International Journal of Operations & Production Management

A comparative analysis and review of JIT “implementation” research

Narender K. Ramarapu Satish Mehra Mark N. Frolick
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 IJOPM
15,1 A comparative analysis and
review of JIT
“implementation” research
38
Narender K. Ramarapu
Received November 1993
Revised February 1994
School of Business Administration, The University of Tennessee at
Martin, Tennessee, USA, and
Satish Mehra and Mark N. Frolick
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Department of MIS and DS, Fogelman College of Business &

Economics, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee, USA

Introduction
Just-in-time (JIT) implementation philosophy has attracted increased attention in
the past decade from researchers who have tried to explain JIT implementation
successes and failures outside Japan. The major thrust of this article is to
compare the research done in the area of JIT implementation in the past decade
and to identify critical JIT elements, and subsequently group the elements into
broader factors. An extensive literature search was conducted to identify over
130 JIT implementation articles published in both professional journals and
proceedings. Articles published in non-refereed journals and some proceedings
were eliminated from further investigation due to their non-research nature. This
screening process led to the identification of 105 JIT implementation research
articles published in professional journals since 1980. This article has two
reference sections. One section consists of general references and the other
specifically lists the 105 JIT implementation research studies.
Some researchers have attempted to integrate the reported research in the JIT
field[1,2]. None of these articles, however, has focused on JIT implementation.
The earlier literature reviews were much broader and covered JIT philosophy.
They do not integrate the most critical elements of JIT implementation based on
prior literature. Therefore, there is a critical need for a comprehensive review of
the JIT implementation literature which integrates the critical elements that
have been cited in the earlier research. The major premise of this study is to:
(1) Classify all JIT implementation articles into:
● conceptual studies;
● empirical studies; and
● simulation and/or mathematical models.
(2) Identify and classify the critical JIT implementation elements using only
the conceptual and empirical studies.
International Journal of Operations
& Production Management, Vol. 15
No. 1, 1995, pp. 38-49. © MCB
(3) Develop a group of “critical elements” which are most commonly found to
University Press, 0144-3577 be critical to JIT implementation.
 Additionally, JIT and the role of culture in successful JIT implementation is A comparative
discussed. A brief discussion of the background information on JIT analysis and
implementation follows. review of JIT
Just-in-time
One of the major problems in the literature is the lack of consensus concerning the
interpretation and meaning of JIT implementation. The term has often been used 39
quite loosely. The interpretation and meanings of JIT has varied based on the
author’s background and the different collection of features. The meaning of JIT
ranges from an emphasis on inventory reduction and elimination of waste, to a new
vocabulary of “pull” versus “push” systems. Additionally, some will call JIT
“common sense” (something we already know) and in the same breath say that JIT
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is a “complicated philosophy” which goes beyond work organization, and a full

understanding requires a knowledge of the mystique of Japanese culture[3]. The
one major consensus among researchers and practitioners is that the
implementation of JIT is a “good thing” as exemplified by Japan’s success.
The major cause of confusion seems to be the broad nature of the meaning and
interpretation of JIT implementation in the literature. The majority of the
researchers who have addressed JIT implementation state that it will eliminate the
waste from all aspects of business, people involvement, improve quality in all areas,
continuous improvement throughout the business, and maintenance in all things.

Role of culture in JIT implementation

Japanese culture is one which imbues the individual always to strive to achieve a
goal which is within reach but requires a great deal of discipline and development
of a higher level of commitment to achieve.
Many researchers argue that culture is the most critical element to the successful
JIT implementation by Japanese[4-6]. These researchers have classified Japanese
culture issues into two broad categories: worker related and management related.
Japanese workers are totally committed to their work and the company. They are
loyal, co-operative, flexible and willing to work long hours when needed. Japanese
management is characterized by life-time employment, approaching decision
making from the bottom-up, respect for their workers, and a paternalistic approach
towards workers. This distinction between workers and managers has helped
Japanese management implement JIT successfully.
Culture is also manifested in the continual gradual improvement component of
Japanese JIT programmes. In the case of Toyota, the JIT programme has been in
operation for over 25 years and is still being refined and fine tuned[7]. Some of the
US companies have adopted a Japanese culture approach to JIT implementation
and have reported success[8,9]. Thus, for JIT implementation to be successful in the
USA, a Japanese approach to worker-orientation appears to be critical.

