Education and Information Technologies

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10299-w

Video-based self-reflection among pre-service

teachers in Ireland: A qualitative study

Selina McCoy 1,2 & Aoife M. Lynam 3

Received: 14 January 2020 / Accepted: 30 July 2020/

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
With increased accessibility to digital video equipment, there has been notable interest
in exploring how this might support practice and pedagogy across many education
sectors. In recent years video has been found to offer many opportunities to study and
support teacher professional development. This paper examines the potential for digital
observation within initial teacher education (ITE), specifically as a tool for engaging
pre-service teachers in reflective practice during school placement. The study included
pre-service primary teachers in the largest teacher education centre in Ireland. A
treatment group (n = 15) completed their compulsory written reflections as normal
during school placement but were also provided with Swivl digital technology in order
to record and reflect on their lessons using video footage. A control group (n = 20)
completed their traditional written reflections as normal without the use of the digital
technology. Upon the completion of school placement, in-depth qualitative interviews
with both treatment and control groups (N = 35) examined experiences in using digital
technologies in the classroom, and the critical reflection of their lessons during school
placement. The analysis provides strong evidence that the digital video footage was
highly supportive in pre-service teachers’ weekly self-reflection and in developing their
self-reflective practice. They reflected on embodied and non-embodied aspects of their
teaching, in the process revising their habitus as a teacher. The richness of the data
provides new evidence on the potential for video technology to support teacher
professional development internationally.

Keywords Pre-service teachers . Digital video observation . Pedagogy . Reflective practice

. School placement

* Selina McCoy
selina.mccoy@esri.ie

1
Economic and Social Research Institute, Whitaker Square, Sir John Rogerson’s Quay, Dublin 2,
Ireland
2
Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
3
Hibernia College, Dublin, Ireland
 Education and Information Technologies

1 Introduction

1.1 Setting the context

Across education systems worldwide, ITE is the main period in which pre-service teachers
learn how to teach and prepare to enter the profession (Darling-Hammond 2017; Flores
2014; Osmanoglu 2016). One of the fundamental aspects of training at ITE involves
learning practical approaches in real-life classrooms; this is known as ‘school placement’.
This aspect of training is often viewed by pre-service teachers as authentic and relevant
building blocks that allow them to make sense of their ITE programme in real-life school
contexts (Korthagan and Kessels 1999; Ní Chróinín and O'Sullivan 2014). As school
placement is one of the most important aspects of ITE, it requires careful consideration as
to how this real-life classroom experience may be used to help pre-service teachers in the
most effective way. School placement is designed to help pre-service teachers become
reflective about their own teaching practices through discovering their strengths, their
weaknesses, and guiding them in finding ways to improve their performance in the
classroom. Reflection has become an important part of ITE programmes with such
terminology as ‘reflective teaching’, ‘reflective practice’, and ‘reflective thinking’ now
widely used in a variety of educational contexts (Bengtsson 1995; Calderhead and Gates
1993; Waks 1999). The term ‘reflection’ describes practices that range from analysing a
single aspect of a lesson to considering the potential ethical, social, and political implica-
tions of their practice (Larrivee 2008). While professional standards in many countries
advocate the development of reflective practitioners, escalating pressure for teachers to be
accountable for reaching imposed standards of academic performance has increased,
which may be at the expense of ongoing reflection (Larrivee 2008).
One of the required abilities for pre-service teachers to display is the ability to reflect
on one’s own professional identity (Niemi and Jakku-Sihvonen 2006). Recently, much
has been written about reflection in ITE and how it can allow pre-service teachers to
evaluate and develop their own practice (Keppens et al. 2019; Weber et al. 2018; Freese
2006). Unless pre-service teachers are guided to reflect on their experiences, their
inexperience in the field could lead them to develop survival strategies to cope with
difficulties they face in the classroom (Keppens et al. 2019). A constructivist view of
ITE is needed in which the teacher develops their own knowledge in a process of
reflection on practical situations, which creates a concern and personal need for
learning (Korthagen 2001). The development of this practice at ITE can lead to life-
long learning as the nature of reflection involves constant self-analysis and the urge for
growth and development (Wenzlaff 1994).
This study examines the potential for digital video to support pre-service teachers in
their development of self-reflection, particularly during the period of school placement.
The study compares two groups of pre-service teachers, a treatment group who used
digital video during their school placement and a control group who did not. The
following research questions are addressed:

1. How did the pre-service teachers experience the use of the digital video in their
teaching practice?
2. To what extent does the use of digital recordings to reflect on practice support pre-
service teachers’ self-efficacy around teaching?
Education and Information Technologies

3. How do pre-service teachers view the potential for digital video to enhance ITE
and professional development?

The following section details the current international literature on digital video in ITE
and the increasing focus on peer-based learning. Drawing on Ireland as a particularly
interesting case study, section 1.4 examines the features of ITE in Ireland which make it
valuable in examining the potential for innovative use of technology. Section 2 presents
the research methods adopted and the results are detailed in Sections 3 and 4. Section 5
considers the limitations of the study and Section 6 assesses the overarching findings in
relation to the key research questions and the unique contribution.

1.2 International research on digital classroom observation

Internationally, there has been a growing recognition of the need to rethink how pre-
service teachers reflect on their practice. There is a shift from reflective practice
occurring in contexts of direct, prescriptive forms of surveillance and control, towards
more autonomous and indirect methods (Smyth 1993). In particular, some argue that
the traditional system of examination through the use of a school placement tutor
observing and assessing on face-to-face visits to the classroom, is not effective in
developing pre-service teachers’ skills in critically reflecting on their practice (Chilton
and McCracken 2017). There has been a shift toward the use of digital technologies to
help shape and improve conventional methods of classroom observation (Liang 2015)
by using either real-time observations on the internet or recorded lessons submitted by
pre-service teachers for assessment.
In the United States (US), some States have introduced digital video observation or
teleconferencing in lieu of in-person visits by an employee or staff member acting as a
school placement tutor (i.e., individuals assessing pre-service teachers who are on
placement in a school during an assessment) from the ITE. However, Bolton (2010)
states that it was never intended that video recording lessons or teleconferencing would
completely replace visits from supervisors and that face-to-face interaction, feedback,
and support are essential for teacher development. In-person visits are an effective tool
in observation and video technology could significantly cut the number of in-person
visits to remote schools, reduce the cost of supervisors’ travel, and increase the ability
of pre-service teachers to use technology for teaching and learning (Bolton 2010).
The Harvard University Centre for Education Policy Research (CEPR) carried out
extensive research using video recordings of teachers (Kane et al. 2016). The Best Foot
Forward Project (BFF) used a video-based teacher evaluation system with qualified
teachers (N = 347), each of whom was allocated to either a treatment or control group.
The treatment group prepared video recordings of lessons, and these were assessed
instead of the more traditional in-person observations. They were allowed to choose
which lessons (3 from typically 13 recordings) would be considered for observation, in
that way utilising the video to present their ‘best foot forward’. The results show that
video-based observations lead to greater gains in achievement than in-person observa-
tions. The authors highlighted the benefits for teachers, school leaders and education
providers/universities. For teachers, the study revealed that utilising video technology
supported deeper self-reflection among the teachers. In fact, teachers in the treatment
groups were more self-critical and attributed lower scores to their instruction than
 Education and Information Technologies

