TOUCHLESS ELEVATOR PANEL

B. Tech. Final Year Project Report Submitted

In partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
By
Mahtab Alam: 1805631902
Anchal Dwivedi: 1705631004

Under the Supervision of

Mr. Rakesh Yadav

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Babu Banarasi Das

Northern India Institute of Technology
Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University (AKTU Code: 056) Approved by All
India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
Sector II, Dr. Akhilesh Das Nagar, Faizabad Road, Lucknow (UP) – India, 226028
July-2021
 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
बाबू बनारसी दास नॉर्दन इंडिया प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान, लखनऊ - 226028
Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute Of Technology, Lucknow-226028

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Certificate
[[[[

It’s Certified that Mahtab Alam (1805631902), Anchal Dwivedi

(1705631004) have carried out the Project work presented in this report
entitled “Touchless Elevator Panel” for the B. Tech. Final Year in the
Academic Session 2020-21 from Babu Banarasi Das Northern India
Institute of Technology (AKTU Code: 056), Lucknow, under my
supervision. The report embodies the result of work and studies carried out
by the students themselves, and the contents of the project do not form the
basis for the award of any other degree to the candidates.

Date: 29-June-2021

Mr. Rakesh Yadav Sanjay Sharma

Assistant Professor Head of Department

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Dept. of Electronics & Communication

Engineering Engineering

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We want to express our deep intellect of acknowledgment to Asst Prof. Mr. Rakesh Yadav
Department of Electronics & Communications Engineering, Babu Banarasi Das Northern
India Institute of Technology, for introducing the topic and inspirational guiding,
constructive feedback, and valuable suggestion to our team during the project work.

We also encompass our sincere thanks to all our teaching staff in ECE Dept at BBDNIIT for
their direct and indirect support in accomplishing and undertaking. We would also like to
thank Mr. Sanjay Sharma and Mr. I. S. Roy for their constant support and guidance during
the project.

Mahtab Alam (1805631902)

Anchal Dwivedi (1705631004)
Electronics & comm. Engineeirng
2020-2021
BBDNIIT

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 ABSTRACT

Elevator technology is used to ease people to reach the desired level of the building, but
breakout of the global pandemic COVID-19 restricted us to use the elevators at a public
place so the some modification in the existing system will enable us to stop the spread.
Contactless elevator panel will help to operate the buttons without touching them. In the
existing panel the push type of buttons are used to send command, To make it contactless IR
sensors are used in place of push button that will trigger the elevator system to follow the
command of user. Separate panel will be installed on the existing buttons with following
circuitry to make it contactless and user friendly. Another way to operate the elevetor is to
have a RFID cards for use it at small building and restricted places. RFID will be
programmed for individual floor locations and saparate card will be used for saparate
location. This technology will help us to have a direct intrections with technology without
touching it and sure it will be very helpful to break the chain of virus spread because
touchless is the new normal.

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Content

Table of Contents
Type chapter title (level 1) 1

Type chapter title (level 2) 2

Type chapter title (level 3) 3

Type chapter title (level 1) 4

Type chapter title (level 2) 5

Type chapter title (level 3) 6

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 INTRODUCTION

Touchless Elevetor panel is conceptual design to operate the Escalator & Elevator where it
can be used as medium to intrect with machine without touching them to avoid the COVID-
19 spread. This system can be used at any palce where the maual push buttons are used. In
place of manul push button IR sensors will be installed to send the command to elevator’s
microcontroller. Two different type of technolgy is used in this project to have a combined
panel for multipurpose use. First one is Infrared and second one is Radio frequency
identification. Infrared technology is used in many varirty of wireless operations. These
technolgy are maninly used in sensing and remote controlling that is also used in this panel,
In place of manul buttons IR sensores are placed which take direct command form users and
send signals to microcontroler which trigger the elevetor or escalator motors to act. Second
method to intrect with RFID tags. RFID is the common wireless induction system. All tags in
RFID system is given a Unique identification. When an autonomous RFID tag lines the
RFID reader, the induction between tag and reader occurs. The data and content logged in the
tag is transmitted to the RFID reader and interpreted into the computational data. Subsequent
data translation, the tag acknowledgement can be finished and connected applications are
providing. The Card is used to classify that a user is lawful or not. Rendering to the small
distance wireless signal, the tag users can be monitored within the specific area. However,
most of these applications are founded on the inside surroundings or be a small area service
and autonomous of the existed system. In resistance to creating new implementation or
service environment, there were many existed systems or applications deployed. This project
aims at implementing an automated elevator management system using radio frequency
identification technology. This automated elevator system will enhance stage of embedding
the code into a tag and assigning the same to person.

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TOUCHLESS TECHNOLOGY

In 2020, with the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, a new issue rose to the top of
facility managers priority lists: tenant safety. With the widespread adoption of touchless
technology in multi-story buildings, the elevator often represents the only surface tenants and
visitors must physically interact with in the building’s public spaces. Concerns about the
cleanliness of elevator buttons are not necessarily new — research in 2014 by OBP Medical
found that elevator buttons in hospitals contained more bacteria than toilet flushers in the
same facility — but the pandemic has created a new sense of urgency related to this issue.
The prospect of tenants returning after a long absence and being faced with crowds in front
of elevators and then having to select their floor by pushing a button that has been touched by
dozens of other people, despite regular cleaning, is one many facility managers are looking to
avoid. One solution is touchless elevator controls, and a number of approaches have been
introduced this year to address this challenge, including foot pedals and holographic buttons.
However, as building owners and facility managers consider touchless solutions, they should
think beyond the current situation and consider solutions that address safety concerns while
also delivering additional value through features that include
IoT-enabled - Unobtrusive and easy-to-install IoT technology supports app-based systems
by recognizing tenants through their smartphone as they enter the building. With this
capability, the solution can automatically call an elevator cab to take tenants to their default
floor without the person ever taking their phone out of their pocket.

