance.
no transmission when This
distance.
the This
fault
isisused to connect two AC systems asynchronously when their frequencies differ or when the fault
level used to connect
precludes a more two AC AC
direct systems asynchronously
interconnector. EitherwhenCSCstheir
or VSCsfrequencies differfor
can be used orback-to-back
when the fault
level
levelprecludes
precludes aamore
moredirect ACAC interconnector. Either CSCs or VSCsVSCs can be used for back-to-back
HVDC links and any of thedirect
topologiesinterconnector.
shown in Figures Either
8–11. CSCs
The or can be used
next in complexity for monopole.
is the back-to-back
HVDC links and any of the topologies shown in Figures 8–11. The next in complexity is the monopole.
TheHVDC
returnlinks
pathand
mayany be of the topologies
metallic (throughshown in Figures
a conductor) or to8–11.
reduceThecosts,
next inthecomplexity
earth or sea is can
the monopole.
be used
The return path may be metallic (through a conductor) or to reduce costs, the earth or sea can be used
Thereturn
as the returnpath.
path The
mayproblem
be metallic with(through
a monopolea conductor)
scheme isorthat to reduce costs, the earth
any malfunction will seeor the
sea loss
can of
be all
used
as the return path. The problem with a monopole scheme is that any malfunction will see the loss of
the capacity. A bipole scheme, such as is illustrated in Figure 8, gives increased reliability as a fault in of
as the return path. The problem with a monopole scheme is that any malfunction will see the loss
all the capacity. A bipole scheme, such as is illustrated in Figure 8, gives increased reliability as a fault
one all the will
capacity. A bipole scheme, such as is illustrated in Figure 8, gives increased reliability as abe fault
in pole
one pole willsee only halfhalf
see only the transmission
the transmission capacity
capacity lost.
lost.The
Thecentre
centrepoint
pointofofthe
theconverters
converters may may
in one
connected pole will
via a via see
conductor;only half
however, the transmission
since since
it is only capacity lost. The centre point of the converters may
be connected a conductor; however, it isused
onlywhenused awhen
fault aoccurs, earth orearth
fault occurs, sea electrodes
or sea
are be connected
often
electrodes used, viathe
and
are often
a conductor;
return
used, and the path however,
is through
return
since
path isthe
it is the
only
earth/sea.
through
used when
Figure
earth/sea. 9Figurea 9fault
displays theoccurs,
displays current earth
pathor
the current forsea
electrodes
normal are
operation often
and used,
for when and the
forced return
and path
planned is through
outages the
occurearth/sea.
on
path for normal operation and for when forced and planned outages occur on a bipole HVDC scheme. a Figure
bipole HVDC9 displays
scheme. the current
path for normal operation and for when forced and planned outages occur on a bipole HVDC scheme.
(a) Monopole with metallic return path (b) Monopole with earth return
(a) Monopole with metallic return path (b) Monopole with earth return
(c) Bipole link with metallic return path (d) Bipole link with earth return path
(c) 8.
Figure
FigureBipole link with metallic
8.Arrangements
Arrangements of
of High return path
High Voltage Direct Current(HVDC)
Direct Current (HVDC)(d)poles:
poles: (a)(a)
Bipole Monopole
Monopole
link withwith with
earth metallicpath
metallic
return
return
return path;(b)
path; (b)Monopole
Monopolewith
with earth
earth return
return path;
path;(c)
(c)Bipole
Bipolewith
withmetallic
metallicreturn
return path; (d)(d)
path; Bipole with
Bipole with
Figure
earth
earth 8. path.
return
return Arrangements
path. of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) poles: (a) Monopole with metallic
return path; (b) Monopole with earth return path; (c) Bipole with metallic return path; (d) Bipole with
earth return path.
Energies
Energies 2020,
2020, 13,13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4342 7 of735
of 35
(a) in bipole balanced operation (normal) (b) in monopole earth return operation
(a) in bipole balanced operation (normal) (b) in monopole earth return operation
(a) in bipole balanced operation (normal) (forced pole outage)
(b) in monopole
(forced earth return operation
pole outage)
(forced pole outage)
Converter Bypassed
Converter Bypassed
Converter Bypassed
(c) in monopole earth metallic return

(c) in monopole earth metallic return
operation
(c)operation (planned
in monopole pole
earth pole outage)
metallic return
(planned outage)
operation (planned pole outage)
Figure 9. Operating states of a bipole HVDC link: (a) Normal operation; (b) Monopole due to a fault
Figure 9. Operating states of a bipole HVDC link: (a) Normal operation; (b) Monopole due to a fault
Figure
on Operating
9. pole
one
Figure 9. states
and using
Operating of areturn;
earth
states abipole HVDC
(c) link:
Monopole (a) Normal
Normal
operation andoperation; (b)Monopole
using metallicMonopole due
return path. to to a fault
on one pole and using earthofreturn;
bipole
(c)HVDC link:operation
Monopole (a) operation;
and (b)
using metallic due
return path. a fault
on on
one pole
one and
pole using
and usingearth
earthreturn;
return;(c)
(c)Monopole
Monopole operation and using
operation and usingmetallic
metallicreturn
returnpath.
path.
Remote
Remote Remote
generation
Remote Remote
generation generation
generation Remote
generation
1
1 1 generation
1 1
1
2
2 2
2 2
2
n
n
n n
n
n
(a) Unit-connected HVDC (b) Group-connected HVDC

Figure 10. HVDC schemes for remote generation: (a) Unit connected HVDC scheme; (b) Group
Figure
Figure 10.10.HVDC
HVDCschemes
schemes forfor remote
remote generation:
generation: (a)
(a)Unit
Unitconnected
connectedHVDC
HVDCscheme;
scheme;(b)(b)
Group
Group
connected HVDC
Figure 10.HVDC scheme.
HVDCscheme.
schemes for remote generation: (a) Unit connected HVDC scheme; (b) Group
connected
connected HVDC scheme.
connected HVDC scheme.
(a) Parallel
(a) Parallel Connected
Connected Multi-
Multi- (b) Series
(b) Series Connected
Connected Multi-
Multi-
terminal
(a)terminal HVDC scheme
scheme
Parallel Connected
HVDC Multi- terminal
(b)terminal HVDC scheme
Series Connected
HVDC scheme
Multi-
terminal HVDC scheme terminal HVDC scheme
Figure 11. Multiterminal HVDC schemes: (a) Parallel connected; (b) Series connected.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 8 of 35
A number of configurations have been proposed for when the generation resources are far
from the load and there is no local load. This removes the need for harmonic filter requirements.
A unit-connected scheme is where there is a generator/transformer/converter connected as shown in
Figure 10 and Group-connection reduces the cost by sharing a transformer(s) [41–43]. Although at
one time there was considerable interest in these schemes, their efficiency, and the dependency of the
DC voltage on the number of generators running (Unit-connected), has resulted in these schemes not
being progressed.
The ability to exchange power between more than two places has resulted in multiterminal
HVDC schemes [40]. The converters could be either be connected in series or parallel, as illustrated in
Figure 11. One of the biggest challenges is the control and coordination of such schemes.
3. Comparison of Current Source and Voltage Source Converters
3.1. Introduction
Having seen the basic operation of current source and voltage source converters, the main
distinctions will be elaborated upon, as these influence where each is best suited.

The characteristic AC current harmonics of the 6-pulse bridge of Figure 5 are h = 6n ± 1,
n = 1, 2, 3 . . . and their magnitude under ideal conditions is given by |Ih | = |I1 |/h where h is the
harmonic order, |Ih | the magnitude of the harmonic of order h, n an arbitrary integer and |I1 | the
magnitude of the fundamental component. As previously mentioned, the two 6-pulse bridges being
connected together using different transformer winding configuration causes the following harmonic
orders to cancel: h = 6n ± 1, n = 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 . . ..The characteristic AC harmonic currents are therefore
h = 12n ± 1, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . and on the DC side the DC harmonic voltages h = 12n, n = 1, 2, 3 . . .. Thus,
harmonic filtering is needed both on the AC and DC side [44–47]. The AC current waveform of each
converter–transformer and the combined waveform (Iac ) is displayed in Figure 12.
The numbering of the thyristors in Figure 5 shows their firing order. Each thyristor conducts
for 120 electrical degrees. The voltage across the thyristor becomes positive when the appropriate
phase-to-phase voltage zero crossing occurs, and the firing angle is the delay between this point
and when the thyristor receives a gate turn-on pulse. The thyristor only turns off when the current
drops to zero (actual below its latching current) and this is achieved by firing another thyristor
with a higher phase voltage. This is illustrated in Figure 13 for a commutation from thyristor 1 to
3 (thyristor 2 is already conducting). Commutation from 1 to 3 is only possible while phase Y is
greater than phase R (between T1 and T2 in Figure 13). The extinction angle is the angle between
when a thyristor stops conducting and the next zero-crossing when commutation can no longer occur.
Hence γ = 180 − (α + µ). The maximum firing angle α is limited by the need to allow for the thyristor
to re-establish its blocking ability and a margin to allow for voltage and current perturbations that
naturally occur in the system. If the commutation from thyristor 1 to 3 has not been completed fully
by T2 then Thyristor 1 will pick up the current again and hence commutation failure has occurred.
The term Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) is often used for CSC as it indicates that the conversion
process relies on the line voltage of the AC system to which the converter is connected in order to
facilitate commutation from one thyristor to the next.
Energies 2020,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 35
35
-2100 -1800 -1200 -600 600 1200 1800 2100

