COMPILATION OF LECTURE NOTES FOR PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

M1. Lecture Notes: Nature of Language

Definition of Language
The world is shrinking rapidly today. Advances in information technology, scientific
knowledge and applications have transformed a sprawling earth into a global village.
People of various cultures and nationalities now meet, interact, trade, and socialize with
ease on a daily basis. Making this possible is the use of a common language. What is
Language? Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating
ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921, as
cited in Madrunio & Martin, 2018). It is a system of communication by sound, operating
through the organs of speech, among members of a given community, and using vocal
symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meaning (Pei, 1966, as cited in Madrunio &
Martin, 2018).
Language is the ability to produce and comprehend both spoken and written (and
in the case of sign language, signed) words. Understanding how language works means
reaching across many branches of psychology—everything from basic neurological
functioning to high-level cognitive processing.
Language shapes our social interactions and brings order to our lives. Complex
language is one of the defining factors that make us human. Linguists agree that a language
can only be called a language, if it has a system of rules (also known as grammar), a sound
system (phonology) and a vocabulary (lexicon). These are the requirements for
identifying a means of communication as a language, therefore it is an exclusively human
condition. Other species definitely do communicate through movements and sounds, but
they are definitely not in the same class as humans.
When people use language, they can understand each other because they belong to
the same speech community. They can interact to each other because in their speech
community, people share the same set of rules in the language system. While growing up,
people acquire the languages used by those in the community. This is the process
of language acquisition, which is the process of building the ability to understand a
language, using it to communicate with others.
The language acquired growing up is known as first language (also called
as mother tongue or native language). A first language is the language a person has learned
from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the
basis for sociolinguistic identity. In some countries, the terms native language or mother
tongue refer to the language of one's ethnic group rather than one's first language.
Sometimes, there can be more than one mother tongue, those children are usually
called bilingual. By contrast, a second language is a language that a person learns in
addition to his or her first language. It may be learned in a formal or informal way, such as
at school or in a family, and this active process is called language learning. People learn
languages as they use them to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and experiences and
 establish relationships with family members and friends. For example, a student may come
to school speaking more than one language, or learn another language in school. In their
early years, children develop language informally. Language development is continuous
and recursive. Students enhance their language learning by using what they know in new
and more complex contexts.
Finally, language is a tool that enables people to communicate, express needs and
wants, issue directives, create and produce through our own tongue.

M1. Lecture Notes: All about Communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

The term communication comes from the Latin word “communicare” – which
means to share something in common, to unite, to join, or to have things in common. It is
a process by which people send messages or exchange ideas or thoughts with one another
in a verbal or non-verbal manner.

Speech Communication is a process of transmitting information, thought or feeling

from one person to another through spoken words. Non-verbal Communication is receiving
and transmitting information, thought or feeling without the use of words.Communication
skills are important to everyone-they are how we give and receive information and convey
our ideas and opinions with those around us.

Communication comes in many forms:

-verbal (sounds, language, and tone of voice)
-aural (listening and hearing)
-non-verbal (facial expressions, body language, and posture)
-written (journals, emails, blogs, and text messages)
-visual (signs, symbols, and pictures)

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message)
between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to
exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for
some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.
Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called
the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information—a command,
request, or idea —that he or she wants to share with others. In order for that message to be
received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood and
then transmit it.
Receiver
The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter.
In order to comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to
receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it.
Message
The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the
receiver. It is relayed between the parties. Put all three together and you have the
communication process as its most basic.
Medium
Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is
transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell
phones.
Feedback
The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been
successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the
sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal
response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.
Encoding
It is the process of turning thoughts into communication. The encoder uses
‘medium’ to send the message — a phone call, email, text message, face-to-face meeting,
or other communication tool. The level of conscious thought that goes into encoding
messages may vary. The encoder should also take into account any ‘noise’ that might
interfere with his or her message, such as other messages, distractions, or influences.
Decoding
It is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may
realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m
hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he or
she decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts to make meaning.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is a connection between people that allows for the exchange
of thoughts, feelings, and ideas, and leads to mutual understanding. This exchange is
evidenced when a speaker sends a message to which a listener responds. It seems simple,
but it isn’t. People tend to take the communication process for granted. We generally figure
that the communication between two or more people is no big deal. It just works. However,
the reality is very different—the process of communication is actually impressively
complex.
It is important that you learn the different principles which serve as guides in the
practice and continuous improvement of your communication skills.

1. Communication is transactional - It is a two-way process which involves an

exchange of thoughts and ideas. Every message consists of content and feeling. The
content is what the message is about based on the words used. The feeling connected
to the content is expressed through nonverbal cues—body language/gestures, facial
expression, tone of voice/inflection, and voice volume.
2. Communication is inevitable- It is impossible to not communicate. All actions—both
intentional and unintentional—communicate certain messages. For example,
deliberately ignoring someone is not “not communicating.” Quite the contrary (as you
know if you’ve been on the receiving end), this action sends a strong message. Another
is, when the moment you wake up, you already start communicating by merely thinking
of how your day will look like.
3. Communication is goal-oriented- When you communicate, you have goals in mind.
You do not just say something or write a message on a piece of paper for no reason at
all. To persuade; to entertain; to inform; to express one’s feeling, ideas, or emotions;
to build and maintain relationships; and to influence others are some of the purposes
of communication.
4. Communication has various levels- The various levels of communication are:
(1)Intrapersonal Communication- It is the knowledge of and communication with
oneself (introspection-mental/symbolic processing of information without the benefit
of getting the opinion of others) ; (2) Interpersonal Communication- It is the interaction
(speaking and listening/switching of roles) between two people or relatively small
group. It determines our relationships with others and who we are; (3)Extended
Communication- It involves the use of electronic media. The description of extended
communication may be expanded as to include television, audio, or phone
conferencing; video-conferencing; Skype calls; other technological means. Language
used may be formal or informal; and (4) Organizational Communication- A system of
communication should be put in place. A set of rules or standards for communication
protocol should be made clear so that interaction patterns are established.