Secure - Touchless elevator systems can integrate with building access control systems to
address concerns with security and safety through a single solution. The control provided by
a touchless solution enables building and security managers to limit access to floors to
authorized groups or individuals while increasing tenants’ confidence that building owners
are doing everything possible to ensure safety.

Easy-to-Manage and Interoperable - The touchless elevator system should include a digital
interface or command center that enables facility and security managers to easily manage
changes in authorizations as they are required. The most flexible solutions will also work
with elevators from all leading manufacturers.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM

Signal to
Motor / Lift
controller

Atmega 8
μ controller

RF ID Scanner

RF ID

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WORKING

As we have shown in block diagram the microcontroller will receive command from two
different input types. When somone choose to use the IR sensor then RFID card will not
hamper the command and for RFID vise-versa. Command will be received and porcessed by
microcontroller and will be forwared accordingly to the servo motor or Lift controller. IR
Sensor will receive the command from user by the finger movement and send signal to lift
controller for specific functions. Elevator panel will send reset command to the IR sensor in
return after execution of command.

RFID intrection section will work on different principle, In the 1 st stage Card will be scanned
at the scanner of the destination floor. The 2 nd stage is reading the data from the Tag to the
reader. In the 3rd stage, the data is rationalized from RFID reader to the single location
[Database]. The final stage is to keep a track of person entering to the elevator.

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COMPONENTS

1. Atmega8 microcontroller
2. RFID
3. Relay module
4. 7805 IC
5. Capacitor
6. Diode
7. Resistor
8. Motor
9. Jumper wires
10. Motor section.
11. IR Obstacle Sensor

RFID reader and RFID tag

RFID is recognized as Radio Frequency Identification System. These technologies are

effective and protected relate to other network security system. The primary goal of this
technology is to habitually identify data that are contained in electromagnetic fields. That can
be applied for several applications such as security, tracking, inventory detection and access
control applications. RFID technology contains of a combination of tags and readers which is
shown in Figure. A typical RFID system includes 3 basic elements:

Tag Antenna
Reader Antenna

USB
PC Reader Tag

Magnetic Coupling

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RFID Tag

It includes of a chip and the antenna. There are 2 types of RFID tag namely Active and
passive. Both tags use radio frequency energy to connect with RFID reader but the technique
of driving the tags is different. Active RFID tag uses a battery as an interior power source
within the tag to continuously power up the tag and its circuitry, whereas passive RFID tag
rest on Radio Frequency energy moved from the reader to the tag for powering up the tag.
Thus, passive RFID tags need very robust signal from the reader to function. So, these
influences limit passive RFID tags to operate in 3 meters or less. Reliant frequency of
process, the communication range can be as short as a few cm. Active RFID tag can deliver
communication range of 100 meters or more than that. RFID transponder is a passive
transponder which is used in this project where it doesn’t comsume any internal power
supply to activate or run it.

The 4 common tags that are categorized by radio frequencies are:

• Low frequency tag (125 / 134.2 kHz),

• High frequency tag (13.56 MHz),
• UHF tag (868 to 956MHz),
• Microwave tag (2.45 GHz).

Reader

Reader is accountable for the transmission of information between the reader and tag using
radio waves. The RF energy used to activate & power the passive RFID tags.

Back end application systems

It straining the provision of the computer network and Software is used for controlling,
transaction, management, operation and maintaining record of the numerous users at one
place.

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The reader reads info checked in the transponder without any physical interaction. RFID
reader convey radio frequency and RFID tag obtain radio freq to give power to the chip and
then transmit its own serial number by frequency. Power is sufficiently tolerable to send back
data on that transponder to the RFID reader to be treated. The tags stock and transmit data to
readers consuming radio waves. The readers collect data from the different tags and transmit
them back to the server for additional analysis and processing if needed. The system helps
the purposes of identification, monitoring, authentication and alerting through this exchange
of data between the tag and the reader. This application uses passive RFID tags because they
are light weight, small sized, less costly and more lifecycle than any other tags. Passive RFID
tag extant substrate, IC chip and coil are defined in Figure. The RFID reader used with this
application will operate with 5 V DC power supply and have a RS 232 serial interface with
9600 baud rate. The operational frequency of the RFID reader is 13.56 MHz with 1.5 cm
reading range and 0.1s response time.

Infra red [IR] Obstacle Avoidance Sensor

This system consists of Infra Red obstacle avoidance sensor. This IR obstacle avoidance
sensor attaches to the each slot of the system. IR obstacle avoidance sensor contain
transmitter and receiver module. Transmitter send the pulse and receiver receives the signal.
The main working of sensor are to sense the car & to send the signal to the microcontroller.
After that microcontroller take proper action as per the programming.

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Transmitter section

The transmitter sends out a wave at a definite frequency such as 38 kHz or other frequencies.
The frequency selecting depends on the receiver IR sensor. In this type of system, the
transmitter is designed for 38 kHz frequency. The 555 timer IC is used as an astable state.
The variable resistors can regulate upto a definite frequency. The transmitter circuit is
designed as per the Figure.

