Dies Sel 1992

Claus F. K.
Diessel
Coal-Bearing
Depositional Systems
With 356 Figures and 40 Tables
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
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Claus F. K. Diessel
Professor of Geology
Department of Geology
The University of Newcastle
Newcastle, NSW 2308
Australia
ISBN-13:978-3-642-75670-2 e-ISBN-13:978-3-642-75668-9
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-75668-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Diessel, C. F. K.
Coal-bealing depositional systems / Claus F. K. Diessel. Includes bibliographical
references and indexes.
ISBN-i3:978-3-642-75670-2 (alk. paper)
1. Coal- Geology. 2: Facies (Geology) - Analysis. I. Title. TNS02.D47

1992 553.2'4 - dc20
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Preface
Because of the upsurge in coal exploration over the last two decades,
geological knowledge of coal has advanced at an increasing rate.
This activity has led to a considerable degree of specialisation among
the geological disciplines serving the coal industry, but there has
also been a convergence of knowledge, in the sense that today there
is a greater awareness of the close genetic links between organic and
inorganic sediments which share the same depositional environment.
At the beginning of this century, studies of the depositional
conditions of coal seams were initiated by botanists and botanically
oriented coal petrologists. Later, when the cyclicity of many coal-
bearing strata was recognised, geological aspects began to dominate
the discussions which currently are centred upon auto-sedimentational
models. The result is that much of the study of coal deposition is
carried out by sedimentologists who spend time and effort on an
interpretation of the interseam sediments but hardly ever look at
the coal itself. Conversely, coal petrologists usually leave the roof
and floor strata to the sedimentologists, and both leave the fossils
to the palaeontologists, with the result that all three tend to under-
utilise each other's rich source of geological information.
Authors of keynote addresses and editors of conference volumes
and symposia proceedings on coal have been lamenting the lack of
integration of coal geological knowledge obtained from different
branches of the discipline (e.g. Collinson and Scott 1987; McCabe
1984, 1987; Rahmani and Flores 1984; Scott 1987). The reason for
this dilemma is that coal science is a complex subject. It incorporates
both organic and inorganic aspects which are often difficult to co-
ordinate. In this monograph, I have tried to build a bridge across
the conceptual gap between coal petrology and sedimentology.
However, any possible merit ofthis approach lies more in the inspira-
tion it might give to others rather than in the perfection of its cons-
truction. It was tempting to extend the scope of the work into the
realms of palaeobotany and geochemistry, but, apart from a brief
review of geochemical applications, the subject matter has been
largely restricted to coal petrology and sedimentology. Only when
additional information from other areas of specialisation was needed,
reference was made to the respective fields of interest.
VI Preface
This monograph is neither a textbook nor a research report

although it has aspects of both. It has been written in the style of
a textbook but much of its contents is the outcome of hitherto un-
published original research into the causal links between coal proper-
ties and geological setting. The analytical approach to this problem
is reflected in the relatively small number of examples which have
been selected in order to argue the case for coal facies analysis as a
useful tool in palaeo-environmental reconstruction on several levels.
Geological "proof" is often based on the principle of internal
consistency among the results obtained by different analytical
methods. The promotion of coal petrology as one of those methods
is designed to heighten the awareness of the many possibilities the
technique has to offer to students of palaeo-environmental analysis.
Since this aspect is of concern not only to the coal geologist, I hope
that also other members of the geological fraternity will find it useful.
It is only natural that the chosen examples reflect my own ex-
perience which has been mainly in bituminous coal in Australia and
Germany with only occasional glimpses of other areas. This restric-
tion should not be seen as a disadvantage, because it covers two
geologically and economically significant coal-producing regions,
one of which (Australia) has had less exposu.r;e in the world literature
than it deserves on account of its economic significance and diversity
of coal-forming conditions.
More importantly, it is not the purpose of this monograph to
give a generalised geological history of the world's coal deposits and
their geological settings but to present coal facies analysis as a sophis-
ticated method in palaeo-environmental reconstruction. In view of
this aim, it might seem incongruous that I have made so much use
of maceral analyses of composite coal seams rather than of micro-
lithotype analyses obtained from pillar samples. The reason for the
emphasis on the simpler maceral analyses of composite seam sections
and subsections is the desire to make available to fundamental
research the many routine coal analyses which are carried out daily
in many commercial coal laboratories all over the world. In their
present form, most of them are unsuitable for palaeo-environmental
enquiry, but, at the expense of little effort and no extra costs, they
can become a rich and, as yet, under-utilised source of information.
Much of the material presented in the text has been synthesised
from ideas which evolved during discussions with my colleagues and
students. Space does not permit to list them all, but among the persons
who, knowingly or not, had an influence on the ideas formulated in
the text, the following deserve special thanks for discussions about
sedimentary and coal-forming environments: Boris Alpern, Ron
Boyd, Tom Callcott, Alex Cameron, Alan Cook, Hans Fiichtbauer,
Martin Gibling, Fariborz Goodarzi, Peter Hacquebard, Wolfgang
Kalkreuth, David Marchioni, Peter Martini, Ted Milligan, Noreen
Preface VII
Morris, Dale Leckie, Ray Rahmani, Brian Rust, Klaus Strehlau, Geoff
Taylor, Marlies Teichmiiller, Peter Vail, Bob Wagner, Roger Walker,
Peter Warbrooke, Monika Wolf, Evamarie Wolff-Fischer and
Winfried Zimmerle.
John Calder, Martin Gibling, David Gibson, Michael Lawson,
David Marchioni and Ray Rahmani introduced me to Canadian,
and Carol Bacon to Tasmanian coalfields. Rupert van den Berg gave
me a glimpse of the Karroo Basin, while Phillipa Black, and Jane
and Nigel Newman paved my way to New Zealand's coalfields.
My teacher, the late Marie-Therese Mackowsky, and the
Bergbau-Forschung GmbH, as well as my parents-in-law, Gertrud
and Wilhelm Schafer, have been generous hosts on several study
tours of the Ruhr Basin. Of particular significance for the contents
of this monograph has been a four months' stay at the Ruhr-
Universitat Bochum which was financially supported by the German
Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). It enabled me to test some
concepts and analysis procedures, originally developed for Permian
cold-climate Gondwana coals on warm-climate Carboniferous coals,
and to prove their portability. In this context, thanks are also due
to The University of Newcastle, N.S.W., for relieving me from my lec-
turing duties through its Outside Studies Program. The University's
Institute of Coal Research and its Director, Konrad Moelle, are thanked
for making available a computer for the preparation of the manu-
script.
The work in Germany was greatly assisted by many people. In
particular I wish to thank Albrecht Rabitz of the Geologisches
Landesamt Nordrhein-Westfalen for directing me to field outcrops
in the Ruhr Valley, and making valuable suggestions. Ronald Conze,
Eric David, Frank David and Thomas Kraft of the Ruhr-Universitat
Bochum assisted in core logging and outcrop surveys in the Ruhr
Basin. Werner Pfisterer, Herbert Schniggenfittich and Heinz-Herbert
Sawitzki of the Ruhrkohle AG-BAG Lippe made available bore
cores, logs, analysis results and many coal samples from the Ruhr
Basin. Additional support by Australian individuals and organisations
is acknowledged in the text.
Janice Crawford, Wal Crebert, Esad Krupic, Larissa Gammidge,
Geraldene McKenzie and Jocelyn Pitts of The University of Newcastle,
N.S.W., assisted in photography, drafting, laboratory and secretarial
work. Beth McHugh read most of the text while Greg Dean-Jones,
Luise Diessel, Ron Boyd and Robin OIDer read parts of it. All made
many valuable suggestions which improved both subject matter and
literary style of the manuscript. The former Head of the Geology
Department, Ian Plimer, is thanked for keeping my workplace
reasonably free from unwanted interference when the pressure was
on, while my wife, Luise, deserves much credit for providing untiring
support throughout the project.
VIII Preface
Some of the figures and part of the text presented here have been
taken from an AMF course manual entitled Coal Geology, which I
prepared in support of a series of workshops held between 1980 and
1985 in Adelaide (SA), Newcastle (NSW), Christchurch (NZ), and
Bandung (Indonesia). I wish to express my gratitude to the Australian
Mineral Foundation Inc. and its former Director, Dean Crowe, for
the permission to use this material.
Finally, I thank the Springer-Verlag, in particular Wolfgang
Engel, for having initiated the project. Monika Huch, Gustava HeB,
and their colleagues in the Abteilung Copyediting and Abteilung
Herstellung deserve much credit for their counsel and care in the
preparation and printing of the manuscript.
Newcastle, NSW, June 1992 Claus F. K. Diessel

Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. V
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 The Conditions of Peat Formation 5

2.1 Peatland Ecology . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Coastal Marshes and Swamps . . 12
2.1.1.1 The Marine Influence on Peat Accumulation 13
2.1.1.2 The Influence of Marine Transgressions
and Regressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.2 Fresh-Water Peatlands . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2.1 Upper Delta and Alluvial Plain Swamps,
Marshes and Bogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2.2 Limnic Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Peat Composition and Peat-Forming Plants 18
2.3 Climate and Peat Accretion . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Evolutionary Trends in Peat and Coal Formation 32
3 The Coalification Process 41

3.1 Biochemical Coalification 41
3.1.1 The Vitrinitisation Path . 49
3.1.2 The Fusinitisation Path . 58
3.1.3 Plant-Specific Coal Components. 68
3.2 Physico-Chemical Coalification 71
3.2.1 The Concept of Coal Rank . . . . 74
3.2.1.1 Solubility in Alkali Hydroxides . 75
3.2.1.2 Moisture Content and Specific Energy 75
3.2.1.3 Volatile Matter and Fixed Carbon .. 75
3.2.1.4 Elemental Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.1.5 Vitrinite Reflectance and Other Physical Rank
Parameters ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.2 The Effects of Pressure, Temperature and Time 81
x Contents
4 Coal Petrographic Entities 87

4.1 Macerals........... 88
4.1.1 The Huminite/Vitrinite Group . 90
4.1.1.1 The Humotelinite/Telovitrinite Subgroup 90
4.1.1.2 The Humodetrinite/Detrovitrinite Subgroup 100
4.1.1.3 The Humocollinite/Gelovitrinite Subgroup 102
4.1.2 The Inertinite Group .... .. 103
4.1.2.1 The Telo-Inertinite Subgroup 104
4.1.2.2 The Detro-Inertinite Subgroup 109
4.1.2.3 The Gelo-Inertinite Subgroup 112
4.1.3 The Liptinite Group 112
4.1.3.1 Primary Liptinites . 113
4.1.3.2 Secondary Liptinites 121
4.1.4 Maceral Analysis .. 121
4.2 Microlithotypes... 123
4.2.1 Microlithotype Analyses 124
4.2.2 The Relationship Between Microlithotypes
and Macerals . . . 127
4.3 Lithotypes................. 127
4.3.1 Lithotype Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.2 The Relationship Between Lithotypes,
Macerals and Microlithotypes 135
4.4 Minerals........ 137
4.4.1 Phytogenic Minerals . 138
4.4.2 Adventitious Minerals 140
4.4.2.1 Silicate Minerals .. 141
4.4.2.2 Silica Minerals ... 149
4.4.2.3 Carbonate Minerals 150
4.4.2.4 Phosphate Minerals 151
4.4.2.5 Sulphide Minerals 154
4.4.3 Mineral Analysis .. 157
5 Coal Facies and Depositional Environment . . . . . .. 161

