PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is a principle, or the theoretical basis of a particular field of knowledge.

Theories behind this particular knowledge, example, Doctor of Philosophy in Educational
Management means studying the theories of Educational management.
Philo (Love) + Sophia (Wisdom) – Pythagoras coined the word philosopher, he was
known for being wise and the king of Athens summoned Pythagoras to his court, they met face-
to-face. Pythagoras told the king that he is not wise to put a halt to the king’s admiration of his
so-called wit, “No, My Lord, I am not wise. My Lord, I am merely a lover of wisdom.” People
who walked the path of wisdom called themselves then lover of wisdom instead of wise men.
The wisest man alive, Socrates, he was the father of Socratic Method. The Oracle of
Delphi was once asked, who is the wisest man alive? The oracle answered: Socrates is the wisest
man alive, because he is the only person who claims that he knows nothing. Why does claiming
knowing nothing make you the wisest man alive?
Bertrand Russell – “The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are
always so certain of themselves and wise people so full of doubts.” The wiser you become, the
more you become aware of the things you don’t know, the more you become aware of the extent
of your ignorance, the more you become aware that you are smaller than the bigger picture.
The harder it is for you to define what philosophy is by the end of this course,
congratulate yourself for becoming more aware of your ignorance.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Karl Jaspers – Philosophy is a study wherein every question leads to more questions, and
where the question is more important that the answer. [THE QUESTION IS THE LIFEBLOOD
OF PHILOSOPHY, SO WHEN PEOPLE STOP ASKING QUESTIONS, THA TI STHE END
OF PHILOSOPHY.]
Martin Heidegger - Letter on Humanism
Perennial Question – no specific answers, no definite answers
Universal – philosophy [questions asked automatically address the whole of humanity]
Particular – Science [questions are answered in a particular manner]
Universal questions branch to other branches of philosophy [philosophical question].
METAPHYSICS
- What is real? What is the essence of things?
- META – Beyond/After + Physics – Study of Beings
- The essence of things or the study of being qua being
Problem: God is an Omnicient, Omnipotent, Omnipresent being. Therfore, God is not limited by
space and tiem, God exists everywhere all at once. Prefect God =/= Good God, Why?
Omnicient – God sees everything
Omnipotent – God can do anything / potential
Problem: If God can do anything, then he can make a stone that he cannot carry. In this
case, then there is something God cannot do now (carry the stone he made). Basically saying that
the idea of perfection is just a mental construct and does not apply to physical reality.
Omnipresent – God is not limited by space and time
Problem: Then God is not a good God. If there is a perfect being, and that being is called
God, then God cannot be a good God.
If God is ultimately powerful, then he cannot be. If God is ultimately good then he cannot
be ultimately powerful.
We were taught from the beginning that God is good God and we are given free
will. Human beings have free will, because we have free will, everything we do is a product
of our choice. We always have a choice that’s why in the end, we will be judged by our
choices and the acts that we do while we are alive.
Since God is not limited by space and time, he lives in the future, and therefore
knows every choice you have, so is your decision or your choice predetermined or still a
product of your free will to choose? The point is, if there is a perfect being, and that perfect
being is God, then we cannot be free, then it negates that God is a good God, but the
problem there is, God must be perfect for God to be God because if God is not perfect, then
he is not God.
EPISTEMOLOGY
- What is knowledge? Is knowledge possible?
Modern Epistemology
- Two factions
- Rationalists : knowledge is innate. It is foundational and it comes in the form of innate
principles or ideas
Rene Descartes – known as Father of Rationalism but Plato is the real father
Spinoza
Leibniz
PLATO’S WORLD OF FORMS AND THE WORLD OF MATTER
World of Matter – reality where we exist; mere replica of world of forms
World of Forms – real reality; world of ideas
Plato: The human soul comes from the world of forms, before the child is form, the soul
passes through a sea of forgetfulness and the child is born. However, as the child grows,
he learns but according to Plato, he is not learning something new, he is merely
remembering what he knows from the world of forms, what the soul knows from the
 world of forms. Knowledge is not a process of learning new information, it’s a process
of remembrance or recollection.
FOR SOMETHING TO BE TRUE, IT MUST CORRESPOND WITH THE
WORLD OF FORMS.