4 8

2.7k R1

7
300

555 3 R3
Timer
6

10k
R2
2
IR

C1
1 5
0.002uF

C2 0.01uF

Receiver section

The receiver is designed to pick up the tramsmitted frequencies. The 555 timer IC is also
used in the receiver circuit as the monostable state. The output condition of the 555 timer is
need to be stable and send these signal to the PORT A0 - A5 and PORT B1 - B3 of the PIC
16F887 microcontroller as shown in Figure. The circuit diagram of the IR receiver section is
shown in Figure.

TSOP 1738

220

48

Output
5553
To PIC PORT B
Timer
6

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1uF

0.01uF
MOTOR
Electric motor’s operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current carrying
conductor creates a magnetic field. When this is then placed in an exterior magnetic field, it
will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor & to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As we are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid,
opposite (N and S) polarities attract, while like polarities (N and N, S and S) repel. The inner
configuration of a motor is aimed to couple the magnetic interaction between a current
carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to produce rotational motion in the motor.

Every motor has six basic parts as followings - axle, rotor , stator, commutator, field
magnets, and brushes. In most common motors, the exterior magnetic field is produced by
high strength permanent magnet or PM.

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The stator is the stationary portion of the motor, this includes the motor casing, as well as 2
or more permanent magnet poles pieces. The rotor rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor
contains of windings, the windings being electrically linked to the commutator. The above
figure shows a common motor layout with the rotor inside the stator magnets.

The geometry of the commutator contacts, brushes, and rotor windings are such that when
power is applied, the polarizations of the energized winding and the stator magnet are
misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is nearly aligned with the stator's field magnets.
As the rotor ranges alignment, the brushes travel to the next commutator contacts, and
energize the next winding. In the given example two pole motor, the rotation contraries the
direction of current finished the rotor winding, leading to a flip of the rotor's magnetic field,
lashing it to continue rotating.

In real life, however, motors will always have more than 2 poles (3 is also a very common
number in assembly). In specific, this evades dead spots in the commutator. We can imagine
how with our example two pole motor, if the rotor is precisely at the middle of its rotation it
will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a 2 pole motor, there is a moment where the
commutator shorts out the power supply. This would be ruthless for the power supply, waste
energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet additional disadvantage of such a simple
motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple"

As each brush changes from one commutator contact to the next one, when one coil's field
will quickly collapse, as the next coil's field will quickly charge up. We will see more about
the effects of this later, but in the meantime we can see that this is a shortest result of the coil
windings' series wiring: The usage of an iron core armature is fairly public, and has a
number of gains. The iron core delivers a strong, stiff support for the windings a mainly
important consideration for high torque motors. The core is also designed to conducts heat
away from the rotor windings, permitting the motor to be moved firmer. Iron core

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construction is also comparatively inexpensive compared with other, But iron core
construction also has numerous disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively great
inactivity which restrict motor acceleration. This structure also results in high winding
inductances which bound brush and commutator lifespan.

In small motors, an another design is often used which features a coreless framework
winding. This design depends upon the coil wire for structural reliability. As the result, the
armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be attached in side the rotor coil. Core-
less DC motors have ample inferior armature inductance than iron core motors of similar
size, outspreading brush and commutator life.

The coreless design also permits manufacturers to build reduced sized motors, meanwhile
due to the absence of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are slightly disposed to overheating.
As a result, this design is usually used just in small, low power motors..

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WORKING OF MOTOR

Direct current motor is one of the 1st machines invented to convert electrical power into
mechanical power. Permanent magnet direct current convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy through the interface of 2 magnetic fields. 1 st field is created by a
permanent magnet [PM] assembly, the other Figure shows working of dc motor
field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings.

These 2 fields creats a torque which leads to rotate the rotor. As the rotor moves, the current
in the windings is commutated to create a nonstop torque output. The static electromagnetic
field of the motor can also be made up of the permenant magents or cab be wire wound like
the armature.

In any style (wound field or permanent magnet) the commutator, works as half of the
mechanical switch and interchanges with the armature as it turns. The commutator is made of
conductive segments, usually made of copper or high conductive materials, which denote the
end of individual coils of wire distributed around the armature. The 2 nd half of the mechanical
switch is accomplished by the brushes. These brushes typically stay stationary with the
motor's housing but ride on the rotating commutator. As electrical energy is delivered

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through the brushes and subsequently through the armature a torsional force is generated as a
response among the motor's field and the armature instigating the motor's armature to turn.
As the armature turns, the brushes change to end-to-end bars on the commutator. This
switching action transmit the electrical energy to an adjacent winding on the armature which
in turn disseminates the torsional motion of the armature.
Permanent magnet motors are probably the most commonly used motors, but there are also
some other type of motors [type which use coils to make the permanent magnetic PM field
also] motors operate from a thru current power source. Movement of the magnetic field is
attained by switching current between coils within the motor. This action is called
"commutation". Very many motors have built-in commutation, sense that as the motor
rotates, mechanical brushes mechanically commutate coils on the rotor. We can use dc brush
motors in a variety of applications. A simple permanent magnet DC motor is an vital element
in a variety of products, such as toy, servo mechanisms, valve actuators, robots, and
locomotive electronics etc. There are abundant typical advantages of a PM motor. When
associated to AC or wound field motors, PM motors are typically physically smaller in
complete size and lighter for a specified power rating. Additionally, since the motor's field,
created by the permanent magnet, is constant, the relationship among torque and speed is
very linear. A PM motor can provide comparatively high torque at low speeds and Permanent
Magnet field provides some intrinsic self braking when power to the motor is shut off. There
are numerous disadvantages also, those being mostly being high current throughout a stall
condition and during instantaneous reversal. Those can damage some motors or be difficult
to control circuitry. Moreover, some magnet materials can be damaged when exposed to
excessive heat and some loose field strength if the motor is disassembled.