5.1 Phyterals and Macerals in Palaeo-Environmental
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.1 Botanical Attributes of Macerals 162
5.1.1.1 The Topogenous Model
of Densosporinite Formation. 168
5.1.1.2 The Ombrogenous Model
of Densosporinite Formation . 172
5.1.1.3 Densosporinite as Part of a Sedimentary Sequence 174
5.1.2 Scalar Properties of Macerals 177
5.1.2.1 The Tissue Preservation Index 181
5.1.2.2 The Gelification Index. . . . . 189
Contents XI
5.2 Microlithotypes as Tools in Palaeo-Environmental

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.2.1 Microlithotype Proportions and Bandwidth .. 192
5.2.2 Hacquebard's Double Triangle . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.3 Lithotypes as Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 199
5.3.1 Black Coal Lithotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.3.2 Brown Coal Lithotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.4 Optical Properties as Palaeo-Environmental
Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.4.1 Vitrinite Fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.4.2 Vitrinite Reflectance and Other Rank Parameters 223
5.5 Geochemical Palaeo-Environmental Signatures .... 228
5.5.1 Elements of Palaeo-Environmental Significance 228
5.5.1.1 Sulphur ... . 240
5.5.1.2 Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.5.1.3 Other Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.5.2 Organic Geochemical Characteristics 245
5.5.2.1 Alkanes 248
5.5.2.2 Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . 250
5.5.2.3 Isoprenoids . . . . . . . . 251
5.5.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds 255
5.5.2.5 Aromatic Compounds . . 256
5.5.2.6 Amino Acids . . . . . . . 257
5.6 Epiclastic Minerals and Palaeo-Environments. 258
5.7 Summary of Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 261
6 The Relationship Between Coal

and- Interseam Sediments . . . 265
6.1 Some Characteristics and Properties
of Interseam Sediments . . . . . . . . 266
6.1.1 Single Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.1.1.1 Origin and Composition of Single Particles 267
6.1.1.2 Particle Size . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.1.1.3 Particle Shape and Roundness . . 271
6.1.2 Depositional Fabric . . . . . . . . 272
6.1.2.1 Classification of Fabric Elements 272
6.1.2.2 Types of Aggregation .. 274
6.1.2.3 Symmetry Relationships 276
6.1.3 Coal Measure Structures 280
6. t .3.1 Stratification 280
6.1.3.2 Bed Undulations . . . . . 282
6.1.3.3 Cross-Stratification 287
6.1.3.4 Surface and Sole Markings 290
6.1.4 Coal Measure Lithosomes 297
6.1.4.1 Natural Gamma-Ray Log 301
XII Contents
6.1.4.2 Density (Gamma-Gamma) Log 302

6.1.4.3 Neutron-Neutron Log . . . . . . . . 302
6.1.4.4 Caliper Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.1.4.5 Sonic Properties . . . . . . 303
6.1.4.6 Resistivity Log ... . ..... 303
6.1.4.7 Spatial Attitude .. . 303
6.1.4.8 Combination Tools 304
6.1.4.9 Data Management . . ..... 305
6.2 Coal Seams and Their Floor Rocks 306
6.3 Coal Seams and Their Roof Rocks 311
6.3.1 Concordant Coal/Roof Couples .. . . . . . . . .. 312
6.3.1.1 Abrupt Contacts Between Coal and Roof Rocks ... 312
6.3.1.2 Gradational Contacts Between Coal
and Roof Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6.3.2 Discordant Coal/Roof Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6.3.2.1 Coal/Roof Discordance Due to Unequal Loading . 330
6.3.2.2 Coal/Roof Discordance Due to Erosion . . . . . . . 336
6.4 Coal Seam Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.4.1 Seam Splitting Due to Differential Subsidence 343
6.4.2 Seam Splitting Due to Autosedimentational Causes 346
7 Coal-Producing Sedimentary Environments . . . . . . . 349

7.1 The Braid Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
7.1.1 The Gravelly Braid Plain . . . . . . . . . . 360
7.1.2 The Sandy Braid Plain . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.1.3 The Coals of the Braid Plain . . . . . . . . 374
7.2 The Alluvial Valley and Upper Delta Plain 380
7.2.1 The Point Bar . . . . . . . . 385
7.2.2 The Flood Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.2.3 The Flood Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
7.2.4 The Coals of the Alluvial Valley
and Upper Delta Plain .. . 404
7.3 The Lower Delta Plain .. . 409
7.3.1 The Prodelta . . . . . . . . . 410
7.3.2 The Delta Front . . . . . . . 411
7.3.3 The Distributary Channel 413
7.3.4 The Interdistributary Bay . . . . . .. 416
7.3.5 The Coals of the Lower Delta Plain 423
7.4 The Barrier Beach/Strand-Plain System . . . . . . . . 427
7.4.1 The Offshore Transition Zone ... . 430
7.4.2 The Shoreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
7.4.3 The Foreshore 435
7.4.4 The Backshore . 437
7.4.5 The Tidal Inlet . 439
7.4.6 The Backbarrier 442
Contents XIII
7.4.7 Marine Transgression (Barrier Retrogradation) 444

7.4.8 Marine Regression (Barrier Progradation) . . . 448
7.4.9 The Coals of the Backbarrier Strand-Plain System 451
7.5 The Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.5.1 Present and Past Estuarine Deposits 457
7.5.2 The Coals of the Estuarine System . 459
8 CoarFormation and Sequence Stratigraphy . . . . . . 461

8.1 Basic Concepts of Sequence Stratigraphy . . . . . . 463
8.2 Sequence-Stratigraphic Time and Space Constraints
on Coal Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
8.3 The Influence of Sequence-Stratigraphic Settings
on Coal Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
8.3.1 Properties of Transgressive Coal Seams
with a Marine Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
8.3.1.1 Chemical Signatures of Transgressive Coals
with a Marine Roof ... . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8.3.1.2 Mineralogical Signatures of Transgressive Coals
with a Marine Roof ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
8.3.1.3 Petrographic Signatures of Transgressive Coals
with a Marine Roof .. . . . . . . . . . . 484
8.3.2 Properties of Transgressive Coal Seams
Without a Marine Roof . . . . . . . 490
8.3.3 Properties of Coal Seams
Formed During Marine Regression 498
8.4 Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation
of Coal Seam Settings . . . . . . . . . 505
9 Coal-Producing Tectonic Environments . . . 515

9.1 Early Examples of a Tectonic Classification
of Coalfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.2 Basin Formation as Part of Plate Tectonics 518
9.3 Coalfields Situated Near Convergent Plate Edges 521
9.3.1 Molasse Foredeeps Associated
with Subduction Zone Continental Margins 526
9.3.1.1 The Sunda Arc . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.3.1.2 The Sydney Basin . . . . . . . . . 531
9.3.1.3 The Rocky Mountains Foredeep 544
9.3.2 Molasse Foredeeps Associated
with Continental Collision Margins 555
9.3.3 Coal-Bearing Intradeeps . . . . . . 559
9.3.4 Coal-Bearing Transtensional Lateral Basins 564
9.4 Coalfields Situated Near Divergent Plate Edges 567
9.4.1 The Kinematics of Continental Rifting . . . . . . 568
XIV Contents
9.4.2 Coal Formation in Rift Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

9.4.3 Coal Formation in Nascent
Continental Margin Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
9.5 Coalfields on Midplate Continental Margins . . . . . 583
9.5.1 Coalfields of Mobile Shelf Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
9.5.2 Coalfields on Stable Shelf Margins . . . . . . . . . . . 589
9.6 Coalfields of the Continental Interior . . . . . . . . . , 591
9.6.1 Epeirogenic Coal Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
9.6.2 Coalfields Associated with Wrench Faults . . . . . .. 592
9.6.3 Coal Formation in Non-Tectonic Basins. . . . . . .. 594
10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 597
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

1 Introduction
Ever since the term "facies" was introduced into the geological literature by Gressly
(1838/41), it has been subject to various interpretations. In this book the concept
of Walther (1893/94), based on Gressly and recently reiterated by Murawski (1972),
Middleton (1973) and Woodford (1973), is followed, in which facies encompasses
all the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of an areally defined
geological body in its present state. Facies is not synonymous with palaeo-environ-
ment but conclusions about the latter can usually be drawn after facies character-
istics have been analysed. Facies characteristics are therefore indicators of the
palaeo-environmental conditions under which a rock body has been formed.
Coal being a biochemically formed sediment offers a wide range of organic
and inorganic palaeo-environmental indicators which cannot be utilised in
sedimentological studies concentrating only on interseam sediments. Taking into
consideration that at the time of deposition the accumulating peat was probably
eight to ten times thicker than the present coal, any restriction of facies analysis
to interseam sediments to the exclusion of coal would disregard a volumetrically
very significant portion of the stratigraphic column. Furthermore, if one accepts
that one metre of bituminous coal took probably between 5 and 10 Ka to
accumulate as peat in contrast to the mere hours or days which would have been
sufficient for some rivers to deposit a metre of sand, a consideration of coal facies
in any palaeo-environmental analysis of coal-bearing sediments becomes even
more desirable.
The accuracy of palaeo-environmental assessment depends to a large extent
on the precision with which the facies characteristics have been analysed, and on
the degree of agreement between them. If, for example, a coal seam is relatively
thin and contains a high proportion of dispersed components, algae, framboidal
pyrite, and shale bands with a high boron content, the listed facies characteristics
constitute a set in which all elements are consistent with the assumption that the
coal has been formed under marine influence. A matching set of palaeo-environ-
mental indicators in the interseam sediments could consist of clean, even-grained
sandstone in the seam floor and bioturbated or fossiliferous shale in the roof, thus
suggesting peat accumulation in a near shore environment during a marine
transgression. By using this kind of internal consistency among facies characteristics
it is the aim of this book to identify the main coal-forming environments and to
correlate their organic and inorganic indicators.
Although the examples discussed in the text have been drawn from a variety
of sources, it has been mentioned in the preface that they are biassed towards
2 Introduction
Australian and German coals due to the author's long association with both
regions. It might therefore be of some value to the reader who is not familiar with
the consequences of spatial and temporal differences in coal formation to highlight
this aspect by comparing some broad features of the Permian Gondwana and
Carboniferous Euramerican coals.
It is now widely accepted that there existed a Late Palaeozic landmass which
included much of present-day Australia, Antarctica, southern Africa, peninsular
India, Madagascar and parts of South America (White 1986). This large southern
continent, called Gondwana, was host to a largely deciduous vegetation which
grew in a varied but mainly cool to cold climate and differed from the evolutionary
trends occurring elsewhere at the time. The largest coal deposits occur in Australia.
They are of Permian age and, together with the quantitatively less important
Carboniferous and Triassic coals (Gould and Shibaoka 1980), belong to the
Gondwana lineage which ended with the breakup of the continent beginning in
the Jurassic Period.
The Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) coals of the Northern Hemisphere
were formed in an equatorial belt which comprised large portions of what is now
Europe and North America. Differences in evolutionary development and the
contrasting climatic settings of the phytogenic progenitors of the respective coals
account for much of their compositional variations. Some of these are demonstrated
in the comparison of the maceral composition between Carboniferous European
and Permian Australian coals listed in Table 1.1. The maceral classification used
here is based on Australian Standard 2856 (1986) in which each of the maceral
groups vitrinite and intertinite has been subdivided into three subgroups with the
Table 1.1. Comparison between average maceral compositions of Australian Permian and
European and American Carboniferous coals (all washed composite seam samples)
Group MaceraljSubgr. Permian (n = 67) Carboniferous (n = 40)
Mean % Range Std. Error Mean % Range Std. Error
Telovitrinite 23.5 38.6 1.242 31.8 33.6 1.102