among teachers in the control group. This may reflect the recording of many more
lessons than required and their subjective evaluations hence based across many lessons
(Kane et al. 2016). Teachers using the technology felt more supported by their
supervisors and found the approach to be a fairer reflection of their performance than
the traditional in-class observation method.
Kane et al. (2016) highlighted the advantages of using video technology in pre-
service teacher assessment from the perspective of school administrators, universities or
ITE providers. In particular, treatment school administrators reported spending more
time observing and less time on paperwork. Other international studies have also
highlighted the advantages of using video technology during the supervision of pre-
service teachers for education providers. In particular, the ways in which digital
methods can ‘save time, reduce costs for schools through avoiding visits from ob-
servers as well as saving the observer the effort of travel’ (Wang et al. 2008). In the
United Kingdom, Dyke et al. (2008) compared the use of remote observation of
teaching to in-classroom observation during school placement in ITE. They found
the online observations of pre-service teachers were comparable to face-to-face obser-
vations and ‘can provide a relatively unobtrusive and cost-effective means’ of teacher
assessments (Dyke et al. 2008).
In line with the findings of the BFF Project, other international studies on video
technology for assessment point very clearly to the benefits for pre-service teacher
development (PlÖger et al. 2018; Barth-Cohen et al. 2018; Weber et al. 2018; Gold and
Holodynski 2017; Keppens et al. 2019). Focusing on pre-service teachers in Germany,
PlÖger et al. (2018) found that video can support the acquisition and application of
pedagogical knowledge. Findings also show how using video-based examples, teachers
can more easily study the complexities of the classroom setting and critically assess
their own practice (Harford and MacRuairc 2008; Chilton and McCracken 2017;
Osmanoglu 2016; Keppens et al. 2019). In their review of literature, Marsh and
Mitchell (2014) describe the ‘affordances of video’ for teacher development where
recorded classroom observations can offer the opportunity for pre-service or in-service
teachers to view themselves (or their peers) and access ‘complex, thick descriptions of
classroom dynamics that are hard or impossible to access or describe in other ways’ (p.
404). They identify two important benefits of video: firstly, developing teacher capacity
for reflection and secondly, what they describe as ‘developing noticing’ or the ability of
teachers to notice and interpret classroom interactions beyond surface level features to
more substantive aspects (Marsh and Mitchell 2014). Gold and Holodynski (2017) also
found that video-based instruments are considered more authentic and hence more
appropriate for measuring situation knowledge and classroom management.
Other small scale studies also point to the capacity of video technology to enable
pre-service teachers to learn, reflect, improve and apply changes to their pedagogy
during their school placement (Christ et al. 2014; Chilton and McCracken 2017;
Mabunda 2013; Eroz-Tuga 2013; Lebak 2017; PlÖger et al. 2018; Barth-Cohen et al.
2018). Video is considered to be a much more versatile medium which ‘captures the
immediacy of a real classroom and allows pre-service teachers to view examples of
authentic learning experiences’ (Newhouse et al. 2007). This potential extends to both
pre- and in-service teachers (Weber et al. 2018), although much of the research appears
to focus on in-service professional development. The use of video may also support the
fostering of more specialised skills in teaching. For example, Chilton and McCracken
Education and Information Technologies

(2017) examined the impact of the use of video technology for evaluating Teachers of
the Deaf (ToDs) who were on school placement. They argue that the use of video
technologies for teachers of pupils with special educational needs or disabilities (in this
case, students who are deaf or hearing impaired) may have additional benefits over
those in mainstream classes. Keppens et al. (2019) similarly argue that it is necessary to
support pre-service teachers in their new role as facilitators of inclusion, and video
analysis offers important opportunities in this regard.
Other studies suggest video technology allows pre-service teachers to more readily
link theory, learned in university, to practice in their classroom by giving thoughtful
deliberation to their approaches (Rhine and Bryant 2007; Osmanoglu 2016; Tunney
and van Es 2016; Keppens et al. 2019). In Ireland, Harford and MacRuairc (2008)
found that video technology encouraged pre-service teachers to take ‘ownership over
their critical development’ and can foster high levels of reflection and critical dialogue.
Similarly, in a small scale study in Western Australia, Newhouse et al. (2007) found
that the blended use of video analysis and online resources (known as LessonLab) with
face-to-face instruction was successful in improving pre-service teachers’ understand-
ing of pedagogic theory and linking it more authentically to their own practice
(Newhouse et al. 2007).

1.3 Peer-based learning

Increasingly research on video observation in classrooms is exploring the use of peer-

based learning where videos of school placement are shared among teachers working in
the same school followed by a discussion and analysis (Lebak 2017; Youens et al.
2014; Harford and MacRuairc 2008). The BFF Project found that peer observation and
support (de-privatised instruction) is an effective tool for improving instruction and
improves pedagogical practice but acknowledges how schools have been traditionally
characterised by teacher privacy and independence (Quinn et al. 2018). In Turkey,
Osmanoglu (2016) examined the use of video technology among prospective mathe-
matics teachers who used video to record and discuss their own and their peers’
classroom performance. The findings show that pre-service teachers were able to reflect
on effective teaching, connect theoretical knowledge to their practice and consider
issues relating to pupils’ learning difficulties. Similarly, Christ et al. (2014) examined
the impact of a video-based reflective discussion method known as Collaborative Peer
Video Analysis or CPVA in the US. Teachers were asked to come together to view
videos of lessons focussing on assessment or instruction and discuss the contents. The
study found a high rate of teachers (40%) reported applying what they learned through
CPVA to their subsequent pedagogy (Christ et al. 2014). In one Irish study, pre-service
teachers videoed lessons in pairs (in the same school) followed by a discussion in a
larger tutorial group (Harford and MacRuairc 2008). The findings also show that the
use of peer videoing in the classroom has a powerful impact on the ability of pre-
service teachers to reflect and engage in critical dialogue. The authors conclude that
peer videoing can promote teacher learning and important insights about their methods
of instruction, however they raise some concerns about the lack of ethical guidelines
around the use of video in the classroom (Harford and MacRuairc 2008).
Many of these studies on peer-based learning involve watching videos followed by a
group discussion often facilitated by a supervisor or mentor. This practice has been
 Education and Information Technologies

found however to alter the relationship between pre-service teachers and their mentors
or university supervisors. In England, Youens et al. (2014) found that the use of video
promoted dialogue and collaborative practice between schools and universities and as a
result altered traditional hierarchies in ITE (Youens et al. 2014). Others go further and
suggest the need for a structural or system review before any further implementation of
this type of remote supervision (Chilton and McCracken 2017).
While the review highlights the breadth of research examining the potential for
video technology in ITE, few studies take a systematic approach, comparing pre-
service teachers with and without the use of digital video during their placement.
Further, much of the research focuses on the potential of video technology to support
in-service teacher professional development, rather than pre-service teacher education
(Major and Watson 2018). Finally, it is clear that the evidence base varies widely in the
nature of the video technology used, and in many cases, it is unclear exactly which
technology was used and how. This study represents an important advance in a
number of respects. The study takes a quasi-experimental approach with a
treatment group, who were provided with Swivl digital technology in order to
record and reflect on their lessons using video footage, compared to a control
group who completed their traditional written reflections as normal without the
use of the digital technology. As discussed in Section 2, the study is based on
innovative Swivl technology, which represents a considerable advance over
other video technologies, offering high quality, unobtrusive and secure record-
ing opportunities for pre-service teachers.