7805 Voltage regulator IC

Voltage regulators are very public in electronic circuits. They deliver a constant output
voltage for a diverse input voltage. In our case the 7805 voltage regulator, It is an iconic
regulator IC that finds its use in most of the projects. The name 7805 signifies 2 meaning, 78
means that it is a + ve voltage regulator and 05 means that it delivers 5V as output. So our
7805 regulator IC will provide a positive + 5V voltage as output.

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The productivity current of this IC can go up to 1.5 A. But, the IC hurts from heavy heat loss
hence a Heat sink is endorsed for projects that consume more current. For example if the
input voltage is 11 V and you are consuming 1A, then (11-5) * 1 = 6 W. This 6 Watts will be
degenerate as heat.

7805 as positive + 5V Voltage Regulator

This is a distinctive application circuit of the 7805 IC. We just need 2 capacitors of vale 33 uf
and 0.1 uf to develop this IC working.

The input capacitor 0.33 uF is a ceramic capacitor that pacts with input inductance problem
and the output capacitor 0.1 uF is a ceramic capacitor also that enhances to the stability of the
circuit. These capacitors should be positioned close to the terminals for them to work
effectively. Also they both should be of ceramic type, since ceramic capacitors are much
faster than electrolytic.

7805 as adjustable output Regulator

This IC can also perform as an adjustable output voltage regulator, means we can also control
the output voltage for our desired value using the following circuit.

7805 as Output Regulator

The input voltage can be anywhere between 9V to 25V, and the output voltage can be
attuned using the value of resistance R1 & R2. The value can be considered using the below
formulations.
Capacitor

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A capacitor which formerly known as a condenser is a passive 2 terminal electrical
component used to stock energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of real
capacitors vary extensively, but all contain at least 2 electrical conductors detached by a
dielectric. The conductors can be tinny films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The
nonconducting dielectric acts to upsurge the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, or etc. Capacitors are broadly used as parts of
electrical circuits in many public electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not
disperse energy. Instead, a capacitor stocks energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

When there is a latent difference across the conductors an electric field cultivates across the
dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge -Q to
collect on the other plate. If a battery has been devoted to a capacitor for a enough amount of
time, no current can drift over the capacitor. However, if an rushing or alternating voltage is
applied across the primes of the capacitor, a shift current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is categorized by a single continual value for its capacitance. Capacitance
is conveyed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference
V amid that. The SI (Système international) unit of capacitance is the farad F, which is
equivalent to one coulomb per volt 1 C/V. Distinctive capacitance values series from about 1
pF (10 to 12 F) to about 1 mF (10 to 3 F).

The capacitance is superior when there is a thinner separation between conductors and when
the conductors have a superior surface area. The dielectric among the plates passes a small
sum of leakage current and also has an electric field power limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and lead present an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are extensively used in electronic circuits for obstructive direct current while
letting alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they flat the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits we tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems they soothe voltage and power flow.

Diode

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A diode is a semiconductor device that fundamentally acts as a one way switch for current. It
permits current to flow easily in one direction only, but strictly restricts current from flowing
in the opposite direction in the circuit.

Diodes are also recognized as rectifiers as they alter alternating current into pulsating direct
current. Diodes are rated rendering to their type, voltage, and current capacity.

Diodes have polarity, determined by an anode (+ ve lead) and cathode (- ve lead). Most
diodes permit current to flow only when +ve voltage is applied to the anode. A variety of
diode formations are displayed in this graphic

When a diode permits current flow, it is forward biased. When a diode is reverse biased, it
turns as an insulator and doesn’t permit current to flow.

The diode symbol's arrow points alongside the direction of electron flow. Reason is that the
Engineers considered the symbol, and their schematics show current flowing from the +ve
side of the voltage source to the - ve. It's the same agreement used for semiconductor
symbols that include arrows the arrow points in the allowable direction of "conventional"
flow, and beside the permitted direction of electron flow.

Resistor
The resistor is a impassive electrical component to generate resistance in the movement of
electric current. In nearly all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be seen. The
unit of is ohms. An ohms is the resistance that rises when a current of 1 ampere passes
through a resistor with a 1 volt drib across its terminals. The current is proportional to the
voltage across the terminal ends. That ratio is represented by Ohm’s law in the given
equation:

Ohm's law: R = V / I

Resistors are used for numerous purposes. A few examples comprise delimit electric current,
voltage division, heat generation, matching and loading circuits, control gain, and fix time
constants. They are commercially accessible with resistance values over a series of more than

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9 orders of magnitude. They also can be used to as electric brakes to disperse kinetic energy
from trains or be lesser than a square millimeter for electronics

Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit which is used in the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to produce an electrical signal with a
constant frequency. This frequency is frequently used to keep track of time, as in quartz
wrist-watches, to deliver a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to soothe
frequencies for radio receivers & transmitters. The most shared type of piezoelectric
resonator are used is a quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits integrating them became known as
crystal oscillators. Though, other piezoelectric materials with polycrystalline ceramics are
used in similar circuits.