Detrovitrinite 31.7 40.1 1.100 32.6 33.4 1.066
Vitrinite 55.2 53.2 1.733 64.4 35.3 1.181
Sporinite 3.2 11.2 0.671 6.7 13.1 0.504

Cutinite 0.7 3.6 0.104 0.7 2.6 0.119
Resinite 2.5 11.4 0.266 2.5 8.8 0.261
Liptinite 6.4 21.0 0.562 9.9 16.2 0.617
Micrinite 2.1 5.6 0.l36 5.1 19.1 0.621

Macrinite 3.9 17.6 0.392 3.4 8.1 0.319
Semifusinite 15.7 34.8 1.026 6.1 13.8 0.555
Fusinite 4.5 11.0 0.332 2.9 5.8 0.228
Inertodetrinite 8.4 25.0 0.590 5.0 8.0 0.310
Inertinite 34.6 55.2 1.880 22.5 33.7 1.192
Minerals 3.9 10.0 0.228 3.3 7.3 0.279

Introduction 3
prefixes telo- (for structured), detro- (for fragmented), and gelo- (for gelified), res-
pectively. Explanations of the terms are given in Chaps. 3 and 4.
It is noticeable in Table 1.1 that within the vitrinite group of macerals the
proportions of detrovitrinite are very similar and that the vitrinite percentages are
due to differences in telovitrinite. The magnitude of this difference is similar to the
contrast between the high semifusinite content in the Australian coals compared
with their Carboniferous counterparts. This means that the average proportion of
preserved plant tissues is similar in both sets of coals although the degree of geli-
fication is stronger in Carboniferous coals. Another difference between the two coals
is the higher proportion of sporinite, which is related to differences in the contri-
buting vegetable matter. Spore-producing pteridophytes dominated the Carboni-
ferous flora whereas the Permian Glossopteris flora contained more gymnospermous
plants, resulting in a lower availability of spores.
The percentage ranges of most macerals are greater in the Australian coals
compared with their Carboniferous counterparts, which suggests that, when
comparing Carboniferous and Permian coals, environmental conditions of coal
formation were more varied in Gondwana than in Northern Hemisphere. The
result is not only a global provincialism of coal properties, i.e. systematic variations
between continents and stratigraphic periods, but also between"different coalfields"
of the same region and within a broadly similar time frame (Bennett and Taylor
1970; Cook 1975a; Taylor and Shibaoka 1976).
The regional differences between coals mentioned above are only a small
sample of variations in response to plant evolution, palaeoclimate and other
geological conditions. It seems almost futile, therefore, to apply the parameters of
coal facies analysis outside the region for which they have been developed. However,
irrespective of the considerable diversity of plants and peat-forming environments,
there is a limited number of biological constraints which govern the ecology of
wetlands and a likewise limited set of biological, chemical and physical controls
which determine the course of peat formation. Foremost among these is the position
of the groundwater table in relation to the depositional interface, followed by hydro-
gen ion concentration, redox potential, provision of nutrients, and some others
which are related to the geological setting of the mire. The response of plants and
their degradation products to these basic environmental conditions is sufficiently
universal to leave behind distinctive petrographic signatures by which the
depositional environment can be recognised, irrespective of age and regional origin
of the coal.
The text has been organised such that, following this introduction, Chap. 2
will discuss some aspects of peat composition in relation to modern peat-forming
environments. There has been considerable progress in recent years in the under-
standing of the conditions of low ash peat formation, resulting in a swing away
from topogenous peatlands as the main coal-forming environments towards an
acceptance of raised bogs as important contributors to coal. The development of
actualistic models of peat formation has led to a rejection of the delta environment
as the most likely birthplace of major coal deposits. However, the desire to measure
400 Ma of coal formation by the rules of 4 to 5 ka (at best, 10 ka) of post-glacial
peat accumulation, has produced some quite rigid interpretations of coal formation,
yet most of today's peat deposits can be compared, in time and volume, only with
4 Introduction
the (often quite dirty) bottom portion of many economic coal seams. The origin
of the up to 80-m-thick anthracite seam (Grande Couche) in the Hongai Coalfield
of Vietnam's Tongking Basin (Dannenberg 1937), or the composite thickness of
the 300 m of brown coal in a mere 800 m of coal measures in the Latrobe Valley
of Victoria, Australia (George 1982), to mention only two of many examples,
require conditions in time and space for which there are no current equivalents
on Earth. The chapter will conclude with a brief survey of climatic influences on
peat formation and a summary of evolutionary trends in former peat-producing
plants and their influence on coal types.
Chapter 3 deals with the coalification process, particularly with its biochemical
stage. The degree of humification of the phytogenic progenitors of coal will be
presented as having a decisive influence on maceral formation from cell tissues.
The latter follow either a vitrinitisation or fusinitisation pathway in response to
the position of the groundwater during peat accumulation. The second phase, or
physico-chemical stage of coalification, will be discussed only briefly because it is
of lesser relevance to the objectives of the book.
Chapter 4 consists essentially of a classification of the organic and inorganic
petrographic components of coal. i.e. macerals, microlithotypes, lithotypes and
minerals. Some emphasis will be put on illustrations and analysis procedures for
the benefit of readers not very familiar with coal petrographic nomenclature and
techniques.
Chapter 5 introduces various aspects of coal facies analysis based on different
coal components. Several ratios and petrographic indices of high diagnostic value
will be defined and some reference will be made to the geochemical aspects of
depositional environments.
Chapter 6 looks at coal as an integral part of a group of sediments sharing a
common depositional setting. Of particular interest is the coal/sediment interface
and the relationship of coal seams to their roof and floor strata. Included in the
consideration are intercalations of inorganic sediments in coal seams and the
contrasting nature of seam splits of different origin.
Chapter 7 is a classification and discussion of coal-forming sedimentary
environments including gravelly and sandy braid plains, upper delta/alluvial plains,
lower delta plains, back barrier strand plains and estuaries. Each of this sedimentary
environments is characterised by typical coal facies except for the backbarrier
coals, which show significant compositional differences, depending on whether
they were formed under a regime of marine transgression or regression.
Chapter 8 is an attempt to apply the principles of sequence stratigraphy to
coal formation, i.e. the operational independence enjoyed by the autosedi-
mentational depositional models of the "postcyclothem era" (Rahmani and Flores
1984) will have to be somewhat restrained by reaffirming the fundamental impor-
tance of eustatic sea-level changes on depositional trends in coastal environments.
The question of marine influence on coal seams will be discussed in reference to
the contrasting composition of some back barrier coals.
Finally Chap. 9 discusses the geological setting of coal-forming environments
in the context of plate tectonics. Systematic changes in coal composition will be
found which reflect the historic development of sedimentary basins in relation to
their geotectonic affinity.
2 The Conditions of Peat Formation
Coal is an organic sediment which consists of coalifield vegetal matter. A broad

distinction is made between humic and sapropelic coals of which the first type
is far more frequent than the second type, which has been formed by subaquatic
sedimentation of floating vegetation (algae) and allochthonous (= redeposited
material, not formed in situ) organic matter. The' phytogenic precursors of humic
coals derived mainly from rooted autochthonous (= formed in situ) vegetation
which grew in mires where they accumulated as peat. The latter is the first step
in the coalification process by which the biomass is transformed into successive
coal ranks which are expressed by such terms as (in order of increasing rank),
brown coal, subbituminous, high, medium and low volatile bituminous coal,
metabituminous coal, semi-anthracite and anthracite.
During peat formation it is important that atmospheric oxygen has only limited
access to the organic matter in order to allow its maximum preservation under
reducing conditions (Overbeck 1975). This requires the maintenance of a
consistently high groundwater table and complete water saturation of the peat
(McCabe 1984; Boron et al. 1987), with the result that an undrained peat deposit
may contain over 90% water (Cameron 1973; Succow and Jeschke 1986). Even
after the peat has been consolidated into brown coal its bed moisture~content may
still be as high as 60%.
2.1 Peatland Ecology
Prolific plant growth requires considerable quantities of plant nutrients in the form
of mineral salts. In this respect peat producing wetlands or mires are commonly
divided into ombrogenous (= owing their origin to rain) peatlands, and topogenous
(= owing their origin to a place) peatlands. Many additional names and sub-
divisions, often with imprecise or overlapping meanings, have been introduced into
the literature (Moore 1987). The usage followed here is illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
As the name "ombrotelmite" (Grosse-Brauckmann 1980) indicates, this kind of
peat forms in a mire which receives excessive precipitation. This favours the growth
of mosses, such as Sphagnum, which is capable of absorbing large quantities of
water and keeping them above the general groundwater table by capillary action.
Continued plant growth and protection and storage of the dead vegetable matter
PEATLANDS
(MIRES)
ombrogenous _ _ _ _....._ _ _ topogenous
! !
OMBROTELMITE TOPOTELMITE
(ombrotrophicl (minerotrophic)
(oligotrophic) (rheotrophic)
(eutrophic)
RAISED BOG Tree
cover MARSH
(Sphagnum Bog)
increases
Fig. 2.1. Classification of mires
FEN
(Forest Bog) 1 SWAMP
and their peats. (Partly after
Grosse-Brauckmann 1980, Mar-
L TRANSmONALOR MIXED MIRES
---1 tini and Glooschenko 1984, and
(mesotrophic) Moore 1987)
within the waterlogged body of moss causes the surface of the living moss to be
raised above ground level (therefore the terms "raised bog" or "high moor", from
the German: "Hochmoor"), which makes it difficult for the vegetation to obtain
mineral salts and other plant nutrients from the soil deeply buried below a
thickening layer of peat. Flood waters, the other common source of nutrients for
plants, are likewise ineffective because the upward convex shape of the high moor
prevents surface water from flowing into the bog. The result is an environment
which is poorly supplied with nutrients, which is the reason for calling such
peatlands oligotrophic (= poorly fed) or ombrotrophic ( = rain-fed).
A corollary of the low influx of mineral nutrients into a raised bog is the high
acidity of its peat. The most common minerals are salts of the weak silicic acid and
rather strong bases either of alkalis or alkaline earths. Orthoclase is given as an
example below:
On hydrolysis, the unstable silicic acid changes to silica and water, the amphoteric
aluminium ion forms an immobile hydroxide which dehydrates to alumina, thus
allowing the strong potassium hydroxide to neutralise, at least partially, the organic
acids formed in the peat of a topogenous swamp. However, in a raised bog, which
lacks the supply of mineral-charged surface water, no acid neutralisation takes
place, with the result that only a few hardy plant species can cope with the high
acidity and low nutrition levels. Among the plants that thrive under such
conditions, the above mentioned Sphagnum is common to most climates, while in
the tropical raised bogs of Southeast Asia arborescent vegetation might also be
supported (Polak 1950). However, some of the Indonesian high moors with their
rich and varied vegetation are not purely ombrotrophic because they recieve
episodic showers of volcanic ash, which constitute an important source of plant
nutrients.
Along their less elevated, moist, and occasionally flooded margins, raised bogs
receive a larger amount of nutrients (Anderson 1964) which also lowers acidity
Peatland Ecology 7
and increases vegetational variety and growth conditions. The most acid peats are
found in the central portions of raised bogs, which therefore sustain only the most
hardy plant species (Grosse-Braukmann 1969). Although the central portion is
commonly the most elevated part of the bog and therefore more subject to drying,
ponds and moist depressions are usually found. The origin of the water-filled
depressions on the bog surface will be discussed in Chap. 3.
A pure ombrotelmite is characterised by a low ash content and often by a high
degree of tissue preservation because high acidity suppresses microbial activity in
the peat. The lack of mineral impurities is regarded by Teichmuller (1962) as a
possible explanation for the origin of low ash coals, a notion which has been
supported by McCabe (1984,1987), Fulton (1987), Bartram (1987) and others, and
has recently been extended to encompass almost all coal. Moore (1987, p. 12) states
that "the modern successors to the 'coal swamps' are clearly not swamps at all,
but are bog forests of an ombrotrophic nature", and Clymo (1987) regards the
ombrotrophic forest bogs of Southeast Asia as present-day models of Carboniferous
coal formation whereas the boreal raised bogs of northern Europe, Canada and
Siberia are considered to be genetically analogous to the Permian Gondwana coals.
Although ombrotelmites have probably played a bigger role in coal formation
than was previously recognised, the order of superposition of coal facies and their
documented coexistence with clastic sediments in a geological setting where tectonic
subsidence was relatively accelerated and retarded by eustatic sea-level variations,
seem to require more complex models than the comparisons with today's bmbrotro-
phic peatlands mentioned above. There are some well-documented occurrences of
rheotrophic and mixed ombrotrophic/rheotrophic peatlands (Anderson 1964;
Spackman et al. 1966, 1976) in which the effects of marine transgressions and regres-
sions on peat types and their order of superposition are well suited to serve as
Table 2.1. Compilation of various average properties of peat from different European mire types.
(After Hohenstatter 1973 and Schuch 1980). Percentages are by weight
Peat type Ombrotelmite Transitional mires - Topotelmites
Sphagnum Herbaceous Woody Woody Herbaceous
% Bed moisture
-Average 88.7 89.7 85.8 86.3 89.5
-Range 82.2-89.2 84.2-92.7 79.1-89.4 69.9-91.9 83.8-92.0
% Ash (db) at 550°C
-Average 2.3 3.3 6.5 13.3 8.5
-Range 0.6-8.2 1.2-8.1 1.7-22.5 2.7-33.7 1.5-25.0
% Org. matter (db)
-Average 97.3 96.7 93.5 86.7 91.5
-Range 99.4-91.8 98.8-91.9 98.3-77.5 97.3-66.3 98.0-75.0
pH
-Average 3.4 3.9 3.9 5.0 4.8
-Range 2.5-5.5 3.2-4.9 2.6-5.5 3.2-6.4 3.6-6.0
Spec. Energy (MJjkg)
-Average 21.3 21.8 19.9 19.4 20.9
-Range 18.8-23.0 19.1-23.4 17.9-21.7 16.9-21.3 19.5-22.7
examples of coal formation in nearshore environments. They are not favoured by