There are two types of organizational structure:

1. Formal Structure- It allows the communication to take place via

designated channels of message flow between positions in the
organization. The Four (4) approaches are: (1) downward
communication- is the type that flows from upper to lower position
(e.g. president to manager or supervisor and a manager to an
ordinary staff) ; (2) upward communication – is the type that flows
from lower to upper position (e.g. subordinates to superior
and students to teacher; (3) horizontal communication- is lateral in
approach as it takes place among people belonging to the same level
 but coming from different departments; and (4) crosswise
communication- is diagonal in nature as employees from different
units or departments working at various levels communicate to each
other.
2. Informal Structure- It comes from unofficial channels of message
flow. Also known as 'grapevine,' messages coming from different
levels of organization are transmitted. This occurs due to
dissatisfaction of some employees accompanied by uncertainty,
such as superiors playing favorites and unfavorable or unacceptable
company rules and regulations.

5. Communication is complex- You may perceive communication as simply sending a text

message, talking over the phone, or using hand gestures. However, communication is so
complex that it entails a lot of processes which can occur simultaneously or
successively.

6. Communication can be learned- Despite the complexity of communication, it is a skill

which can be learned. You can incorporate the seven Cs of communication to ensure
you’re communicating in the most clear and effective way possible.
7. Communication is relational- In any communication setting, aside from sharing meaning,
the process how meaning is created also echoes two vital aspects of relationships of the
communicators: immediacy and control. Immediacy is the degree of liking or
attractiveness in a relationship and control, on the other hand, is the degree which one
participant shows dominance or power.
8. Communication is guided by culture- Culture maybe defined as system of knowledge
shared by a relatively large group of people. The system includes shared beliefs, values,
symbols and behaviors. How messages are created and processed is greatly influenced by
the cultural background of communicators.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION
Communication is ethical when it is upfront, honest and cooperative. Communication that
is intended to conceal the truth or harm another person cannot be described as ethical. While
ethics are not the same as morals, there is a strong relationship between the two: morals are
ideas of what is right and wrong, while ethics are behavioral principles influenced by moral
beliefs. The ethics of communication are therefore strongly influenced by moral principles.
Below are principles associated with the 7Cs and ethical communication. Some of which are
the following (Madnelbaum, 2019, ):

1. Be Honest and Truthful. Being honest means communicating what is known to be true
– no more, no less. Ethical communication is based on accurate, factual information – in
other words, do not lie whether the message is directed downward to employees, upward
to management, laterally to other peers and departments, or externally. Honesty should
 also prevail when communicating goals, expectations, decisions, feedback, or judgments
to employees.
2. Refrain from Doing Harm. Whether communicating on a corporate or an individual
level, the communication should make every effort to cause no harm. For instance,
tobacco companies are required to communicate that the practice of consuming their
products may lead to physical conditions like emphysema, lung cancer and other
illnesses. A company who is aware of a danger and does not communicate it would be
breaking this rule of ethical communication.
3. Fairness to all Stakeholders. When communicating internally or externally, the
organization should attempt to be fair to its employees, customers, and community. If a
manager were to exert inappropriate control over employees, stockholders or customers,
this would be a violation of this standard. Price fixing, bribery, and insider training are
examples of behaviors and communications that are exerting unfairness to stakeholders.
4. Be an Active Listener and Strive to Understand. Hearing and listening are two
different things. In order for ethical communication to be effective, the recipient of the
message should know that he (as the listener) and the speaker both have equal
responsibilities in the communication process. The listener should not select the message
that he wants to listen to or to hear only parts of the message. The recipient may ask
questions for clarification to fully understand the message. While it is important to be a
proactive listener, it is important for listeners to also strive to fully understand what is
being said before responding. While asking for clarification or confirmation of a point is
fine, many times questions that listeners pose have already been answered. Listeners
should think about what has been said before constructing a reply. Reading “in between
the lines” is also an important skill that allows for understanding what isn’t said or
implied.
5. Avoid a Negative Tone. Tone is critical to communication. There are people who are
particular to paralanguage or tone of the voice. Ethical communication assumes that the
speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite, professional, and tactful. The ethical
communicator knows that it is not only important what you say, but how you say it. One’s
voice is always picked up by the receiver, and can alter how the message is received
and/or understood that can lead to unnecessary confrontations that decrease business
productivity. Essentially, keeping the tone positive or neutral is best. It is possible to be
completely honest and open with one’s thoughts and feelings while still remaining polite
and respectful.
6. Do Not Interrupt Others. Allowing others to speak is important for civil, effective
working environment. Interrupting others results in misunderstandings, conflicts and
problems that hinder workforce and corporate progress. Interrupting others is not only
disrespectful and unethical but does not allow listeners to fully understand the message
that results in wrong assumptions and actions.
7. Refrain from Speaking Judgmentally and Strive to Understand. While it is important
to be a proactive listener, it is important for listeners to also strive to fully understand
what is being said before responding. While asking for clarification or confirmation of a
point is fine, many times questions that listeners pose have already been answered.
Listeners should think about what has been said before constructing a reply. Reading “in
between the lines” is also an important skill that allows for understanding what isn’t said,
but was implicitly said or implied. Conflicts usually result from unethical, judgmental,
 accusatory and overly critical comments that become catalysts for communication
breakdowns.
8. Speak from Your Own Experience. Bringing your personal work experience or best
work practices into a dialogue with business listeners is important, providing backup for
your arguments with something more tangible that paints a complete picture for your
audience and helps to prove your points for a better understanding of what is being
discussed; however, manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are
comfortable sharing.
9. Avoid Speaking for Others. Characterizing what others have said without checking your
understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions,
assuming everyone shares them is unethical.
10. Consider Appropriate Communication Channel. You risk losing an audience if you
use a communication channel that is not preferred by your intended receiver. To
effectively communicate with your listeners, use the most preferred communication
channel, whether that be face-to-face, email, conference call, phone call, messenger app,
etc. Also, when presenting data to a business audience, be aware of the preferred method
of presentation for that business, whether it be graphs, slides, PowerPoint presentations,
etc.
11. Consideration for Any Potential Roadblocks. When communicating with another
party, truly ethical communication entails considering any potential factor that may
influence how the recipient understands the information that is being communicated.
These factors or roadblocks maybe: (1) Language Fluency, Language Use and Jargons.
It takes into account the level of fluency as well as language spoken for messages or
information to be fully understood. Use a common language that all involved
communicators understand. Every field or industry has its own jargon. When speaking to
a non-specialist, it is ethical to speak with simple, easy-to-understand words, while
avoiding the use of heavy jargon, resulting in portions of the presentation or
communication being incomprehensible to an audience; (2) Accessibility to Technology.
In this information and digital age, some take accessibility to advanced technology for
granted. For instance, while smartphones are readily available, and translation apps are
abundant, not everyone is able to access such applications or platforms. If a business
wanted to present certain information to an audience while expecting the audience to
translate it into their native language via an application, there may be confusion. Thus,
the ability to access certain technology - and the know-how on how to use certain
applications - may be a roadblock when it comes to ethically communicating to a
particular audience; (3) Knowing One’s Audience: Being an effective communicator
means knowing your audience in order to communicate in the way that he/she will
understand the best. Know the language, profession, and others so that you can adjust
your presentation or communication to audience; and (4) Choosing the Right Place/Time:
Speaking about a particular topic in a business often requires choosing the most pertinent
and appropriate time and place in order for the message to be most effective. This requires
knowing the recipients along with utilizing strategy and planning.
12. Respect Privacy and Confidentiality. Most businesses have code of ethics defining
what is appropriate when it comes to honoring client and employee confidentiality and
privacy. This can have a wide range of implications, including minimizing workplace
gossip and conversations about the private lives of clients and/or personnel. Moreover,
 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10173 also known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012 has been passed
to protect the fundamental human right of privacy, of communication while ensuring free
flow of information to promote innovation and growth. The State recognizes the vital role
of information and communications technology in nation-building and its inherent
obligation to ensure that personal information in information and communications
systems in the government and in the private sector are secured and protected (Republic
of the Philippines, 2012).
13. Accept Responsibility and Accountability. Words do not only build but also destroy a
person or an organization. A core element within the framework of ethical
communication is being responsible and accountable to one’s words and actions whether
it be good or bad. Owning one’s words reinforces the importance of being conscientious
about ethical communication. Sadly, there’s no shortage of examples where organizations
making unethical decisions and creating unethical communications as a result.