- Empiricists: all knowledge is derived from sense experience

John Locke
John Locke: The human mind at birth is like a tabula rasa, or a blank slate of paper.
When the child begins to experience the world, it becomes knowledge.
Berkeley
David Hume
EMPIRICISM – mother of scientific method

Problem
Descartes (Father of Modern Philosophy) – Meditations on First Philosophy
“corgito ergo sum”
“i think, therefore, i am”

Descartes: WE cannot trust our senses. The scientific method is a presumption that we
can trust our senses. Example: When you’re dreaming. The only way to confirm that you
are dreaming is to wake up. But for that presumption that you are awake, it should be
clear that you are awake so explain if you REALLY are awake. So are you awake?
Because when you are dreaming, everything seems to be in a waking, but now that you
are awake and not dreaming, what is your basis for saying that you are awake? We
cannot trust our senses, because even in a dream, everything seems so real.

Brain in the vat – this is a common epistemological suggestion as to the validity of our
experience
Matrix
The Problem as suggested in the Matrix
Fiction. Epistemology branch – Philosophy of Mind What is the human mind?

COGITO ERGO SUM

“I think, therefore, I am”
Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy discusses his method of creating a
foundation for all knowledge, a kind of foundation that does not require any justification.
Can also be seen as a reaction towards the empirical stance on the concept of
knowledge (a by-product of the senses)
Descartes: The modern era came into being because of the advancement of science
(natural science) but the thing is, if we use our sense to verify whether something is real
or not, there is a very big problem. (example: dreaming) f you’re awake, how can you
conclude that you are not dreaming? Even our sense can delude us, because in a dream,
 your senses tell you something that seems real. Your senses cannot be your primary basis
for justifying whether something is real or not.
I need to take out anything that can be doubted. I will out everything in the test of
doubt. So when you doubt your senses, you doubt your experiences, then you doubt your
memory. Now when you doubt your memory, the concept of I (self) disappears (I =
comprises of all your memories). So what remains that can’t be doubted? There is
someone who is doubting. And because it is doubting, it is thinking. Doubting is a
process of thinking, and because it thinks, it exists. I think, therefore, I am.

RATIONALISM VS EMPIRICISM
RATIONALISM
- Knowledge is innate, independent of sensory experience
- Universal and innate principles such as the concept of logic and mathematics
- 1=1 = 2 is not learned by experience. It is merely “confirmed” by the mind when taught
to it.
EMPIRICISM
- Knowledge is a by-product of experience
- There is no such thing as innate and universal principles
- John Locke: Tabula Rasa
- 1+1=2 is learned and confirmed by experience in the physical world
IMMANUEL KANT: THE CRITIQUE OF PURE REASON
Immanuel Kant’s magnum opus, “The Critique of Pure Reason,” discussed (among others) his
solution to the Rationalist – Empiricist problem
A Priori – the framework of the mind (space and mind)
A posteriori – the influx of your experience as registered by your senses
Real Knowledge: SYNTHETIC A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE
How the tree appears to you and how your mind sees the true = Synthetic a priori knowledge
Phenomenon – the totality of all synthetic a priori knowledge
Noumenon / Noumena – the world “in itself” (independent of your senses, wht the world really
is)
Knowledge is possible. It is not knowing something, it happens to you.
LOGIC
- Tries to answer the question: “what is correct thinking?”
- Also known as the science of art of correct thinking
The correlation between science and art
Art – music, cooking, martial arts
Science – notes, chords, etc,
- The ingredients, measurement, etc
- The exercises, “katas” routines that you need to master in the particular discipline
The art is the source, and it creates science in order for it a structure, and then, when the form
becomes insufficient, it creates a new form, (goes back to art)
LOGIC AS… (Logic – universal language, everyone adheres to reason)
Science – the principles and rules that leads you to identify fallacies and valid reasoning
Art – the application of reasoning in debates and analyzing text, articles
THE LOGOS – literally, word, something that was there from the beginning, everything was
created by the logos and will return to the logos
Plato – St. Augustine of Hippo
Aristotle – St. Thomas Aquinas
THE LOGOS IS GOD, THEN WE ONLY HAVE ONE GOD
The word and the word was with God, and the word become flesh and become us = Jesus is
the logos
ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE CHILD – THE MIND AND THE LOGOS
- The relationship of logos and the mind
- Abt trying to fit the unlimited logos to the limited mind
- “We cannot comprehend the logos, but because of it, we are able to reason”
PHILOSOPHY AS THE MOTHER OF ALL SCIENCES
According to Aristotle, sequence – philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology
Philosophy – mother of all sciences because it is the only study that investigates into the
question of “being” (metaphysics)
Logic is the mouthpiece (language) of metaphysics, and logic is the foundation of all the
sciences
ETHICS
- Greek word “Ethikos” = arising from habit
- Moral philosophy
- Tries to answer the question: “how must a life be lived?”
- Questions of morality – what is right and wrong in a particular situation, and/or what
is good or bad