some as models of coal formation because of their higher contamination with
mineral impurities when compared with raised bogs (McCabe 1984, 1987).
A comparison of average ash contents and some other properties of ombro-
telmites and topotelmites is given in Table 2.1, which demonstrates quite clearly
the very low amount of inorganic impurities found in ombrotrophic raised bogs.
Even the respective figures given for topotelmites seem low but it should be realised
that Table 2.1 is based on Central European peats which, by definition, should
contain more than 75% (by weight) of organic matter (dry basis = db). As shown
by the range of ash percentages in the table, some forest swamp histosols ( = soil
with high proportion of organic matter) have been included with ash contents
exceeding 30% but the majority of the ash values is well within the defined limit
of 25%. By using Callcott's (1986) mass balance calculations of coalification yields,
it can be assumed that a peat which coalifies to a rank of medium volatile bitu-
minous coal loses approximately 50% of its dry organic matter to devolatilisation
which, up to the stated rank, consists essentially of decarboxylation (= H 2 0 + CO 2 ).
While peats with such extremely high ash contents as listed in Table 2.1 would
not qualify to be regarded as coals, the topotelmites including transitional or mixed
peats with average or below average ash figures, would yield coalification products
which would fall well within the defined limits of coal [between 20 and 30% ash
(db) depending on national standards]. For example, the average woody topo-
telmite (= forest swamp peat) is listed in Table 2.1 with an average ash content
of 13.3%. On coalification to bituminous coal its residual organic matter wiil be
halved, which would increase the ash content to approximately 24% assuming that
its mass is not reduced during coalification. However, there is good reason to
believe that the reduction of the bed moisture content from around 90% in peat
to approximately 2% in medium volatile bituminous coal will also remove much
ofthe soluble mineral fraction. According to Naucke (1980), the leaching of German
bed-moist peat at a proportion of 1 part of db-equivalent peat in 50 parts of dis-
tilled water yields in average 1.45% organic and 0.2% mineral matter in ombrotel-
mites and 0.58% organic and 1.1 % mineral matter in topotelmites. Leaching
experiments with distilled water carried out by Kosters and Bailey (1986) on
Louisiana peats reduced their ash contents by up to 30%. The laboratory experi-
ments are supported by field observations by Cohen et al. (1987), which also suggest
that some mineral leaching occurs during the peat stage.
Even if the likelihood of a reduction of the mineral content during the early
stages of coalification is ignored, the coal ash derived from the peat ash of Table
2.1 requires an adjustment on technical grounds because it has been determined
at a temperature of 550°C whereas coal ash is conventionally determined at 815 dc.
This difference has important consequences for the different ash yields of both
products because at the temperature at which coal ash is determined, all clay
minerals have dehyd~oxylated and most carbonates have lost their carbon dioxide.
Depending on the mineral composition of the original peat, the mass yield of coal
ash is lowered by at least 10%. The resulting coal would have raw ash content of
little more than 20%, which is better than that of a large proportion of coals
currently minded in many parts of the world. It seems therefore that the ash
Peatland Ecology 9
content of many topotelmites would not preclude them from forming economic
coal deposits. The large areal extent of many coal seems (some are continuous
over hundreds of kilometers), their internal sequence of facies, the repeated vertical
stacking of seams, their relationship to roof and floor strata, and other
characteristics suggest that the major coalfields of the world were formed and
survived because of their topogenous setting rather than the ombrogenous nature
of their peats. The geological environment is probably quite irrelevant to the
formation of the 5, 10 or, at best, 15 m of ombrotrophic peat formed since the end
of the Pleistocene glaciation. However, without a regime of subsidence and
sediment supply for their protection, not many of today's peat deposits would
survive to be transformed into thick coal seams and stacked in vertical succes-
sion in the subsurface of several-kilometers-deep basins. During the main peat
producing periods in the development of a seam the mire might very well have
been under ombrotrophic regimes but the beginning and end of the formation of
those former peats which now constitute coal deposits appear to have been dictated
by the consequences of variations in absolute and relative basin subsidence.
There are many examples of mires in either a coastal or alluvial situation whose
peat surfaces have been raised above ground surface. Although they originated as
minerotrophic or rheotrophic ( = flow fed) deposits and, in composition and distri-
bution, still have strong topogenous affinities they are now either transitional
between the two mire types or have become ombrotrophic. Examples are found
in the Southeast Asian peatlands described by Anderson (1964, 1983) which have
been referred to as possible modern equivalents of Carboniferous coal forming
environments. As will be discussed below, the interior portions of the extensive
lowland forest bogs in Sumatra, Borneo and the Malay peninsular are, in parts,
ombrotrophic but their seaward spreading behind a prograding coastline is
primarily a topogenous event. Irrespective of their origin, the raised peat surfaces
confine river, as well as tidal floods, to their respective channels with the result
that these peats are mostly only marginally flooded and are therefore relatively
clean, having ash contents which rarely exceed 5% and usually are less than 2%.
Similarly low ash figures have been reported by Styan and Bustin (1983a, b) from
the raised peat deposits ofthe Fraser River delta in· western Canada.
Examples of predominantly ombrogenous mires occur in many parts of the
Indo-Pacific region but according to Whitmore (1984), continuous blankets of such
peats are restricted to the coastal lowlands and to high elevations, above 1000 m
a.s.l., i.e. within the cloud zone. The latter provides for a greater availability of
surface water because of higher humidity and lower evapotranspiration. The high
elevation suggests that the preservation potential of these deposits must be extremely
small.
Whereas raised bogs can occur at high physiographic elevation and even on
slopes in mountainous terrains, rheotrophic swamps are restricted to areas which
provide for a constantly high groundwater table because they do not rely on
precipitation for their moisture requirements. This gives them a greater climatic
flexibility than applies to raised bogs, as is demonstrated by the wetlands (though
not necessarily peatlands) ofthe Nile and Tigris Valley, both of which are situated
in the arid climatic zone.
The vegetation of topogenous peatlands is either rooted in a soil from which

a good supply of nutrients can be obtained or, when the peat layer becomes too
thick for roots to penetrate into the substratum, nutrients are provided by the
underlying peat and by flood waters which carry nutrients in solution and may,
occasionally, spread muds and silts across the surface of the peatland. Such an
environment is therefore said to be eutrophic (= well-fed) or, more specifically,
minerotrophic (= mineral-fed).
Martini and Glooschenko (1984) distinguish between three kinds of Recent
minerotrophic peatlands:
1. A marsh is a wetland periodically inundated by either fresh or salt water. It is

usually devoid of trees. Grasses, sedges and, locally, shrubs (e.g. Salix), constitute
much of the vegetation.
2. A/en may support a rich and varied surface flora composed of grasses, sedges,
herbs, shrubs and clusters of trees, the latter taking up usually less than 25% of
the total surface, for example, in the form of the so-called tree islands in the
Everglades of Florida.
3. A swamp is a wooded wetland which in cool and temperate zones contains both
trees plus an undergrowth of shrubs, herbs and mosses. In tropical and sub-
tropical regions a large variety of plants is common with mangrove and swamp
cypress occupying portions covered by shallow water.
According to Frenzel (1983) and Boron et al. (1987), peat formation can be initiated
either by
1. terrestrialisation which is the replacement, due to silting-up, of a body of water

(pond, lake, lagoon, interdistributary bay etc.) by a mire, and
2. paludification which is the replacement of dry land by a mire, for example due
to a rising groundwater table.
Figure 2.2 illustrates examples of both processes. Paludification, for example, as

a landward expression of a marine transgression has been an important process
in the formation of extensive and thick coal seams. Peat formation under the
conditions ofterrestrialisation is possible under both static and dynamic conditions.
In the first case peat continues to accumulate as an ombrogenous high moor once
the body of water has been silted-up (Pfaffen berg 1954; Scheffer and Schachtschabel
1966). In the second case a mechanism exists which allows the groundwater table
to rise commensurate with peat deposition. An example would be the coast of a
subsiding basin which, due to a high rate of sediment discharge at the strandline,
pro grades into the sea leaving behind lagoons and strand plains with a rising
groundwater table thus affording possible conditions for peat accumulation. Basin
subsidence combined with ombrotrophic peat accumulation such that the rise in
the peat surface continues to outstrip the rate of subsidence will lead to the
formation of thick and clean coal seams (McCabe 1984).
For a thick peat layer to form in a topogenous setting it is essential that the
rise in the groundwater table and the rate of peat accretion are balanced. In the
Peatland Ecology 11
Fresh-water peat fmrnation byterrestrialisatian

