1 Intercession, Intercessory Prayer
Integrity
“Integrity” means “wholeness” or “completeness”;
or “the condition of not being marred or violated;
unimpaired or uncorrupted condition; original per-
fect state; soundness” (OED). The closest Akkadian
root is š–l–m, often interchanged with s–l–m, espe-
cially in Ugaritic Akkadian (Dietrich/Loretz: 216–
17, Stendebach: 21). Sumerian silim can represent
both roots. The Akkadian root š–l–m deals with
bodily wholesomeness, health more than moral
wholesomeness; nonetheless, the following exam-
ples show a completed state in a broad sense: “…the
goddess Gula, whose glance means life and whose
attention means well-being (šalāmu; CAD ŠI 206b).”
“The statue to be installed must be perfect (ša šalam;
Landsberger: 8–11).” The basic meaning of s–l–m is
“to be reconciled, to make peace.” “May my angry
god be reconciled (lislim; CAD S 91a).”
The Hebrew cognate šālôm generally means ma-
terial “well-being” (Job 5 : 24, 15 : 21), but can also
carry an ethical dimension approximating “moral
fullness, integrity.” The wisdom Psalm 34 : 15 [14]
uses šālôm in this sense of “integrity”: “Turn away
from evil and do good; seek out integrity (šālôm)
and pursue it.”
The pairing in the HB of šālôm and ṣĕdāqâ in Ps
85 : 11 [10] conveys the “fullness of righteousness”
or “moral integrity.” In Isa 60 : 17, ṣĕdāqâ “justice”
parallels šālôm, which suggests a meaning “integ-
rity” for the latter. The royal child in Isa 9 : 5–6 [6–
7] is called “Prince of Peace” (śar-šālôm), whose nu-
ance is further elaborated by his eternal rule based
on “justice and righteousness” (mišpāṭ ûbiṣdāqâ). šā-
lôm here is the fullness of public order, integrative
of justice and righteousness. This combination is
also reminiscent of the two Jebusite gods (Ṣedeq and
Šālem) worshiped in Canaanite Jerusalem. Deutero-
and Trito-Isaiah elevate šālôm to the eschatological
level as YHWH’s future salvation (Isa 54 : 13–14;
57 : 18c,19).
The customary Hebrew root for “integrity” is t–
m–m that means, “to reach an end, to be com-
pleted.” Its adjectival and nominal derivatives tōm,
tummâ, tām, and tāmîm convey “integrity” and
“wholesomeness” in the ethical (Gen 6 : 9), legal
(Amos 5 : 10; Job 9 : 20–22), and cultic spheres (Lev
13 : 10). The verb indicates, “behaving with integ-
rity” in Ps 19 : 14 (unusual verbal form) where it
parallels the verb n–q–h “to be innocent”; 2 Sam
22 : 24–26 uses both the verb (hithp) and the adjec-
tive to show David’s “integrity.” The book of Job
begins with the essential premise that Job’s integ-
rity is perfect (1 : 1), a statement that bears YHWH’s
own stamp of approval (1 : 8).
The HB often uses the syntagm “to walk in in-
tegrity, to conduct oneself with integrity” (hālak
tāmîm) as in Ps 15 : 2, 101 : 6, and Prov 28 : 18; the
form “way of integrity” (derek tāmîm) is closely re-
lated especially in Ps 101 : 2, 6, which Kennick
(1976) calls an oath for the king at his coronation.
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Psalm 119 : 1 associates such integrity with the
tôrâ: “Happy are those whose way is complete/inte-
gral (tāmîm), who walk in the law of YHWH.” Since
God is the very paradigm of integrity (Deut 32 : 4),
he shares the way to human integrity through his
word (Ps 18 : 31, 33; Ps 119 : 80).
Bibliography: ■ Dietrich, M./O. Loretz, “Der Vertrag zwi-
schen Šuppiluliuma und Niqmandu: Eine philologische
und Kulturhistorische Studie,” WO 3 (1966) 206–45. ■ Ke-
dar-Kopfstein, B., “tmm,” TDOT 15 (Grand Rapids, Mich.
2006) 609–711. ■ Kennick, H. A., “Code of Conduct for a
King: Psalm 101,” JBL 95 (1976) 391–403. ■ Landsberger,
B., Brief des Bischofs von Esagila an König Asarhaddon (MKNAW
28.6; Amsterdam 1965). ■ Stendebach, F.-J. “šālôm,” TDOT
15 (Grand Rapids, Mich. 2006) 13–49.