Regina vs. Dudley and Stephens

JURISPRUDENCE – every case is part of the land, succeeding cases with the same
circumstances are decided accordingly with its predecessors
Dudley and Stephens – 6 mons then set free
But after they were set free, a law was passed, known as the Law Against Cannibalism
Example: First Hijackers of Philippine Airlines were not convicted since there was no
law against hijacking
REGINA VS. DUDLEY AND STEPHENS
ETHICS
Natural Law (St. Thomas Aquinas)
There are acts which in themselves are inherently evil/good by virtue of the nature of
the act itself, independent of the circumstances and the motivation/purpose for doing
the act
Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills)
GHGN – the Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number of People
Is it good because it was commanded by God? (Means there is no such thing as evil or
good, so there is a will of God, if God wills it then it is good, if He doesn’t, then it is evil)
Did God command it because it was good? (there is such a thing good, and God knows
what is right and wrong, good and evil, follow what is good = God is the subj of good
and evil, so God isn’t really the highest being since he cannot change what is good and
evil)
CONCEPT OF UTILITARIANISM – the concept of the good arise from certain acts in
which in themselves produce happiness for the greatest number of people and if it does,
it becomes good, and if it doesn’t, then it is not good because it does not bring forth
greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
Applying Utilitarianism to the case. Weakness of the Utilitarianism – we can sacrifice
one for the good of the many,,,

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

- Is not a branch of Philosophy, but an exploration on the different attempts to
answer the question: “What is a human being?”, formerly known as “Philosophy
of Man” and “Anthropological Philosophy”
Three Stages in the History of Philosophy:
1. Cosmo centric Age (ancient period)
 The key to understanding the meaning of life and what is a human being
lies in understanding the human being’s relation to the cosmos (universe)
People are concerned with finding the “Arche” or the starting point
Thales (water), Anaximander (the apeiron (boundless)), Phythagoreans
(numbers), Atomists (atom)
2. Theocentric Age (middle ages/ medieval )
“THEOS” – God
Understanding the human being’s relationship with God is the key to
understanding ourselves and the meaning of our existence
St. Augustine of Hippo – City of God
St. Thomas Aquinas – Summa Theologica
3. Anthropocentric Age (modern)
Anthropos – “Human”
Understanding the human being itself is the key to understanding the
meaning of life
Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things”

PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION (THE SOCRATIC LEGACY)

How and why did Socrates die?
“The unexamined life is not worth living”
Socrates & Allegory
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

“See human beings as though they were in an underground cave-like dwelling

with its entrance, a long one, open to the light across the whole width of the
cave.  They are in it from childhood with their legs and necks in bonds so that
they are fixed, seeing only in front of them, unable because of the bond to turn
their head all the way around.”
Prisoners lived in a cave, so basically, it’s just pure darkness enveloping their
surroundings. They are in shackles and immobile, they cannot turn their heads
around.
- There’s a fire behind them that is the source of light, and puppeteers who are
also behind them and play with objects and the light from the fire casts a shadow
to the wall which is the only thing that the prisoners can see
- And since they have no experience of the thing that they just saw, they thought it
to be real. For example, if the people from behind them play with a stick, they
would interpret it as a “stick” rather than a shadow.
- So, when one prisoner was freed, he looked behind him and realized that
everything that were seeing from the very start were not real. He was forced
outside the cave, hurting his eyes as being accustomed to the sunlight takes a
while
- He sees the world that were kept hidden from them, from the prisoners who were
in shackles and hidden from the truth of the world
- He comes back down and blinds himself with the darkness as he was used to
seeing the light
- And the remaining chained prisoners would see this blindness and believed that
they would be harmed if they decided to leave the cave