M2. Lecture Notes: Communication and Culture

COMMUNICATION CONTEXT

How people from different cultures communicate among themselves, how

communication differs among cultures and how communication is similar among cultures,
are all questions we ask in the study of communication and culture. At its most basic,
communication is the exchange of information and meaning. We are constantly
communicating, in a wide range of different contexts, such as physical, social,
psychological and cultural context. However, to understand the relationship between
culture and communication, we need to understand the place of communication in culture.
Culture as a term is widely used in academic as well as in daily speech and
discourse, referring to different concepts and understandings. While the term originally
stems from ancient Greek and Roman cultures (Latin: cultura) it has various dimensions
today built from the different needs and uses of each field, be it anthropology, sociology
or communication studies. For communication studies, we might start by defining culture
as a set of learned behaviors shared by a group of people through interaction.
It is vital to understand that the relationship between culture and communication,
in all its forms, is tightly interwoven and interlinked. We can see that communication
enables the spread and reiteration of culture. Both communication and the media propagate
the values and schemata of a culture through the repeated interaction and exchange enabled
by the communication process.

1. Communication context- It pertains to the personal, physical, social, psychological,

and cultural circumstances, among others in which communication occurs. It influences
the expectations from the participants, the meaning derived from the exchange of
utterances, and the subsequent actions in the communication.
2. Personal Context- It involves the background of both the sender and the receiver of the
message. It includes their education, religion, socioeconomic status, marital status, and
beliefs that greatly influence what and how they communicate.
3. Social context- It refers to the kind of relationship that exists between the sender and
the receiver. For example, the way you talk to your parents differs from the way you talk
to your friends, younger siblings, and more so with your classmates.
4. Psychological context- It includes the emotional feelings of the participants in the
communication process. It involves their opinions, judgements, prejudices, attitudes,
and perceptions towards each other which can play part in the transmission of messages.
5. Cultural context- It includes sets of beliefs, value systems, guiding principles, and
assumptions based on one’s race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, gender
identity, and religion within which communication happens.

Communication and Culture

A more holistic understanding of communication necessitates knowledge of culture
and appreciating cultural diversities. As defined, culture is a set of unique and shared
beliefs, values, and norms that guide a certain group of people on how to think, behave and
act.
Communication and culture are intertwined. In fact, they are inseparable. Culture
influences what and how you communicate. Culture plays an important role in shaping the
style of communication. Generally, people react to how we speak rather than what we say.
The culture in which individuals are socialized influences the way they communicate, and
the way individuals communicate can change the culture.

Cultural characteristics
People of different cultures have different ways of communicating and evaluating
communication messages. There are two most relevant in giving and receiving constructive
feedback and criticism. These are low context and high context. The concepts of high
context and low context refer to how people communicate in different
cultures. Differences can be derived from the extent to which meaning is transmitted
through actual words used or implied by the context.
High context implies that a lot of unspoken information is implicitly transferred
during communication. People in a high context culture such as Saudi Arabia tend to place
a larger importance on long-term relationships and loyalty and have fewer rules and
structure implemented.
Low context implies that a lot of information is exchanged explicitly through the
message itself and rarely is anything implicit or hidden. People in low context cultures
such as the UK tend to have short-term relationships, follow rules and standards closely
and are generally very task-oriented.
Understanding whether your international colleagues are high context or low context will
help you to adapt your communication style and build stronger relationships with them.
When doing business in a high context culture such as Mexico, Japan or the Middle East,
you might encounter the following:

o Misunderstanding when exchanging information

o Impression of a lack of information
o Large amount of information is provided in a non-verbal manner, e.g., gestures,
pauses, facial expressions
o Emphasis on long term relationships and loyalty
o ‘Unwritten’ rules that are taken for granted but can easily be missed by strangers
o Shorter contracts since less information is required

When doing business in a low context culture such as Germany, Switzerland or the US, on
the other hand, you might find the following:

o All meaning is explicitly provided in the message itself

o Extensive background information and explanations are provided verbally to avoid
misunderstandings
o People tend to have short-term relationships
o People follow rules and standards closely
o Contracts tend to be longer and very detailed

Challenges of Intercultural Communication

1. Using a different language

2. Results of intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding
3. Lack of shared knowledge, beliefs and cultural diversity
4. Having difficulty to arrive at the correct inference or interpretation of meanings

NOTE:

 Misunderstanding in intercultural communication may occur due to wrong

interpretation of the verbal and non-verbal code. Sources of Misunderstanding (Kaur,
2016 as cited in Madrunio & Martin, 2018 )

1. Ambiguity- lack of explicitness on the part of the speaker in the form of

problematic reference and ambiguous semantics in which an utterance is open
to different interpretations
2. Performance-related misunderstanding- slips of the tongue and mishearing
which may be due to utterances spoken quickly and unclearly
3. Language-related misunderstanding- ungrammaticality of language
4. Gaps in world knowledge- gaps in context rather than language
5. Local context- turns and the turns within the sequences produced by the
participants themselves, and the orientation of the participants as well as the
repair moves that follow the displayed understanding
Approaches to Studying Intercultural Communication (Social science or
functionalist, interpretative, critical)

o You need to be aware or conscious of other cultures especially those that you will
visit so you can avoid offending people.
o Due to misinterpretations, miscommunication occurs.
o All cultures are equal although sometimes difficult to understand.
o No culture is superior or inferior to another.
o Appreciate cultural diversities and learn to live with them.
o People have different languages, lifestyles, and ways of thinking, speaking, and
behaving. This is the essence of cultural diversity.

Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

Communication is not just confined to speaking. It is actually possible to be
communicating on without talking or uttering even a single word. For instance, when you
raise your eyebrow, you are not saying anything but you are conveying message (either
anger, irritation, or disappointment) Thus, communication can either be verbal or non-
verbal.
Verbal communication uses spoken or written words to communicate a message.
Alongside speaking, listening is equally an important skill for this type of communication
to be successful.
Non-verbal communication is the use of body language, gestures, facial expressions,
and even posture to communicate. Non-verbal communication sets the tone of a
conversation, and can seriously undermine the message contained in your words if you are
not careful to control it. For example, slouching and shrinking back in your chair during
a business meeting may imply lack of confidence or lack of interest in the meeting.

Verbal Communication

Varieties of English
Varieties of English or World Englishes (WE) stands for the localized varieties of
English as they are used or spoken in certain areas. In the Asian context, the concept was
introduced by Braj Kachru. The famous “Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes”
attributed to Kachru presents the three circles: Inner Circle with ENL (English as a native
language) member countries; the Outer Circle with ESL (English as a second language)
member countries; and the Expanding Circle with EFL (English as a foreign language)
member countries.
 Examples of countries belonging to the Inner Circle are the USA, UK, Australia,
Canada, Ireland and New Zealand, Kachru’s Outer Circle is comprised of Bangladesh,
Kenya, Ghana, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, Pakistan, India, among others while the
Expanding Circle is composed of countries such as China, Taiwan, Egypt, Israel, South
America, Thailand, among others. Aside from the fact that the Outer and Expanding
Circles are ESL and EFL- speaking respectively, they have been colonized by some
member countries in the Inner Circle. To further understand the Varieties of English, watch
this video.

Language Registers
There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is
determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and
vocabulary reserved for a boyfriend or girlfriend when speaking in the classroom. Thus,
the appropriate language register depends upon the audience (who), the topic (what),
purpose (why) and location (where).
You must control the use of language registers in order to enjoy success in every aspect
and situation you encounter.

1. Static Register- This style of communication RARELY or NEVER changes. It is

“frozen” in time and content. e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the
Preamble to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws.
2. Formal Register-This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature.
This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually
impersonal and formal. Examples of this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical
statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.
3. Consultative Register-This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a
mutually accepted structure of communication. It is formal and societal expectations
accompany the users of this speech. It is a professional discourse. e.g. when strangers
meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor and patient, lawyer
and client, lawyer and judge, teacher and student, counselor and client.
4. Casual Register-This is an informal language used by peers and friends. Slang,
vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is a “group” language. One must be a
member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs,
and letters to friends.
5. Intimate Register-This communication is private. It is reserved for close family
members or intimate people. e.g. husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings,
parent and children.

Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal Communication is the process of sending and receiving wordless
messages. Nonverbal cues communicate feelings and attitudes most effectively. Just like
verbal communication, nonverbal cues are open to misinterpretation that is why it is
important to interpret it in the context of one’s lifestyle, family and cultural background.
Why is non-verbal communication important?

 To repeat/enhance the verbal message (point in a direction while stating directions)

 To substitute for the verbal message (gestures – finger to lips to indicate need to be
quiet; a nod instead of saying yes)
 To regulate interactions (non-verbal cues convey when the other person should speak
or not)
 To accent/convey underlying feelings (verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of
specific words)

Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication

1. Actions, Body Movement, Posture
a. Bowing (not done, criticized in the US; shows rank in Japan)
b. Slouching (rude in most European areas)
c. Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey)
d. Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Turkey)
e. Showing soles of feet (offensive/insulting in Thailand, Saudi Arabia, Muslims) – is a
sign of disrespect exposing the lowest and dirtiest part of the body.
f. Forming a circle with fingers to indicate “OK” (OK in the US, obscene for Brazil and
Germany, money for Japan and Philippines., zero or worthless for France)
g. Thumbs up (commonly means OK; Australia and Iran consider it rude; Nigeria-very
offensive; Japan – means five; Turkey – a political rightist party)
h. Passing an item to someone with one hand (very rude in Japan; even a very small item
such as a pencil must be passed with two hands)
i. Passing an item to someone with one hand (In many Middle and Far Eastern countries,
it is rude to pass something using the left hand-which is considered “unclean.”)
j. Nodding head up and down to say “Yes” (In Bulgaria and Greece, it means NO.)
k. Fig sign (putting the thumb in between the index and the middle finger= obscene in
Turkey, Greece, Holland; You get nothing from me for Russia; You can’t have it in
Yugoslavia; Good luck in Brazil)
l. Pointing:
US with index finger
Germany with little finger
Japanese with entire hand
Most Asians consider pointing with index finger to be rude.
2. Smiling, Crying or Showing Anger, Sorrow, Disgust
a. Many Asian cultures suppress facial expression as much as possible.
b. Many Mediterranean (Latino/Arabic) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while most
American men hide grief or sorrow.
c. Too much smiling is viewed as a sign of shallowness. – Women smile more than men.
3. Eye Contact and Gaze
a. Western cultures – see direct eye to eye contact as positive (Children are advised to look
a person in the eyes.)
b. But within USA, African-Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when
listening with reverse true for Anglo-Americans. This is a possible cause for some sense
of unease between races in the US. A prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual
interest.
c. Arabic cultures make prolonged eye contact. It shows interest and helps them understand
truthfulness of the other person. A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy.
d. Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean = avoid eye contact to show respect.
4. Touch
a. USA – handshake is very common even for strangers; hugs, kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.
b. Most African-Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head.
c. Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders (even
handshakes). But they consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between
same sex to be appropriate. Many Asians don’t touch the head. (Head houses the soul and
a touch puts it in jeopardy.)
5. Smell
a. USA – fear of offensive natural smells- connected with “attractiveness” concept
b. Arabic and other cultures consider natural body odors normal.
c. Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai) stress frequent bathing – and often
criticize USA of not bathing often enough.
M3. Lecture Notes: Globalization and Social Media Responsibility

Globalization means the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human beings,
goods, and services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the planet. One of
the effects of globalization is that it promotes and increases interactions between different
regions and populations around the globe.