1.4 The development of reflective practice in ITE: Ireland

As the international education reform agenda focuses on teacher quality, ITE is

receiving increased attention as the foundation for attracting, preparing and retaining
quality teachers. Ireland is a particularly interesting case study for this research. ITE in
Ireland has been experiencing aggressive, ambitious programme and structural reform
(Smith 2012, p.74) with the responsibility for policy formation around ITE recently
devolved to the Teaching Council of Ireland. In December 2010, the Teaching Council
of Ireland established an Advisory Group on ITE. The group was tasked with advising
the Council on the criteria and guidelines to be used by providers in reconceptualising
programmes of ITE at primary and secondary level. Subsequent Teaching Council
documents, ITE: Criteria and guidelines for programme providers (Teaching Council
2011a) and the Strategy for the review and professional accreditation of existing
programmes (Teaching Council 2011b) identified pre-requisites for accreditation. A
number of significant changes to all programmes were identified by this group. These
included;

& An increase in the time allocated for school placement that would allow for the
development of a more reflective, enquiry-oriented approach to the school place-
ment and facilitate the development of the teacher as reflective practitioner;
& Engagement in data gathering and critically analyse and evaluate relevant
knowledge;
& Reflect critically on his/her practice on an ongoing basis so as to inform that
practice.
Education and Information Technologies

Much of the focus of these changes centres on the key component of Reflective
Practice. Reflection has become an important part of ITE programmes with such
terminology as ‘reflective teaching’, ‘reflective practice’, and ‘reflective thinking’
now widely used in a variety of educational contexts (Bengtsson 1995; Calderhead
and Gates 1993; Waks 1999).
The use of reflective processes by pre-service teachers has been shown to be
beneficial and developmental in the shaping of their professional identity, values,
attitudes and dispositions. Rodgers (2002, p.856) explains that ‘having to express
oneself to others, so that others truly understand one’s ideas, reveals both the strengths
and the holes in one’s thinking’. Maclean and White (2007), using reflective cycles,
have demonstrated the benefits of reflection and the corresponding positive progression
of various practice aspects.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 The research design

This study compares the experiences of two groups of primary level ITE pre-service
teachers in a single, and largest, ITE institution in Ireland. All pre-service teachers in
the year group (circa 500 pre-service teachers) were contacted with the opportunity to
participate in a study of the use of digital video. Of those who opted-in, the sample was
then selected to capture school-level diversity, including DEIS and non-DEIS status,1
urban and rural, and schools comprising different gender mix. The pre-service teachers
chose their school for placement and these were typically in their own locality. School
principals often give priority to pre-service teachers who had attended the school. The
placement could be with any class level across the primary years (i.e. from 4 years to
12 years), or multiple class levels in the case of multi-grade school settings. The
theoretical sampling frame ensured that pre-service teachers in the treatment and
control groups were broadly comparable across the key characteristics which might
be expected to influence teacher practice and experience, namely class level and school
characteristics. Those participating in the study were assured that their participation
would have no impact on their formal assessment in Hibernia College. Following
rigorous ethical processes (detailed below), the final treatment group comprised 15 pre-
service teachers, somewhat less than the target of 25, and the control group was 20.
Most attrition arose due to insufficient levels of consent among parents of pupils in the
placement classroom. Details on the achieved treatment and control samples are
provided in Table 1 - grades achieved in school placement one and two are presented,
showing the diversity of the sample in terms of performance. We are confident that the
achieved sample provides ample diversity within and across treatment and control
groups.
The first week of this school placement involved an observation week, followed by
five weeks of teaching and concluded with a week of reflection. During the five weeks
in the classroom (between September and October 2018), pre-service teachers were

1
The Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Irish Schools (DEIS) scheme is designed to target additional
funding towards schools serving more disadvantaged populations.
 Education and Information Technologies

Table 1 Profile of the Treatment and Control Samples

Gender SP 1 Grade SP 2 Grade

Treatment Group
SWIVL ST 1 Female Medium High
SWIVL ST 2 Female Low Medium
SWIVL ST 3 Male Low High
SWIVL ST 4 Male Medium Medium
SWIVL ST 5 Female High High
SWIVL ST 6 Female High High
SWIVL ST 7 Female Medium High
SWIVL ST 8 Female Medium High
SWIVL ST 9 Female Medium Medium
SWIVL ST 10 Male Medium Medium
SWIVL ST 11 Female Medium Low
SWIVL ST 12 Female Medium Medium
SWIVL ST 13 Male Low Low
SWIVL ST 14 Female Medium Low
SWIVL ST 15 Female Medium Medium
Control group
NS ST 1 Male Low Medium
NS ST 2 Female Medium High
NS ST 3 Female High Medium
NS ST 4 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 5 Female Medium High
NS ST 6 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 7 Female Low Low
NS ST 8 Female High Medium
NS ST 9 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 10 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 11 Female Medium High
NS ST 12 Male Low Medium
NS ST 13 Male Low Medium
NS ST 14 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 15 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 16 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 17 Male Low Medium
NS ST 18 Female Low Medium
NS ST 19 Female Medium Medium
NS ST 20 Male Medium Medium

Note: School placement grades are grouped: Low <60%; Medium 60–69%; High 70%+

requested to record a minimum of three lessons. The first lesson would be recorded
during week two, the second lesson during week four, and the final lesson during week
Education and Information Technologies

six in order to identify any progression and development of their practice over time.
These lessons would then serve to support pre-service teachers in their self-reflection
over the course of the placement and during the reflection week at the end of the
placement. All pre-service teachers continued to be evaluated by the traditional model
of evaluation, with two school placement tutors observing and assessing their school
placement three times on face-to-face visits. Shortly after the completion of the school
placements, in November 2018, 35 in-depth qualitative interviews were undertaken
with participants in both control (n = 20) and treatment (n = 15) groups. A grounded-
theory approach was used to inductively build a systematic theory based on the
experiences of the pre-service teachers. Semi-structured interviews explored a range
of key topics including their experiences of school placement, their use of digital
technologies in their teaching and their self-efficacy and reflective practice. Interviews
were conducted by the research team through Blackboard Collaborate, were audio-
recorded and transcribed verbatim (with written consent of all participants). The
interviews were analysed using NVivo, to identify the emerging themes, and the extent
and nature of variation in responses. The researchers are highly experienced in qual-
itative methods and at all times made conscious efforts to put their own views and
knowledge aside and stay close to the views and data emerging from the respondents.
The key focus of this paper is on examining pre-service teachers’ approach to, and
experiences of, self-reflection during and following their placement. A core aspect
considers whether the treatment group perceived the Swivl digital camera as enhancing
their self-reflection and providing additional insights on their teaching practice. The
quotes presented are intended to illustrate the key experiences of pre-service teachers,
particularly in their use of digital video and any impact this had on their self-reflection.
The findings are not intended to be representative of all pre-service teachers, but rather
to provide a rich insight into how digital video is experienced among a cohort of pre-
service teachers in one institution. The limitations of the study are addressed in
Section 5.
Finally, Swivl is a digital camera which operates through a moveable base in which
an iPad or tablet is placed. The pre-service teacher wears a small tracking device on a
lanyard; the tracking device captures audio and ensures the camera adjusts position to
follow the teacher as they move around the classroom (further details on www.swivl.
com).

2.2 Ethical considerations

Preparing pre-service teachers for the ethical use of technology during school place-
ment was an integral part of the research. Ethical approval for the project was sought
and granted by the Hibernia College Ethics Committee. All participants in the treatment
group signed a consent form prior to the commencement of the project and took part in
a webinar with the research team to explore issues relating to the technology and the
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR, 2016) which came into full effect in
May 2018. The participants were provided with detailed information on how to operate
the devices to record, upload and store their recordings on a secure server. All pre-
service teachers were responsible for identifying the school in which their placement
would take place. The research team contacted the school principals in the treatment
group and explained in detail the nature of the research and the requirements of
 Education and Information Technologies