- Basically, it tells us that we see isn’t always real

- What we call things, what we call as knowledge, what we know, isn’t always
gonna equate to what we perceive it as

- There’s a correlation between the truth and the lie, and how and what people
think or perceive it as

- It also tells us that basic human knowledge or our perception of things isn’t
always the reality of things

- Deriving an example from Plato’s allegory, the prisoners perceived the shadows
to be real because it is the only thing that they can see, and they believed that
they already mastered nature but when one prisoner was freed and witnessed
that there was more reality to the world than what they saw from underneath, he
goes back down in an attempt to free the other prisoners but they do not believe
him because they still conform that what they perceive as true is always the truth
because they haven’t experience more than it

- It tells us that humans are biased beings, meaning we tend to believe our own
meanings and perception of things (coming from different backgrounds, culture,
experiences, circumstances), we are molded to be different hence, two people
may have the same “knowledge” about a certain thing but derive different
meaning from it, just like the example of the prisoners

- Basically tells us that the reality that we believe in isn’t always the reality of other
people

- This allegory has been used as a template for a lot of creative to share the
concept and the philosophical meaning of it

- It is basically ponders to the question, what is reality? Or is your reality real?

- The best way to think that Plato’s allegory is applicable to world is to think that
this people in shackles in the cave are the majority of the people in the world.
 Many of us believe a different reality, some expanding their beliefs and some
staying in the comfort of their reality. The freed man basically widened his
perception while those who remained prisoned were afraid that they become
blind so they chose to stick with their reality and ignore growth.

- If we were to think that the cave serves as the comfort zone for majority of the
people, the freed prisoner becoming the one percent of the people who choose
to expand their perception of the world rather than belonging to the 99 who
choose to remain isolated from the more realities of the world, represented by the
remaining prisoners of the cave, the society and life itself starts to make more
sense.

- I think the main takeaway or lesson from this allegory is always doubt, always
question if your reality is real, and choose to expand your perception, step out of
your comfort zone and understand the world in a much more mature view instead
of blending the crowd of scared people, and I think it is more important to
understand that leaving the cave is different from staying outside the cave

- This allegory represents the difference between the 1% if people who choose to
face the world with a better grasp of their own reality than the 99%

SOCRATES
- He was the exemplary for Western philosophy, the founder of the Socratic
Method – basically where people continue to ponder on question after question
to reach their own understanding of the concept
- Had a penchant for questioning literally everything and everyone
- He was the wisest man alive, according to the Oracle of Delphi, since he is the
only man who claims to know nothing
- Most of the knowledge the modern world knows about him did not come from any
of his works, in fact he did not write any book or anything. Everything we know of
him is from the works of his pupil, Plato.
- He chose to go out with bulging eyes, short stature and unwashed, barefoot
which does not conform to the standards of Athenian beauty
- He was charged with impiety with the Athenian gods and by corrupting the youth
- He questioned the Athenian religion
- He was charged for corrupting the youth with all his beliefs, asking them to
question the established constitution of politics and elections, telling us that using
the ballot box wasn’t the right way to put people on position in the Athenian
government, telling us that there is difference between intellectual democracy
and democracy by birthright
 - For example, if you were to sail across the sea, who would you choose to let the
ship sail. Of course you would choose the sailor, or the experienced one. So, in
the context of politics, why do we let old people sit on position to rule the
country? He was basically telling us the a good support of educational system
about voting and politics would help us cultivate more educated voters to thrive
for intellectual democracy, instead of giving the vote for everyone. But this
doesn’t mean that the number of voters should be decreased accordingly, but
just implies the need to strengthen the knowledge of people, especially the youth
for more political freedom and power
- He was sentenced to hemlock poisoning, which he accepted very calmly
- Though he didn’t have any works, his words and philosophy directly influenced
the shape of modern philosophy today and has a greatly impacted the lives of
many in his time and of our time
- The unexamined life is not worth living
- All our information about him is second-hand and most of it vigorously disputed, but
his trial and death at the hands of the Athenian democracy is nevertheless the
founding myth of the academic discipline of philosophy, and his influence has been
felt far beyond philosophy itself, and in every age. Because his life is widely
considered paradigmatic not only for the philosophic life but, more generally, for
how anyone ought to live, Socrates has been encumbered with the adulation and
emulation normally reserved for religious figures – strange for someone who tried so
hard to make others do their own thinking and for someone convicted and executed
on the charge of irreverence toward the gods. Certainly he was impressive, so
impressive that many others were moved to write about him, all of whom found him
strange by the conventions of fifth-century Athens: in his appearance, personality,
and behavior, as well as in his views and methods.