A crystal oscillator depends on the minor adjust in shape of a quartz crystal below an electric
field, a property recognized as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. A voltage smeared
to an electrode on the crystal causes it to change shape. When the voltage is detached, the
crystal generates a small voltage as it elastically returns to its original shape. The quartz
oscillates at a steady resonant frequency, behaving like an RLC circuit, but with a greatly
higher Q factor. Once a quartz crystal is attuned to a particular frequency (which is affected
by the mass of electrodes involved with the crystal, the alignment of the crystal, temperature
and other factors) it preserves that frequency with high stability.

Quartz crystals are contrived for frequencies from a few 10s of kilohertz (kHz) to hundreds
of megahertz. As of 2004, around 2 billion crystals are manufactured yearly. Most are used
for customer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones.
Though in applications where small sized and weighted is needed crystals can be swapped by
thin film bulk acoustic resonators, specifically if high frequency resonance is needed. Quartz
crystals are also found in side test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, & oscilloscopes.

Relay Module

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Power relay module is an electrical switch that is run by an electromagnet. The
electromagnet is triggered by a separate low power signal from a μcontroller. When
stimulated, the electromagnet pulls to whichever open or close an electrical circuit.

A meek relay consists of wire coil wrapped around a solenoid or a soft iron core, an iron
yoke that brings a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a portable iron armature and 1 or
more sets of contacts. The portable armature is hinged to the yoke and linked to 1 or more set
of the moving contacts. Held in place by springs, the armature leaves a opening in the
magnetic circuit when the relay is de energized. While in this position, one of the 2 sets of
contacts is closed while the other sets remnants open.

When electrical current is distributed through a coil, it generates a magnetic field that in shot
activates the armature. This movement of the portable contacts makes or breaks a connection
with the fixed contact. When the relay is de energized, the sets of contacts that were shut,
open & breaks the connection and vice-versa if the contacts are open. When switching off the
current to the coil, the armature is resumed, by force, to its calm position. This force is
typically provided by a spring, but gravity can also be used in definite applications. Most
power relays are manufactured to function in a quick manner.

For distribution of power in high current uses, GEP Power Products is the industry lead in
high power relay module design & manufacturing.

Rated up to seventy amps, GEP’s power relay modules are designed for seamless integration
in high power delivery applications. The suitable integral mounting brackets provide
informal installation and accessibility. With infinite options such as terminal position
assurance accessible for wire retention, GEP Power Products power supply solutions and off-
road industry knowledge are 2nd to none.

Manufacturing

Patterning or Etching

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The vast majority of printed circuit boards are prepared by obeying a layer of copper over the
entire substrate, sometimes on both sides then eliminating unwanted copper after applying a
temporary mask, leaving only the wanted copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding
smidgens to the bare substrate usually by a multifaceted process of multiple electroplating
steps.

There are 3 common subtractive methods used for the production of printed circuit boards:

1. Silk screen printing customs etch-resistant inks to defend the copper foil. Successive
etching removes the undesirable copper. Otherwise, the ink may be conductive, printed on a
board that is black. The latter technique is also consumed in the manufacture of hybrid
circuits.
2. Photoengraving usages a photomask and chemical etching to eliminate the copper foil
from the substrate. The photomask is typically prepared with a photoplotter from data formed
by a technician using CAM, or computer aided manufacturing software. Laser printed
transparencies are usually employed for phototools; however, direct laser imaging techniques
are being active to replace phototools for high-resolution necessities.
3. PCB milling uses a 2 or 3 axis mechanical milling system to grinder away the copper
foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine works in a similar way to a plotter, receiving
instructions from the crowd software that control the location of the milling head in the x, y,
and z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is removed from files generated in PCB design
software and kept in HPGL or Gerber file format.
"Additive" procedures also exist. The most common is the semi preservative process. In this
form, the unpatterned board has a high layer of copper already on it. A opposite mask is then
applied. Extra copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be
plated to any wanted weight. Tin lead or other surface platings are then smeared. The mask is
uncovered away and a brief etching step removes the now exposed original copper laminate
from the board, separating the individual traces.The additive process is usually used for multi
layer boards as it enables the plating-through of the holes in the circuit board.

Lamination

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Some PCBs have trace layers in side the PCB and are called multi layer PCBs. These are
shaped by bonding together distinctly etched thin boards.

Drilling

Holes, through a PCB are naturally drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide.
The drilling is done by automated drilling machines with assignment controlled by a drill
tape or drill file. These computer generated files are also named numerically controlled drill
(NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file designates the location and size of each drilled
hole. When very small vias are vital, drilling with mechanical bits is expensive because of
high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be vanished by lasers. Laser
drilled vias usually have an poorer surface finish inside the hole. These holes are named
micro vias. It is also possible with controlled depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre drilling
the separate sheet of the PCB earlier lamination, to create holes that attach only some of the
copper layers, rather than passing over the entire board. These holes are titled blind vias
when they attach an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect
2 or more interior copper layers.

The ramparts of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are plated with copper to form
plated through holes that electrically assign the conducting layers of the PCB. For multi layer
boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling normally produces a smear encompassed of the
attachment agent in the laminate system. Afore the holes can be plated through, this slur must
be detached by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch.