Michael B. Dick
See also /Perfect, Perfection
Intercession, Intercessory Prayer
I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
II. New Testament
III. Judaism
IV. Christianity
V. Islam
VI. Visual Arts
VII. Music
VIII. Film
I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
1. Terminology. In the HB/OT “intercession,” or
“prayer on behalf of someone else” (Balentine 1984:
162), cannot be pinned to a fixed vocabulary. The
Hitpael of p–l–l (“to pray”) most often describes
both intercessory and non-intercessory prayer, but a
host of other expressions also appear. For instance,
Moses’ intercession in Exodus does not use p–l–l,
but rather ¨–t–r (“plead”; e.g., Exod 8 : 4), ḥ–l–h
(“implore”; e.g., 32 : 11), or simply ©–m–r (“say”;
32 : 31; cf. Amos 7 : 1–6); only in Numbers and Deu-
teronomy does he “pray” (p–l–l; e.g., Num 11 : 2;
Deut 9 : 26). Elsewhere, p–g–¨ (“plead”) is also used
(e.g., Jer 7 : 16; perhaps Isa 53 : 12), alongside many
generic expressions (e.g., q–r–©, “call” and z–¨–q,
“cry out”).
2. Contexts. Scholars have often seen intercession
as inherently a response to sin (e.g., Iwanski: 288–
348), which it often is (e.g., Exod 32–33; Num
21 : 7), but even then a variety of situations can be
in view. Repentance may be required (e.g., 1 Sam
12 : 19–25) or not (e.g., Exod 32 : 11). The one pray-
ing may claim innocence (e.g., 1 Sam 12 : 23), or a
share of the guilt (e.g., Neh 1 : 5–11). Moses even
asks that he be killed if YHWH will not spare the
Israelites (Exod 32 : 32), while the psalmist claims
to have prayed for his enemies (e.g., Ps 35 : 13;
109 : 4). In a few cases, sin is not even in view (e.g.,
Gen 25 : 21; 2 Kgs 4 : 33; 19 : 15), while at times in-
3 Intercession, Intercessory Prayer
tercession and “inquiry” (d–r–š or š–©–l; e.g., Exod
18 : 14–16; 2 Kgs 3 : 11–19) are not far apart.
Intercession is sometimes seen as a primary pro-
phetic role (cf. Jer 27 : 18), and is attributed to many
different prophets, including Samuel, Elisha, Jere-
miah, and Ezekiel. But not all prophets intercede,
nor is intercession limited to prophets (Balentine
1984: 161–73). Alongside the patriarchs Abraham
(e.g., Gen 20 : 7) and Isaac (Gen 25 : 21), kings such
as David (e.g., 2 Sam 7 : 27), Solomon (1 Kgs 8), and
Hezekiah (2 Kgs 19 : 15) are also attributed interces-
sory prayers. Joel 2 : 17 anticipates priestly interces-
sion, while late corporate confessions blur the line
between intercessory and other forms of prayer
(e.g., Ezra 9 : 5–10 : 1; Neh 1 : 5–11; Dan 9 : 4–19). A
few passages may depict an interceding angel (e.g.,
Job 33 : 23–26; Zech 1 : 12).
Many prayers are made directly by individuals
(e.g., 1 Sam 1 : 10–12; Ps 32 : 6), but other texts as-
sert that intercession is required (e.g., Gen 20 : 7;
Job 42 : 7–9), or depict people asking for prayer on
their behalf (e.g., 1 Sam 12 : 19; 1 Kgs 13 : 6). Some-
times intercession fails (e.g., 2 Sam 12 : 16–20; Ezek
9 : 8–10), and a few texts deny that it is always effec-
tive (e.g., Jer 15 : 1; perhaps 1 Sam 2 : 25). Jeremiah
and Ezekiel are barred from interceding before the
exile (e.g., Jer 7 : 16; Ezek 14 : 3).
3. Synthesis. In the midst of this diversity, several
points stand out: (1) Intercession in the HB/OT pre-
supposes a “dialogical” aspect to God’s interaction
with humanity (Miller: 262–80). (2) It is not bound
to fixed formulas or practitioners, but reflects a
range of situations and perspectives on God’s rela-
tion to those praying and prayed for. (3) This diver-
sity implies an ongoing struggle to understand and
respond to God’s justice in the face of tragedy, un-
certainty and sin (Balentine 1993: 260–71).