- Europe I - ombrotrophic I rheotrophic - - -- -------1
I tnnsitional I to1m.ti< I limnotelmatic I \imnic
Sphagnum
bog peot _
Mixed pe.t -.... rmtrtrlTrmtrtrlrhtrfmm
Swomp " .. t ..
Sedge peot...r+
peot-=F~EEElE~~~~=2===~~~~~~~~;S;;~
Sopropel
Reed -,... t:
LoX. mud...J
r - - - - - - -- rheotrophic - - - -- - - - - - -
fresh-wa.ter bntc:ltish I
I mixedz:one marine mangrove Swamp
saw gras, and
waterlily marsh
Peat
formation by
JP..
MO.rl
Rhl<ophon
paludification (marine transgression) J t
Rhizophorol
- Flarida. USA ~M .. riscus pea.t
~Moriscu. put
LNymphaea
peat
bnckish
(.. It-water marine
p..lms) (mangroves)
Young forest ~$~~~~'~~~

pea.t ---+M
forest bog
pe.t ____
Rhizophon/
Nyp. pea t---->
RhizoJ)horoJ'
peat +Shoj
Upper cloy li ~.~~~~~~~~~;~~I~III
nee/lower
delto Peat formation by t:errestrlalIsation (marine regression) - SE AsIa
Fig. 2.2. Three examples of peat accumulation under different circumstances. (After Overbeck
1950 - top; Spackman et al. 1966, 1969 - cenlre; Anderson 1964 and Whitmore 1984 - bOllom).
Not to scale
case of a slower rise in water level, peat accumulation could be terminated by

oxidation but in a very wet climate peat formation might continue under high
moor conditions.
Actual rates of peat accretion vary in different climates, and they vary with
with the type of vegetation. Falini (1965) has calculated that although the growth
rate of some herbaceous plants may be substantial, the considerable loss of biomass
during the conversion of vegetable matter into peat reduces the maximum annual
accumulation of peat resulting from non-woody vegetation to approximately 10 cm.
Other estimates (Stach et al. 1982) are considerably lower and vary between 0.5
and 4 mm/ a. Moore and Bellamy (1974) consider peat accumulation rates to range
from a few tenths of a millimetre do not more than 2 mm/a. McCabe (1987) reaches
a similar conclusion and calculates accretion rates for Recent peat to vary from
2.3 mm/a in the tropics to 0.1 mm/a in arctic regions.
Assuming a compaction ratio of perhaps 10:1 (Ryer and Langer 1980) to
operate in the transition from peat to bituminous coal and considering that some
of these seams are several tens of metres thick, optimum peat-forming conditions
must therefore require the maintenance of a high groundwater table over very
long periods of time, i.e. between 5 ka (minimum) and 10 ka for every metre of
clean bituminous coal. As indicated above, in situations where the water level rises
faster than peat can accumulate, a facies shift towards wetter conditions would
occur, and in the case of a slower rise, a more terrestrial environment would be
established. Because of the dominance of trees, the growth rate of the latter is
considerably slower than that of herbaceous plants, which means that when the
water level rises at a rate equal to the maximum accretion rate of herbaceous
vegetation most trees would not be able to cope and would be destroyed by too
great a depth of water (Falini 1965). This means that rates of peat accretion vary
in response to the rate at which the water table rises and that the presence within
a seam of horizons with thick tree stumps indicates retardation in peat formation
for up to several hundred years.
2.1.1 Coastal Marshes and Swamps
Coastal lowlands offer a number of environments in which a variety of plants can

grow and accumulate to form fossil fuels. These environments range from the
swamps of the lower delta plain and coastal marshes to the sub-aqueous algal
concentrations in lagoons, lakes and sheltered bays.
Coastal marshes are low-lying tracts of land which are periodically inundated
by water and support grasses, reeds and rushes which tolerate brackish conditions.
Near the coast the marsh surface is situated close to mean high tide level but
landward it rises gently above the tidal influence and grades into a fresh-water
marsh. It is separated from the sea either by a barrier beach, or by a mangrove
belt, or, in high latitudes and under low energy conditions, the fresh-water marsh
grades into a salt marsh which merges with the sea. The first example applies to
exposed, wave-dominated shorelines where bars are formed by surf action and/or
long-shore drift.
Lower delta plain deposits commonly cap thick coarsening-upward prodelta
and delta front sediments. If they contain peat they are situated between active
or abandoned distributaries whereby former positions of the latter may influence
the thickness of overlying peat. Styan and Bustin (1983a, b), who studied Recent
peat formation on the delta plain of the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada,
found lower delta plain peats to be quite irregular and discontinuous in configura-
tion but generally extensive (= blanket peat of Coleman and Smith 1964), thin
and high in sulphur. Because of the interaction of storms, tides and river floods,
Peatland Ecology 13
ash contents were high in most samples and were emplaced mostly as wash over
deposits. However, samples taken from domed (raised) peat in transitional positions
to the upper delta plain showed both low sulphur and ash contents. Another
difference found by Styan and Bustin (1983a, b) was the lower pH and higher
degree of tissue decomposition in the marine influenced lower delta plain peat
compared with its more freshwater influenced equivalents.
2.1.1.1 The Marine Influence on Peat Accumulation
For peat accretion to occur it is essential that tidal fluctuations are either low or
are channelled through established inlets which prevent sweeping of the marsh
floar and removal of the accumulating vegetable matter. In tropical and subtropical
climates mangroves frequently line the tidal inlets and muddy coastlines behind
which grass and reed marshes expand, as is the case in saw grass marshes of
Florida (Spackman et al. 1966; Cohen and Spackman 1972). The roots of the
mangroves form an interlocking network which is an efficient trap for sediments
carried by the flood tide and, at the same time, protects the plant litter from being
flushed out by ebb-tides or floods.
Coastal peatlands can also be found Dn land only recently reclaimed from the
sea by prograding deltas. Given the right climate, their most noticeable feature is
the abundance of plant life which occupies the raised levees of distributary channels,
as well as the interdistributary troughs (Fisk 1960). This, coupled with the proximity
of the water table, affords suitable conditions for the accumulation and pre-
servation of plant material. Organic sedimentation is interrupted periodically
by the intrDduction of fine clastics during floods, which raises the proportion of
mineral impurities Df the peat and subsequent coal. On the other hand, flDoding
also causes the dispersal of nutrients and spreads fresh water across the swamp,
both of which provide for better growth conditions than prevail in coastal swamps
away from fluvial influences. As in the coastal marsh, the tidal effects leave their
mark in the relatively high pyrite content of such deposits. Sea water contains,
among other dissolved salts, sulphates in solution. Under the reducing conditions
which are sustained in very wet portions of the swamps or at the bottom of
water-filled depressions in the marsh surface the sulphates are reduced by bacteria
to form hydrogen sulphide and/or iron sulphides.
Lagoons and interdistributary bays are prominent features of deltas and
sunken coasts in which the build-up of barrier beaches by strong surf action or the
formatiDn of spits and bars by waves and long-shore drift has partly closed lagDons,
drowned valleys and other indentations in the coastline. Continued sedimentation
within lagoons, partly by rivers debouching their load within their confines, partly
by the sea which enters through inlets or washes over the barrier, and partly by
organic sedimentation, fills the lagoons and converts them into coastal swamps.
While restricted water conditions prevail, algae are the main contributDrs to the
accumulating Drganic mud which may be covered and laterally replaced by peat
when paludal conditions succeed the lagoons.
Apart from the relatively restricted oil shale-producing coastal lagoons and
bays or comparatively small lakes and ponds in which algae accumulate, there
are fossil examples of whole epicontinental seas becoming so restricted in water
circulation that oil shale deposits extending over hundreds and thousands of square
kilometres with a thickness of between a few metres to a few tens of metres can
be formed. Fossil examples have been found in the Cambrian System of Siberia,
the Silurian System in North Africa, Permian deposits of southern Brazil, Uruguay
and Argentina, as well as in Jurassic sediments of western Europe (Tissot and
Welte 1978). Of similar shallow water origin in a marine environment of restricted
circulation are the Early Cretaceous, brown to black, well-laminated and somewhat
calcareous oil shales of the Eromanga Basin in northern Queensland (Hutton et al.
1980).
2.1.1.2 The Influence of Marine Transgressions and Regressions
The world-wide post-glacial, Holocene marine transgression has, in many places,