Exposed conductor plating and coating

The pads and lands to which mechanisms will be mounted are usually plated, because bare
copper oxidizes rapidly, and so is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any bare copper was
plated with solder. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, though new solder compounds are now
used to attain compliance with the RoHS instruction in the EU, which limits the use of lead.
Other platings used are OSP, absorption silver, electroless nickel with immersion gold
coating (ENIG), and direct gold. Edge connectors, positioned along one edge of some boards,
are often gold plated.

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Solder resist

Areas that should not be soldered that are covered with a polymer solder resist (solder mask)
coating. The solder fight prevents solder from bridging between conductors and thus creating
short circuits. Solder resist also delivers some protection from the environment.

Screen printing

Line art and text may be printed against the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen printing. IF the
enough sapce found then the screen print text can indicate component designators, switch
setting necessities, test points, and other features cooperative in assembling, testing, and
servicing the circuit board. Screen print is also recognized as the silk screen, or, in one sided
PCBs, the red print.

Test

Unpopulated boards may be imperiled to a bare board test where each circuit connection (as
defined in a netlist) is confirmed as correct on the finished board. For high volume
production, a Bed of nails tester or fixture is used to style contact with copper parks or holes
on one or both side of the board to ease testing. A computer will train the electrical test unit
to send a small quantity of current over each contact point on the bed of nails as required, and
verify that such current can be seen on the further suitable contact points. For small or
medium volume boards, flying probe testers use poignant test heads to style contact with the
copper lands or holes to confirm the electrical connectivity of the board beneath test.

Populating

After the PCB is finished, electronic components must be devoted to form a functional
printed circuit assembly, or PCA. In through hole construction, component leads may be
introduced in holes and electrically and mechanically fixed to the board with a melted metal
solder, while in surface mount construction, the components are just soldered to pads or lands

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on the outer surfaces of the PCB.Often, through hole and surface mount construction must be
joint in a single PCA because some requisite components are available only in surface mount
packages, while others are available only in through hole packages.
Again, JEDEC guidelines for PCB component assignment, soldering, and inspection are
usually used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing. After the board
is occupied, the settled board may be tested with an in circuit test system. To ease this test,
PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make fleeting connection. Occasionally these pads
must be inaccessible with resistors. The in circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test
features of some components. In circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile
memory mechanisms on the board. In boundary scan testing, test circuits combined into
various ICs on the board form fleeting connections among the pcb traces to test that the IC
are attached correctly. Boundary scan testing needs that all the ICs to be tested use a standard
test configuration process, the most collective one being the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG)
standard.

Protection and packaging

PCBs planned for extreme surroundings often have a conformal coat, which is applied by
plunging or spraying after the mechanisms have been soldered. The coat stops corrosion and
leakage currents or shorting due to concentration. The initial conformal coats were wax.
Contemporary conformal coats are typically dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber,
polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Some are engineering plastics popped onto the PCB in a
vacuum chamber. Many collected PCBs are stationary sensitive, and therefore must be
placed in antistatic bags during transport. When treatment of these boards happens, the user
must be earthed; failure to do this might transmit an accrued static charge through the board,
destructive or destroying it. Even bare boards are occasionally static penetrating. Suggestions
have become so fine that it's fairly possible to blow an etch off the board with a static charge.
This is particularly true on non traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.

STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

• Make the layout of the circuit (+ve).

• Cut the photofilm (somewhat bigger) in size of the layout.

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 • Keep the layout in the photoprinter machine with the photofilm overhead it.
Make certain that the bromide side of the film is in interaction with the
layout.
• Turn on the machine by pressing push button for max 5 sec.
• Swim the film in the solution prepared by mixing the chemical A & B in
equivalent amounts in water.
• Now clean the film by insertion it in the tray covering water for 1 min.
• After this, dip the film in the repairer solution for 1 minute. now the -ve of the
Circuit is ready.
• Now wash it under the running water.
• Dry the -ve in the photocure machine to develop.
• Take PCB board of the layout size and clean it with steel wool for making the
surface smooth.
• Now dip the PCB inside the liquid photoresist and take the help of dip coating
machine.
• Now clip the PCB subsequent to the -ve in the photo cure machine, aeration
for approximate 10-12 minute.
• Place the -ve on the top of the PCB in the UV machine and then usual the
timer for around 2.5 minute and switch on the Ultra Voilet light at the top.
• Now Take the LPR developer in a container & thoroughly move the PCB in it.
• After that wash it with water very softly.
• Later on apply LPR dye on it with the help of a dispenser so that it is
completely roofed by it.
• After that clamp the PCB in the etching machine that holds ferric chloride
solution for atleast 10 minutes.
• After etching process wash the PCB with plain water & wipe it a dry cloth.
• Lastly rub the PCB with a steel wool, and the PCB is ready to use.