participation. This included the agreement of the class teacher and the written consent
of parents of the pupils in the class. Where all parents did not consent, consideration
was given to proceeding with the research, but ensuring that pupils for whom consent
was not provided were at no time included in any video recording (in either the visual
or audio aspects). In the vast majority of cases, consent was secured for all pupils in the
placement classroom. The total treatment sample fell from 25 to 21 participants largely
due to insufficient numbers of parents consenting or difficulty completing the consent
process in advance of the commencement of the placement. A total of 15 pre-service
teachers then took part in the in-depth interviews following the project.
As a member of the European Union (EU) the significant developments in data
protection law which require that data processing is lawful, fair, and transparent, played
a role in the approach of the research undertaken. Cornock (2018) identifies that the
areas of the GDPR ( 2016) relevant to many researchers are, namely: (a) changes to
consent; (b) new rights for individuals; (c) data sharing; (d) protection of children; and
(e) data breaches and reporting. Project privacy and video storage was a significant
ethical concern to ensure EU regulations were adhered to and that there was strict and
secure handling of the video footage. All video recordings were saved on the tablet and
uploaded to an Amazon Cloud storage server based in the EU via a secure connection
called the Swivl Cloud service. Once the video was recorded it was uploaded to the
Cloud and permanently deleted from the tablet. Recorded video data was stored on an
SD card in the tablet and both items were encrypted and secured with a pin. The
transfer of video between the tablet and the cloud storage server was over a secure SSL
connection and any recording made using the kit belonged to Hibernia College. Pre-
service teachers assigned to the treatment group signed a consent form stating that
copying or sharing of any recorded video material from the tablet to any other device,
service or email account was strictly prohibited and would result in penalties under the
GDPR ( 2016). Only the pre-service teacher and the research team had access to the
video footage. Pre-service teachers could not see any video footage of those taking part
in the research project.
The chain of data processing also needed to be considered to ensure the safety of the
video footage when it was in transit from the research team to the participant and vice
versa. The tablets were couriered to and from the treatment group schools in a locked
hard plastic case which was secured by a cable tie. The pre-service teacher was asked to
report if the cable ties had been tampered with while in transit. No such report was
communicated and all tablets were sent to and from the schools during the project
without any tampering. The pre-service teacher could only access the tablet by entering a
four-digit pin number that had been emailed to them personally and was unique to that
particular tablet and participant. When the pre-service teacher finished the recording, he/
she uploaded it to the Swivl Cloud platform via SSL to the Amazon Web Service in the
EU (London). Once the recording was uploaded the pre-service teacher was requested to
delete the recording from the tablet. Pre-service teachers could not download, copy or
share any video from the tablet as this facility had been removed using Parental Locking
Software that requires a pin number. The internal project team were the only people who
had access to this pin. When the pre-service teacher finished recording the lessons, the
recording device was then collected by courier and returned to the research team. When
the project was concluded, all video recordings were permanently deleted from the tablet
and from the cloud storage 30 days after the finish date of the project.
Education and Information Technologies

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Pre-service teachers’ experiences of using Swivl

The overwhelming response from the pre-service teachers in terms of the use of the
digital camera was positive – the cameras were largely seen as easy to setup and use.

‘I wouldn’t consider myself technologically sound or that brilliant at using it. I

found that it was easy to set up, easy to use. Go round, click a button, and just
have it work straight away’ (Swivl, ST 13)
‘The actual technology was so easy to use, the manual that we got in the box, it
had it point blank, straightforward and it was up in about five minutes, I’d say,
and ready to record. There were no issues whatsoever with it’ (Swivl, ST 6)

In relation to using the technology, a total of five pre-service teachers contacted the
research team to request support. These queries involved the tablet not powering on (n =
2) which was as a result of the tablet not being charged as advised. Another issue related
to pre-service teachers (n = 2) not being able to upload the video to the Swivl Cloud,
which was a result of the poor internet connection in the school. The final issue related to
a participant (n = 1) not being able to play back the recording on the tablet which was a
result of the tablet being set to ‘auto-delete’ after the upload. All issues were related to
the tablet rather than the Swivl technology and were easily rectified. More generally, the
participants found it was generally advisable to leave the device plugged in:

‘I did find that the battery was wearing down quite quickly…that’s why I would
advise anyone that is using it next time to just charge everything every night’
(Swivl, ST 15)
‘I found one day I’d started recording a maths lesson and according to my
knowledge it had been fully charged but…I found it had stopped after five
minutes of recording. So after that, I actually just left the actual Swivl head
plugged in’ (Swivl, ST 7)

The issues raised were relatively minor considering that the pre-service teachers had not used
the technology previously and the camera only arrived in their schools at the start of their
placement. In general, the types of support issues logged reflect the low level of familiarity
that participants had with the Swivl kits. These issues could be minimised in future projects
by sending the pre-service teachers the kits two weeks in advance of their school placement
so that they can become familiar with the kits. However, in the case of a number of
placements taking place in rural schools, poor Wi-Fi coverage proved a barrier in uploading
the video files (as well as using digital technologies more generally in their teaching):

‘The only barrier I had with it, was that in the school I was in, there was actually
no Wi-Fi…and then I brought it home, and then my upload stream wasn’t good
enough either…it would be rural enough’ (Swivl, ST 3)
‘And there was some days where my internet would not work in the school. So
that was a big burden I suppose on me. Especially because I was, kind of, out in a
country school, there was…nothing we could do about it’ (Swivl, ST 9)
 Education and Information Technologies

A few pre-service teachers reflected that they needed to experiment a little with the
placement of the camera in the classroom, to avoid window glare, ensure the full class
was in view (from behind) and also ensure the camera was placed in such a way that it
would not be knocked over by pupils or themselves:

‘I put Swivl near where there was a light source. So it had its back to the window
so that I could be seen properly…the position I put Swivl in was fairly useful so
that I could move around the classroom without banging into it, that the children
were able to move freely around the classroom...without there being a danger that
Swivl would be knocked over’ (Swivl, ST 13)

The size and general layout of the classroom proved a barrier for a couple of
participants, and a number faced difficulties in finding space to locate the tripod
holding the device:

‘…because the tripod, you might think it doesn’t take up that much space, but
when there isn’t that much space…its difficult’ (Swivl, ST 4)
‘I had a lot of kind of…space issues in that class…it was a tiny classroom and
there were 30 [pupils]…And there was no space…it was very awkward to set up
the Swivl…if I had more space I would have been able to keep it set up…but I
was constantly having to take it up and take it down, and then charge it…so that
probably impacted the amount I was able to use it’ (Swivl, ST 5)

Some participants would have liked greater guidance on how to explain the technology
to the pupils and how much information is considered appropriate for the age group
they were teaching:

‘I wasn’t really prepared…I would have loved to have read something…maybe a

little description of how you might explain it to children…a little bit more
guidance on what I would and what I should say to the children’ (Swivl, ST 4)

One pre-service teacher felt that explaining everything to the pupils at the outset took
considerable time from teaching time:

‘I was taking time out of the teacher’s time…to try to explain to the children…
their faces aren’t going to be on it, its pointed at me…some of them were very
worried about their faces being on the camera…that’s what took the longest time’
(Swivl, ST 4)

Many pre-service teachers felt that the camera did not impact on the behaviour of the
pupils, once they had become accustomed to it. Typically, the process of getting pupils
to become familiar with the camera was short:

‘To be honest the first time I had it on…some of the children would go over and
wave at it. But generally they just stopped looking at it and they just concentrated
on what I was doing…if I didn’t pay attention to it, they wouldn’t pay attention to
it’ (Swivl, ST 13)
Education and Information Technologies

One teacher left the camera on all the time, so pupils got used to it, while another
realised that such a strategy would have been worthwhile:

‘At the start it was a little bit of a distraction for them…[it was] a big novelty
having a camera in the room…So I kind of made a conscious effort to leave it on
all the time specifically for them to get used to it being there…they forgot about it
after a couple of days…we were able to just get on with it’ (Swivl, ST 15)
‘Certainly my main challenge was just the kids’ attention to it…they thought it
was a movie camera or something that was going to be seen by everybody. They
didn’t really understand that it was just for me and that no one else would see
them…maybe if it had been out a bit more they’d have been more normalised to
it’ (Swivl, ST 7)