initiated peat formation within a swamp and marsh belt which has migrated inland,
in front of the invading sea and has, in parts, been overrolled by it. Examples of
this response to a rising sea level have been reported from Florida, where some
marine influenced peats contain up to 10% sulphur (Casagrande et al. 1980) and
from the Gulf coast of the United States, where Coleman and Smith (1964) have
estimated that 8 ka ago sea level was approximately 9 m lower than it is today.
Spackman et al. (1966) describe an up to 4-m-thick peat seam from south-
western Florida (Fig. 2.2) which underlies a 10 to 20 km wide inland zone of fresh-
water saw grass marsh (approx. 1 m thick peat) and extends seaward underneath
a 1 to 2 km wide brackish mangrove swamp. The seam could be traced up to
2.4 km into the Gulf of Mexico underneath a thickening overburden of marine
marls. Mangrove pollen (Rhizophora mangle) are very common in the upper portion
of the peat seaward from the mangrove swamp but they are virtually absent from
the marsh peat landward of the mangrove swamps. The seam contains pollen
assemblages characteristic of fresh-water environments which also dominate the
marsh peat underneath the mangrove peat. Because water transportation is directed
from the inland marsh to the mangrove swamp its autochthonous brackish pollen
has been mixed with redistributed fresh-water pollen thus resulting in a more
diversified assemblage than in the marsh peat.
The seam has been formed over the past 4.5 ka in response to the Holocene
marine transgression over the coastal area. Evidence for this is seen in the vertical
peat profile consisting of fresh-water-derived saw grass peat at the base followed
by brackish and then marine mangrove peat at the middle and upper portions of
the seam. Although there is no unanimity about the rate of relative sea-level rise
in the area over the last 3 ka, estimates by Coleman and Smith (1964) carried out
on the coast of Louisiana suggest a rise in sea level of almost 2 mm/a. This covers at
least past of the time span during which the belt of active peat accumulation
migrated inland because the vegetation could not keep up with the rise in water
level on its seaward side. It follows that the accumulation rate of the coastal
Peatland Ecology 15
peat must have been somewhat less than 2 mm/a. The superposition of marine
Rhizophora (mangrove) peat on fresh-water Mariscus (saw grass) peat described
by Cohen and Spackman (1972) from the Joe River of southern Florida is likewise
indicative of a marine transgression.
Coasta:l peatlands formed in response to a marine regression are found in
regions of strandline progradation due to either a eustatic fall in sea level or high
sediment discharge. Haggart (1988) discusses an up to 4-m-thick peat deposit in
the Beauly Firth of northeastern Scotland which commenced accumulating on a
marine substrate abandoned during a Holocene drop in relative sea level between
9.6 and 9.2 ka BP. In the subsequent rise in sea level, which culminated between
7.1 and 5.5 ka BP, the peat-producing reed marshes and fens were covered by
estuarine and marine silts and clays, until peat accretion recommenced on top of
the latter following a renewed fall in sea level after 5.5 ka BP.
Regressive peat formation on a very large scale has been reported from
Southeast Asia where some of the coastal mangrove and salt-water palm swamps
have a regressive signature (Fig. 2.2) Pollen analyses by Anderson (1964) on cores
obtained from a 13-m-thick peat seam in the Baram Delta in Sarawak have revealed
a distinct zonation beginning with mangrove peat at the base and changing into
an upward succession of several peat types which have been formed from the same
plant associations which are presently active peat producers and follow each other
laterally with increasing distance from the sea~ The sequential trend represents a
change from large numbers of plant species and high forest canopy'near the coast,
to fewer species with more stunted and xeromorphic forms in the fens and savanna
woodlands of the inland portions of the peatlands away from the coast or the
controlling trunk streams (Whitmore 1984). The reason for the deterioration in
plant growth is the domed nature of the peat surface which, in the inner portions
of the swamp, extends up to 6 m above sea level. In a dryer climate peat accumula-
tion would probably have stopped in the parts now raised above ground level,
but because of the high rainfall recorded in the area it continues ombrotrophically,
albeit at a reduced rate due to poor supply with nutrients.
According to Anderson (1964), the reason for the raised peat surface away from
the coast is related to the interaction between the respective rates of coastal
progradation and peat accumulation. Wilford's (1960) radiocarbon dating along
the Brunei and Sarawak coast infer a beginning of both delta expansion and peat
accumulation at approximately 4.5 Ka BP. While the delta has been advancing
since then at an average rate of 9 mfa, peat accumulation began with a high rate
of 0.475 mm/a, which more recently slowed to 0.222 mm/a (average rate = 0.29 mm/a).
This means that the inland portions of the swamp are underlain by a thick layer
of older peat which is capped by a thin layer of younger peat whereas in the more
recently reclaimed coastal land only the more slowly growing younger and therefore
thinner peat is found (Fig. 2.2). The areas of peatland involved are quite large and,
on the Maludan peninsular, extend up to 64 km inland (Anderson 1964; Whitemore
1984).
2.1.2 Fresh-Water Peatlands
The above examples have shown that the landward portions of marine-influenced
coastal swamps commonly grade into fresh-water swamps. In addition there are
many inland swamps which never had any connection with the sea. The latter are
called limnic (Gr. = lake) whereas those occurrences which are hydrologically
connected to' the sea constitute paralic deposits, even though they may represent
fresh-water environments. The term paralic does not, therefore, imply a necessary
physical contact of the peat with sea water, it merely indicates an environmental
link. In this sense, the upper delta plain is as paralic as the lower delta plain is,
although the former houses fresh-water environments, just like the alluvial plain
sequence, into which it grades further upstream. Since, however, such environments
are open to the sea, they are affected by marine processes, such as marine trans-
gressions and regressions. A feature of paralic coals is therefore their intercalation
with marine deposits even though peat formation took place under fresh-water
conditions.
2.1.2.1 Upper Delta and Alluvial Plain Swamps, Marshes and Bogs
Away from the coast, peat can accumulate in the backswamps and marshes of
flood plains and flood basins between or adjacent to rivers. They are separated
from the river channels by levee banks, the occasional breaching of which spreads
silt and mud over the peat surface, which later appear as stone bands in coal
seams. In the process of coastal progradation, where originally nearshore topo-
genous swamps have changed into inland ombrotrophic forest bogs, rivers such
as the Baram River in Sarawak (Anderson 1964) may become stabilised and may
change from a meandering to an anastomosing pattern.
Alluvial plain peatlands occur mainly in shallow basins which are poorly
drained because of extremely low gradients. Rivers passing through the lowlands
often overflow and branch into numerous minor channels which may feed into
fresh-water lakes serving as receptacles for both organic and inorganic detritus.
Depending on the relative proportions of the two kinds of allochthonous
deposits, sedimentation in such lakes may lead to the formation of sapropelic mud
lenses surrounded by peat. The largest present-day swamp of this kind is the
Vasyuganskoye Swamp between the rivers Ob and Irtysh in western Siberia.
According to Neustadt (1966, 1977) and Walter (1977), it occupies an area of
approximately 53700 km 2 uninterrupted peatland but it is part of the much larger
West-Siberian Basin of approximately 500000 km2.Although much of the present
swamp is wooded, its peat contains a large amount of Sphagnum, thus indicating
transitional or oligotrophic conditions.
Other poorly drained wetlands have distinctive marsh character, such as
Europe's largest peatland in the Pripyat-Polessye Basin in the upper reaches of
the Dnjepr River, southwest of Moscow. It houses vast expanses of reeds and
sedges which cover approximately 100000km 2 in area (Schneider 1980), although
Peatland Ecology 17
part of this has now been drained. Such occurrences are similar (apart from climatic
and vegetational differences) to the floating Papyrus meadows of Africa near Lake
Victoria and other banked-up lakes in Uganda (Eggeling 1935; Carter 1955; Lind
and Visser 1962) and Tanzania (Lind and Morrison 1974). One of the largest
wetlands of this kind occurs in southern Sudan, where the White Nile and its
many tributaries branch out into the Papyrus and Vossia marshes of the El Sudd
region (Hurst, 1933; Migahid 1974). According to Rzoska (1974), the Vossia cuspi-
data grass grows mainly into the waterways, where its runners are particularly
effective in retarding water flow.
Apart from some shifting and redeposition of vegetable matter within the
swamps (hypautochthony), the bulk of the vegetable source of peat and coal is
autochthonous, i.e. it has been produced by plants which grew in the swamp.
Allochthonous organic components, i.e. those which were brought into the peat
from outside, are of small volume only and usually confined to wind-blown material
such as spores, pollen, leaves etc. Completely allochthonous peat deposits are
exceedingly rare; they are small and display indications of transportation, such
as high detrital mineral contents, including water-worn sand grains and pebbles,
oriented tree trunks and, occasionally, cross-bedding. Some fossil examples of
allochthonous coal occur at Leigh Creek in South Australia and at Shag Point
north of Dunedin in New Zealand.
Being situated further inland than the coastal peatlands, only major sea-level
rises will push the strandline far enough landward to cover the upper delta or
alluvial plain with a marine transgression. However, the hydrological connection
to the sea will raise the ground-water table such that peatlands may be replaced
by lakes. A modern example of the termination of peat formation because of the
spreading oflacustrine conditions in consequence of the Holocene transgression is
Mud Lake near Ocala in Central Florida in which a layer of algal mud (sapropel)
caps a lO-m-thick seam of peat (Spackman et al. 1966).
2.1.2.2 Limnic Environments
Topogenous peatlands without any hydrological connection to the sea occur in

inland areas, for example, at high altitudes such as inter- and intramontane basins.
An example is Lake Titicaca in the Altiplano Basin of the South American Andes,
where some limited peat accumulation takes place as part of the terrestrialisation
process. Settings of this kind may serve as models for coal formation in the small
intramontane basins of the French Massif Central.
Algal muds and oozes currently accumulating in some rift valleys (e.g. East
and Central African graben zone) may serve as forerunners of peat and boghead
coals. Fossil examples include the Upper Rhine Graben along the Franco-German
border and the Rundle oil shale in Queensland, Australia. The latter is of Late
Eocene to Late Oligocene age and includes a number of laminated oil shale units
separated by lacustrine lutites occurring in a graben structure along the present
coastline north of the port of Gladstone (Hutton et al. 1990). Whilst lacustrine
conditions prevailed in the trough for much of the time interval during which the
deposit was formed, it appears that laterally peat-producing swamps existed which
shed humic detritus into the lake. Towards the end of its development, peat
formation became more widespread, which is indicated by brown coal seams
overlying the oil shale.
Other examples of accumulation of organic matter in limnic environment
include playa lakes which can be high in salt content. The latter does not preclude
algal life, which is evidenced by the Eocene Green River oil shales and many other
similar deposits. The Green River deposit constitutes an up to 600-m-thick sequence
of alternating oil shale" seams, evaporites and clastics in Colorado, Utah and
Wyoming, where they have been formed in an intermontane basin (Tissot and
Welte 1978). Thin lamination, desiccation cracks and saline deposits indicate
sedimentation in shallow water in an arid or, at least semi-arid environment
(Bradley 1931).
2.2 Peat Composition and Peat-Forming Plants
Coal type, i.e. the petrographic composition of a coal seam, is genetically linked
to the composition of its ancestral peat deposit. The type and composition are
related to the various kinds of peat-forming plants and the biochemical conditions
under which they were converted into peat. Biochemical coalification will be
discussed in Chap. 3, while in this chapter emphasis is on the strong influence on
peat and coal exerted by peat-forming plants.
Having observed variations in rates of decay between different components of
vegetable matter, Waksman and Stevens (1929) established a "stability series" for
Fig. 2.3. Transverse section through a

6-year-old stem of Pinus sylvestris. (After
Shaw et al. 1968)
Peat Composition and Peat-Forming Plants 19
plant constituents, which begins with cell protoplasm as the least stable component
and ends with waxes and resins as the most stable ones. Because of its considerable
volume and relatively high resistance, the wood of trunks, branches and, above
all, roots has often contributed the largest proportion of vegetable matter to the
formation of coal and, among the various types, gymnosperm wood was probably
more common than any other variety. A schematic section of a conifer stem is
therefore displayed in Fig. 2.3 in order to illustrate some of the most important
wood tissues.
Basically, the tissue in' a plant stem appear like a set of cylinders which have
been telescoped into each other. They differ in their morphology and function.
The innermost cylinder is formed by the pith which in some plants is hollow but
consists of parenchyma tissue in gymnosperms. Its cells are elongated and contain
thin walls consisting mainly of cellulose. They have no specific function.
The pith is surrounded by xylem tissue which extends from the roots to the
tree tops. It forms the wood proper, and apart from giving strength to the plant
body, it contains parts of the vascular system, i.e. it serves to distribute water and
minerals, drawn up by the roots, throughout the plant and to the leaves. The
xylem consists of three types of cells (after Francis 1961):
1. Long tube-like, thick-walled tracheids, rich in lignin and forming the bulk of
the wood.
2. Roughly cylindrical, irregular thin-walled cells forming resin ducts.
3. Short, box-shaped, thin-walled cells arranged in bands at right angles to the
tracheids and radiating from the centre, thus called pith rays.
The xylem is surrounded by the phloem with the cambium in between. The latter
consists ofliving tissue which is responsible for the secondary growth or thickening
of the stem because it produce~ new plant cells on either side of itself, xylem cells
on the inside and phloem cells on the outside. In the course of this process the
older xylem cells are buried deeper in the stem whilst the primary phloem is pushed
to the outside.
The cambium moves outward too and increases in circumference because of
the accumulation of new xylem tissue inside it. In tropical climates this process is
continuous. However, in climatic zones characterised by pronounced seasonal
changes from cold to warm or dry to wet, growth is interrupted during the adverse
season. As the latter is approached the cells become smaller and thick-walled,
which shows in sections as annual growth rings (Figs. 2.3 and 2.4)
The pholem consists of mainly three types of tissues: .
1. Rows oflarge bulging cells often containing waste products and with cell walls
consisting mainly of cellulose.
2. Small thin-walled cells grouped around the large ones.
3. Rows of thick-walled lignified cells radially arranged like the pith rays.
The main function of the phloem is the distribution of food stuffs produced in the
leaves by photosynthesis downward throughout the plant body.
Fig. 2.4. Photomicrograph showing the change from spring to autumn growth (left to right) in
annual rings. Actual length of field of view = 5 mm
The phloem is surrounded by the cortex, which consists of an irregular