RELATION OF SOCRATES AND THE ALLEGORY

- For me, there is a great relation between Socrates’ death as with the experience
of the freed prisoner
- First is that they have chosen a life that exemplifies widening of our own realities,
questioning and doubting one’s own perception of what is real, as it is what the
case for the freed prisoner and as for Socrates, it was to be questioning of
everything and everyone, which included the societal standards during his time
- If we were to talk about the demise of the freed prisoner, it would be his attempt
to enforce the reality he saw to the other prisoners who now have feared the
reality of the outside world because of his blindness, and believing that the
shadows that they see is the absolute reality of all things and that they have
actually mastered reality from the shadows alone. For Socrates’ death, he was
executed for showing irreverence towards the Athenian gods and religion and
 corrupting the minds of the young. He accepted his demise quite calmly, drinking
a poison hemlock. He chose to die than flee because, according to Plato, to
escape his fate and live in exile would mean the violation of his own principles,
thus, disallowing him to retain his full dignity, so he chose to embrace his own
demise, his death serving as final lesson to his students, drinking the poisonous
hemlock plant.
THE SOCRATIC LEGACY
- Know thyself
- The unexamined life is not worth lving
- The socratic method
- The value of philosophical reflection – from dogmatism to an examined life
SOPHISTS AND PHILOSOPHERS
SOPHISTS
- Pilosopo
- Poor reasoning “fallacious reasoning”
- Making use of rhetoric to win an argument at any cost
- Sells education for a price
PHILOSOPHER
- Social critic
- Logical reasoning
- A social “gadfly”
WHAT IS TRUTH?
Doxa
- Opinion or belief
Episteme
- Knowledge

WHO AM I?
1. Human being relationship with him or herself
2. Human being relationship with the environment
3. Human being relationship with the society
4. Human being as being towards death
Who am I?
- What am i? what is a human being?
 - One of the persisting questions in the history of Philosophy
- Answering the question cannot be as simple as stating one’s name, address, and
other info about oneself
- Man is a being that is nearest and farthest from the obvious
Who is this I that is investigating this I?
The Western iDea of the composition of the Human person
1. Dualism _ Platonic/Augustinian tradition = the “I” is the soul, who happen to be
encapsulated in a material body
2. Monism – Aristotelian/Thomistic tradition – the I exists because of the merging of
matter and form or body and soul
3. Materialism – human existence. When I die, I simply disintegrate back into nature
GABRIEL MARCEL – Primary and Secondary Reflection: I have a body towards I am
my body. (I am an I who has a body – I am a body)
ORIENTAL CONCEPT OF THE SELF (BUDDHIST NOTION)
- Buddhism – started as philosophy
- Buddha was born as prince, he lived a different life, Hindu religion. King and Queen
wanted to have a child. The queen dreamt of an elephant chuchu, invited a wise
teacher to the palace and told the king the queen will get pregnant with a very old
soul, a soul that hs gone with many lifetimes, a soul that is near to enlightenment…
will be born as a male and has only 2 outcomes 1. Will reach enlightenment and
become Buddha or 2. Become a great king greater than the current king.
THE FIVE SKHANDAS (AGGREGATES)
1. Form – Rupa
2. Feeling/Sensation (Vedana)
3. Perception (Samjna)
4. Mental Formations (Sankhara)
5. Consciousness (Vijnana)
The combination of five constitutes the illusion of the “self” or the “I”
KARMA AND SAMSARA
Once the illusion of the self sets in, the individual becomes separate and learns about
self love.
Because of this, the law of Karma begins to take place and the soul gets trapped in
samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth.) Hence, the beginning of suffering (dukha).
THE DHARMA
The goal of life is to escape samsara and end dukha (suffering).
The Buddha left the dharma through his touchings (sutras), as guide in how to
eventually destroy the five skhandas and escape from the law of karma and the cycle of
birth and rebirth.
NIRVANA
- The destruction of the 5 skhandas leads to complete enlightenment and freedom
called nirvana. One who has attained Nirvana is called the Buddha.