As noted earlier, pre-service teachers used the cameras on a voluntary basis and it did
not form part of their assessment. In this context, it is not surprising that many did not
see using the camera regularly over the course of the placement as a priority, given the
many demands being placed on them during this, their second, school placement.
Hence, while it was recommended that they record at least three lessons spaced over
the beginning, middle and end of the five weeks in the classroom, to support their
ongoing self-reflection, many did not do so and the camera was more likely to be used
at the latter stages of the placement:

‘At times, like you are stressed out, and you’re like “Oh God, is this [Swivl] just
one other thing now I have to worry about?” Because you do have to worry about
it…you do feel like “Look I’ve volunteered…to be in this…I need to use it
properly, so that I get the best out of it. But also, I have a responsibility to the
research, that I conduct this properly”’ (Swivl, ST 5)
‘…there is so much kind of demand on your time for [school placement] and all
that kind of stuff…it was more the stress of “I didn’t get a lesson recorded. I need
to get one done”…its more so stress and time management or remember[ing] to
record a lesson…it didn’t end up being a priority’ (Swivl, ST 6)

It was clear that if the video recordings were part of the assessment process, pre-service
teachers would have given this greater attention:

‘Having supervisors coming in and waiting for the supervisors to come in, I felt
that was more of a priority than the actual Swivl…we’re not getting graded on
what we put up on Swivl’ (Swivl, ST 4)

3.2 Digital video and self-reflection

3.2.1 The process of self-reflection

The analysis provided strong evidence that the digital video footage was highly
supportive in pre-service teacher’s weekly self-reflection and in developing their self-
reflective practice. This was evident across almost all participants in the treatment
 Education and Information Technologies

group, regardless of their characteristics or the profile of the school in which they were
based.

‘I think reflection is quite a difficult thing so anything that can help you is
brilliant…like, you think back on a lesson and you’ll only pick out parts of it
whereas with the video you’ll see the whole thing’ (Swivl, ST 11)

There was also evidence that pre-service teachers in the control group found the process
of weekly reflection more difficult, in some cases struggling to remember aspects of the
lessons delivered:

‘I actually find them quite difficult to write, especially at the end of the week, you
kind of forget things…I think it is a bit hard to kind of look back and kind of pick
up on things you might change’ (NS ST 10)

Most participants in the treatment group viewed the video footage shortly after the
lesson/during a break or at the end of the school day. However, several suggested that
more time should be set aside specifically for this in order to maximise the potential of
the digital video to enhance practice:

‘I suppose you’d like more time to really, really analyse the videos that you’re
recording …when you’re on placement, it’s so important, time. You haven’t as
much time as you’d like to, you know, go into the real detail of the stuff’ (Swivl,
ST 3)

The benefits in terms of enhancing self-reflection, were often only achieved after initial
nervousness and embarrassment with viewing and hearing themselves on video:

‘I didn’t like watching myself. Especially, you kind of, find things that you don’t
even know that you do. Like I was twisting my hair a lot when I was talking and I
use my hands a lot when I’m speaking and I never would have noticed that. That
was quite, like, horrible to watch’ (Swivl, ST 8)
‘When you’re watching yourself back…sometimes I’ve found it a little bit
uncomfortable at times…“Oh God, did I really say that or did I really do that”’
(Swivl, ST 2)

Early research in this area raised the problem of “self-confrontation”, whereby viewing
a video of oneself teaching is a process of self-confrontation, which is difficult, stressful
and painful for some students (Fuller and Manning 1973). However, current students
are likely to have different feelings when they face the camera, given that they are
generally keen to share images and videos of themselves through social media and
increasingly students today have been accustomed to doing so from a very early age
(Xiao and Tobin 2018; List 2019). While some pre-service teachers did express some
initial self-consciousness, for most these feelings were quickly overcome. Even pre-
service teachers who considered themselves highly reflective practitioners at the outset
felt the process of viewing video recordings enhanced their awareness of themselves as
teachers:
Education and Information Technologies

‘There’s definitely a sort of weird quality to watching yourself teaching…it will

show you things that even if you are very self-analytical, and you think you’re
sort of “No, I definitely am very aware of how I am as a teacher”, I think you will
still find things out that you probably didn’t already know’ (Swivl ST 5)

Overall, there was widespread recognition of the benefits of video recording and
viewing oneself afterwards, and overcoming that initial embarrassment:

‘Obviously it is a little bit embarrassing looking at yourself on a video, but I

suppose when you get that out of your head, that the reason that it was recorded is
because you have to learn from the way you were teaching…the reason I need to
look back at this is because I have to find something that I can learn from or, you
know, change, or that I can improve on…I think putting aside the insecurities
makes it a lot easier’ (Swivl, ST 15)

3.2.2 Content and pace

As noted earlier, the digital camera greatly supported pre-service teachers in developing
their classroom management skills. For a number of participants, viewing the video
footage also led them to change the pace and content of the lessons:

‘I noticed that the kids were starting to get kind of loud and messing…between
like just transitions within a lesson…I was taking longer than I needed to…by
looking back on myself, it made me change my pacing of how I…explained
things…and keep the lessons more…on track and on pace’ (Swivl, ST 1)

The level at which the lessons were pitched was also reviewed by pre-service teachers
during their self-reflection, and in one case the pre-service teacher realised that the
language they were using was too advanced for the class:

‘I remember watching back…I was actually surprised. You know I just thought to
myself the language that I was using, was just far too advanced for them…And I
definitely think that if I didn’t have the camera I wouldn’t have noticed that’
(Swivl, ST 15)
‘[Swivl] opened my eyes to what I was doing and what I could do differently,
like, getting down to the kids’ level and stuff like that. At the start I realised I
wasn’t doing that too much but after watching the first video I was like “Oh, I
need to get down to their level more”, or, “I could have explained this better”’
(Swivl, ST 7)

3.2.3 Embodied aspects of teaching: Positioning

Earlier research has suggested that most ITE programmes emphasise the planned,
intentional and verbal aspects of teaching, focusing on lesson plans, written reflections
and journals. What these emphases leave out, however, is attention to helping teachers
 Education and Information Technologies

get better at the unplanned and embodied aspects of teaching (e.g. gesture, tone of
voice, facial expressions, position) (Xiao and Tobin 2018). Van Manen (1991) and
others have highlighted that such implicit and embodied knowledge plays a crucial but
understudied role in teacher preparation programmes. We examine how pre-service
teachers reflect on a number of embodied aspects of teaching – in particular, position-
ing and tone of voice. While the digital camera was predominantly viewed very
positively and seen as enhancing self-reflection, many observations raised by pre-
service teachers related to their positioning in the classroom. They noted that the video
footage enabled them to see how their positioning may have been less than optimal and
inclusive of all pupils:

‘It did definitely inform my teaching…I really focused too much on the right-
hand side of the class during that lesson and I had my back to…this person or that
other person too much, and I need to try and draw them into the lesson more…I
actually explained the most vital part of that lesson with my back to half the class’
(Swivl, ST 5)
‘[The camera] makes you feel how important it was to move around the class-
room and engage with everyone…It definitely showed me the importance of
walking around the classroom, and making sure that you’re looking…at what the
children are actually at. At different points, you can see in the videos that the
heads kind of go down on some of the students…they might be losing interest’
(Swivl, ST 3)

The process of reflecting on the video footage allowed some to see that their attention
was narrowly focused on a sub-group of pupils, or that they did not notice that some
pupils were not focused on the lesson:

‘I’m not as aware of the wider room as I thought I would have been…there was
one child that was, had their hand up for ages, and I don’t even know if I got to
his questions. And he was sitting there quietly. Whereas I was more aware of the
children that were jumping up and down’ (Swivl, ST 2)
‘And I remember that there was two – like, there was a few boys in the back of
the class, kind of, messing…in front of the camera and I had no idea that that was
happening until I watched back the video. And I even said to the teacher, I said “I
can’t believe I missed that”, you know’ (Swivl, ST 9)

3.2.4 Tone of voice

For many of the pre-service teachers using Swivl, the experience provided valuable
insights on the tone they took in teaching. While one pre-service teacher felt they had
been overly critical during the class, on reflection they realised that this was not the case:

‘I remember one day thinking, God I feel like I spent the whole day giving out to
them…have I become too strict, trying to get them to be quiet…and I looked
back on it, on the lesson I’d recorded, and…it wasn’t like that at all, and it was
coming across quite caring, and it was fine’ (Swivl, ST 1)
Education and Information Technologies

In contrast, another pre-service teacher had not realised that she came across as far more
serious than she thought:

‘The first one that I watched, I was actually surprised by how serious I came
across; I always thought I was quite fun in the classroom, and smiley…And I
looked so serious…I was really shocked’ (Swivl, ST 2)
‘I was watching how I used different tones…I was listening to my
different tones that I’d use for, like, different things. If I was
complimenting a student or I was teaching or something and, like, I
didn’t realise that I sounded like that. So it was a bit strange…it was
like I was a different person’ (Swivl, ST 8)

Not allowing the pupils sufficient time to participate and finish the points they were
making, was another observation by a number of pre-service teachers:

‘I found it really useful…I noticed I’m kind of, interrupting the children a bit
when they’re talking…It was more like they’d be talking and then I’d throw in
another question…I was interjecting and cutting over. So I’m conscious of that
now, I’m aware of that’ (Swivl ST 10)

4 The potential to use digital technology: In assessment and for newly

qualified teacher self-reflection

The participants in this study used digital camera technology during one of
their ITE school placements. While the placement was assessed (and graded) by
external examiners visiting the school during the placement, the video footage
was not incorporated into the assessment, to ensure consistency between the
treatment and control groups. Both groups were asked to reflect on the role
digital video might play in teacher assessment in the future. A large share of
the study group found the presence of the inspector in the classroom intimi-
dating. The alternative of viewing submitted video footage was seen as prefer-
able by some:

‘When the inspector lands in, you’re kind of on edge…whereas if you have
something like this [Swivl] it would be brilliant to be able to show them, as they
don’t necessarily see the best you, because you know, you’re uptight and you’re
kind of nervous’ (Swivl, ST 3)
‘If you could submit, kind-of, multiple lessons. If you could pick three or four
lessons over a few weeks…I think that would be fair…sometimes you’d have a
lesson and afterwards you’d be kind-of like “Oh my God, that was amazing, I
wish he came”’ (NS ST 3)

‘I think most people will tell you they never do their best lesson for the
inspector…nerves and everything comes into play. Like you can do some great
work and nobody ever gets to see it’ (NS ST 9)
 Education and Information Technologies

However, the traditional face-to-face inspection was seen as the preferred approach for
a couple of interviewees:

‘I’d probably stick with the inspector face-to-face…it’s nice to have the feedback
on the lesson straight away while it’s kind of fresh in your mind and well
obviously it’s fine to re-watch it and stuff but…getting feedback there would
be better’ (NS ST 17)

Finally, combining both face-to-face and video assessment was seen as the optimal
approach for a few members of the treatment and control groups.

‘I think a mix of both would probably be good because…it can be nice for
someone to come into your room and get ideas and feedback from them. And it
can be very useful as well, it can give you great ideas. But yes, getting inspected
visually as well…it would be beneficial…it would probably be maybe a little less
stressful if it was a video recording’ (NS ST 8)

Overall, participants in the treatment group, who benefitted from Swivl cameras over
the course of their school placement, reflected positively on their experience.

‘It was hugely beneficial… I really think it helped…I kind of became attached to
it’ (Swivl, ST 1)
‘I’d definitely use it again’ (Swivl ST 8)
‘I would definitely recommend it to anyone now that wants to use it…It’s so
effective, so beneficial. I learned so much from it…I was delighted to get the
opportunity to do it’ (Swivl, ST 15)

Members of the control group, who were aware their peers had received the digital
cameras, were also predominantly positive about the potential for digital video to
enhance their self-reflective practice and were open to using Swivl in a subsequent
placement. Their reasons repeat many of the experiences of the pre-service teachers
who did use this technology (enhancing self-reflection, classroom management and
overall effectiveness in the classroom):

‘I think it would be brilliant…I’d love to see what I’m missing out on.
Like maybe I think I’m giving the three weaker children in my class lots
of attention, but maybe I’m not…I think in that sense it would be
fantastic’ (NS ST 9)
‘I think there’d be a lot of advantages [using Swivl]…it gives you an opportunity
to look back on what you’ve done and be more reflective…You might spot things
that have maybe gone on in the classroom that you might have to address the next
day’ (NS ST 10)
‘Definitely being able to just look back…Hindsight when you’re using
your memory is great, but actually to watch, see did someone put their
hand up and I didn’t see them? Did someone tell me they didn’t under-
stand something and I said “I’ll come back to you” and then I didn’t’ (NS
ST 11)
Education and Information Technologies

The potential for digital video to support ongoing self-reflection once fully qualified
and working as a teacher was also noted by those who had used the cameras:

‘It’s invaluable, I was kind of thinking “God I wonder could you buy that now,
when you’re starting your, when you’re a teacher?”…I think for micro-teaching it
would be brilliant’ (Swivl, ST 1)
‘I think it would be very, very beneficial for teachers coming into the profession
and obviously still learning. Obviously you’re always learning, but kind of
getting to grips on everything and all that kind of stuff, I think it would be
amazing’ (Swivl, ST 6)

5 Limitations

A number of limitations can noted. The study is based on in-depth qualitative inter-
views with 35 pre-service teachers in their second year of study. Many qualitative
studies are based on far fewer participants, so the scale of the study is not considered
problematic. However, the selection of the participants was based on pre-service
teachers opting in, which may lead to some selection effects. It is accepted that pre-
service teachers who are more open to using technology and perhaps more likely to be
early adopters, were perhaps more likely to self-select. In allocating pre-service
teachers to treatment and control groups based on a theoretical sampling frame, it is
hoped that the group is sufficiently diverse to allow some conclusions to be drawn in
respect of pre-service teachers in general. However, it is acknowledged that there
would have been merit in undertaking an initial screening of pre-service teachers,
thereby allowing us to take account of variables such as motivation for studying teacher
education and prior experience with video-based reflection in the selection process. We
accept that quantitative instruments are increasingly used to establish the existing
knowledge of subjects (PlÖger et al. 2018) and this could have enriched our study.
The data collection took place at one point in time only (at the end of school
placement), and no repeated measurements were undertaken. Further, the data collec-
tion method is purely qualitative, no quantitative assessment was used for this study.
However, research has repeatedly highlighted that in-depth qualitative interviews can
provide a rich insight into the lived experience of participants, including in ITE
(Eriksson et al. 2018).
The study is based at one institution only and, although the largest provider of ITE,
may not represent experience across ITEs more widely in Ireland. Evidence in Ireland
shows the importance of context effects (McCoy et al. 2014), and internationally
commentators have noted that ‘university courses are not artificial laboratory situations,
but rather complex settings, in which a number of institutional, contextual and indi-
vidual determinants can have an influence on learning success’ (PlÖger et al. 2018,
p.202). Larger scale studies across diverse institutions may be required to make
substantial claims about the value of digital video, and Swivl in particular, in ITE.
Ideally, such studies would also be longitudinal in nature. However, it should be noted
that Ireland is a particularly interesting case study, given significant restructuring of ITE
in recent years and the particular policy emphasis on supporting reflective practice and
 Education and Information Technologies

placement opportunities for pre-service teachers. In common with a number of Euro-

pean countries, Ireland is facing a teacher supply challenge at both primary and
secondary levels at present, making innovations in ITE and the integration of blended
and online learning modes even more pertinent and of particular policy relevance.
Finally, while video technology has grown in terms of usability and accessibility,
few (if any) studies outside of the US have systematically assessed the use of Swivl
technology in the classroom. In examining its potential application among a cohort of
pre-service teachers in Ireland, this study paves the way for larger-scale testing across
ITE and in-service professional development in Ireland and beyond.