Bibliography: ■ Aurelius, E., Der Fürbitter Israels (ConBOT
27; Stockholm 1988). ■ Balentine, S. M., “The Prophet as
Intercessor: A Reassessment,” JBL 103 (1984) 161–73.
■ Balentine, S. M., Prayer in the Hebrew Bible: The Drama of
Divine-Human Dialogue (OBT; Minneapolis, Minn. 1993).
■ Iwanski, D., The Dynamics of Job’s Intercession (AnBib 161;
Rome 2006). ■ Miller, P. D., They Cried Out to the Lord: The
Form and Theology of Biblical Prayer (Minneapolis, Minn.
1994). [Esp. ch. 8] ■ Rossier, F., L’intercession entre les hommes
dans la Bible hébraïque (OBO 152; Göttingen 1996). ■ Widmer,
M., Moses, God, and the Dynamics of Intercessory Prayer: A Study
of Exodus 32–34 and Numbers 13–14 (FAT.2 8; Tübingen
2004).
Ken Brown
II. New Testament
Intercession is a distinct type of prayer in which
supplication is brought before God (or a divine be-
ing) on behalf of others. References to intercession
constitute a substantial portion of the rich material
on prayer in NT writings, especially in Luke-Acts,
the Johannine and Pauline literature, and Hebrews.
While various expressions are used in the NT to
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convey the idea of intercession, most frequent is a
construction with either of the verbs προσεýχοµαι,
δÝοµαι, ™ρωτÜω or ™ντυγχÜνω followed by περß or
πÝρ. On the whole, intercessory prayer is ad-
dressed to (Israel’s) God, but in a few cases arguably
to the exalted Jesus.
Three broad emphases can be traced in the NT
material: (1) Mutual intercession as a defining fea-
ture of the relationship between those belonging to
the early Jesus-believing communities, notably be-
tween community members and their leaders, con-
sidered to bring forth divine blessings and spiritual
growth; (2) supplication being commended for
those outside the community, including the lofty
ideal of praying for enemies; (3) Jesus making inter-
cession for others, both in his earthly ministry as
portrayed in some gospel texts and in his ongoing
role as the heavenly advocate of believers according
to the letters.
1. Intercession as a mutual commitment of the
early Christian communities and their leaders.
Acts portrays the Jesus movement as strongly de-
voted to prayer during its early period of formation
and development. In several passages the interces-
sory aspect is specifically highlighted. Intercession
is typically offered by the community and/or its
leading representatives in situations of crisis and
custody (Acts 12 : 5, 12; cf. 4 : 23–31), as spiritual or
healing power is being imparted (8 : 15, 22, 24;
9 : 40; 28 : 8), and at the appointment of new com-
munity leadership (e.g., 6 : 6; 13 : 3). Attesting to the
inner solidarity of the believing community and its
submission to God’s will, this intercessory activity
is closely aligned with the overall literary-rhetorical
purpose of the Lukan prayer emphasis: By sprin-
kling his story of the emerging Jesus movement
with examples of tenacious prayer being answered,
the author is pressing home that this movement is
authenticated by Israel’s God.
Intercession features prominently in the Pauline
and deuteropauline letters. Following Wiles, it is
common to group the intercessory material into
three main contexts: (1) Intercessory prayer reports,
in which the author claims to be prayerfully “re-
membering” his readers/hearers, found in or at-
tached to the thanksgiving section of the letter
opening (Rom 1 : 9–10; Eph 1 : 16–23; Phil 1 : 3–4,
9–11; Col 1 : 3, 9–12; 1 Thess 1 : 2–3; 2 Thess 1 : 11;
2 Tim 1 : 3; Phlm 4–6) or, more occasionally, in the
corpus or closing of the letter (2 Cor 13 : 7, 9; Eph
3 : 14–19; cf. Col 4 : 12). (2) Intercessory wish prayers,
expressing the apostle’s desire for God to provide
the community with some kind of spiritual bless-
ing. Such requests for blessings are chiefly found in
the body (Rom 15 : 5–6, 13; Phil 4 : 7; 1 Thess 3 : 11–
13; 2 Thess 2 : 16–17; 3 : 5; 2 Tim 1 : 16–18) or final
part (Rom 15 : 33; 16 : 20; 2 Cor 13 : 11; Gal 6 : 16;
Phil 4 : 19; 1 Thess 5 : 23–24; 2 Thess 3 : 16; cf. 2 Tim
4 : 16) of the letter. (3) Paul urging his communities