arrangement of parenchyma tissue. In young shoots the cortex is covered by a
cuticle which is a non-cellular protecting membrane covering the outside not only
of young parts of the plant body but also of leaves. In the course of secondary
thickening the cuticle peels off and, in order to provide continued protection to
the plant, the outer parenchyma cells change into cork cells which constitute the
bark or periderm.
Because most of the cell contents (protoplasm) decay very quickly, the walls
of plant cells contribute more than any other kind of vegetable matter to the
formation of peat and coal. Commonly such cell walls consist of up to three layers:
1. A primary wall which consists mainly of cellulose and some pectin plus lignin
in the case of wood. Cellulose (C 6 H 1005) occurs in the form of long-chain
molecules which are secreted by the protoplasm of the living cell. The cellulose
chains are bundled into the so-called microfibrils, which in turn are grouped
into macrofibrils.
2. A secondary wall is not always present and frequently it does not cover the
primary wall completely. Cellulose is its basic component with the addition of
lignin in wood cells. Similarly to cellulose, lignin (C30H34011) is not a simple
chemical compound but an association of various closely related substances.
Lignin adds firmness to the cell walls and renders them resistant.
3. Adjacent cell walls are joined by the intercellular substance, or middle lamella,
which acts as a cementing material. It consists of pectin, (C 6 H 10 0 7), which is
the methoxy ester of the pectic acid. A small hole, intercellular space, IS
commonly left at the juncture between four adjacent cells.
From the above, it follows that pectin, cellulose and lignin form the bulk of the
substances contained in the walls of plant cells and they therefore contribute greatly
to the composition of coal. In terms of quantity the substances related to both
cellulose and lignin are more important than pectin, which forms only the rather
thin middle lamellae. As mentioned before, lignin is not always present in cell
walls. It is missing altogether in a large number of plants and, where it is present,
its composition (and properties) may vary slightly between different taxa (Clymo
1987). Lignin renders the cell walls rather rigid and so it is concentrated mainly
in those parts of plants which consist of solid wood. However, non-woody
herbaceous plants may also contain partially lignified cells. In the context of peat
formation an important example is Sphagnum moss, whose surprisingly good tissue
preservation in many peats has been attributed to the high proportion oflignin-type
compounds in their cells.
The lignin content of present day pine wood, according to Schmidt and
Graumann (1921), is about 37% on a dry, resin free basis. Assuming that the wood
of other plants, including those of earlier geologic periods, had a similar lignin
content, Potonie (1924) used this figure to estimate the percentage of lignin and
related wood producing substances contained in the vegetable source of the Carboni-
ferous coals in Europe. When viewed under the microscope, remnants of woody
tissues are usually visible in thin sections and polished coal blocks (Fig. 2.5). They
are particularly well developed in syngenetic dolomite nodules and other carbonate
concretions occasionally found in coal seams. These have been formed during the
very early stages of diagenesis and they contain therefore almost ur1compressed
portions of the former peat preserved by petrification (Fig. 2.6).
Fig. 2.5. Photomicrograph of fusinitised wood tissue (charcoal) in a high volatile bituminous
coal from the Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales. The real length of the long edge is 0.36 mm;
incident light, oil immersion
Fig. 2.6. Photomicrograph of the margin of a siderite nodule in medium volatile coal of the
Bowen Basin, Queensland. Note the uncompressed cell tissue in the carbonate and the traces of
compression in the adjacent coal to the right of the concretion. Actual length offield of view = 0.23
mm; incident light, oil immersion
Based on a quantitative analysis of 94 thin sections of dolomite nodules,

Potonie (1924) concluded that 40% of the vegetable matter contained in them
consists of woody tissues. Using Schmidt and Graumann's (1921) figure of 37%
for the lignin content of wood, it would appear that 14% of the coal has been
derived from lignin and related compounds, the rest being cellulose and other
substances. This is mentioned here because earlier students of coal, particularly
Fischer and Schrader (1922), used to hold the view that lignin contributed more
to the formation of coal than any other source material. They argued that humic
coals are rich in aromatic hydrocarbons, which on distillation produce phenols.
The same is true for lignin when subjected to dry distillation. Cellulose has an
aliphatic structure and was thought therefore to be less suitable to produce the
aromatic compounds of coal. However, a large number of substances which are
known to be devoid of lignin have undergone coalification. Important examples
which contradict the lignin hypothesis are herbaceous plants and coalified plant
leaves from which much coal has been formed, although this kind of vegetable
matter contributed little lignin.
A summary of peat types is given by Francis (1961) which includes the following
characteristics:
1. Fibrous or woody peat (Fig. 2.7) is firm, moderately tough, and not plastic;
shows the original plant structures only slightly or partly altered by decay.
Such peats, when cut and dried, display only moderate shrinkage, at least in
the direction of plant growth. Large branches, trunk or roots of trees may
persist when the deposit contains much forest debris.
Fig. 2.7. Photograph of fibrous peat (top) with rootlets and enclosed piece of wood (bottom) from
Jewell's Swamp, Belmont, New South Wales
Table 2.2. Some properties of six peat types identified in the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia,
U.S.A. (After Cohen 1973)
Depositional Leading Colour Texture Plant F/M N/S

setting plant species fragments
macro- microscopic
Open water Nymphaea Reddish Light Fine Leaves 0.79 3.00

marsh odO/'ala brown yellow fibrous seeds, roots
granular cell fillings
-..- -- -
Carex Reddish Light As above Leaves 0.85 1.50
hyalinolepis brown yellow roots,
to brown to light mostly
brown debris
Shallow Panicwn Reddish Light Coarse Leaves 1.08 3.00
glades hemitomon brown to yellow fibrous roots,
and dark brown debris
island Woodwardia As above Red- Fibrous to Rhizomes 0.96 1.50
fringes virginica brown granular lea ves, roo ts
Tree Cyrilla As above Light Coarse Leaves, 1.94 0.54

islands racemiflora brown granular roots wood,
and woody cell fillings
swamps
Taxodium Dark red- As above As above Leaves, 1.00 0.67
distichum brown roots twigs,
wood debris
2. Pseudo-fibrous peat, in spite of its fibrous appearance, is soft, non-coherent

and plastic. When dried, this type shows varying shrinkage depending on the
source material.
3. Amorphous peat. In this type, the original structure of the plant's cell tissue
has been destroyed by decomposition. The resultant peat is the organic
counterpart of clay, being composed of fine grains, which form a plastic mass,
similar to wet, heavy soil.
4. Intermediate forms of peat and mixed peats consist of mixtures of the more
resistant elements set "in a strongly altered matrix. The name "mixed peat" is
generally applied in modern peats to alternating layers of fibrous and amorphous
peats.
In his work on the Okefenokee Swamp, Cohen (1973) found macroscopic peat
types of the kind listed above to be genetically not particularly useful because
peats of different origins in terms of vegetational precursors and mire setting
displayed overlapping characteristics. On the basis of the dominant peat-forming
plant species, he distinguished between six peat types which were referred to three
depositional settings. A list of their main characteristics is given in Table 2.2 and
discussed below.
Parts of the Okefenokee Swamp consist of open marsh with a water depth of
up to 1 m. It is covered by floating vegetation among which the white water-lily
Nymphaea odorata is dominant. Its peat consist mainly of intertwined roots
resulting in a distinctly fibrous texture. In a hand sample, the peat is reddish brown
but its microscopic appearance in transmitted light is more yellowish and somewhat
granular. The latter results from the high degree of decomposition of the soft cell
tissues which is responsible for the comparatively low framework to matrix ratio
(F/M in Table2.1). Framework particles have been defined by Cohen (1973) as
discrete organs or relatively intact cell tissues in excess of 0.2 mm, whereas the
matrix constitutes the continuous phase of degraded interstitial matter. Framework
particles are further characterised by their ratio of non-sedimentary to sedimentary
material (N/S ratio). Non-sedimentary consists mainly of subsurface organs, such
as roots and rhizomes, while any vegetal matter that accumulates on the peat
surface, for example leaves, spores, pollen, twigs, stems etc. make up the sedimentary
portion.
An interesting aspect of the Nymphaea marsh is the occurrence of floating
patches of peat, up to several tens of metres in diameter and less than a metre
thick. According to Cohen (1973), these separate from the underlying peat when
they become buoyant due to the entrapment of marsh gas in the near-surface
layers. They are hosts to a variety of plants preferring drier habitats, which adds
more peat to the patches and causes them to become grounded. By the time shrubs
and trees are established on them they do not float anymore but are grounded.
Their former frequency and distribution is indicated by the many clumps of trees
which occur as islands throughout the marsh.
The shallow water glades and transitional zones between marsh and wooded
swamp are occupied by sedges, reed-like vegetation, and ferns dominated by Carex
hyalinolepis, Panicum hemitomon, and Woodwardia virginica, respectively. Both
Climate and Peat Accretion 25
Carex and Woodwardia peats are quite decomposed which is indicated by the low
FjM ratio but, as shown by their lower NjS ratios, compared with Nymphaea and
Panicum peat, both of which owe their high NjS ratios to the abundance of
well-preserved roots, much plant debris is still present.
Wood in the form of twigs, branches and smaller fragments, including charcoal,
as well as leaves and other surface accumulations, dominate the Cyrilla and
T axodium peats formed on the tree islands and in swamps. The results are increased
FjM and strongly reduced NjS ratios, although the FjM ratio of the Taxodium
peat is only moderate due the higher proportion of herbaceous debris.
From the above follows that, given similar source material, the F jM ratio is
a measure of surface degradation, i.e. a low value would indicate a high degree of
plant decomposition, which is true in the case of the Nymphaea and Panicum peat,
but compositional differences between peat-producing plants (e.g. woody versus
herbaceous) will certainly modify this relationship. The NjS ratio is likewise an
indicator of the degree of plant decomposition. A high ratio suggests considerable
surface degradation and advanced tissue decay whereby, once again, the different
preservation potentials of different plants growing in similar circumstances will
affect its numerical value. Both ratios are thus not only affected by the physical
and biochemical conditions of peat formation but also by the kind of flora that
is converted into peat. This is an important aspect which will be further discussed
in Chaps. 5,7 and 8, where the ratio concept will be applied to coal facies analysis.
2.3 Climate and Peat Accretion
Plant growth and thus the formation of peat and coal depends on the availability
of liquid water. The kind of flora (within limits set by evolution), its variety, and
the quantity of vegetable matter produced are regulated by temperature and
precipitation. Temperature also governs the rate of evaporation, i.e. in cool climates
with medium to low annual rainfall, plants can be provided with more surface
water than is the case in warm regions of similar precipitation rates. Warm arid
zones carry only sparse vegetation and the paucity of coal deposits between the
palaeolatitudes of 15° and 30° illustrated in Fig. 2.8 suggests that similar conditions
operated in the geological past. Also of note in the illustration is the latitudinal
shift in coal formation towards higher latitudes from the Permian Period onwards.
Indeed, during the Mesophytic Era (see Chap. 2.4), coal formation appears to have
been concentrated in temperate to cool climatic zones incorporating very high
latitudes which, by the present meteorologic configuration, would be incapable of
producing peat. Reasons for such flora extensions into polar regions include
changes in the tilt of Earth's rotational axis (Wolfe 1978), a fossil "greenhouse"
effect (Fischer 1981), different rainfall patterns due to a widening of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (Parrish et al. 1982; Ziegler et al. 1987), and also suggestions
that the high latitudes are erroneous because palaeomagnetic determinations may
be subject to a long-term bias towards the rotational and magnetic pole locations.
Relative frequency
o 30 60 90
Degrees latitude
_ Triassic
Fig. 2.8. Diagram of the palaeolatitud-
OJ] Early Tertiary IE Penman inal distribution of coal-forming areas
throughout the ages. The relative fre-
~ Cretaceous . . Carboniferous quency approximates present sizes of
8 Jurassic EE Devonian coal fields. (After Irving 1964 and
Habicht 1979)
In the latter context Donn (1982) suggests that the angular difference between
Earth's rotational and magnetic dipole axes varies over a wider margin than has
hitherto been assumed. The resultant differences between magnetic and geographic
latitudes (depending on the longitudinal position) increase towards the poles. A
large angle might have existed during the Mesophytic Era, which would require
a lowering of the geographical latitude.
On account of their prolific plant growth, tropical and subtropical regions
might be expected to be particularly well suited for the production of large peat
deposits. However, not only plant growth but also the biochemical processes
leading to the complete removal by decay of vegetable matter are accelerated in
a hot climate, particularly when it is continuously wet. Cellulose-decomposing
bacteria thrive best at temperatures between 35° and 40 °C (Teichmiiller 1958). At
lower temperatures not only the biological action is retarded but also chemical
decompostion proceeds at a lower rate. It is therefore possible that even under
conditions of slow plant growth peat can be formed in large quantities, which is
borne out by today's concentration in high latitudes oflarge peat deposits in which
the proportion of undecomposed cell tissues is commonly higher than in tropical
peats. The long and severe winters of high latitudes do not adversely affect the
peat since during such periods plant decomposition is practically nil while during
the summer months the abundance of moisture and the short nights favour steady
plant growth.
Even if the very high latitudes indicated in Fig. 2.8 should be revised downward
in order to account for a greater difference between magnetic and rotational poles,
- - ' " Namurian _ • .." KazaRian

