Appendix A

The Stiffness Matrix

Stiffness Matrix

The degrees of freedom of the structure are first identified. It is referred to as the
number of independent joint displacements of the structure.
The intersections or interconnections between individual elements of the struc-
ture are called joints or nodes. Displacements corresponding to each degree of
freedom, referred to as nodal displacements, are numbered, and positive directions
are assumed.
In order to evaluate the elements of the stiffness matrix, the structure is assumed
to deform corresponding to a unit value of one of the nodal displacements, while all
other displacement is restrained. The forces at all the required points are evaluated.
The process is repeated for a unit value for each nodal displacement. The formation
of the stiffness matrix is explained with the help of an example.
The continuous beam of Fig. A.1 has two degrees of freedom numbered δ1 and δ2 .
Referring to Fig. A.1b, joint B is allowed to rotate by unity in the counter clockwise
direction (i.e. positive direction, see Fig. A.2), while joint C is kept fixed. The moment

Fig. A.1 A continuous beam

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 607
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Mukhopadhyay, Structural Dynamics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69674-0
608 Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix

Fig. A.2 Sign convention

Fig. A.3 Unit rotation at joint B

developed at B due to unit rotation at B is termed as K 11 , and the moment induced

at C due to this displacement is K 21 Note that there is a relation of the labels 1 and
2 in K 11 and K 21 to joint displacements δ1 and δ2 .
In order to determine K 11 , the contribution from both the members AB and BC is
to be taken into account. Referring to Fig. A.3,

4E I 4E I 8E I
K 11 = + =
L L L

and
2E I
K 21 =
L

Similarly, K 12 = 2EL I and K 22 = 4EL I .

The stiffness matrix for this problem is
   
K 11 K 12 2E I 4 1
=
K 21 K 22 L 12

The stiffness coefficient K i j is defined as the force developed at point i corre-

sponding to an unknown displacement at i, due to a unit value of the displacement
at j corresponding to an unknown displacement at j.
Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix 609

Fig. A.4 Local and global axis system

Direct Stiffness Method

Even in the trivial example of Fig. A.1, it is seen that for determining K 11 , the contri-
bution from members connected at joint 1 has been taken into account. In this section,
we present a more formalised approach to the formation of the stiffness matrix. It
will be shown that the overall stiffness matrix of the structure will be generated
automatically by the computer, based on the geometric and elastic properties of the
individual element.
For this, a local coordinate system is chosen for a particular member. Global axis
system is the common coordinate system, which is valid for the entire structure.
The two-coordinate systems may be different, depending on the orientation of the
member. The difference between the two is explained in Fig. A.4, for a bar element
which can take up axial force only.
The local and global axes system is related by the transformation matrix. If the
displacements in the local axis system for a particular member are {δ  } and the
displacements in the corresponding global axis system is {δ}, then

{δ  } = [T ]{δ  } (A.1)

where [T ] is the member transformation matrix.

For the truss, element of Fig. A.4, the stiffness matrix of the member in local
coordinate is
 
E A 1 −1
[k]e = (A.2)
L −1 1

and
 
l m 0 0
[T ] = 1 1 (A.3)
0 0 l1 m 1
610 Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix

Fig. A.5 Space frame

member

where

l1 = cos θ and m 1 = sin θ

It can be shown that the stiffness matrix in global coordinate system is given by

[K ]e = [T ]T [k]e [T ] (A.4)

For the truss member

⎡ ⎤
l12 Symmetrical
E A⎢
⎢ l1 m 1 m 1
2 ⎥
⎥
[K ]e = (A.5)
L ⎣ −l1 −l1 m 1
2
l12 ⎦
−l1 m 1 −m 12
l1 m 1 2
m1

A typical frame member is shown in Fig. A.5. The member of the frame has three
degrees of freedom at each end-two translations and one rotation. X  , Y  , Z  is the
local axis system and X, Y, Z is the global axis system. The relationship between
them is given by
Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix 611

⎡ .. ⎤
⎧ ⎫ ⎢ . 0
⎥⎧ ⎫
l1 m 1 0 0 0
⎪
⎪ δ1 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ .. ⎥⎪⎪ δ ⎪
⎪  ⎪ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎪ 1⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ δ2 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ −m 1
⎪ l1 0 . 0 0 ⎥⎪⎪ δ ⎪
2 ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ .. ⎥⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎬ ⎢
⎨ δ3 ⎪ . 0 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎨ δ ⎪
⎬
⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥ 3
··· = ⎢
⎢ ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ⎥
···⎥ ··· (A.6)
⎪
⎪  ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪ δ
⎪ 4⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ 0 .. ⎪ δ4 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 0 0 . l1 m1 ⎥ ⎪
0 ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ δ5 ⎪

⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪⎪ δ 5 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩  ⎪ ⎭ ⎢ 0 .. ⎪ ⎪
δ6 ⎣ 0 0 . −m 1 l1 ⎥ ⎩
0 ⎦ δ6 ⎭
..
0 0 0 . 0 0 1

or

{δ  } = [T ] {δ} (A.7)

The stiffness matrix of the member in local axis system is

⎡ ⎤
EA
L
0 0 − ELA 0 0
⎢ 12E I 6E I
0 − 12E I 6E I ⎥
⎢ L3 L2 L3 L2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 4E I
0 − L2
6E I 2E I
⎥
[k]e = ⎢ L L ⎥ (A.8)
⎢ EA
0 0 ⎥
⎢ L ⎥
⎣ Symmetrical 12E I
L3
− 6E
L2
I ⎦
4E I
L

The element stiffness matrix in the global coordinate system can be formed by
using Eq. (A.4).

Overall Stiffness Matrix

The stiffness matrix of an element of the structure forms the basic component. It is
now discussed here, as to how the element stiffness matrix of the individual element
is assembled, to form the overall stiffness matrix of the structure.
It might have been noticed earlier that the stiffness at a joint is obtained by adding
the stiffness of all the members meeting at the joint.
The degrees of freedom of the structure are first numbered starting with 1 and
ending with NP, where NP is the total degrees of freedom. The restraints are then
numbered beyond NP. This numbering is referred to as degrees of freedom corre-
sponding to global numbering or global degrees of freedom. All the restraints can
be given the number (N P + 1). This procedure will save some storage space.
We have already introduced the concept of local axis system and the global axis
system. We shall henceforth deal with two different numberings in the global axis
system for the displacements at member ends. The first set of numbering is referred to
612 Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix

Fig. A.6 A continuous beam

as local numbering, which will remain identical for every member. This numbering
refers to the typical displacement labels of the member. The members meet at a joint
in the structure. The same member ends will have different displacement labels, when
the total structure is considered.
The continuous beam of Fig. A.6 has four degrees of freedom rotation at four
supports. In Fig. A.6a, the numbering from left-hand side corresponding to global
coordinate has been indicated. In Fig. A.6b, the local numbering of a typical member
and in Fig. A.6c, the positive direction of the displacements has been shown.
Calculation of the element stiffness matrix is next to be done. This is done for a
typical element on the basis of local numbering. For the problem at hand, the size of
the element stiffness matrix is 4×4. For the first element, they are, say

Global 5 1 6 2
Local 1 2 3 4
⎡ ⎤
5 1 a11 a12 a13 a14
⎢ a21 (A.9)
[k]e1 = 1 2 ⎢ a22 a23 a24 ⎥
⎥
6 3 ⎣ a31 a32 a33 a34 ⎦
2 4 a41 a42 a43 a44

For members which are inclined and where local and global coordinates are not
coincident, the element stiffness matrix is to be evaluated on the basis of transfor-
mation of Eq. (A.4). There is one-to-one correspondence between the joints of the
elements and that of the assemblage. The elements of element stiffness matrix of Eq.
(A.9) should now be put in their proper place, in the overall stiffness matrix. Equa-
tion (A.9) indicates that the local numbering 1 corresponds to global numbering 5,
which means that a11 should occupy the fifth row and the fifth column (i.e. k 55 ) of the
overall stiffness matrix. Local number 2 corresponds to global number 1. Therefore,
a11 , a21 , a22 will occupy positions of k 51 , k 15 and k 11 of the overall stiffness matrix.
Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix 613

Fig. A.7 Transfer from local to global axis system

The proper location of all elements of Eq. (A.9) in the overall stiffness matrix is
shown in Fig. A.7.
The process is to be repeated for all elements. It is to be borne in mind that
individual stiffness at a particular location in the overall stiffness matrix is to be
added. If the element stiffness matrices for the members 2 and 3 are

Global 6 2 7 3
Local 1 2 3 4
⎡ ⎤
6 1 b11 b12 b13 b14
⎢ b21 (A.10)
[k]e2 = 2 2 ⎢ b22 b23 b24 ⎥
⎥
7 3 ⎣ b31 b32 b33 b34 ⎦
3 4 b41 b42 b43 b44

and

Global 7 3 8 4
Local 1 2 3 4
⎡ ⎤
7 1 c11 c12 c13 c14
[k]e3 = 3 2 ⎢ c21 c22 c23 c24 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
8 3 ⎣ c31 c32 c33 c34 ⎦
4 4 c41 c42 c43 c44

then, the overall stiffness matrix is shown in Fig. A.8. The steps to be followed in
the computer program are shown in the flowchart of Fig. A.9.
614 Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix

Fig. A.8 Assembly of the stiffness matrix

The overall mass matrix, overall damping matrix and the overall exciting force
matrix can be similarly formed from the respective element matrices.
There are various ways, by which levels in the displacements are put. In the scheme
that has been discussed, the active degrees of freedom are labelled (their total is NP)
first, and then, the restraints are labelled. The first set of equations NP is operated
upon, for obtaining the necessary solution.
Appendix A: The Stiffness Matrix 615

Fig. A.9 Computer program

flow chart

INITIALIZE [K]

FIRST ELEMENT
PROPERTIESINDICATED

CALCULATE THE ELEMENT

STIFFNESS MATRIX [K]e

ADD [K]e TO [K] USING

NEXT ELEMENT PROPER LOCATIONS

No

ARE ALL ELEMENTS OVER?