HOMO SOCIUS
Homo – human
Socius – society
Human beings encounter with society.
ARISTOTLE
- Aristotle considers the human being as a political animal
- Hence, his/her existence is always tied to the state
- Aristotle presented three argument for this claim
THREE ARGUMENTS OF ARISTOTLE
1. Political society is the completion of the natural development of human
communities. Men and women have both the natural desire to propagate their
species for they have a natural desire to leave behind an image of themselves.
2. Only humans have the capacity for speech (the capability of speech is the
capability to think). The state provides the stability for human beings to nurture
and develop this aspect of themselves. (We build a state in order for us to
become human.)
3. Political society comes before the individual. The state by nature is prior to the
family and individual.
PLATO’S IDEA OF A JUST SOCIETY
- According to Plato, understanding the human soul is the key to building a just
society.
- The human soul is composed to three parts; the rational, the appetitive, and the
spirited.
APPETITIVE – responsible for the person’s need for nourishment and
reproduction
SPIRITED – responsible for the person’s emotions, passions and will
power
RATIONAL – responsible for the person’s thinking, supposed to govern
the other two
 THE JUST SOCIETY
- Plato recognizes that individuals are different when ti comes to the proportion
between the three aspects of the soul
- A just society differentiates individual function based on their dominant aspect
- This is determined through education
- All children will be taken in the custody of the state from birth
- For the first ten years-play and sport
- Next five years- music education
- Next five years – religious education
- After twenty years – there will be a grand elimnination. Those who pass will
continue studying for ten years. Those who fail will be part of the working class
- After ten years-another grand eliminatin – those who will pass will be given five
more years to study philosophy. Those who will fail will be part of the soldiers,
executives aides, and auxiliaries
- Those who reach fifty years of education in philosophy and other subject will be
deemed as Philosopher kings, only they shall be allowed to rule.
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORISTS
- The hypothetical argument in which people surrender their natural rights to the
sovereign culture in return for their protection. It is a concept employed by Hobbes,
Locke, and Roussseau to justify the establishment of the political society.
THOMAS HOBBES
- An English philosopher known for his book, Leviathan, which is a defense of a state
of absolute power
- DEFENSE OF TOTALITARIANISM
- Human being by nature are equal. However, we tend to desire the same things.
This causes competition, distrust and pursuit of glory. Everyone is in a constant
state of war with one another.
- Humans are wolves among one another.
- Only through the human being’s surrender to the authority of the state can they be
able to experience their natural rights
JOHN LOCKE
- A British Philosopher who is famous for his works in epistemology, philo of mind,
and political philosophy. He is also known for his defense of democracy
- DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACY
- Democracy is the best form of governance
- Three things lacking in the state of nature:
- 1. No written law
- 2. There is no impartial judge who is empowered to decide controversies
- There is no common power to execute the articles of natural law
- The three branches of govt: legislative (people), judicial, executive
 - We designate our power to govt so it can create a safe state for its citizen
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
- A French political philosopher known for his book (among others), The Social
Contract, which was said to have triggered the French revolution
- The general will
- Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains
- Humans by nature are ape-like, they are harmless and compassionate
- The problem started through the introduction (or development) of the concept of
private property
- Humans have to surrender their freedoms to the authority of the state in order to be
free
KARL MARX
- A german philosopher and revolutionary, considered as the father of communism
- THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETIES
- According to Marx, history of societies undergo thorugh stages:
- Pre-historic, pre-capitalist, and communist
TOWARDS A UTOPIAN SOCIETY
The revolution will lead into the establishment of a socialist society, which is a
precursor for the communist state (a classless society), which Marx deems as the
Utopia, or an ideal society.
Going back to Rousseau, this is the only way for us to go back to our original
nature.

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