Related to globalization is diversity- the concept that endures respect, acceptance,

and understanding. It recognizes that people are unique from each other with respect to
their age, gender, race, ethnicity, culture, socio-economic status, educational background
and ideologies.

Advantages and disadvantages of globalization

Your dress was made in Bangladesh and your shoes in Philippines. Your Phone comes
from U.S. and power bank from China. You can travel to Japan, eat your favorite
Samgyupsal and drink your Thai Milk tea while watching the latest Korean Drama.

Today goods are made and sold all over the world. Thanks to globalization.
Globalization lets countries move closer to each other, People, companies and organization
in different countries can live and work together. We can exchange goods, money, and
ideas faster and cheaper than ever before.

Modern communication and technology like the internet, cell phones or satellite TV
help us in our daily lives. Globalization is growing quickly. A German company can
produce cars in Argentina and then sell them in the United States. Businesses in the
Philippines manufacture their products in China for a cheaper labor. Fast Food companies
open shops around the world almost every day.

However, there is a growing debate over globalization. Governments are in favor of

globalization because the economy can grow, while other people hold the contrary. Here
are some arguments from both sides:

Advantages:

Globalization lets countries do what they can do best. You can buy cheap steel from
another country, so you don’t have to make your own steel. Instead, you can focus on other
things related to your product.

Globalization gives you a larger market. You can sell more goods and make money and
create more jobs. Consumers also profit from globalization. Products become cheaper and
you can get new goods more quickly.

Disadvantages:
 Globalization causes unemployment in industrialized countries because companies
move their factories to places where they can get cheaper workers.

Globalization may lead to more environmental problems. A company may opt to build
factories in other countries because environmental laws are more lenient.

Poor countries in the Third World may have to cut down more trees so that they can
sell wood to richer countries. Some poor countries in the world, especially in Africa may
get even poorer. Their population is not as educated and technological as compared to other
developed countries.

Communication Technology

With the Internet, telecommunications, broadband, cell phone technology, handheld

wireless mobile devices and other communication technology, geographically dispersed
workers can now interact and collaborate as though they all were located together in a
downtown high-rise. In fact, communication technology has advanced to the point where
instant communications across the globe can be so ubiquitous that no one really thinks
about it anymore.

Communication in the Social Media

There are various modes through which we communicate with each other. In the past,
these modes took the form of handwritten messages, typewritten messages, shirt telegrams,
computer-encoded texts, as well as landline telephone conversations, and audio/video
recorded messages. Because each mode of communication is distinct from the other. The
ways in which we craft our messages differ. For example, there is a great tendency for us
to write a longer, more visually detailed message if we encode it using a computer. If we
handwrite the same message, or deliver it through an audio-recording, the message will not
be the same.

Today in the rapid rise and spread of Internet connection the old forms of
communication have given way to new forms that make communication easier and faster

Social Media Responsibility

Social media sites are developed as a tool to communicate with others by sharing
personal information, photos, videos, comments and more. Community sites with user-
generated content should be used responsibly.

Generally, when using social media, it is a common assumption that all users are
solely responsible for their content – including posts, comments, likes, shares, tweets, re-
tweets, follows and favorites. As a general rule, nothing on social media is private.

Practicing favorable online behavior is best achieved when adhering to these social
media etiquette standards:
 1. Refrain from giving legal advice or legal commentary.

2. Do not post comments, photos, videos, etc. that suggest or encourage illegal
activity.

3. Avoid violating laws and regulations, including intellectual property (IP)

rights and others regarding content that you send or receive.

IP is divided into two categories:

Industrial Property – patents, trademarks and industrial designs

Copyright – includes works of art, literature, music and computer programs

4. Never transmit any material in any manner that is disruptive, threatening,

profane, abusive, harassing, embarrassing, tortuous, defamatory, obscene, libelous
or is an invasion of another’s privacy.

5. Never transmit any material that is hateful or racially, ethnically or otherwise

offensive.

6. Avoid sending unsolicited or unauthorized advertising, promotional materials

or any other form of solicitation.

7. Never upload any software that could breach cyber security, such as malware,
viruses, key loggers, trojans, etc.

8. If you affiliate your job with your personal social media profile, keep in mind
that you are representing both yourself and your employer.

9. Get acquainted with the unique privacy and security policies of each social
media networking site and third-party site you use
M4. Lecture Notes: Explanation Essay and Blogging

Writing an Explanation Essay

“Why” questions are very important. If people in ancient times or the recent past did
not ask ‘why’ questions or attempt to answer these questions, we would have very limited
knowledge about many things in our world. If Isaac Newton, for example, did not ask why
things fell down after throwing them, he would not have discovered the law of universal
gravitation.

Addressing ‘why’’ question means providing explanations for phenomena. An

explanation essay is one such example of written piece of work that addresses ‘why
‘questions. It explains a particular topic to its readers. Since it is meant to inform or educate
the readers, the essay should present convincing and adequate support for explanations.

Check out different examples of explanation essays by Danton

Remoto.(https://dantonremoto.com/2020/05/13/a-mansion-of-many-languages/ (Links to
an external site.))

Many of us know that with practice comes perfection, especially when it comes to
writing. The more we write, the better we become as writers. Social media is a tool that is
becoming quite popular these days because of its user-friendly features. Social media
platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Tiktok and more are giving people a chance
to connect with each other across distances. In other words, the whole world is at our
fingertips all thanks to social media. The youth is especially one of the most dominant users
of social media. Moreover, it can be a tool where people use their creativity to write their
personal diaries. From handwritten entries on a piece of paper or notebook page, diaries,
reviews, personal essays in contemporary time come in the form of online journals which
are called blogs.