JIT implementation background

Although the first article on JIT implementation appeared in 1977[10], it was not
until the early 1980s that JIT implementation articles began appearing in
 IJOPM substantial numbers in professional journals. This body of literature was
15,1 centred primarily around JIT implementation in the manufacturing sector. It
included vendor/supplier participation, purchasing aspects, employee
involvement, top management commitment, quality control, quality
improvement, and reduction in waste.
Prior to reviewing the previous JIT implementation research findings it is
40 helpful to review the JIT implementation concept. Research specifically
addressing JIT implementation in the USA has been noted recently in many
articles. This is probably due to the relative newness of the JIT implementation
idea in this country and the important benefits associated with it. Although
researchers share no direct general agreement on the implementation aspects of
JIT, there is some generality and overlap among various studies. The most
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popular research approach taken by previous JIT researchers is that of

interviewing one manager from each of two or three companies, assessing their
experiences with JIT implementation, and generalizing this information to all
organizations by the formulation of a series of critical elements for success. The
popularity of this approach can be attributed to the ease with which such
information is obtainable[11].
Some researchers have asserted that JIT must be implemented as a total
system and that implementation of any part of it without the rest will be
unsuccessful[12]. A piecemeal approach can create “islands of JIT” but can fall
short of achieving the company-wide improvements that increase the
organization’s competitiveness[13]. This implies that there are critical elements
of JIT implementation that cannot be overlooked without resulting in JIT failure.

Classifying and identifying JIT implementation practices

In our opinion, the success of the JIT philosophy depends on its implementation.
The articles reviewed for this research are classified into three main types of
implementation studies: conceptual, empirical, and simulation and/or
mathematical models. Table I presents the classification of articles and shows that
the major focus of the JIT implementation research has been conceptual-based
studies. Some studies are empirical based and have appeared only recently. And, a
very few studies have been noted on simulation and mathematical models.
Based on the conceptual and empirical studies, this article identifies the critical
elements cited in the previous articles. Each study on JIT implementation was
reviewed to identify the critical elements. A list of the elements identified as
critical appears in Table II. One should note, however, that given the ambiguity
surrounding the terminology used by different researchers, it was necessary for
the authors to use their judgement in classifying the elements discussed in the
articles. Therefore, some of the variables are not mutually exclusive. To examine
the evolution of these elements or variables over time the articles have been sorted
by publication date into two categories – 1980-1986 and 1987-1993.
Reporting the findings in Table II over two time periods are justified for two
reasons. First, it shows that JIT implementation research received serious
attention in the mid to late 1980s. Second, many critical elements of JIT
 Number of studies Reference number of JIT
A comparative
Type of study in each type implementation references analysis and
review of JIT
Conceptual 65 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 21,
22, 23, 25, 30, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,
68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 41
86, 87, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 100, 101, 103, 104

Empirical 25 4, 12, 16, 18, 19, 20, 24, 27, 28, 29, 35, 36, 49,
50, 51, 53, 52, 57, 58, 59, 67, 81, 94, 99, 102

Simulation and mathematical 26, 30, 48, 55, 60, 69, 70, 74, 85, 88, 89, 92, 96,
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models 15 98, 105 Table I.

Classification of JIT
Total 105 implementation articles
(see Appendix)

implementation saw a three to fourfold increase in research efforts between 1986

and 1993 compared with the previous period (1980-1986). This indicates an
interesting change of events regarding JIT. We believe, based on our
observations, that it was not until after the mid 1980s that real efforts were made
to establish the fact that one cannot simply decide to adopt JIT philosophy.
Rather, one must have a sound implementation plan to put JIT practices in place.
Without a sound plan, one might overlook certain critical factors crucial to JIT
success. We also believe that there is little consensus among researchers
regarding the relative importance of these elements in the JIT implementation
process. Therefore, there is a need to classify them and group them into broader
factors (the most “critical elements”).
For the purpose of this study, the frequency of citation was used as the measure
of importance of these elements. Any element which is mentioned four times or
more has been considered as important in this research. Furthermore, based on
these identified elements in Table II which are considered crucial to the JIT
implementation process, these elements have been subsequently grouped into the
five broader critical factors:
(1) elimination of waste;
(2) production strategy;
(3) quality control and quality improvement;
(4) management commitment and employee participation; and
(5) vendor/supplier participation.
The JIT implementation elements identified in Table II are subsequently grouped
into five broader factors as shown in Table III.
Further analysis identified that the elimination of waste factor was associated
with four major elements. Under the factor of elimination of waste, reduction in-
waste element was the most frequently mentioned element (40 times). On the
 IJOPM Critical elements 1980-1986 1987-1993 Total
15,1
1. Reduction in waste 9 31 40
2. Reduced set-up times 9 29 38
3. Continuous quality improvement 8 29 37
4. Cross training/education 10 24 34
5. Reduced lead-time 8 26 34
42 6. Stable production 10 22 32
7. Quality parts 4 24 28
8. Reliable and prompt deliveries 4 23 27
9. Reduced lot size 7 20 27
10. Team decision making 8 16 24
11. Preventive maintenance 8 17 25
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12. Group technology 8 13 21