6 Conclusion

This paper explored the role of digital observation within teacher education as a tool for
engaging pre-service teachers in reflective practice during school placement. Research
has repeatedly highlighted the centrality of self-reflection in enhancing pre-service
teachers’ development and enhancement of their efficacy in the classroom (Major
and Watson 2018; McKenney and Visscher 2019; Niemi and Jakku-Sihvonen 2006;
Freese 2006). ITE has also seen a move towards reflective practice occurring in
contexts which are less focused on direct, prescriptive forms of surveillance and
control, towards more self-directed, autonomous and indirect methods (Smyth 1993).
The potential for digital observation to enhance opportunities for self-reflection has
been shown by the BFF research at Harvard University (Kane et al. 2016). For
participating teachers, the BFF findings showed that the use and selection of videos
allowed for greater self-reflection among the treatment group. In fact, the study showed
this group to be more self-critical rating their instruction lower than the control group.
Similarly, across a range of countries, the evidence shows the potential of video
technology in ITE – pre-service teachers can more easily assess the complexities of
their classroom and critically examine their own practice when using video technology
(Chilton and McCracken 2017; Osmanoglu 2016; Harford and MacRuairc 2008).
However, Swivl technology has not been applied in other systems, so this study
addresses an important question – are the latest innovations in video technology (like
Swivl) as supportive of pre-service teacher self-reflection in other educational systems?
In other words, does Swivl technology enhance pre-service teacher reflection in a non-
US education system with vastly different historical origins, structure and orientation?
The study assessed the potential of Swivl digital technology to support self-
reflection for a group of pre-service teachers, comparing their experiences to a control
group who did not receive the technology. Drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews
with 35 pre-service teachers in the largest ITE in Ireland, this paper examined their
experience of the use of video technology over the course of a seven-week school
placement (five weeks of which they were teaching). The paper is underpinned by three
research questions the first asking how did pre-service teachers experience using the
digital video? The vast majority were positive and found the technology user friendly
and reliable. However, the pre-service teachers raised important points which any
future adoption of this type of technology might usefully address, thereby ensuring
that technological innovations can serve as valuable in practice and not just in theory
(McKenney 2013). While participants received a presentation and webinar on the use
Education and Information Technologies

of the technology, some would have liked more information on explaining the tech-
nology in an age-appropriate way to the pupils in their class. Earlier access to the digital
video technology would have been beneficial - the technology arrived in schools as the
placements were about to commence giving participants little opportunity to familiarise
themselves with it. Wi-Fi difficulties created barriers in some school settings, particu-
larly in more rural areas, a challenge for using digital technologies more generally in
some areas of the country (Coyne et al. 2016; Mohan et al. 2020). GDPR legislation
required strict protocols to be put in place, and meant that some pre-service teachers
were unable to participate owing to insufficient numbers of parents consenting. Ensur-
ing the highest ethical standards are adhered to is vital, but the research highlights the
considerable time and resources required to ensure all EU GDPR standards are
followed.
Our second question addressed the role of the digital video in supporting self-
reflective practice, given that the integration of technology should always aim at
pedagogical goals rather than be supported by technological motives (Farjon et al.
2019). The results showed that the vast majority of participants were highly positive
about the opportunity, identifying diverse ways in which video footage enhanced their
self-reflection and supported them in critically evaluating their practice:

‘I think everyone should nearly have an opportunity to see themselves, even if it

was only for ten minutes, to look at yourself, how you stand, how you talk, your
actions. Just to see that alone, is worth anything; because you know a picture tells
a thousand words’ (Swivl, ST 3)

There was little doubt that video technology provided valuable and authentic ways for
pre-service teachers to reflect on their practice. In line with recent research (Xiao and
Tobin 2018), digital video provided a powerful tool for bringing attention to the often-
overlooked embodied dimensions of teaching, as well as non-embodied aspects.
‘Paying attention to and systematically reflecting on embodied practices can make a
meaningful difference in the development of teacher’s professional skills … when pre-
service teachers reflect on what they see as shortcomings in their teaching in their
videos, they may respond by intentionally modifying the bodily techniques the next
time they teach, which will gradually revise their habitus as a teacher’ (Xiao and Tobin
2018, p.342). Following the goals of the Teaching Council (2017), which oversees
teacher education and professional development in Ireland, video technology can
support the development of a more reflective, enquiry-based approach to school
placement. Building video into the reflection process opens the door to reflection in
action, rather than merely reflection on action (Schön 1983; Weber et al. 2018).
Finally, in response to our third research question, the study provides rich insights
which could usefully inform the future use of video technology in ITE and professional
development more widely. While based on experiences among pre-service teachers in
one institution, the study provides valuable lessons for the use of digital video in
teacher professional development more broadly, not just in Ireland. Teachers in the
control group remarked that they would like the opportunity to use the technology,
while those in the treatment group felt they would benefit from further opportunities to
use the video, either during their ITE or as newly qualified teachers. Many spoke of
their confidence in using digital technologies, having grown up in the digital age. While
 Education and Information Technologies

the technology itself was regarded as efficient and reliable, the evidence highlights
significant barriers posed by EU GDPR rules, and the complexities inherent in inte-
grating video technology into the classroom in these contexts. At the very least, careful
and lengthy planning and strict protocols are required to ensure that all requirements are
met, and this is likely to place a considerable burden on teacher educators, pre−/in-
service teachers and school leaders.

References

Barth-Cohen, L. A., Little, A. J., & Abrahamson, D. (2018). Building reflective practices in a pre-service math
and science teacher education course that focuses on qualitative video analysis. Journal of Science
Teacher Education, 29(2), 83–101.
Bengtsson, J. (1995). What is reflection? On reflection in the teaching profession and teacher education.
Teachers and Teaching, 1(1), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1354060950010103.
Bolton, M. (2010). Fly on the wall: Using teleconferencing to supervise student teacher performance. Journal
of Open, Flexible, and Distance Learning, 14(1), 62–76.
Calderhead, J. and Gates, P. (Eds.). (1993). Conceptualising reflection in teacher development, UK: Presented
at the 6th SITE, San Antonio, Texas.
Chilton, H., & McCracken, W. (2017). New technology, changing pedagogies? Exploring the concept of
remote teaching placement supervision. Higher Education Pedagogies, 2(1), 116–130.
Christ, T., Arya, P. & Chiu, M. M. (2014). Teachers’ reports of learning and application to pedagogy based on
engagement in collaborative peer video analysis. Teacher Education, 25(4), pp.349–374.
Cornock, M. (2018). General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and implications for research. Retrieved
from: https://www.maturitas.org/article/S0378-5122(18)30036-7/pdf
Coyne, B., Devitt, N., Lyons, S., & McCoy, S. (2016). Perceived benefits and barriers to the use of high-speed
broadband in Ireland’s second-level schools. Irish Educational Studies, 34(4), 355–378.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn from international
practice? European Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1080
/02619768.2017.1315399.
Dyke, M., Harding, A., & Liddon, S. (2008). How can online observation support the assessment and
feedback, on classroom performance, to trainee teachers at a distance and in real time? Journal of
Further and Higher Education, 32(1), 37–46.
Eriksson, E., Boistrup, L. B., & Thornberg, R. (2018). A qualitative study of primary teachers’ classroom
feedback rationales. Educational Research, 60(2), 189–205.
Eroz-Tuga, B. (2013). Reflective feedback sessions using video recordings. ELT Journal, 67(2), 175–183.
Farjon, D., Smits, A., & Voogt, J. (2019). Technology integration of pre-service teachers explained by
attitudes and beliefs, competency, access and experience. Computers and Education, 130, 81–93.
Flores. (2014). From evaluation to collaborative reflection: Teacher candidate perceptions of a digital learner-
centered classroom observation form. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 22(4), 401–421.
Freese, A. (2006). Reframing one’s teaching: Discovering our teacher selves through reflection and inquiry.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(8), 895–909.
Fuller, F. F., & Manning, B. A. (1973). Self-confrontation reviewed: A conceptualization for video playback
in teacher education. Review of Educational Research, 43(4), 469–528.
General Data Protection Regulation (2016). 2016/679: European Union. Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.
eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj
Gold, B., & Holodynski, M. (2017). Using digital video to measure the professional vision of elementary
classroom managament: Test validation and metholdogical challenges. Computers and Education, 107,
13–30.
Harford, J., & MacRuairc, G. (2008). Engaging student teachers in meaningful reflective practice. Teaching
and Teacher Education, 24, 1884–1892.
Kane, T.J., Gehlbach, H., Greenberg, M., Quinn, D. and Thal, D. (2016). "The best foot forward project:
Substituting teacher-collected video for in-person classroom observations. First year implementation
report", US: Harvard University.
Education and Information Technologies