π 3 2π 3
−
4π
−
2π I
3 3
−π Time
−
π
0 π π
3 3
(a) Star/star
π 3
-900 900
I 3
−π I 3 π
Time
0
−π 2 π 2
(b) Star/Delta
I 3
I
I 3 π
Time
−π 0
(c) AC current waveform

from a 12-pulse converter
Figure 12. AC Current Waveforms of two 6-pulse bridges and the 12-pulse converter formed from the
Figure 12. AC Current Waveforms of two 6-pulse bridges and the 12-pulse converter formed from
two: (a) AC current from Star/Star connected bridge; (b) AC current from Star/Delta connected bridge;
the two: (a) AC current from Star/Star connected bridge; (b) AC current from Star/Delta connected
(c) AC Current from the combination.
bridge; (c) AC Current from the combination.
Only two quadrant operations (P versus Q) are possible, with the CSC always requiring reactive
powerThe numbering
regardless, of the thyristors
whether rectifyinginor
Figure 5 shows
inverting. their
The firing power
reactive order. Each thyristor
required conducts for
is approximately
120
proportional to sin(α); therefore. an On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is normally provided phase-
electrical degrees. The voltage across the thyristor becomes positive when the appropriate on the
to-phase
convertervoltage zero crossing
transformer occurs,
to minimize the and
firingthe firing
angle angle
when is the delay
rectifying between this
(or extinction point
angle for and when
inversion)
the thyristorthe
to minimize receives a gate
reactive turn-on
power pulse.
required byThe thyristor only
the converter. Theturns off when
harmonic filtersthe currenttodrops
required to zero
improve the
(actual below its latching current) and this is achieved by firing another thyristor with
AC current waveforms also perform the dual purpose of suppling some of the reactive power required a higher phase
voltage. This is illustrated
by the converter [44]. in Figure 13 for a commutation from thyristor 1 to 3 (thyristor 2 is already
conducting). Commutation from 1 to 3 is only possible while phase Y is greater than phase R (between
T1 and T2 in Figure 13). The extinction angle is the angle between when a thyristor stops conducting
and the next zero-crossing when commutation can no longer occur. Hence γ = 180 − (α + μ ) . The
maximum firing angle α is limited by the need to allow for the thyristor to re-establish its blocking
ability and a margin to allow for voltage and current perturbations that naturally occur in the system.
If the commutation from thyristor 1 to 3 has not been completed fully by T2 then Thyristor 1 will pick
up the current again and hence commutation failure has occurred. The term Line-Commutated
Converter (LCC) is often used for CSC as it indicates that the conversion process relies on the line
voltage of the AC system to which the converter is connected in order to facilitate commutation from
one thyristor to the next.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 10 of 35
i1 Idc
1
vR ic vdc
3
(a) vY i3
Commutation
Common Cathode Voltage
Period
vR vY vB
T1
(vR+vY)/2
(vY+vB)/2
(b) Time
α μ
Firing angle T2
Common Anode Voltage
i1 i3 i5
Time
(c)
120°
Figure 13.The
Figure 13. Thecommutation
commutation process in ain
process 6-pulse bridgebridge
a 6-pulse (a) Equivalent circuit for
(a) Equivalent commutation
circuit between
for commutation
thyristor 1 and 3 (b) Voltage waveforms (rectification) (c) the current waveforms.
between thyristor 1 and 3 (b) Voltage waveforms (rectification) (c) the current waveforms.
3.3. Voltage Source Converters

Only two quadrant operations (P versus Q) are possible, with the CSC always requiring reactive
Table 1 provides
power regardless, a comparison
whether rectifyingbetween VSC based
or inverting. Theand CSC based
reactive powerHVDC Systems
required [37]. Clearly
is approximately
when the AC to
proportional system is therefore.
sin(α); weak, or passive and/orTap
an On-Load independent control of
Changer (OLTC) real and reactive
is normally provided power is
on the
required,
converterVSC is preferable
transformer [37]. For the
to minimize the firing
transmission of bulk
angle when power over
rectifying long distances,
(or extinction angletheforCSC based
inversion)
HVDC system
to minimize has
the the advantage
reactive due to lower
power required losses,
by the although
converter. TheVSC based HVDC
harmonic is improving
filters required with a
to improve
decline
the ACincurrent
losses per converteralso
waveforms overperform
time: 3%the(Gotland, 1997), 2.2%
dual purpose (Eagle Pass,
of suppling some2000), 1.8%
of the (MurrayLink,
reactive power
2002), 1.4%
required by(Estlink, 2006), 1%
the converter [44].(Trans Bay, 2010, Superstation, 2014 & Dolwin 2, 2015). This is compared
with a typical loss of 0.7% for CSC based HVDC [32].
3.3. Voltage Source Converters
Table 1 provides a comparison between VSC based and CSC based HVDC Systems [37]. Clearly
when the AC system is weak, or passive and/or independent control of real and reactive power is
required, VSC is preferable [37]. For the transmission of bulk power over long distances, the CSC
based HVDC system has the advantage due to lower losses, although VSC based HVDC is improving
with a decline in losses per converter over time: 3% (Gotland, 1997), 2.2% (Eagle Pass, 2000), 1.8%
(MurrayLink, 2002), 1.4% (Estlink, 2006), 1% (Trans Bay, 2010, Superstation, 2014 & Dolwin 2, 2015).
This is compared with a typical loss of 0.7% for CSC based HVDC [32].
Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topologies for HVDC power transmission either use two or
three-level converters with Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), or a multilevel topology is used to
achieve a better waveform with lower losses, or a hybrid [29,48,49]. The use of two or three-level
converters requires series strings of semiconductor devices (IGBTs) to form one switch and switched
together to achieve the required voltage and power ratings. Multilevel converters connect individual
bridges or cells in series and avoid the need to simultaneously switch a large string of series IGBTs.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 11 of 35
This is because each cell is switched at a different time and a lower voltage is switched. This section
will review the main topologies used for HVDC transmission and their characteristics.
Table 1. Comparison of CSC based Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) and VSC HVDC systems.
Table 1. Comparison of CSC based Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) and VSC HVDC systems.
Characteristic LCC HVDC VSC HVDC
Characteristic
Store energy in LCC HVDC
inductance VSC HVDC
capacitance
Store energy in inductance capacitance
Combination can pass current in
Semiconductor withstands voltage in either polarity
withstands voltage in either polarity Combinationeither direction
can pass current in either
Semiconductor
Semiconductor switch turned ON by control action turned ON & OFF by control action
direction
changes polarity, reserves the power
DC Voltage
Semiconductor turned ON turnedDirection doesby
notcontrol
change action
flowby control action
direction ON & OFF
switch
DC Current direction does not change direction changes to reverse the power flow
Turn-OFF changes polarity,
commutation reserves
relies on the the power
external flow
circuit Direction does
independent not change
of external circuit
DC Voltage
P&Q P &direction
Q dependent independent P & Q control
Quadrants 2 quadrant operation 4-quadrant operation
direction does not change direction changes to reverse the power
DC
Real Current
Power capability Very High Lower than LCC
Requires minimum SCR to flow
System Strength
Turn-OFF commutation relies onthyristors
the external circuit Operates into weakerof
independent AC systemscircuit
external (or passive)
commutate
P&Q
Overload capability P & Q dependent
Good independent P & Q control
Weak
DC line faults
Quadrants Copes well. Control action
2 quadrant can extinguish arc
operation More challenging as diodes
4-quadrant provide path.
operation
Significant, AC & DC harmonic
Real Power
Harmonic generation Small, minimal filtering required.
Veryrequired
filters High Lower than LCC
capability
Reactive power Needed Fine reactive power control in both directions
“Black” start Requires minimum
requires SCRequipment
additional to commutate Operates into weaker
capable AC systems (or
System Strength
thyristors passive)
Overload capability Good Weak
Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topologies for HVDC
Copes well. Control action can extinguish power
More challenging as either
transmission diodes use two or
provide
DC line converters
three-level faults with Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), or a multilevel topology is used to achieve
arc path.
a better waveform withSignificant,
Harmonic lower losses,
AC or a hybrid
& DC [29,48,49].
harmonic filters The use of two
Small, or three-level
minimal converters
filtering required.
requires series strings of semiconductor
generation devices (IGBTs) to form one switch and switched together
required
to achieve the required voltage and Needed
power Fine reactive
ratings. Multilevel converters powerindividual
connect control in both
bridges
Reactive power
or cells in series and avoid the need to simultaneously switch a large stringdirections of series IGBTs. This is
“Black”
because eachstart requires
cell is switched additionaltime
at a different equipment
and a lower voltage is switched.capableThis section will
review the main topologies used for HVDC transmission and their characteristics.
The basic 6-pulse VSC is displayed in Figure 14. The switches are power electronic devices, such
The basic 6-pulse VSC is displayed in Figure 14. The switches are power electronic devices, such as
as IGBTs, which conduct in one direction and the timing of the both turn-on and turn-off are
IGBTs, which conduct in one direction and the timing of the both turn-on and turn-off are controllable.
controllable. An antiparallel diode allows conduction in the reverse direction. If fundamental
An antiparallel diode allows conduction in the reverse direction. If fundamental frequency switching
frequency switching is performed, then the waveforms displayed in Figure 15 are obtained.
is performed, then the waveforms displayed in Figure 15 are obtained.
+Vdc 2 I dc
+
a
Vdc b
c
or
winding
-
−Vdc 2 I dc
Figure 14. Basic three-phase Voltage Source Converter.

