University of Cebu (UC)

College of Engineering (COE)

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE)

“CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING”

For long sights and accurate leveling work, the effects of curvature of the earth and refraction
of the line of sight shall have to be taken into consideration. Due to curvature, the points
appear to be lower than they actually are; while due to refraction, they appear to be higher
than they actually are. The effect of curvature being greater than that of refraction, the
combined effect causes the points to appear to be lower than they actually are.

Refraction Error: Light waves are bent as they move from one medium to another. The
atmosphere cools and has lower pressure as we rise in the atmosphere. This tends to refract
light upward away the surface. This makes objects (such as a rod readings!) appear higher then
they actually are. In an atmosphere of constant density there would be no refraction. While
the effect is temperature, humidity and pressure controlled, it is approximated as 1/7 of the
curvature of the earth acting in the opposite direction of curvature
Correction due to Earth’s Curvature and Refraction:

hcr =0.0675K2 or 0.067K2 ; where K is in kilometers and hcr is in meters

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

PROBLEM: Point P is between points Q and R. The distances of Q and R from point P are
1000m and 2000m, respectively. Measured from point P, the angle of elevation of point R is
8030’, while that of point Q is θ. The difference in the elevations of Q and R is 44.4m, with R
being lower than Q. Considering the effects of curvature and refraction, the value of θ is
nearest to:

PROBLEM: The top of a tower signal at B 2000m away from A was sighted through a transit
with recorded vertical angle of 3030’. The height of the mast is 12m and the H.I of the transit
above the point where it is set is 1.10m. The elevation of the point under the transit A is
133.3m. Compute the elevation of the base of the signal B.

SITUATION: A man’s eyes 1.75m above sea level can barely see the top of a light house which
is at a certain distance away from a man.

a. What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level if the lighthouse is
20km away from the man?
b. How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is 14.86m
above sea level?

SITUATION: Two hills A and C have elevations of 600m and 800m respectively. In between A
and C is another hill B which has an elevation of 705m and is located at 12km from A and 10km
from C.
a. Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the observer is at A
so that C will be visible from A.
b. If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed at C so that it could
be visible from A with the line of sight having a clearance of 2m above hill B.
c. What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order that A, B, and C
will be intervisible.

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. JUDY-ANN A. ESCUÑA