13. Small lost sizes 4 16 20
14. Management participation and commitment 4 13 17
15. Halt production line 6 8 14
16. Communication with suppliers 1 10 11
17. Automation 4 7 11
18. Employee suggestions 3 7 10
19. Long-term contract 0 7 7
20. Supplier training 1 5 6
21. Statistical process control 1 4 5
22. Quality circles 1 4 5
23. Single source supplier 0 4 4
24. One piece flow production 1 2 3
25. Right tools at right place 0 3 3
Table II. 26. Life-long employment 0 3 3
Critical elements 27. Proximity to the customer 0 3 3
identified for JIT 28. Cultural change 0 3 3
implementation

other hand, automation was the least mentioned element (11 times). The
production strategy factor was also associated with four elements, reduced-set-
up time is the most frequently mentioned (38 times) and group technology was
mentioned the least (21 times). Quality control and quality improvement factor
was associated with four elements, continuous quality improvement was cited
the most (37 times) and quality circles was cited the least (five times).
Management commitment and employee participation also has four elements
associated with it, cross-training/education was the most mentioned element (34
times) and employee suggestions was mentioned the least (10 times).
Lastly, vendor/supplier participation has eight elements, where reliable and
prompt deliveries was most cited and the least cited was single source supplier.
For a detailed analysis of the importance of each element under each factor, see
Table II. It should be noted that the most frequently mentioned elements are an
indication of the relative importance of a given critical element.

Other implementation issues noted in the literature

The major focus of some empirical studies have been on the benefits and problems
of JIT implementation[14-17]. Although the most cited benefits include elimination
 Factors Total
A comparative
analysis and
Elimination of waste review of JIT
● Reduction in waste 40
● Reduce lot size 27
● Reduce lead-time 34
● Automation 11 43
Production strategy
● Reduced set-up times 38
● Stable production 32
● Preventive maintenance 25
● Group technology 21
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Quality control and improvement

● Continuous quality improvement 37
● Halt production line 14
● Statistical process control 5
● Quality circles 5

Management commitment and employee participation (in decision making)

● Cross-training/education 34
● Team decision making 24
● Management participation and commitment 17
● Employee suggestions 10

Vendor/supplier participation
● Quality parts 28
● Reliable and prompt deliveries 27
● Small lot size 20
● Communication with suppliers 11
● Long-term contract 7 Table III.
● Supplier training 6 Classification of critical
● Single source supplier 4 elements into five broad
factors

of waste, reduced inventory, increased productivity, higher quality, employee

involvement and increased supplier relationships, there will be some additional
costs to implement JIT successfully; cost to provide new equipment, employee
training programmes, supplier training and providing technological help to the
suppliers[12].

Conclusion
The results obtained from this research contradict the previous work of a
number of researchers. However, the results are the consensus of many authors
who have identified critical elements of JIT implementation. Based on this
research the authors conclude that elimination of waste and production strategy
are the most specific critical factors of JIT implementation. Followed by three
other critical factors: quality control and quality improvement, management
commitment and employee participation, and vendor/supplier participation.
 IJOPM The number of organizations re-examining their manufacturing strategies is
15,1 increasing. Competitive pressure, both foreign and domestic, is fuelling the need
for change. Customer emphasis on quality, in both products and services, acts as
a stimulus within organizations. This study should provide guidelines and
insights to researchers and managers as it examines the consensus of the critical
elements which have been identified and addressed in the previous research of
44 JIT implementation. Based on the critical factors identified in this research,
practitioners should be able to implement JIT successfully and penetrate
effectively and efficiently into the new global markets. Those organizations
contemplating the implementation of JIT should direct their efforts and
resources to the order of the critical factors identified in this research, for
successful implementation. Also, the organizations who are currently practicing
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JIT can examine the critical factors to see whether their organization has
considered all these factors as important. This is extremely important as JIT is
often considered as an ongoing improvement process.

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45
Appendix: JIT implementation references
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 IJOPM 19. Chapman, S.N., “Just-in-time supplier inventory: an empirical implementation model”,
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46 Vol. 63, 1985, pp. 100-9.
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Production and Inventory Management, Vol. 25, 1984, pp. 21-34.

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47
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