Figure 14. Basic three-phase Voltage Source Converter.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 12 of 35
Figure 15. Voltage waveforms for the basic 6-pulse VSC using fundamental frequency switching.
Figure 15. Voltage waveforms for the basic 6-pulse VSC using fundamental frequency switching.
Waveforms (a–c): Phase-to-DC-midpoint voltages; waveforms (d–f): Phase-to-phase voltages;
Waveforms (a–c): Phase-to-DC-midpoint voltages; waveforms (d–f): Phase-to-phase voltages;
waveform (g) Neutral voltage with respect to DC-midpoint; waveform (h) Phase-to-neutral voltage of
waveform (g) Neutral voltage with respect to DC-midpoint; waveform (h) Phase-to-neutral voltage
phase a.
of phase a.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 13 of 35
However, the real benefit of using devices with turn-off ability is the ability to use Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) techniques. To illustrate PWM consider one arm of a converter, shown in Figure 16.
Depending on which devices are conducting, the output voltage (between voltage at the mid-point of
the arm and DC mid-point of the capacitors) is either Vdc /2 or −Vdc /2. To improve the output voltage
waveform the periods of Vdc /2 or −Vdc /2 would be modulated to approximate a sinewave. In sinusoidal
PWM a triangular or carrier waveform is compared for a sinusoidal control/reference signal and the
devices are switched when they cross as illustrated in Figure 17. Note there are two control variables,
amplitude (by changing the modulation index, Ma ) and phase angle (Φ) (by changing the control
sinusoidal phase angle), and this allows independent control of the real and reactive power transferred
to/from the AC system. In theory, the operational area in a P/Q diagram is circular; however, constraints
on voltage and current modify this shape as illustrated in Figure 18, which shows the four quadrant
However, the real benefit of using devices with turn-off ability is the ability to use Pulse Width
operation of typical VSC in a PQ diagram [50]. In Figure 19 the single-phase PWM of Figure 17 is
Modulation (PWM) techniques. To illustrate PWM consider one arm of a converter, shown in Figure
expanded to show three-phase PWM and the resulting phase-to-phase voltage waveform. PWM can
16. Depending on which devices are conducting, the output voltage (between voltage at the mid-
also be used in multilevel converters, with a lower switching frequency required with more levels.
point of the arm and DC mid-point of the capacitors) is either Vdc/2 or −Vdc/2. To improve the output
There is a trade-off between waveform distortion and losses as the higher the switching frequency
voltage waveform the periods of Vdc/2 or −Vdc/2 would be modulated to approximate a sinewave. In
the better the waveform but the higher the losses [51]. Various refinements to the standard sinewave
sinusoidal PWM a triangular or carrier waveform is compared for a sinusoidal control/reference
PWM have been made to achieve different objectives. For example, rather than a pure sinewave control
signal and the devices are switched when they cross as illustrated in Figure 17. Note there are two
waveform, a zero third-harmonic component is added to the sinusoidal reference voltage, as illustrated
control variables, amplitude (by changing the modulation index, Ma) and phase angle (Φ) (by
in Figure 20. This reduces peak AC converter voltage in order that an approximately 15% increased
changing the control sinusoidal phase angle), and this allows independent control of the real and
AC-side fundamental-frequency voltage is available with the same DC voltage. For example, the Cross
reactive power transferred to/from the AC system. In theory, the operational area in a P/Q diagram
Sound Cable HVDC system uses this while MurrayLink does not [52]. Other optimized PWM schemes
is circular; however, constraints on voltage and current modify this shape as illustrated in Figure 18,
have been developed. For example, minor non-linearities in the valve switching can create low-order
which shows the four quadrant operation of typical VSC in a PQ diagram [50]. In Figure 19 the single-
harmonics. To prevent their amplification, a special controller has been designed to act on the PWM
phase PWM of Figure 17 is expanded to show three-phase PWM and the resulting phase-to-phase
pattern in order to minimize the low order (fifth and seventh) harmonic currents [53]. If the converter
voltage waveform. PWM can also be used in multilevel converters, with a lower switching frequency
is near to generators there may be a need for sub-synchronous damping control [54]. AC and DC
required with more levels.
filtering is normally provided [55,56].
Vac
+
S1 D1 Vdc
Vdc
2
2
Vac = VAM
M t1 t2
Vdc Vdc
S2 D2 −
2 2
-
(a) (b)
Figure 16. Basics of VSC: (a) One arm of the VSC; (b) The 2-level voltage waveform generated.
Figure 16. Basics of VSC: (a) One arm of the VSC; (b) The 2-level voltage waveform generated.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 14 of 35
Shift Change Ma
Shift Change Ma
Vtri Vtri
t
t
Vctrl Vctrl
Fundamental Component
Vdc
2 Fundamental Component
Vdc
Vctrl
2 Ma =
VVtri
M a = ctrl
Vtrit
0
0
t
Vdc
−
2
V
− dc
2
Figure 17. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
Voltage Limit
Q
Voltage Limit
Voltage Limit
Q
Voltage Limit
0.25 Capacitive
0.25 Capacitive
P
-1.0 1.0 P
-1.0 Rectifier -0.25 Inverter 1.0
Rectifier -0.25 Inverter
-0.50 Inductive
-0.50 Inductive
Current Limit
Current Limit Current Limit
-0.75
Current Limit
Example of a-0.75
P/Q Design Specification
Example
Figureof
18.aPQ
P/Q Design
diagram Specification
of VSC operating area.
Figure 18. PQ diagram of VSC operating area.
Figure 18. PQ diagram of VSC operating area.

Energies
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Figure 19. Three-phase PWM.

Figure 19. Three-phase PWM.
There is a trade-off between waveform distortion and losses as the higher the switching
frequency the better the waveform but the higher the losses [51]. Various refinements to the standard
sinewave PWM have been made to achieve different objectives. For example, rather than a pure
sinewave control waveform, a zero third-harmonic component is added to the sinusoidal reference
voltage, as illustrated in Figure 20. This reduces peak AC converter voltage in order that an
approximately 15% increased AC-side fundamental-frequency voltage is available with the same DC
voltage. For example, the Cross Sound Cable HVDC system uses this while MurrayLink does not
[52]. Other optimized PWM schemes have been developed. For example, minor non-linearities in the
valve switching can create low-order harmonics. To prevent their amplification, a special controller
has been designed to act on the PWM pattern in order to minimize the low order (fifth and seventh)
harmonic currents [53]. If the converter is near to generators there may be a need for sub-synchronous
damping control [54]. AC and DC filtering is normally provided [55,56].
Another way to improve the waveforms is to use a multilevel topology. Some of the multilevel
converters’ topologies are:
1. Neutral-point clamped circuit (also called a diode-clamped circuit)
2. Flying Capacitor
3. Cascaded H-bridge
4. Modular Multi-level Converter (MMC)
Figure 20. PWM with 3rd and 9th Harmonic: (a) Control Waveforms; (b) Synthesized Voltage waveform
Figure 20.its
(Vsw ) and PWM with 3rdcomponent
fundamental and 9th Harmonic:
(V1 ). (a) Control Waveforms; (b) Synthesized Voltage
waveform (Vsw) and its fundamental component (V1).
The cascade H-bridge and Flying capacitor converters each have features that discourage their
use at high voltage and power levels. The 3-Level Neutral-Point Clamped (NPC) converter, shown
in Figure 21, is a more suitable topology for such applications [57]. One of the issues is the asymmetric
loss distribution in the semiconductor devices, and the Active Neutral-Point Clamped (A-NPC)
converter overcomes this deficiency and has been used in HVDC schemes [58,59].
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 16 of 35
Another way to improve the waveforms is to use a multilevel topology. Some of the multilevel
converters’ topologies are:
1. Neutral-point clamped circuit (also called a diode-clamped circuit)