RESISTOR

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Resistors are used to bound the value of current in a circuit. Resistors deal opposition to the
movement of current. They are articulated in ohms for which the symbol is ‘Ω’. Resistors are
generally classified as following

 Fixed Resistors
 Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors :

The best collective of low wattage, static type resistors is the molded carbon composition
resistor. These resistive material is made of carbon clay composition. The leads are prepared
of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are easily available in value ranging in different
ohms, They have a tolerance range of 5 - 20%. The comparative size of all static resistors
changes with the wattage.
Additional variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized type. they made by
deposition a similar film of pure carbon over a glass ceramic or other insulating material.
This type of film-resistor is occasionally called the precision type and it can be obtained with
an accuracy of ± 1 %

A Wire Wound Resistor :

Wire wound resistor uses a span of resistance wire example as nichrome. Wire is wounded
on to a rotund hollow porcelain core. Ends of the winding are attached to metal pieces
injected in the core. Tinned wire leads are attached to metal pieces. This assembly is covered
with an enamel coating crushed glass. This coating is very smooth & gives mechanical guard
to winding. Usually available wire wound resistors have resistance values ranging from 1 Ω
to 100K Ω and wattage rating up to about 200 W

Coding Of Resistor :

There are some resistors that are too tiny in size to have numbers printed on them. However
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on the body. So a
system of colour coding is cast-off to specify their values. For fixed, moulded composition
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resistor 4 colour bands are painted on one end of the external casing. The colour bands are
always read left - right from the end that has the band closest to it. The first and second band
signifies the 1st and 2nd significant digits of the resistance value. The 3rd band is for the
number of zeros that follow the 2nd digit. In situation the 3rd band is gold or silver, it signifies
a multiplying factor of 0.1 - 0.01. The fourth band represents the production’s tolerance.

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black 0 black 0 black 0 black

1 brown 1 brown 1 brown 1 brown

2 red 2 red 2 red 2 red
3 orange 3 orange 3 orange 3 orange

4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow

5 green 5 green 5 green
6 blue 65 green
blue 6 blue 6 blue
7 purple 7 purple 7 purple 7 purple

8 silver 8 silver 8 silver 8 silver

9 white 9 white 9 white 9 white

Most resistors have four bands:

• The 1st band gives the first digit.
• The 2nd band gives the second digit.
• The 3rd band indicates the number of zero.
• The 4th band is used to show the tolerance (accuracy) of the resistors.

This resistor shown in above figure has red indicates 2, violet indicates 7, yellow indicates 4
zeros and gold bands.
So its value will be 270000 = 270 k .

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The normal colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To display these small values 2
special colours are used for the 3rd band: gold, which means multiplication to x 0.1 and silver
which means x 0.01. The first and second bands signify the digits as usual.

For example:

Voilet, Red, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7

Green, Blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

The fourth band of the colour code displays the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the
accurateness of the resistor and it is assumed as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor
with a acceptance of ± 10 % will has the value within 10 % of 390 , among 390 - 39 = 351
& 390 + 39 = 429 .

A distinct colour code is used for the 4th band tolerance:

brown ± 1%, red ± 2%, gold ± 5 %, silver ± 10 %
If no 4th band is shown the tolerance is ± 20%.

VARIABLE RESISTOR

In electronic circuits, occasionally it becomes essential to adjust the values of currents and
voltages. For example it is frequently wanted to change the volume of sound, the brightness
of a television picture. Such changes can be done by using variable resistors.

Though the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in other applications, the smaller
variable resistors usually used in electronic circuits are called potentiometers.

Resistor shorthand:

Resistor standards are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which evades
using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M
are used in place of the decimal point. To read the code: swap the letter with a decimal point,

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then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter
R means multiply by 1.

Power Ratings of Resistors

Electrical energy is transformed to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the
effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large
current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to
withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher
power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using
low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I² × R
or
P = V² / R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)
I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

Examples:

• A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
• A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/27 =
3.7W.

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A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.

Voltage Regulators

A voltage regulator is a regulator intended to automatically maintain a continuous voltage

level. It may usage an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it cast-off to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
With the exclusion of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators run by associating the actual
output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any change is amplified and used to
control the regulation element. This forms a -ve feedback servo control loop. If the output
voltage is too small, the regulation element is ordered to create a higher voltage. For some
regulators if the output O/p voltage is too high, then regulation elements are commanded to
produce a lower voltage, It numerous just stop sourcing current and depend on the current
draw of whatever it is lashing to pull the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage
is imprisoned roughly constant. The control loop necessirily be sensibly designed to produce
the desired tradeoff among stability and speed of response.

LM7805 (Three Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)

The MC78XX / LM78XX / MC78XXA series of 3 terminal positive regulators are available
in the TO-220/D-PAK packaged and with several static output voltages, making them useful
in a wide range of applications. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1
A output current. Although designed mainly as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

33 | P a g e
 Internal block Diagram

Fixed Output Regulator

Features
• O/p Current up to 1A
• O/p Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Guard
• Short Circuit Guard
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Guard

TRANSISTORS

A transistor is an active device. It contains of two PN junctions formed by sandwiching either

p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
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There are two types of transistor:
1. n – p - n transistor
2. p – n - p transistor

An n – p - n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section

of p-type. However a p – n - p type semiconductor is shaped by two p - sections separated by
a thin section of n - type.
Transistor has two p - n junctions first junction is forward biased and second is reversed
biased. The forward junction has a short resistance path while a reverse biased junction has a
high resistance path.

Transistor has 3 sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is called emitter
& section on the opposite side is called collector. The middle section is called base.

Emitter : The section on one end that supplies charge carriers is called emitter. The emitter
is always forward biased.

Collector : The section on the other end that collects the charge is called collector. The
collector is always reversed biased.

35 | P a g e
Base : The middle section which forms two p n junctions between the emitter and collector is
called base.