The term “blog” was first used in the 1990s. It is a short version of “weblog” or an
individualized piece of written work found on the web. Blogging has become one of the
primary platforms of individuals to express their experiences and emotions online. Thus,
the viewpoint is usually personal and subjective. However, blogs are different from
traditional journal or diary entry in the sense that blogs are uploaded to online platforms
that make it easier for bloggers (those who write blogs) to include visual features, as well
as links to other sites on the net.
M5. Lecture Notes: Workplace Communication and Written Modes of Professional
Communication

The evolution of communication is best described as the process of transmitting

ideas and thoughts through the years for human survival. In charting one’s journey
in this evolution, education, science and technology, business and trade, and media
have all contributed to how an individual copes with the social needs and demands
through human connection.
Human connection is indispensable whether in the confines of home, school, or
the workplace. In Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, social belonging is
crucial to self- actualization. In the 21st century, this is becoming more pronounced
as personal success is equated with career growth and advancement which is reliant
on one’s level of social belonging. In the professional context or in the workplace,
harmonious relations with co-workers can be consequential and crucial to both the
individual and the collective productivity and efficiency in the workplace.
Workplace communication as the process of exchanging information, either
verbally or non-verbally, is important in any social environment, including the
academic and corporate environments. In any organizational structure,
communication is the force that maintains its operations from the top up to the
middle and bottom level. Communication in the workplace is one of the signs of a
high-performance culture. Exchanging information and ideas within an
organization is called workplace communication.
Importance of Good Communication at the Workplace
Communication in the workplace is very important for companies to work
efficiently and be productive. Employees can experience increased morale,
productivity and commitment if they can communicate effectively to their
employers. On the other hand, poor communication in the workplace will inevitably
lead to non-motivated staff that can begin to question their confidence in their skills
and organizations.
The importance of strong communication runs deep within the workplace. Five
important reasons include:
1. Innovation- When employees have the opportunity to express their ideas
openly, they are more likely to present their ideas without fear of ridicule or
retaliation. Innovation is highly dependent on this, and an organization that
promotes communication is more likely to be innovative.
2. Growth in Communication- Communication can be seen internally and
externally. By associating yourself internally and by establishing strong
communication lines, you ensure the consistency of the externally delivered
message. Each growth project is based on solid communication and the fact that all
internal or external stakeholders are on the same page.
3. Effective Communication- When executives are strong communicators, they
can better manage their teams. When you are a strong communicator, it is much
simpler to delegate activities, manage conflicts, motivate and build relationships
(all important responsibilities of an administrator). Effective communication not
only talks to people, but gives them the opportunity to talk to each other. Strong
communication channels are essential.
4. Team Building- Creating effective teams requires communication and mutual
cooperation. You will be effective in building effective teams by implementing
effective strategies to improve communication. This will increase morale and
employee satisfaction.
5. Giving a Voice to All- As mentioned earlier, employees’ satisfaction can be
very much dependent on their having a voice and being listened to, whether it is in
regard to an idea they have had or about a complaint they need to make.
Consolidated communication lines should enable everyone to communicate freely
with their colleagues, peers and superiors at any level.
Technical Writing
Technical writing is a form of written communication used mainly as
correspondence and in the production of written outputs valuable to an
organization. As an act of writing in the workplace, it pertains to written
communication present in all kinds of organization, jobs, and professions.
Features of Technical Writing
Below are some characteristics of technical writing (Baraceros, 2011 as cited in
Madrunio & Martin, 2018 ):
1. Accurate – A technical written work is accurate when it deals with facts that
are completely true. An accurate report uses words, sentences, numbers, or figures
that exactly express what a written work intends to convey (Bantin, 2008 in
Baraceros, 2011).
2. Clear – Your written work is clear, if in one reading, your senders are able to
easily understand the main message or point of the whole composition.
3. Formal – In technical writing, you cannot just write anything you like in any
way you want because some writing standards underlie the structure, pattern,
format and language of this kind of writing. You have to adhere to these agreed
upon technical writing rules because your readers judge the value or credibility of
your output based on how you conform to the conventions governing this kind of
writing.
4. Graphical – Graphs like tables, charts, figures, diagrams, maps, pictures, and
other illustrations are necessary in technical writing to support the written
information provided.
 5. Objective – Technical writing must avoid inclusion of individual and
subjective judgment in relaying information. Being straightforward and direct
forms of technical writing should avoid including inner thought, sentiments, or
feelings in order to adopt an impartial or impersonal stand or attitude towards what
is written.
6. Practical – Forms of technical writing should be practical in the way that they
function according to their purpose.
7. Procedural – Some forms of technical writing are procedural as they provide
sets of instructions and sequenced information such as user manuals and laboratory
reports.
8. Specialized – Technical writing usually functions within a specific
demographics. Language used is specialized and easily understood by a specific set
of readers.
9. Diverse – Technical writing as on-the-job writing is prone to extensive
exposure to multicultural clients, and co-workers. Cross-cultural or multilingual
communication brought about by globalization through the internet, materialized
through technical writing will lead you to various topics, ideas, people,
methodologies, concerns, purposes, formats, and language.
10. Straightforward – A straightforward manner of writing means presenting facts
and information honestly and directly. Unlike other forms of writing like literary
and expository writing that permit the writer to hide meanings through figurative
language, technical writing presents ideas in a frank, unequivocal, or clear cut-way.
11. Authoritative – To describe technical writing as authoritative is to think of it as
a piece of writing with the ability to command or to enforce something on anyone.
Forms of technical writing use an authoritative voice to exude credibility in relaying
information.
12. Presentable – Any technical writing output must be presentable without any
grammatical or typographical errors. A technical writer must ensure that his or her
output always undergoes proofreading.
Written Modes of Professional Communication
Embedded video

Writing a Business Letter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xUTguLaaXI

Writing a Business Memorandum https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHZdnldGuls

Writing Minutes of the Meeting https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-IaeGdPrYE

Business Letters
Business letters are essential in the workplace, especially in the external operations of
an organization. It is through business letter that an organization can reach out to its clients
and vice versa. The different kinds of business letters illustrate the different communication
situations that constantly need to be addressed by the internal and external functions of an
organization.
Standard Formats of Business Letters
Full-Block