2. Flying Capacitor
3. Cascaded H-bridge
4. Modular Multi-level Converter (MMC)
The cascade H-bridge and Flying capacitor converters each have features that discourage their
use at high voltage and power levels. The 3-Level Neutral-Point Clamped (NPC) converter, shown in
Figure 21, is a more suitable topology for such applications [57]. One of the issues is the asymmetric loss
distribution in the semiconductor devices, and the Active Neutral-Point Clamped (A-NPC) converter
overcomes this deficiency and has been used in HVDC schemes [58,59].
+
+Vdc 2
Vdc
or
a
b
c
−Vdc 2
-
Figure 21. 3-Level Neutral-clamped converter.
Figure 21. 3-Level Neutral-clamped converter.
The Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC), displayed in Figures 22 and 23, was introduced to the
world in 2003 [60] and is now widely adopted due to its many advantages. Each arm of the MMC is
Positive (+)
made up of a number of submodules (SM) connected in series (Figure 22a). This arrangement allows the
ia 3 ia 5
V Vdc of the iswitching
voltage rating a1
devices in each submodule to be considerably less than the DC voltage.
dc SM SM SM
The submodule2 comprises of a half bridge, as shown in Figure 23, and has two states. The first connects
the capacitor in seriesSM
with the other
SM
submodules
SM
and the second bypasses it. With the appropriate
switching pattern multi-levels can be produced. Some of these advantages are the modular design,
making it scalable to different voltage and power levels, and multilevel waveform, SM
expandable to any
number of voltageSM steps, as wellSMas low total harmonic
SM distortion and low losses [61–63]. For these
=
reasons it is very well suited for many applications such as HVDC. Note that:
SM SM SM
• Circulating currents are inherent in the MMC topology.
• These currents La
VaCP cause Lb in the capacitor
variations Lc voltages and increase converter
T D 1
losses. 1
a I +
• Capacitor voltages variations increase with increaseb in load current and circulating
a
V
currents.
C
c −
Vdc La Lb Lc VX
2 T2 D2
SM SM SM
SM SM SM
(b) Submodule
SM SM SM
−Vdc 2
-
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 Figure 21. 3-Level Neutral-clamped converter. 17 of 35
Positive (+)
ia1 ia 3 ia 5
Vdc Vdc
SM SM SM
2
SM SM SM
SM
SM SM SM
=
SM SM SM
VaCP La Lb Lc T1 D1
a Ia +
b VC
c −
Vdc La Lb Lc VX
2 T2 D2
SM SM SM
SM SM SM
(b) Submodule
SM SM SM
SM SM SM
ia 2 ia 4 ia 6
Negative (-)
(a) Topology
Figure 22. Multilevel Modular Converter (MMC): (a) Topology; (b) Submodule.
Figure 22. Multilevel Modular Converter (MMC): (a) Topology; (b) Submodule.
T1 D1 T1 D1
Ia + Ia +
Circuit
VC VC
− −
VX VX
T2 D2 T2 D2
Schematic
+ +
VC VC
− −
VX VX
(a) In-line (b) Bypass

Figure 23. Submodule
Figure23. Submodule Operation: (a) Circuit
Operation: (a) Circuit and
and schematic
schematicfor
forthe
thecapacitor
capacitorin-line;
in-line;(b)
(b)Circuit
Circuitand
and
schematic for the capacitor by-passed.
schematic for the capacitor by-passed.
To aid understanding the of MMC’s operation, Figure 24 displays the output voltage from one
phase of the MMC and Figure
1 25 the corresponding
3 arm switching
6 pattern
8
for a given output voltage.
2 4 5 7
Vdc
2
tput Voltage
0
t
VC VC
Sche
− −
VX VX
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 (a) In-line (b) Bypass 18 of 35
Figure 23. Submodule Operation: (a) Circuit and schematic for the capacitor in-line; (b) Circuit and
The terminal
schematicvoltage and current
for the capacitor of an arm of the MMC converter is compared to that of a two-level
by-passed.
PWM converter in Figure 26.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vdc
2
AC Output Voltage
0
t
−Vdc
2
Voltage across upper arm

Voltage across lower arm
Vdc
Valve Voltages
−Vdc
2
0
t
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 24. Output voltage (fundamental frequency switching). 19 of 35
Figure 24. Output voltage (fundamental frequency switching).
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Id Id Id Id Id Id Id Id
+ + + + + + + +
VC VC VC VC VC VC VC VC
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
One arm of MMC
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
Vdc
Vac Vac Vac Vac −Vdc Vac Vac Vac Vac
Vdc
Vac =
4
Vac =
−Vdc
2
Vac =
−Vdc
Vac = 0 Vac =
2 2
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
Vac = Vdc 2 Vdc 4 0 −Vdc 4 − Vdc 2 −Vdc 4 0 Vdc 4

Figure25.
Figure 25. Arm
Arm switching pattern for a given
given output
output voltage.
voltage.
Arm Currents AC Terminal Voltages

Vdc Vdc Fundamental Component
2 2
C
− − − − − − − −
+ + + + + + + +
− − − − − − − −
Vac = Vdc 2 Vdc 4 0 −Vdc 4 − Vdc 2 −Vdc 4 0 Vdc 4

Energies 2020, 13, 4342 19 of 35
Figure 25. Arm switching pattern for a given output voltage.
Arm Currents AC Terminal Voltages

Vdc Vdc Fundamental Component
2 2
2-Level VSC
0
t 0
t
Vdc
−
Vdc Vctrl
−
2 2 Ma =
Vtri
Vdc Vdc
2 2
MMC
0
t 0
t
Vdc Vdc
− −
2 2
Figure 26.
Figure Output voltage
26. Output voltage (fundamental
(fundamental frequency
frequency switching).
switching).
Figure 27 displays a generic converter station for a VSC based HVDC link. The details will vary
Figure 27 displays a generic converter station for a VSC based HVDC link. The details will vary
and, depending on the local requirements and conditions, not all the components may be needed.
and, depending on the local requirements and conditions, not all the components may be needed. In
In particular the filtering on the AC and DC side will be custom designed to meet the limits imposed,
particular the filtering on the AC and DC side will be custom designed to meet the limits imposed,
the converter’s emission characteristics (influenced by switching frequency and modulation technique),
the converter’s emission characteristics (influenced by switching frequency and modulation
and the characteristics of the AC and DC systems it is connected to. These also influence the design of
technique), and the characteristics of the AC and DC systems it is connected to. These also influence
Energies
the 2020, 13,controller.
converter x FOR PEERAs
REVIEW 20 of 35
an example, Figure 28 shows the converter station for the MurrayLink.
the design of the converter controller. As an example, Figure 28 shows the converter station for the
MurrayLink.
i DC line of
second pole
h. DC side capacitor
a. AC system circuit breaker j i. DC side harmonic filter
b. AC side harmonic filter
j. Neutral point grounding
c. AC side radio frequency interference filter
k. DC reactor
d. Interface transformer
l. Common mode blocking reactor
e. Converter output harmonic filter
m. DC side radio frequency
f. HF-blocking filter/interconnecting phase reactor
interference filter
g. VSC converter unit
n. DC cable or overhead line
a b c d e f g h k l m n
Figure 27. Generic VSC HVDC Converter Station.

VDC-Pole1
IDC-Pole 1
Filtering components (L1-L3&C1-C4)
Interconnecting Phase Reactors (L3)
VPCC VAC
DC Harmonic
DC Harmonic
IVSC
L3
Filters
Filters
Q1 Q2 L1 L2
C1 C2 C3 C4
AC Harmonic
Filters
Auxiliary
Power
IDC-Pole 2
VDC-Pole2
Figure 28. MurrayLink VSC HVDC Converter Station.
4. Historical Development
d. Interface transformer
l. Common mode blocking reactor
e. Converter output harmonic filter
m. DC side radio frequency
f. HF-blocking filter/interconnecting phase reactor
interference filter
g. VSC converter unit
n. DC cable or overhead line
a b c d e f g h k l m n
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 20 of 35
VDC-Pole1
IDC-Pole 1
Filtering components (L1-L3&C1-C4)
Interconnecting Phase Reactors (L3)
VPCC VAC
DC Harmonic
DC Harmonic
IVSC
L3
Filters
Filters
Q1 Q2 L1 L2
C1 C2 C3 C4
AC Harmonic
Filters
Auxiliary
Power
IDC-Pole 2
VDC-Pole2
Figure 28. MurrayLink