Yes

CONTINUE
Appendix B
Table of Spring Stiffness

where
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material
G = Shear modulus of elasticity
A = Cross-sectional area
I = second moment of the area
J = polar moment of inertia
L = length of the member

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 617
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Mukhopadhyay, Structural Dynamics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69674-0
Index

A Collocation method, 350

Acceleration approach, 112 Column, 7, 22, 24, 25
Accelerograph, 115 Complex admittance, 555
Accelerometer, 88 Complex frequency response function, 109,
Acoustics, 2 110
Added mass, 426 Complex matrix inversion, 296, 547
Aeroplane, 1, 527 Component mode synthesis method, 244
Aerospace, 476 Computer, 1, 563–566, 582, 584, 587, 593
Aircraft, 386, 425 Conservation of energy, 3, 37
Air pressure, 527 Consistent mass matrix, 185, 448, 450, 454,
Amplifier, 89 465, 468, 474, 476
Autocorrelation, 532, 534–536, 540 Constant strain triangle, 459
Automobile, 68, 386 Continuous system, 8, 9, 307–370, 371–393
Axial displacement, 412 Convolution integral, 95
Axial force, 345 Coordinate coupling, 168
Critical damping factor, 62
Covariance, 534
B Cross-correlation, 557
B3 spline, 504 Cross-spectral density, 555, 564
Bar, 314, 371, 411–413 Cylinder, 2, 33
Basic function, 498
Beam, 3, 11, 22, 322, 324, 326, 345, 347,
382, 386, 395, 396, 417, 451, 493 D
Bernoulli-Euler theory, 455 D’Alembert’s principle, 5, 18, 20, 183, 315
Branched system, 236 Dam, 527
Bridge, 1, 9, 527 Damping
Brilloquin, 476 , coefficient, 29, 32, 67
Building, 1, 9, 289, 527 , Coulomb, 6, 7, 34–37
, critical, 29–33, 46
, extended Rayleigh, 280
C , negative, 6, 7
Castigliano’s theorem, 462 , Rayleigh, 278
Central difference method, 491 , sturctural, 6
Characteristic equation, 188 , viscous, 6, 7, 81–82, 167
Characteristic free wave, 480 Damping matrix, 186
Classical method, 398 Degrees of freedom, 7, 443
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 619
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Mukhopadhyay, Structural Dynamics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69674-0
620 Index

Determinant search technique, 191, 197, 200 Gram-Schmitt orthogonalisation, 225

Deterministic process, 12, 527 Ground motion, 115, 375, 384
Diesel engine, 76 Guyan’s reduction, 238
Direct stiffness method, 395–423
Disc, 38, 39, 199
Discrete Fourier Transformation, 148 H
Displacement approach, 111 Hammer, 2
Duhamel integral, 95, 129, 142, 145, 146, Holzer method, 200
269, 515 Hooke’s law, 314
Dunkerley’s equation, 198
Dynamic load factor, 62, 285
Dynamics, 2, 5 I
Impact, 26, 27
Impluse momentum equation, 94
E Inertia force, 4, 15, 16, 32
Earthquake, 1, 9, 88, 113, 115, 116 Interpolation matrix, 444
Earthquake spectrum analyser, 286 Isoclinic method, 516
Eigenvalue, 187, 188, 190, 197, 243, 447, Isoparametric element, 469, 473, 593, 602
563, 593, 603
Elastic restraints, 333
Electric motor, 68
J
Energy
Joint probability distribution, 531
, kinetic, 37, 354
, potential, 37, 445, 453
, strain, 39, 80, 354, 450, 458
Ensemble average, 532 L
Ergodic process, 535 Lagrange’s equation, 251
Exciting force, 16 Linear acceleration method, 135
Load
, blast, 9
F , dead, 1
Fast Fourier Transformation, 149 , dynamic, 1, 8, 9, 12
Finite difference method, 130, 491–513 , random, 552
Finite element method, 4, 11, 12, 244, 443– Loading matrix, 186
489, 553, 593 Local correction factor, 426
Fixed interface method, 244 Logarithmic decrement, 45–49
Flexibility matrix method, 428, 584 Loss coefficient, 80
Fourier series
, complex, 102–105
, real, 98–102 M
Fourier transform, 106 Magnification factor, 63–65, 88
Frame, 9, 11, 15, 16, 22, 263, 274, 582 Mass matrix, 185
Framed structure, 566 Mathematical expectation, 533
Free interface method, 244 Matrix deflection procedure, 225
Frequency determinant, 187 Mean, 532
Frequency domain analysis, 148, 297, 300, Mechanics, 2
543, 564 , nonlinear, 3
Friction, 34–36 Membrane, 359
Mindlin’s theory, 469
Mode acceleration method, 261, 267
G Mode participation factor, 283, 289
Gaussian quadrature, 473, 602 Mode superposition method, 261, 262, 297,
Gear, 1 563
Geared system, 235 Moving load, 386
Index 621