Modified Block
Semi-Block

Memos, Reports, and other Written Documents in the Workplace

A Memorandum (memo) is a written message which serves as a reminder for a particular
matter. Memos relay information to a large number of readers at the same time. A
memorandum is a document that records events in the workplace for everyone’s
information.
Types of Memo
1. Instruction Memo – contains directives that organization members need to follow.
2. Request Memo – contains request for the provision of facilities and services
3. Announcement Memo – notice of important event in the organization
4. Transmittal Memo – notice officially announcing the release of a report
5. Authorization – granting permission to the undertaking of an operation in the
organization
Incident Report
An incident report, also called accident report, records the occurrence of an unusual
event in the workplace. This report usually follows a template that comes in forms to be
filled out by the witnesses to the incident. The main components of an incident report are
the problem description, action taken, and recommendation.
Minutes of the Meeting
A meeting is a gathering of people to discuss, plan, make decisions, and resolve issues
together. For documentation purposes, a detailed and descriptive report is prepared. The
minutes of the meeting has the following components:
Introduction:
1. name and address of the organization
2. type of meeting
3. call to order
4. attendance
Body
1. reading, correction, and approval of minutes of the previous meeting
2. business arising from the previous meeting
3. new business
Conclusion
1. announcement
2. other matters
3. time of adjournment
4. name and signature of the minutes taker
5. name and signature of the presiding officer
In preparing the minutes of the meeting, the minutes-taker must ensure that the minutes
are:
1. in chronological order;
2. factual, brief, and free from editorial comments or slanting of factual statements;
3. the gist or a recording of summary of the meeting and not a transcription of the matter
discussed; and
4. a verbatim report of parliamentary points, motions, resolutions and points of order.
M6. Lecture Notes: Academic Writing

Features of Academic Writing

Some of the texts that you will read in this module are academic texts. They are so
called academic texts because their contents are formal. Further, they are structured to
strictly adhere to conventions including but not limited to language choice or diction, tone,
style, pattern of development, grammar, etc. In a practical sense, there are texts that a
student normally encounters in his or her formal schooling or the texts usually assigned by
a teacher for the students to analyze. Although there are still other forms of academic
writing, those examples illustrate its basic feature.

In this module, we will be tackling one of the major forms of academic writing, which
is writing a research paper.

What is a Research?

1. It is a systematic study or investigation of something in order to find new information

or validate certain theories or findings obtained in other research studies.

2. It is a process of formulating research questions, testing hypotheses, gathering relevant

information, and analyzing this information to come up with a conclusion.

3. It is a systematic method of inquiry and discovery which involves experiments,

survey, interviews, and data analysis for quantitative research and comprehensive
exploratory analysis for qualitative research.

What are the steps in writing a research paper?

1. Choosing a research topic

2. Narrowing down the topic

3. Surveying or gathering resources

4. Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing

5. Making an outline

6. Writing the first draft

7. Referencing
1. Choosing a Topic

The topic is the main subject of your research paper. Therefore, it has to be properly
identified and carefully thought of. In searching for or conceptualizing a research topic,
consider one that you are interested in and which would also be of interest to others. A
topic’s relevance and availability of material related to it are also very important. Topics
to avoid are those which may arouse controversy and those which cannot be backed by
credible resources.

To further help you in your topic search, consider the following tips and guidelines:

1. Randomly write down all possible topics you can think of.

2. Brainstorm with your classmates and peers.

3. Conceptualize topics based on socially relevant issues.

4. Be updated on current events by reading the newspaper and watching the

news.

5. Ask suggestions from professionals and experts in the fields that are connected
to your possible topics.

6. List down questions you want to answer.

7. Look for recommendations from research papers that are of interest to you.

8. Observe possible problems present in your community.

9. Look at issues from different perspectives.

2. Narrowing Down a Research Topic

When starting with a really broad topic, you need to narrow down the focus of such
topic. For instance, if you aim to analyze the aspects of technology; you must specify what
exactly about technology you will research on since it is a very broad area. To do this, you
can use an inverted pyramid to break down a topic from its general form to a more specific
one.

Here are some steps that you can follow in narrowing down a research topic:
 1. Ask yourself what you think about the topic or what you know and want to
say about it.

2. Determine your controlling idea or thesis statement.

3. Check whether it is suitable for an authentic scholarly inquiry.

4. After checking the appropriateness or scholarly worth of your narrowed down

topic, you may now formulate your tentative research title and research questions.

Formulating a Thesis Statement

Part of narrowing down your topic is determining the controlling idea of your research
paper. Ask yourself: “What is my opinion about the topic? What exactly do I want to prove
in my research? What are the issues I am passionately about? What are my claims about
them?” Your answers to the questions above can be used to formulate the controlling idea
of your research. This idea contains your opinion about the topic which is your thesis. In
other words, a thesis statement is the view or perspective that you make out of your topic.
When translated to an equation, it would appear as:

Definite Topic + Definite Claim = THESIS STATEMENT

3. Gathering Resources or Materials

Types of Sources

After specifying the research topic, gathering research materials or sources comes next.
These materials can be categorized into primary and secondary sources.

1. Primary Sources – contain first-hand information about the topic. In other words, you
can get first-hand information and a direct personal view of the topic through this source.
Examples: interviews, autobiographies, photographs, films, and diaries.

2. Secondary Sources – serve as interpretation and analysis of primary sources. They

provide elaborations and clarifications about the main source of information. They offer
more unbiased views than the main sources. Examples: scholarly journals and books,
reviews, encyclopedia entries, editorials.
4. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

In writing a research paper, quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing are necessary

when incorporating your own ideas with ideas from the sources you have gathered. Ideas
which you have gathered from other sources should be cited properly according to the
citation format required of you to avoid plagiarism.

Plagiarism is the act of stealing someone else’s work and presenting it as your own.
When you fail to cite and acknowledge sources, whether directly or indirectly, it is
considered plagiarism. This is why quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing with
corresponding citations are necessary in research writing.

1. Direct Quote – is used when you mention the exact words of an author in your
research. When following the APA citation style, a direct quote must be followed by an in-
text citation containing the author’s surname, year of publication, and the page number
from where the quote is lifted.

2. Paraphrase – is the restatement of the author’s ideas in the researcher’s own words
without changing the meaning intended by the author. In the APA style, the in-text citation
to be followed in paraphrasing includes the author’s surname and year of publication
enclosed in parentheses.

3. Summary – is a restatement of the author’s main ideas. It is usually shorter than a

paraphrase as it only focuses on the key concepts of the author. It provides general
overview about the subject matter or topic. The in-text citation for summaries following
the APA style is also the same with paraphrases.