Figure28. MurrayLink VSC HVDC Converter
Converter Station.
Station.
4.4.Historical Development
Historical Development
Although
Althoughthere therewere
wereearlier
earlier experimental
experimental HVDC systems, the
HVDC systems, the first
first commercial
commercialsystem systemwas wasthethe
20
20MWMWGotland
GotlandIslandIslandscheme
scheme commissioned
commissioned in in 1954. This LCC
1954. This LCC HVDC HVDC systemsystem used used mercury-arc
mercury-arc
valves. In 1970 the first use of thyristors in a commercial HVDC link (Gotland
valves. In 1970 the first use of thyristors in a commercial HVDC link (Gotland Island) began. The Island) began. Thelast
last
and largest mercury-arc based HVDC scheme was the Nelson River
and largest mercury-arc based HVDC scheme was the Nelson River scheme commissioned in 1971.scheme commissioned in 1971. The
delivery of bulk
The delivery of power over distance
bulk power over distance is bestisperformed
best performed through overhead
through line or
overhead cables,
line and the
or cables, andcable
the
technology made HVDC the best option. To overcome low system
cable technology made HVDC the best option. To overcome low system strength synchronous strength synchronous condensers
were installed
condensers to aid
were commutation.
installed to aid commutation.
The
Theimprovements
improvements in IGBT
in IGBTtechnology allowed
technology the VSCthe
allowed based VSCHVDC schemes
based HVDC to be commissioned
schemes to be
with the first being the 50 MW link to Gotland Island in 1999 [64].
commissioned with the first being the 50 MW link to Gotland Island in 1999 [64]. This was quicklyThis was quickly followed by
the DirectLink
followed by theInterconnector (Australia) in 2000
DirectLink Interconnector which interconnected
(Australia) in 2000 whichtwo states (Queensland
interconnected two statesand
New South Wales)
(Queensland and New [65]. South
Due toWales)
the limitations
[65]. Due of to the
the technology
limitations of at the technology
time, this consisted
at the time,of three
this
60 MW VSC
consisted links 60
of three in MW
parallel. VSCin
VSC links HVDC was
parallel. VSC chosen
HVDC duewas tochosen
its lowdue environmental impact and
to its low environmental
the ability
impact and ofthe
converter
ability of stations
converterto accurately
stations tocontrol
accuratelybothcontrol
real and both reactive
real and power.
reactiveThe Tjæreborg
power. The
(Denmark)
Tjæreborg VSC based HVDC
(Denmark) VSC basedschemeHVDC was also commissioned
scheme was also incommissioned
2000. It was in demonstration
2000. It was of
using VSC HVDC for connecting a windfarm. Its rating was
demonstration of using VSC HVDC for connecting a windfarm. Its rating was 7.2 MW. The 7.2 MW. The MurrayLink connector
between
MurrayLinkBerriconnector
(South Australia)
between Berriand Red (SouthCliffs (Victoria)
Australia) andwas,
RedatCliffs
180 km, the longest
(Victoria) was, atunderground
180 km, the
longesttransmission
HVDC undergroundsystem. HVDCIttransmission
was commissioned system. in It was
2002commissioned
[52]. The Trans inBay2002Cable
[52]. The
HVDC Trans Bay
scheme
Cable HVDC
completed scheme
in 2010 wascompleted in 2010to
the first system was
usethe
thefirst
MMC system to use the[66].
technology MMC HVDCtechnology
based [66].
on VSC HVDC was
based on
quickly VSC was
adopted forquickly
supplyingadoptedpowerfor supplying
to off-shore power to off-shore
platforms platforms and
and delivering power delivering power
from off-shore
from off-shore
windfarms. An windfarms.
HVDC linkAn wasHVDC link was commissioned
commissioned to Trollplatform
to Troll A Off-shore A Off-shore(firstplatform
and second(firstlines)
and
second lines) in 2005. BorWin1 was the first commercial HVDC scheme
in 2005. BorWin1 was the first commercial HVDC scheme for importing power from an off-shore for importing power from an
off-shore wind-farm
wind-farm (using two-level(usingPWM)two-leveland PWM) and was commissioned
was commissioned in 2009. There in was
2009.a There was a rapid
rapid development
in wind-farms in this period and 2015 saw the commissioning of BorWin2 (MMC), HelWin1 (MMC),
HelWin2, DolWin1 (using a Cascaded Two-Level Converter [67]). Besides the need for VSC based
HVDC for cable systems, interconnections between countries or states are often at the extremities
of their grids and hence electrically weak. The ability to independently control P and Q and feed a
weak system does favour VSC systems. INELFE (Electric France–Spain Interconnection) uses an MMC
topology. With the increase in variable renewable energy (primarily wind) the interconnection enables
more optimal use of energy from renewable sources as well as improved security of the supply.
The first Multiterminal HVDC scheme was the three terminal Italy–Corsica–Sardinia scheme
(known as SACOI). This started as a two-terminal LCC HVDC scheme between the Italian mainland
and the island of Sardinia. A tapping from this was made in 1988 to allow up to 50 MW bidirectional
power flow from the island of Corsica possible. Similarly, the second multiterminal HVDC scheme,
Quebec–New England Transmission, which starts from Radisson Substation (Quebec) and runs to
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 21 of 35
Sandy Pond in Massachusetts (USA). In 1992 a third converter station at Nicolet was commissioned to
tap off power to supply the Montreal area. Both of these schemes use LCC HVDC. VSC based HVDC
is generally better suited for multiterminal operation and is well suited for cable systems since the
polarity of the DC voltage does not change. The Zhoushan Islands HVDC five-terminal voltage source
converter project was commissioned in 2014 [68]. The four-terminal North-East Agra UHVDC system
was commissioned in 2017.
A summary of the salient features of LCC based HVDC is given in Table 2 and those for VSC
based HVDC schemes in Table 3.
Table 2. Selected HVDC Schemes using Line-Commutated Converters [69].
Name Year Technology Length DC Voltage Power Rating

Cable/OHL (kV) P (MW)
Gotland 1 1954 Mercury-arc 98/0 200 20
Cross-Channel 1961 Mercury-arc 64/0 ±100 160
NZ Inter-Island 1 1965 Mercury-arc 40/571 ±250 600
SACOI 1 1965 Mercury-arc 365/118 ±200 200
Konti-Skan 1 1965 Mercury-arc 87/89 ±250 250
Zhoushan 1987 Mercury-arc 54 −100 50
Vancouver Isl. 1 1968 Mercury 42/33 260 312
Pacific DC Intertie 1970 Thyristor 0/1362 ±500 3100
Nelson River Bipole 1 2 1977 Mercury-arc 0/895 ±450 1620
Skagerrak 1 1977 Thyristor 130/100 ±250 500
Cahora Bassa 3 1979 Thyristor 0/1420 ±533 1920
Hokkaido—Honshu 1979 Thyristor 44/149 ±250 300
Zhou Shan 4 1982 Thyristor 44/149 +100 50
Itaipu 1 1984 Thyristor 0/785 ±600 3150
Nelson River Bipole 2 1985 Thyristor 0/940 ±500 1800
Itaipu 2 1987 Thyristor 0/805 ±600 3150
Fenno-Skan 1989 Thyristor 200/33 ±400 500
Rihand-Delhi 1990 Thyristor 0/814 ±500 1500
Quebec—New England 1991 Thyristor 5/1100 ±450 2250
NZ Inter-Island 2 1992 Merc. & Thyr 40/571 +270/−350 1240
Baltic Cable 1994 Thyristor 250/12 450 600
Garabi HVDC 2002 Merc. 0/0 ±70 2200
Three Gorges—Changzhou 2003 Thyristor 0/890 ±500 3000
Three Gorges—Guangdong 1 2004 Thyristor 0/980 ±500 3000
Three Gorges—Guangdong 2004 Thyristor 0/940 ±500 3000
BassLink 2006 Thyristor 298/72 ±400 500
NorNed 2008 Thyristor 580/0 ±450 700
Yunnan–Guangdong 2010 Thyristor 0/1418 ±800 5000
XIangjiaba-Shanghai 2010 Thyristor 0/1907 ±800 6400
NZ Inter-Island 3 2013 Thyristor 40/571 ±350 1200
Estlink 2 2014 Thyristor 157/14 ±450 650
North-East Agra 2017 Thyristor 0/1728 ±800 6000
Nelson River Bipole 3 2018 Thyristor 0/1324 ±500 2000
1 Later changed to be the first multiterminal link. 2 Largest mercury-arc valves ever made. The mercury-arc valves
since replaced by thyristors. 3 First HVDC scheme ordered with thyristors, although operation was delayed. First to
use a DC voltage greater than 500 kV. First HVDC link in Africa. 4 First HVDC Link in China.
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 22 of 35
Table 3. Selected HVDC Schemes using Voltage Source Converters [69].
Length Switching DC Power

Name Year Topology
(km) Frequency Voltage Rating
Cable
1 /OHL (Hz) (kV) P (MW) Q(MVAr)
Gotland VSC 1999 2-level 70/0 1950 ±80 50 −55 to 50