A transistor upsurges the strength of a feeble signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak
signal is smeared between emitter base junction and output is kept across the load connected
in the collector circuit. The CC [collector current] flowing through a high load resistance RC
harvests a large voltage across it. Thus feeble signal smeared in the input seems in the
amplified form in the collector circuit.

CONNECTORS

Connectors are fundamentally used for edge between two. Here we use some connectors for
having interface between PCB and 8051 μprocessor Kit.

There are 2 types of connectors they are Female and male. The one, which is with pins
outside, is male and other is female.

That connectors have bus wires with them for joining. For high frequency operation the
typical circumference of a coaxial cable necessiarily be limited to about one wavelength, in
order to decrease multimodal propagation and remove erratic replication coefficients, power
losses, and signal distortion. The regularization of coaxial connectors during World War 2
was obligatory for microwave operation to preserve a low voltage standing wave ratio or a
low reflection coefficient.

7 diffrerent types of microwave coaxial connectors are describes below:

 APC 7
 APC 3.5
 SMA
 BNC
 TNC
 SMC
 Type N

36 | P a g e
LED [LIGHT EMITTING DIODE]

A diode junction, such as LED, can produce light or display electro luminescence. Electro
luminescence is gained by injecting minority carriers into the region of a p - n junction where
radiative transition takes place. There is a changeover of electron from the conduction band
to the valence band, which is made probably by emission of a photon in radiative transition.
Thus, emitted light originates from the hole electron recombination. What is obligatory is
that electrons should make a change from higher energy level to lower energy level freeing
photon of wavelength consistent to the energy change associated with this transition. In LED
the supply of high energy electron is providing by forward biasing the diode, thus inoculating
electrons into the n - region and holes into p - region.

The p - n junction of LED is prepared from heavily doped material. On forward bias
condition, majority carriers from together sides of the junction cross the potential barrier and
enter the conflicting side where they are then minority carrier and origin local minority
carrier populace to be larger than normal. This is called as minority injection. These extra
minority carrier diffuse away from the connection and recombine with majority carriers.

In LED, every injected electron proceeds part in a radiative recombination and hence gives
rise to an emitted photon. Under inverse bias no carrier injection takes place and therefore no
photon is emitted. For direct changeover from conduction band to valence band the emission
wavelength.

In practice, every electron does not take part in radiative recombination and hence, the
efficiency of the device may be described in terms of the quantum efficiency which is
defined as the rate of emission of photons divided by the rate of supply of electrons. The
number of radiative recombination, that take place, is usually proportional to the carrier
injection rate and hence to the total current flowing.

LED Materials:

37 | P a g e
One of the first materials used for LED is GaAs. This is a direct band gap material, i.e., it
exhibits very high probability of direct transition of electron from conduction band to valence
band. GaAs has E= 1.44 eV. This works in the infrared region.
GaP and GaAsP are higher band gap materials. Gallium phosphide is an indirect band gap
semiconductor and has poor efficiency because band to band transitions are not normally
observed.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide is a tertiary alloy. This material has a special feature in that it
changes from being direct band gap material.
Blue LEDs are of recent origin. The wide band gap materials such as GaN are one of the
most promising LEDs for blue and green emission. Infrared LEDs are suitable for optical
coupler applications.
ADVANTAGES OF LEDs:

1. Short operating voltage, power and current consumption creates Leds

compatible with electronic drive circuits. This also sorts easier interfacing as
associated to filament incandescent and electric discharge lamps.
2. The rugged, sealed packages industrialized for LEDs exhibit high resistance to
mechanical shock & vibration and permit LEDs to be used in severe
environmental conditions where additional light sources would fail.
3. LED fabrication from solid state materials confirms a longer operating
lifetime, thereby refining overall reliability and lowering maintenance costs of
the apparatus in which they are installed.
4. The variety of available LED colours from orange to red, green, and yellow
provides the designer with added adaptability.
5. LEDs have short inherent noise levels and also high immunity to external
noises.
6. Circuit reaction of LEDs is fast & stable, without surge currents or the prior
warm up, period essential by filament light sources.
7. LEDs display linearity of radiant power output with forward current over a
good range.

LEDs have certain limitations such as:

38 | P a g e
 1. Temperature dependence of radiant output power and wave
length.
2. Sensitivity to damages by over voltage or over current.
3. Theoretical overall efficiency is not achieved except in special
cooled or pulsed conditions.

DIODE

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

A P - N junctions is identified as a semiconductor or a crystal diode. A crystal diode has two

terminal when it is linked in a circuit one thing is decide is weather a diode is forward or
reversed biased. There is a easy law to ascertain it. If the exterior circuit is trying to push the
conventional current in the path of error, the diode is forward biased. One the other hand if
the conventional current is exasperating to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed
biased.

The arrowhead of diode symbol is - ve with respect to bar , this diode is the reverse bias.
following method are available for diode.

1.Some factories actually point the symbol on the body of the diode ex By 127 by 114 crystal
diode manufacture by beb.

Discussion and conclusions

39 | P a g e
Automatic elevators provides lower building cost per staircase slot, as they naturally require
less building volume and less ground area than a conservative ability with the same aptitude.

. Other costs are usually lower, A elevator offer greatest possible flexibility for the realization
of optimum automatic secured solution. A single lift serves 6 - 12 persons spaces per level
taking up a minimum of space. Time-saving vertical and horizontal travels take place
simultaneously ensuring fast movement and retrieval times.

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