5. Preparing an outline

An outline is the general framework of your paper. It can be likened to the “blueprint” of
an architect or an engineer. The outline and blueprint can be considered planning tools
before the actual research, building, and artwork are done, respectively. An outline can be
a topic outline or a sentence outline. A topic outline lists down all the main topics in
phrases. In a sentence outline all ideas are expressed in complete statements or sentences.
 6. Writing the Draft

Writing the Introduction

The first section of the IMRD format is the introduction. It consists of the following:

1. Background of the Study- This provides your readers an overview of your

topic and contextualizes the problem at hand. It provides a review of previous
studies and recent developments and identifies the gap in the literature presented
which your current research seeks to fill.

2. Research Problem/ Aims of the study- This indicates the specific research
questions which are expected to be answered in the results and discussion section
of your paper.

3. Significance of the study- The introduction section also indicates how the
study will benefit others and what contribution it will make to the current field of
study.

4. Scope and Limitation- The introduction may indicate the scope and limitation
of the study. The scope and limitation of the study. The scope pertains to the
specific aspect of your topic and the reason why it was specifically chosen. Over
other aspects, it includes the coverage of your study. The limitation usually pertains
to the decision made pertaining to the respondents, methodology, resources used,
and other possible challenges associated with the conduct of the study.

5. Definition of Terms- When necessary (e.g., If the topic at hand is too technical
or if there are many concepts that might confuse the readers), the introduction
provides the operational definition of some of the technical terms used in the paper
and how they are used in the context of the study.

Writing the Methodology

The second section of the IMRD format is the methodology. It consists of the following:

1. Research Design- This part contains how the methods used fit the framework of the
research.

2. Research Locale/Participants- It also specifies the respondents involved in the

research. It also includes the demographics of the participants and all details relevant to the
research. This part discusses how the participants were chosen, especially in the context of
the quantitative research.
 3. Instruments- This part lays down the research instruments used in the research,
whether they are surveys, tests, interviews, and others. This part also specifies how the
interviews and survey questions were formulated. It also lays down the particulars of every
research instrument used.

4. Procedure/ Data Collection and Data Analysis- The main goal of the methodology is
to address questions related to how data were gathered and analyzed. This part elaborates
on the nature of the research and how it handles data.

Writing the Results and Discussion

The third section of the IMRD format is the results and discussion. It consists of the
findings, the theories or related studies, and the analysis.

1. Findings- This part contains the answers that are not only expressed in the text but
should also be illustrated in tabular or graphical form when necessary, especially if you
used survey as a research method. This way, your readers can easily interpret and analyze
the results of your study.

2. Theories or Related Studies- The responses should be supported by a theory(ies) or

related study(ies) to substantiate, prove, or disapprove, or validate or invalidate your
findings. This will make your work more scholarly and more credible.

3. Analysis- It is not enough that you write about what you found out from your research.
The inference you made from them is equally important. An inference is the conclusion
reached which is backed by reasoning.

Writing the Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

The fourth section of the IMRAD format consists of the summary, conclusions and
recommendations.

1. Summary- This section is a restatement of the introduction, purpose of the study, methodology
and findings obtained from the study.

2. Conclusions- This section synthesizes the analysis of information based on the findings. It is
parallel with the research questions.

3. Recommendations- This section provides possible suggestions or actions to be undertaken

by the stakeholders who will be impacted by the research. So, it will become more useful for them.
It also includes suggestions on how the research work can be done by other researchers.
M7. Lecture Notes: Academic Presentation

The Oral Presentation

Some students and professionals do not like the idea of speaking in public, whether in front of
small or large groups. Just the thought that they will be facing people already makes them jittery.
However, this is a normal part of life. As students, you should take seriously any opportunity
that comes you way and that requires you to deliver a talk. Once you are done with the entire
research work, you will be required to make presentation of your research findings, conclusions,
and recommendations. Your instructors will assign you to deliver these forms of oral reports
during your academic coursework. The use of oral reporting as a strategy in the classroom aims
to accomplish the following:

1. Enhance oral communication and presentation skills.

2. Develop independent learning strategies and critical thinking through proper organization of
information.

3. Foster unity, teamwork, and leadership among students.

To ace the oral report or research defense, you may follow these practical guidelines below:

1. Read your assigned topic several times, so you do not cram or rush your report.

2. Do not procrastinate. Start working on your report the moment the teacher assigns your topic.

3. As you read your assigned topic or your research, take note of the key insights, thesis,
arguments, and the supporting evidence.

4. Organize your notes in the form of an outline.

5. Go over your outline and use it as a springboard to discuss your report. This is a way to gauge
whether or not you can explain the topic on your own as a measure of your understanding of the
topic.

6. Once the outline is finalized you may draft your PowerPoint presentation. Be sure to follow
the format provided by your instructor.

7. Edit and proofread your PowerPoint presentation.

8. Rehearse your oral report. Be mindful of the time allotment. Make necessary adjustments, if
needed.

9. You can rehearse with a peer, a friend, or a classmate. Feel free to get suggestions for
improvement.

10. The key to a successful presentation is preparation.

Academic Presentations

A speaker in an academic event can convey his or her ideas in several ways by using
different channels of communication. In the past, academic presentations used to be limited to
face-to-face setups; however, with the rise of technology, modes of academic presentations have
also been modified. Today, academic conventions and conferences can even be attended virtually.
Academic paper presentations provide ways of innovating how ideas are presented using
technology especially when there are options, whether one will be having an oral, poster, or video
presentation.

Oral Presentation

This is the most common way to present a scholarly work. In this mode of presentation, the
speaker engages in face-to-face interaction with his or her audience. In most conferences, the
speaker is allowed ten (10) to fifteen (15) minutes for the presentation of the research work and
another ten (10) to fifteen (15) minutes to address questions from the audience.

The key to a successful oral presentation is having your audience engaged with what you
are saying all throughout your session. You want your audience to fully understand all the ideas
you want to convey. Therefore, it is important that you fully prepare for your presentation. Whether
you plan on simply reading your paper or being more interactive, it is important to be mindful of
how you want your work to be perceived.

Video Presentation

In case it is not feasible for the speaker to be physically present in the conference, he or
she may present his or her paper via video conferencing or provide a slide presentation with a
voice over narration or a video recording which can be played during the conference. Video
presentations may be convenient especially in instances where the conferences are held abroad but
may also be equally challenging. In the case of real time virtual presentation, the presenter should
maintain a certain clarity as if he or she is actually there with the audience. The speaker must also
ensure that his or her connection is secured while doing the video presentation.