Multiple degrees of freedom, 8, 9, 183–258, Reduced integration, 473

261–306 Reduction methods, 238
Myklestad method, 211 Resonance, 64
Response spectrum, 97, 113, 288
Rod, 448
N Rotary inertia, 3, 339, 347, 417
Naval architecture, 476 Rotor, 1, 9, 68
Newmark’s method, 140, 292, 563 Runge-Kutta method, 138
Newton’s law, 4
Normalisation of modes, 196
Normal mode method, 262, 549 S
Sample function, 528
Seismic instruments, 86, 87
O Semianalytic finite difference, 497, 501
Ocean engineering, 476 Semidefinite system, 161
Offshore platform, 1 Shaft, 443
Offshore tower, 9 Shape factor, 426
Orthogonality relationship, 188, 192, 336 Shape function, 444
Oscillation, 2, 6, 32, 33 Shear beam, 375
Oscilloscope, 89 Shear deformation, 3, 347, 417
Overdamped system, 29 Shear locking, 473
Shell, 2, 476
Ship, 1, 12, 425, 584
P Simpson’s rule, 144
Pell’s method, 516 Simultaneous iteration method, 196, 234
Pendulum, 2, 6 Single degree of freedom, 8, 15, 59–128,
Periodic beam, 477 129–154
Periodic force, 98 Space frame, 566
Periodic structure, 476 Spectral density, 539, 540, 545
, finite element method, 483 Spline finite strip, 503
Perturbation method, 516 Spline function, 504
Phase angle, 64 Standard deviation, 534
Phase difference, 20 Static condensation, 239
Phase plane method, 516 Statics, 2, 4
Pick-up, 90 Stationary process, 535
Pipe, 2 Steamship, 3
Plate, 2, 3, 11, 12, 363, 459, 466, 469, 470, Step-by-step integration, 520
496, 593 Stiffness matrix, 186, 446, 453, 465
Plate bending element, 467 Stodola’s method, 217
Power spectral density, 539, 540 Stodola-Vianello’s method, 217
Probability density function, 530, 531 String, 2, 308
Probability distribution, 528 Structural dynamics, 4, 5
, second order, 530 Strut, 3
Propeller shaft, 3 Sturm sequence, 197
Pseudo-static, 1, 266 Subspace iteration method, 196
Support motion, 75, 110, 283
Sweeping matrix, 218
R
Random process, 527
Rayleigh’s method, 3, 229–230, 356 T
Rayleigh’s quotient, 354 Temporal average, 535
Reciprocating engine, 1, 70 Three-dimensional correction factor, 426
Reciprocating unbalance, 70 Three moment theorem, 398
Rectangular element, 463 Time domain analysis, 543
622 Index

Time period, 19, 23, 31, 40, 41 , horizontal, 25

Timoshenko beam, 348, 455 , inplane, 459
Transducer, 89 , isolation, 73
Transfer matrix method, 205 , longitudinal, 454
Transformation method, 191, 196, 197 , nonlinear, 3, 13, 515
Transmissibility, 73–77 , random, 4, 527, 564
Trapezoidal rule, 353 , self-excited, 83–85
Turbine blade, 1 , steady state, 62, 64
Two degrees of freedom system, 155–181 , theory, 2
, torsional, 1, 3, 15, 37–43, 159, 318, 443,
454
U , transient, 62, 90, 267
Unconstrained structure, 425 , vertical, 428
Underdamped system, 30 Vibration absorber, 162, 163
Unit impluse response function, 109 Vibrometer, 87

V W
Variance, 533 Water tower, 15, 16
Variation of parameter method, 516 Wave, 1, 6, 9
Vibration Wave propagation, 311
, axial, 371, 448 Whirling, 1, 3, 71
, coupled horizontal and torsional, 433 White noise, 546
, flexural, 322, 324, 326, 339, 345, 451, Wilson’sθ -method, 516
466, 469 Wind, 1