Tjäreborg 2000 2-level 4.3/0 1950 ±9 7.2 −3 to 4
Directlink 2000 2-level 59/0 1950 ±80 180 −165 to 90
Eagle Pass 2000 3-level 2 0/0 1500 ±15.9 36 ±36
−150 to
MurrayLink 2002 3-level 3 176/0 1350 ±150 220
140
CrossSound 2002 3-level 3 40/0 1260 ±150 330 ±150
Troll A 2005 2-level 70/0 2000 ±60 84 −20 to 24
Estlink1 2006 2-level 4 105/0 1150 ±150 350 ±125
BorWin1 2009 2-level 200/0 ±150 400
Trans Bay Cable 2010 MMC 85/0 <150 ±200 400 ±170
Nanao Island 5 2013 MMC 6 10/32 ±160 200/100/500
Zhoushan Isl. 7 2014 MMC 134/0 ±200 400
INELFE 2015 MMC 64.5/0 ±320 2 × 1000
BorWin2 2015 MMC 200/0 ±300 800
HelWin1, 2015 MMC 130/0 ±250 576
HelWin2 2015 MMC 130/0 ±320 690
Dolwin1 2015 Casc. 2-L 8 165/0 ±320 800
Dolwin2 2015 MMC 135/0 ±320 900
Dolwin3 2018 MMC 162/0 ±320 900
SylWin1 2015 MMC 205/0 ±300 864
BorWin3 2019 MMC 160/0 ±320 900
Zhangbei HVDC 9 2019 10 MMC 170/648 11 ±500 1500/4500
1 Cable length maybe a combination of undersea and land based cable. 2 Back-to-Back scheme using Diode Clamped/
Neutral-Point Clamped converter. 3 Active Neutral-Point Clamped. 4 Optimal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
5 3-terminal HVDC system in parallel to and AC interconnection. Switching devices: Injection-Enhanced Gate
Transistor (IEGT) and Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT). 6 Multiterminal DC (MTDC). 7 5-terminal HVDC
system. Provides voltage support to the existing ±50 kV 60 MW LCC-HVDC system on Sijiao Island to prevent
commutation failure. 8 Cascaded 2-Level converters. 9 4-terminal HVDC system. 10 Stage 1. 11 Total length in the
DC grid.
5. Innovations in HVDC
5.1. Capacitor Commutated Converter

Figure 29 shows a schematic of an LCC HVDC system based on a capacitor commutated
converter [70–78]. Putting a capacitor in series with the converter transformer lowers the commutating
reactance and provides the following benefits:
1. Reduced reactive power demand hence reducing the amount of shunt compensation
2. Reduced area requirements
3. Simplified AC switchyard
4. Increased immunity to commutation failures
5. Increased stability at low SCR
6. Smaller overvoltages at load rejection
7. No AC side zero sequence currents
8. Improved control properties
9. Reduces shunt bank switching and transformer OLTC operations (reduces operation and
maintenance costs)
side are that this reduces the transformer rating (reduced reactive flow through it) and removes the
risk of ferroresonance or subsynchronous resonance (SSR). Furthermore, this lowers stress on the
capacitor for an AC fault on the load side of the capacitor (transformer limits the fault current).
The back-to-back Garabi HVDC system uses capacitor commutated converters and connects
Argentina
Energies 2020,(500 kV) to Brazil (525 kV) [79,80].
13, 4342 23 of 35
Id
Series
Capacitors
ia 1 3 5
AC system vCa
ib
vCb
AC filters ic
(small MVAr) vCc
4 6 2
Figure 29. Capacitor Commutated Converter.

Figure 29. Capacitor Commutated Converter.
The reasons for placing the capacitor on the converter side of the transformer rather than system
5.2.
sideContinuously
are that this Tuned
reduces ACtheFilter
transformer rating (reduced reactive flow through it) and removes the risk
of ferroresonance or subsynchronous resonance (SSR). Furthermore, this lowers stress on the capacitor
The AC harmonic filtering typically constitutes about 10% of the station losses as well as
for an AC fault on the load side of the capacitor (transformer limits the fault current).
approximately 9% of the converter station cost [78]. They also have a considerable footprint. The
The back-to-back Garabi HVDC system uses capacitor commutated converters and connects
continuously tuned AC filters are depicted in Figure 30. This passive filter uses a static reactor whose
Argentina (500 kV) to Brazil (525 kV) [79,80].
inductance can be controlled so the tuned frequency will follow the frequency and component
variations [79]. These
5.2. Continuously Tunedhave been used in capacitor commutated converter based HVDC systems
AC Filter
[80,81]. The greater cost of having an adjustable reactor is balanced by the improved performance.
AThe AC harmonic
continuously tunedfiltering
AC filtertypically constitutes
was first about
tested at the 10% of
Lindome the station
converter losses
station as Konti–
of the well as
approximately 9% of the converter station cost [78]. They also have a considerable
Skan 2 HVDC Link and has since been installed on the Pacific Intertie HVDC system (1999) of the footprint.
The continuously
Swe-Pol Link, 600 MW tuned AC filters
(2000) are depicted
and Garabi I and II in Figure 30. This passive filter uses a static reactor
[74].
whose inductance can be controlled so the tuned frequency will follow the frequency and component
variations [79].13,These
Energies 2020, x FORhave
PEER been
REVIEW used in capacitor commutated converter based HVDC systems [80,81]. 24 of 35
The greater cost of having an adjustable reactor is balanced by the improved performance.
PI
Figure Continuously
30.30.
Figure Tuned
Continuously ACAC
Tuned Filter.
Filter.
5.3. Active DC Side Filters

The main reason active DC filters are required is to meet stringent limits on DC side harmonics,
to keep the disturbance levels in nearby telecommunication circuits within acceptable levels [78]. A
schematic of an active DC filter is shown in Figure 31. The first commercial active DC filter was
installed at the Tjele converter station in the Skagerrak 3 HVDC Intertie after first trialing the concept
PI
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 24 of 35
A continuously tuned AC filter was first tested at the Lindome converter station of the Konti–Skan
2 HVDC Link and has since been installed on the Pacific Intertie HVDC system (1999) of the Swe-Pol
Figure
Link, 600 MW (2000) and Garabi 30.IIContinuously
I and [74]. Tuned AC Filter.
5.3.
5.3.Active
ActiveDC
DCSide Filters
Side Filters
The
Themain
mainreason
reasonactive
activeDCDC filters
filtersare
arerequired
required is istotomeet
meet stringent
stringent limits
limitsonon DCDCside harmonics,
side harmonics,
totokeep the disturbance levels in nearby telecommunication circuits within
keep the disturbance levels in nearby telecommunication circuits within acceptable levels acceptable levels [78]. [78].
A
schematic
A schematicof anof active DCDC
an active filter is shown
filter is shown in in
Figure
Figure 31.31.TheThefirst commercial
first commercial active DC
active DCfilter
filterwas
was
installed at the Tjele converter station in the Skagerrak 3 HVDC Intertie after first trialing
installed at the Tjele converter station in the Skagerrak 3 HVDC Intertie after first trialing the concept in the concept
in1991
1991ononthe
theKonti-Skan
Konti-SkanHVDCHVDC link
link [81].
[81]. The
The active
active DC DC filter
filter is aispassive
a passive doubled
doubled tuned
tuned 12/24
12/24 filter
filter with
with an active
an active part,
part, located
located at the
at the Kruseberg
Kruseberg station
station (Sweden).
(Sweden). TheThe active
active filter
filter waswas commissioned
commissioned in
in 1993.
1993. This was followed by the Baltic cable HVDC in 1994 and
This was followed by the Baltic cable HVDC in 1994 and Chandrapur-Padghe HVDC transmission Chandrapur-Padghe HVDC
transmission
project (1998)project (1998)DC
[82]. Both [82].
and Both
ACDC sideand ACfilters
active side active filters
are still beingareresearched
still being [83–86].
researched [83–86].
Current
Smoothing
Transformer
Reactor
Power
Passive part of DC Filter
supply
Control
Active part of DC Filter System
Protection
Arrester
disconnector
Power
Bypass
Supply
Amplifier
Figure
Figure 31.31. Active
Active DCDC Filter.
Filter.
5.4. Reinjection Concept