Keppens, K., Consuegra, E., Goosens, M., Maeyer, S. D., & Vanderlinde, R. (2019). Measuring pre-service
teachers’ professional vision of inclusive classrooms: A video-based comparative judgement instrument.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 78, 1–14.
Korthagan, F., & Kessels, J. (1999). Linking theory and practice: Changing the pedagogy of teacher education.
Educational Researcher, 28(4), 4–17.
Korthagen, F. (2001). Linking practice and theory: the pedagogy of realistic teacher education. New Jersey:
Routledge.
Larrivee, B. (2008). Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice. Reflective Practice,
9, 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623940802207451.
Lebak, K. (2017). Using video-supported reflection in peer groups to increase instructional effectiveness.
Reflective Practice International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 18(1), 94–111.
Liang, J. (2015). Live video classroom observation: An effective approach to reducing reactivity in collecting
observational information for teacher professional development. Journal of Education for Teaching,
41(3), 235–253.
List, A. (2019). Defining digital literacy development:An examination of pre-service teachers’ beliefs.
Computers and Education, 138, 146–158.
Mabunda, P. L. (2013). Towards a theoretical framework for the use of ICT strategies for teaching practicum
supervision. Africa Education Review, 10(1), 7–27.
Maclean, R., & White, S. (2007). Video reflection and the formation of teacher identity in a team of pre-
service and experienced teachers. Reflective Practice, 8(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1080
/14623940601138949.
Major, L., & Watson, S. (2018). Using video to support in-service teachers professional development: The
state of the field, limitations and possibilities. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 27(1), 49–68.
Marsh, B., & Mitchell, N. (2014). The role of video in teacher professional development. Teacher
Development, 18(3), 403–417.
McCoy, S., Smyth, E., Watson, D., & Darmody, D. (2014). Leaving School in Ireland: A longitudinal study of
post school transitions. Dublin: ESRI https://www.esri.ie/system/files/media/fileuploads/2015-07/RS36.
pdf.
McKenney, S. (2013). Designing and researching technology-enhanced learning for the zone of prximal
implementation. Research in Learning Technology, 21, 17374.
McKenney, S., & Visscher, A. J. (2019). Technology for teacher learning and performance. Technology,
Pedagogy and Education, 28(2), 129–132.
Mohan, G., McCoy, S., Carroll, E., Mihut, G., Lyons, S. and MacDomhnaill, C. (2020). Learning for all?
Second-level education in Ireland during COVID-19, Dublin: Economic and Social Research Institute.
ISBN 978-0-7070-0529-4, https://doi.org/10.26504/sustat92.pdf
Newhouse, P. C., Lane, J., & Brown, C. (2007). Reflecting on teaching practices using digital video
representation in teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), 51–62.
Ní Chróinín, D., & O'Sullivan, M. (2014). From initial teacher education through induction and beyond: A
longitudinal study of primary teacher beliefs. Irish Educational Studies, 33(4), 451–466. https://doi.
org/10.1080/03323315.2014.984387.
Niemi, H., & Jakku-Sihvonen, R. (2006). Research-based teacher education in Finland. In R. Jakku-Sihvonen
& H. Niemi (Eds.), Research-based teacher education in Finland – Reflections by Finnish teacher
educators (pp. 31–51). Finnish Educational Research Association: Turku.
Osmanoglu, A. (2016). Prospective teachers’ teaching experience: Teacher learning through the use of video.
Educational Research, 58(1), 39–55.
PlÖger, W., Scholl, D., & Seifert, A. (2018). Bridging the gap between theory and practice – The effective use
of videos to assist the acquisition and application of pedagogical knowledge in pre-service teacher
education. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 58, 197–204.
Quinn, D. M., Kane, K. J., Greenberg, M., & Thal, D. (2018). Effects of a video-based teacher observation
program on the de-privatization of instruction: Evidence from a randomized experiment. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 54(4), 529–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X18764333.
Rhine, S., & Bryant, J. (2007). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ reflective practice with digital video-based
dialogue. Reflective Practice International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 8(3), 345–358.
Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teaching
College Record, 104(4), 842–866.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Smith, J. (2012). Initial teacher education in Ireland: transformation in the policy context. In F. Waldron, J.
Smith, M. Fitzpatrick, & T. Dooley (Eds.), Re-imagining initial teacher education: Perspectives on
transformation. Dublin: The Liffey Press.
 Education and Information Technologies

Smyth, J. (1993). Reflective practice in teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 18(1).
https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1993v18n1.2.
Teaching Council. (2011a). Initial teacher education: Criteria and guidelines for programme providers.
Maynooth: Teaching Council.
Teaching Council. (2011b). Initial teacher education: Strategy for the review and professional accreditation
of existing programmes. Maynooth: Teaching Council.
Teaching Council. (2017). Initial teacher education: Criteria and guidelines for Programme providers.
Maynooth: The Teaching Council.
Tunney, J. W., & van Es, E. (2016). Using video for teacher-educator professional development. The New
Educator, 12(1), 105–127.
Van Manen, M. (1991). The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness. London:
Routledge.
Waks, L. J. (1999). Reflective practice in the design studio and teacher education. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 31(3), 303–316.
Wang, R., Dunne, L. and Rowe, J. (2008). The Exeter pathfinder journey. The Higher Education Academy.
Weber, K. E., Gold, B., Prilop, C. N., & Kleinknecht, M. (2018). Promoting pre-service teachers’ professional
vision of classroom management during practical school training: Effects of a structured online- and
video-based self-reflection and feedback intervention. Teaching and Teacher Education, 76, 39–39.
Wenzlaff, T. (1994). Training the student to be a reflective practitioner. Education, 115(2), 278–288.
Xiao, B., & Tobin, J. (2018). The use of video as a tool for reflection with preservice teachers. Journal of
Early Childhood Teacher Education, 39(4), 328–345.
Youens, B., Smethem, L., & Sullivan, S. (2014). Promoting collaborative practice and reciprocity in initial
teacher education: Realising a ‘dialogic space’ through video capture analysis. Journal of Education for
Teaching International Research and Pedagogy, 40(2), 101–113.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.