The concept of reinjection has developed significantly from the original ripple reinjection
concept [87]. The concept is to increase the effective converter pulse number by reinjecting either DC
current or DC voltage into the converter. Initially, this injection point was the converter transformer
secondary; however, later the mid-point between the two bridges has been used. Both multi-level
current and voltage reinjection converters have been developed using the reinjection principle.
Besides dramatically improving the converter waveforms, features such as independent P and Q
control in current source converters have been achieved while maintaining the ability to control DC
fault currents. The main impediment is the complexity and cost. An auxiliary reinjection bridge and
reinjection transformer are required. In the current reinjection converter, although the main converter
bridges still use thyristors, the reinjection bridge must use power electronic switches with turn-off
capability. As an illustration, Figure 32 shows a multi-level voltage reinjection converter [22,23,88,89].
control in current source converters have been achieved while maintaining the ability to control DC
fault currents. The main impediment is the complexity and cost. An auxiliary reinjection bridge and
reinjection transformer are required. In the current reinjection converter, although the main converter
bridges still use thyristors, the reinjection bridge must use power electronic switches with turn-off
Energies 13, 4342
2020, As
capability. 25 of 35
an illustration, Figure 32 shows a multi-level voltage reinjection converter [22,23,88,89].
iΔdc
iA
VC Δ
vΔA
Vinj1
Vinj 2
VCY
vYA
iYdc
Figure 32. Reinjection Scheme.
Figure 32. Reinjection Scheme.
5.5. DC Faults
5.5. DC Faults
When a fault occurs on the DC system, CSC converters have the ability to de-energise the DC
system When
whilea VSC
faultconverters
occurs on continue
the DC system, CSCfault
to feed the converters have the ability
as the antiparallel diodesto actde-energise the DC
as an uncontrolled
system while VSC converters continue to feed the fault as the antiparallel
rectifier. Most VSC based HVDC schemes rely on the AC side protection detecting and de-energising diodes act as an
uncontrolled
the rectifier.
system. Various Most VSChave
techniques based HVDC
been schemes
proposed rely for
or used on the AC side
allowing VSCprotection detecting
based systems and
to cope
de-energising
better with DCthe sidesystem. Various atechniques
faults. Adding have
full converter inbeen proposed
the arms of the or
MMCusedconverter,
for allowing VSC
adding based
parallel
systemsthyristors
bypass to cope better withsemi-module
to each DC side faults. inAdding
an MMC a full converter
converter and in the
the arms of the MMC
development converter,
of DC circuit
adding parallel
breakers (see Figurebypass thyristors
33) have to each
all been semi-module
reported in an MMC
in the literature. converter
The need for DC and the development
breakers is heightened of
DC circuit breakers (see Figure 33) have all been reported in the literature.
with the development of multiterminal HVDC systems. Without DC breakers the multiterminal HVDC The need for DC breakers
is heightened
grid is what some withcallthe development
regional, of multiterminal
in that the system constitutes HVDC one systems.
protectionWithout
zone forDC a DCbreakers the
earth fault.
multiterminal
Such a fault will HVDC
causegrid is whatloss
temporary some callwhole
of the regional,
HVDC in that the system
system. constitutes HVDC
An inter-regional one protection
system
zone for a DC earth fault. Such a fault will cause temporary loss of the whole
needs effective and affordable DC breakers so that the system has a number of protection zones and HVDC system. An inter-
an
regional
earth HVDC
fault will onlysystem needs
affect parteffective and affordable
of the system [90]. ThisDC breakers
is an so that
active area of the system
research hasnumerous
with a number
of protection
hybrid
Energies and 13,zones
x FOR and
2020, solid-statePEER an earth
breaker
REVIEW fault willresearched
topologies only affect[32,90–95].
part of the system [90]. This is an active26 area
of 35of
research with numerous hybrid and solid-state breaker topologies researched [32,90–95].
D1 D2
T1 T2
D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
Figure 33. DC Circuit Breaker.

Figure 33. DC Circuit Breaker.
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
The trend of conveying higher power levels over longer distances will continue, resulting in a
The trend of conveying higher power levels over longer distances will continue, resulting in a
demand for transmission at higher voltage levels for both LCC and VSC HVDC systems [96–101].
demand for transmission at higher voltage levels for both LCC and VSC HVDC systems [96–101].
Further development of simulation tools is required for a converter rich system of the future,
due to the possible complex interactions over different time-scales [102]. Electromagnetic Transient
simulation tools are presently available, but their detail and complexity make them unsuitable for
large system studies. They are computationally expensive, as the frequency switching of devices
restricts the time-step that can be used [103,104]. Because of the various system time constants, co-
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 26 of 35
Further development of simulation tools is required for a converter rich system of the future,
due to the possible complex interactions over different time-scales [102]. Electromagnetic Transient
simulation tools are presently available, but their detail and complexity make them unsuitable for large
system studies. They are computationally expensive, as the frequency switching of devices restricts
the time-step that can be used [103,104]. Because of the various system time constants, co-simulation
techniques for mixed time-frame simulation are gaining popularity [105]. A recent publication [106]
provides seven HVDC system models that can cover most HVDC grid applications. This provides a
starting point for project feasibility assessments and specifications and enables researchers to customise
and benchmark their studies. Moreover, the overview gives a useful review of previous publications
and technology. Due to the cost and footprint of filtering equipment, and inherent losses, the trend
towards low distortion current waveforms will continue. Often these techniques produce distortion at
higher frequencies which are challenging to accurately model.
Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing where actual hardware (control and protection equipment)
are interfaced with a real-time digital simulator in a closed-loop arrangement has become a very
important facility in identifying problems and mitigating them before the equipment is transported to
the site and commissioned.
Power electronic converters are modulators (i.e., they couple the AC side and DC side frequencies)
with various sensitivities, based on their control systems and topology. The terms “cross-modulation”
and “harmonic interaction” have been used to refer to these phenomena and both CSC and VSC
converters act as modulators, transferring and translating the distorting frequencies on one side to the
other [105]. The converter can be viewed as a three-port device as the positive and negative sequences
on the AC system couple to different frequencies on the DC side. This manifests itself in various ways,
such as in composite resonances or core-saturation [107]. For example, in LCC HVDC schemes when
the AC and DC lines share a common right-of-way the induced fundamental in the DC line can give
rise to core-saturation in the converter transformer. Although HVDC converters and their controls
can create undesirable interactions, which must be avoided, they also have the ability to dampen
oscillations inherent in the AC system by the use of supplementary inputs, which is a fruitful avenue
of research at present [108].
As obtaining right-of-way becomes more difficult there will be increasing pressure to use existing
right-of-ways. This may mean either sharing it with AC circuits or converting the existing AC lines to
DC and more research is needed on the best way to do this.
The role of telecommunication systems in HVDC systems also needs evaluating carefully.
Initially the HVDC converters were controlled based on local variables (DC voltage, DC current,
DC Power) and the telecommunication system carried orders for changing the settings. A disturbance
in an AC system would naturally result in a new stable operating point without the need for
intervention by a telecommunication system. However, if a reliable communication system is available,
then improvements in coordination, control and protection are possible and need researching, as do
failure modes in the case of a failure of the telecommunication system.
Many HVDC systems undergo partial refurbishments and the technical difficulties are found in
interfacing the new equipment and system with the parts of the existing system. The technological
developments in equipment can make this challenging. However, new technologies also create new
opportunities, such as DC current measurements through direct current Current Transformers (CTs)
(Zero Flux and Optical CTs), which are faster, more robust and accurate digital control systems, to name
but a few.
6.1. VSC HVDC Systems

The forming of multiterminal VSC-based HVDC to form HVDC Grids is a very active area of
research due to the desirability of such systems. This is multifaceted as it involves control systems and
protection of such systems. Under normal operation how are the converters to be coordinated and
what role do communication systems have in this [47,109,110]? What modulation technique is used
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 27 of 35
and how are the capacitors in multi-level systems balanced? For example, in the MMC the voltage
balance across the sub-module capacitors must be maintained and the circulating current limited,
and this has stimulated research into modulation methods for the MMC. In the MMC a fast acting
thyristor is placed across the sub-module/cell and triggered to protect the cell diode when a DC fault
occurs. Clearance occurs when the AC circuit breaker operates. The diode in the MMC’s semi-module
(or parallel thyristor) acts as an uncontrolled rectifier when a DC fault occurs and using two antiparallel
diodes has been proposed to stop the uncontrolled rectification [111]. Hybrid multi-level converter
topologies utilising director switches have been proposed [37,112]. Rather than using half-bridges
as the sub-module, another option is to use a full-bridge and this is the basis for the alternate arm
version of the hybrid MMC [28,113–115]. Applying full-bridge cells in series with the “Director” valves
enables the multilevel cells to provide a voltage that opposes and limits the flow of current into a DC
network short circuit [37]. This enables the converter to remain connected and ready to continue power
transmission once the fault is removed. However, this increases the converter losses and the number
of semi-conductor devices. More work is required in developing VSC converters that are tolerant
to DC faults and low loss. Moreover, a fast and cost-effective DC circuit breaker is needed to limit
the impact of DC side faults, particularly in multiterminal systems. The identification and mitigation
of DC side faults still needs more research especially for multiterminal systems where isolating only
the faulted line without causing power interruption to the whole network is required. Some have
recommended that the primary protection should be based on local quantities and backup protection
pilot wire. In an LCC HVDC system the DC smoothing reactor limits the rise of the fault current and
the control action of the thyristor can extinguish the arc. In a VSC system on fault inception the charge
in the DC capacitances will discharge to the fault point rapidly and the DC voltage drops quickly.
VSC converters are susceptible to unbalance in the AC system they are attached to. The negative
sequence component in the AC system causes a second harmonic component on the DC side,
which in turn results in unbalanced waveforms in the AC system the other VSC is connected to [116].
The transmitted power has an oscillatory component and a double-frequency reactive power ripple
appears on the AC side.
With the development of renewable generation in remote areas the short-circuit-ratio (SCR) where
VSC converters are required to operate is dropping and there are control issues in such scenarios.
Unwanted control interactions can occur, either with other VSC converters, or generators that are
electrically close or simply with the weak AC system. Grid connected converters use a Phase-Lock-Loop
(PLL) for synchronizing to the grid and its performance when the AC is weak, or a disturbance occurs,
can negatively impact the system’s performance. Grid synchronization and robust control becomes
an issue, particularly in the face of a weak AC system and multiple converters. Overcoming the
weaknesses in the PLL is of great importance for the stability of the system. As more converter based
generation is integrated into the system and displaces conventional synchronous machine based
generation, the rotational inertia drops. The frequency regulation becomes more difficult and in the
event of a disturbance the system is more likely to be unstable. Another active strand of research is
on methods of enabling power electronic converters to provide what is termed synthetic or virtual
inertia. That is, provide real power to stabilise the AC system immediately after a disturbance as a
synchronous machine does by converting some of its kinetic energy to electrical energy as the frequency
drops, or vice versa. Another strand is to design a grid-tie converter without the traditional PLL for
connection to weak AC systems [117–119].
Unlike the LCC, VSC does not suffer from commutation failure when an AC system fault occurs;
however, the challenge is for the control system to limit any transient overvoltage or overcurrent [51].
Improving the tolerance of HVDC systems to AC and DC faults is a challenging area to research
but it is needed to ensure reliable power transmission. VSC-based HVDC systems have a particular
challenge with DC faults. Research into topologies, control techniques, materials and devices are
all needed. However, research into converter control systems has the potential to solve many of the
problems that have been experienced to date. The coordination of multiterminal HVDC systems,
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 28 of 35
improved steady-state performance in weak AC systems and better dynamic performance and
elimination of control interactions are still areas requiring further research.
6.2. CSC-Based HVDC Systems

CSC HVDC schemes, being line-commutated, are even more dependent on the AC system for
commutation to occur and often synchronous condensers have been placed at the inverter end if
the SCR is too small to ensure commutation failure does not occur [120]. As with VSC systems,
unwanted control interactions can occur with other electrically close equipment [54]. It is usually
convenient to subdivide instabilities into several types, distinguished by their frequency. Ref. [99] gives
a good overview of the control interactions and instabilities that can occur in LCC HVDC systems,
their mechanism and a few examples of where they have occurred. These instabilities can be categorised
by their frequency as follows: (a) Super-synchronous instability (often loosely referred to as “harmonic
instability” despite not being an integer multiple of the fundamental), (b) Core-saturation instability,
(c) Subsynchronous instability (typically 5–40 Hz) and (d) Power control instability. The response time
of the DC controls is short compared to other time constants of the network.
The controllability of HVDC converters also opens the opportunity to provide supplementation
controls to help dampen AC system instabilities. When considering an LCC HVDC system, typical
considerations are:
1. Load rejection overvoltages

2. Temporary overvoltage after recovering from an AC system fault
3. Voltage change on reactive switching
4. AC network frequency and stabilisation/modulation control
5. Possible subsynchronous torsional interactions with nearby turbine-generators.
These issues still exist and must be considered when planning an LCC HVDC system [119].
Where previously an AC system had only one infeed, an AC system may now have multiple HVDC
systems interconnecting it and the interaction between converters is of growing importance [54].
Moreover, the interaction between AC and DC systems is becoming more significant as more HVDC
systems are deployed.
The control systems for a DC transmission system must be stable with adequate stability margins
in the whole range of operation. The role of communication systems in HVDC is changing. Previously
with LCC, HVDC communication systems were not relied upon. This resulted in a Hierarchical control
system (Valve firing (1 ms), Pole (10 to 500 ms) & Master control (up to 10 s)) where the lower levels
relied only on terminal conditions and were designed to transition to a new stable operating point
if a disturbance occurred without the need for information from the other end. A high level signal
would give the coordinating command for steady-state operation. The control speed of a converter is
very fast compared to the AC system time constants and in some cases may have to be limited based
on the capacity of the network to support variations in the real and reactive power of the converters.
The reliability of modern communication systems is such that many are looking at placing higher
reliance upon it for both control and protection roles for both LLC and VSC based HVDC systems.
The question is the best way to utilize the communication system while still maintaining a robustness
to outages.
6.3. Hybrid HVDC Systems

Recently the application of both LCC and VSC technologies within the same HVDC system
has emerged, to allow the advantages of both technologies to be exploited [121–128]. The hybrid
LCC/VSC was first used in the Skaggerak HVDC system between Denmark and Norway. Skaggerak
3 uses LCCs while Skaggerak 4 used VSCs and these were configured to form a hybrid bipole
HVDC system [122,123]. The first hybrid back-to-back HVDC system was the Luxi HVDC system
commissioned in 2016 [123,124]. The first hybrid multiterminal scheme, the Kun-Liu-Long HVDC
Energies 2020, 13, 4342 29 of 35
system, uses LCC for the rectifier side and two MMC based inverter terminals [124]. Using LCCs
as rectifiers and VSCs as inverters takes advantage of the LCC’s higher power rating, lower power
losses, lower manufacturing cost and self-extinguishing capability for DC line faults. Moreover, it also
eliminates the risk of commutation failure by using the VSCs as the inverters. There are however
applications which may necessitate VSCs to act as the rectifier, such as offshore windfarms, where
the strict limitations on space on the offshore converter platform means the more a compact MMC is
required. This is partly due to the absence of bulky AC filters. Offshore platforms can also benefit from
the black-start capability and independent real and reactive power control.
7. Conclusions
The technological development in solid-state devices, converter topologies and control techniques
will continue to improve the attractiveness of DC transmission systems. Regardless of whether AC or
DC there will always be a need to transform the voltage to the optimum level for transmission and
distribution, based on the length and power transmitted. The cost, efficiency and reliability of modern
transformers means the grid of the future is most likely to be a hybrid AC/DC system with more DC
being deployed and embedded in AC systems. There is already research on DC transmission, not only
at the HV and UHV, levels but Medium Voltage (MV) and Low Voltage (LV) levels [129]. This paper
has discussed the present state of HVDC technology, deficiencies and where further research and
development is required. It is clear that DC transmission will play an important and increasing role in
the grid of the future and control systems design will be more critical to ensure undesirable interactions
do not occur, particularly when the AC system is weak.
Author Contributions: Most of the investigation was performed by N.R.W.; both N.R.W. and J.D.W. were involved
with the writing and reviewing and editing the manuscript; All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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energies

Energies 2020, 13, 4342; doi:10.3390/en13174342 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Current Source Voltage Source

Higher Cascaded Modular Multilevel

Total DC Connection Cost

Current Rating (Amperes)

Vac 0 Magnitude and phase control

Figure 6. A self-commutated Voltage Source Converter (VSC).

(a)(a) (b) (b)

(c) in monopole earth metallic return

(a) Unit-connected HVDC (b) Group-connected HVDC

3. Comparison of Current Source and Voltage Source Converters

3.2. Current Source Converters

-2100 -1800 -1200 -600 600 1200 1800 2100

(c) AC current waveform

3.3. Voltage Source Converters

Figure 14. Basic three-phase Voltage Source Converter.

Figure 18. PQ diagram of VSC operating area.

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 35

Figure 19. Three-phase PWM.

1. Neutral-point clamped circuit (also called a diode-clamped circuit)

(a) In-line (b) Bypass

Energies 2020, 13, 4342 (a) In-line (b) Bypass 18 of 35

Voltage across upper arm

Vac = Vdc 2 Vdc 4 0 −Vdc 4 − Vdc 2 −Vdc 4 0 Vdc 4

Arm Currents AC Terminal Voltages

Vac = Vdc 2 Vdc 4 0 −Vdc 4 − Vdc 2 −Vdc 4 0 Vdc 4

Arm Currents AC Terminal Voltages

Figure 27. Generic VSC HVDC Converter Station.

Figure 28. MurrayLink VSC HVDC Converter Station.

Figure 28. MurrayLink

Table 2. Selected HVDC Schemes using Line-Commutated Converters [69].

Name Year Technology Length DC Voltage Power Rating

Table 3. Selected HVDC Schemes using Voltage Source Converters [69].

Length Switching DC Power

Gotland VSC 1999 2-level 70/0 1950 ±80 50 −55 to 50

5.1. Capacitor Commutated Converter

Figure 29. Capacitor Commutated Converter.

5.3. Active DC Side Filters

5.4. Reinjection Concept

Figure 33. DC Circuit Breaker.

6.1. VSC HVDC Systems

6.2. CSC-Based HVDC Systems

1. Load rejection overvoltages

6.3. Hybrid HVDC Systems

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