•••• ' Sokmarion
p (Stephonion)
• """""" Malillium .... nt of inland ic.. 4 lIarine-Glaciol deposits
UPPER MESOZ ole ,-------59

PERMIAN r + . - - - - 5.
57
56
'--T--+--+- 55
:";tl~.,.-+-+- 54
5'S
52
5t
50
41
4.
47
41
45
44
.., Tialsic ~ II ~ Crtto"ous 45

~
-'-"a"---- 42
....- - " - - - - - 4,
,0
,..- • ..- Kazani •• • ,,' - I ...... -* Triassic
~ Sedimentor, buin,
0:;:::::> Sedimentar, bOlin,
Fig. 2.9. The correlation between palaeolatitudes and the geographic and stratigraphic
distribution of Australian hard coal deposits. After Diessel (1969a), who incorporated information
from Brown et al. (1968), Engel (1962), Hawthorne (1965), Hill (1968), Hill and Denmead (1960),
Irving (1964), Irving and Gaskell (1962), Irving and Parry (1963), Cook (1975b), Knight et al. (1975),
Malone (1964), McWhae et al. (1956), Power (1967), Rattigan (1966), Standard Association of
Australia (1955), Spray and Banks (1962), Sprigg (1967).
Explanation of numbers:
Upper Carboniferous:
1 Inferior coal seams of the Italia Road Formation (Westphalian-Stephanian?) north of Raymond
Terrace, and other occurrences in the Hunter Valley. 2 Inferior coal seams in Alum Mountain
Volcanics at Bulahdelah (Stephanian-Lower Permian?).
Lower to Middle Permian:

3 Inferior coal seams in the Lower Bowen Volcanics (Sakmarian). 4 Thick coal seams in Reids
Dome Beds (Sakmarian-Artinskian) of the Denison Trough. At present not economic because
of great depth. 5 Steam and coking coals in the Collinsville Coal Measures (Artinskian). 6 Some
economic seams in upper portion of Aldebaran Sandstone and Freitag Formation (Artinskian)
of the Denison Trough. 7 Some coals in the Peawaddy Formation (Kazanian) of the Denison
Trough and on the Springsure Shelf. 8 Coal seams in the Calen Coal Measures (Artinskian) of
the Yarrol Basin near Mackay. 9 Several thick seams of steam coal in the Ashford Coal Measures
(Artinskian) of the Ashford Basin. 10 Coal seams (Artinskian) in the Stroud-Gloucester Trough.
11 Inferior coals in the Markwell Coal Measures (Artinskian?) at Bulahdelah. 12 Irregular seams
in the Clyde River Coal Measures (Sakmarian-Artinskian). 13 Inferior coals at the base of
Shoal haven Group (Artinskian?) between Kangaroo River and Tallong. 14 One coal seam at the
there is sufficient independent evidence to suggest that most Gondwana coal

deposits have been formed under cool to temperate conditions. The assumed
palaeomagnetic distribution is illustrated in Fig. 2.9 for Australian coals. Palaeo-
climatic indicators include the presence of strong annual growth rings in Permian
Gondwana trees (Fig. 2.10) and their absence in many Carboniferous trees from
the Northern Hemisphere (Potonie 1920; DiMichele and Phillips 1985), as well as
the occurrence of imprints of ice crystals in the Greta Coal Measures of New
South Wales (Tobin 1980) illustrated in Fig. 2.11. Further evidence for coal
formation in Gondwana under cool conditions is contained in the coal itself, in
which leaf cuticles and the enclosed mesophyll tissue often occur densely packed
as one would expect from an autumn leaffall (Fig. 2.12). There are also occurrences
in Gondwana coals where mesophyll tissue grades into semifusinite (Diessel 1983),
Fig. 2.9. (Caption continued from page 27)

base of Dalwood Group (Artinskian?) near Raymond Terrace. 15 Thick seams of steam coal in
Greta Coal Measures and regional equivalents (Upper Artinskian) in the districts of Maitland-
Cessnock-Greta, Muswellbrook-Singleton, and Werris Creek-Gunnedah-Curlewis. Small
Tasmanian coalfields with some economic seams in the Mersey Group (Artinskian) at 16
Preolenna 17 Mersey 18 Midlands District 19 Mt. Pelion and 20 Southeastern district. 21 Some
coal in the Irwin River Coal Measures (Artinskian) of the Perth Basin. 22 Steam coal seams in
the Collie Beds (Sakmarian-Artinskian) of the Collie and Wilga Coalfields.
Upper Permian:
23 Inferior coals in the Little River Coal Measures (Tartarian?) near Cooktown. 24 Some
economic seams in Mount Mulligan Coal Measures (Tartarian?) near Cairns. 25 Outcrops of
little-known coal beds (Tartarian?) at the Oxley River. The Bowen Basin contains many Upper
Permian (Tartarian) coal seams displaying a wide range of rank. The main districts are
26 Elphinstone 27 Blair Athol (could be Artinskian) 28 Bluff and Blackwater 29 Baralaba
30 Kianga and Moura. The Sydney Basin contains thick Upper Permian coal measures with
many coal seams. The main occurrences are 31 Ulan 32 Singleton Coal Measures (Tartarian)
contain mainly steam coal in the Hunter Valley and in the Northwestern Coalfield (Black Jack
Coal Measures); some coking coal is also present; 33 Newcastle and East Maitland districts in
the Northern Coalfield with Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures. 34 Western Coalfield with
Illawarra Coal Measures. 35 South-western and 36 Southern Coalfields with Illawarra Coal
Measures. 37 Coals of the Coorabin Series (Tartarian) in the Riverina. Inferior coals of the
Cygnet Coal Measures (Kungurian-Tartarian) in Tasmania at 38 Mt. Pelion and 39 Cygnet
40 Steam coals of the Collie Burn Series and Cardiff Series (Kungurian-Tartarian) at Collie.
Triassic:
41 Leigh Creek Coal Measures (Middle to Upper Triassic) at Leigh Creek. 42 Triassic coals at
Fingal, Merrywood and in south-eastern Tasmania. 43 Thick seam of steam coal in Callide Coal
Measures (Lower Triassic?) near Gladstone. 44 Some economic coal in the Nymboida Coal
Measures (Lower to Middle Triassic) of the Clarence Basin. 45 Mainly steam coals in the Ipswich
Coal Measures (Lower to Middle Triassic) at Ipswich. 46 One seam at Nundah near Brisbane.
Jurassic:
47 Several seams in the Wonthaggi Coal Measures of South Gippsland. 48 Inferior coal in the
Ballimore Beds (Dogger?) near Dubbo. 49 Seams in the Walloon Coal Measures (Dogger to
Lower Maim) and the Grafton Shales (Upper Maim) of the Clarence-Moreton Basin. Coals also
in the Walloon Coal Measures at 50 Rosewood-Walloon and 51 Darling Downs. Small basins
with some Jurassic coal at 52 Tiaro 53 Mulgedie 54 Pascoe River and 55 Laura.
Cretaceous:
Lower Cretaceous (Albian) coal at 56 Burrum and 57 Styx 58 Little known coals occur in the
Winton Formation (Cenomanian) of the Great Artesian Basin. 59 Thin seams at Kuntha Hill
Fig. 2.10. View of transverse section of a petrified tree trunk found in the Newcastle Coal
Measures, New South Wales. Note the strongly developed annual growth rings
Fig. 2.11. Photograph of casts of ice crystals on the underside of the Ayrdale Sandstone overlying
the Balmoral Seam in the Greta Coal Measures, Upper Hunter Valley, New South Wales
Fig. 2.12. Photomicrograph showing

densely packed leaf cuticles (thin dark
llnes) with enclosed mesophyll vitrinite
(dark grey). Actual length of field of
view = 0.36 mm; incident light, oil
immersion
as illustrated in Fig. 2.13. This, too, appears to be related to the deciduous nature
of the Glossopteris flora which during winter months allowed many leaves to wilt
on stems and frozen ground thus causing a freeze-drying effect before they could
be incorporated into the peat during the following spring (Taylor et al. 1989).
In Europe, Tertiary brown coal formation began under tropical conditions as
shown by remnants of palm trees and other tropical and subtropical plants in
Eocene lignites. Subsequently, pines, firs, alders, birches and other temperate zone
plants associated with Miocene brown coals indicate a marked climatic cooling
(Magdefrau 1953).
Another aspect of climatic influence of plant growth and peat accretion
concerns the availability of space for the development of peat. Apart from relatively
small occurrences in mountainous regions with a low preservation potential, the
majority of the world's 480 Mha of Holocene peatlands (Kivinen and Parkarinen
1981) is situated in low terrains not far above sea level. The current position of
the sea level divides the continental platform into a sub-aqueous portion ranging
approximately from the shelf edge at - 200 m to mean sea level and into a sub-aerial
section from sea level to a height of nearly 1000 m. This means that the present
sea-level position favours large-scale swamp formation on the wide tracts of
low-lying land. Moreover, current sea-level position favours coastal progradation
-_.- . ...
-t.... !-
~ .~ ~.
'.,.' c . . .
-.
.....,...
,. ..".
• '<. ');-
.=-.. . '.. ~. •
Fig. 2.13. Composite photomicrograph showing, from top to bottom, increasing stages in the
transformation of leaf tissue (mesophyll) into semifusinite. All examples are from high volatile
bituminous coal from the Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales. The real total length of the
ilustration is 0.76 mm; incident light, oil immersion
since marine regimes overlap many continental margins wide enough to form
broad continental shelves and shallow epicontinental seas (e.g. Sunda Sea in
Southeast Asia). The influx of even moderate amounts of sediments into shallow
water causes marine regression and build-up of coastal marshes and swamps. Only
30000 years ago, when during the Pleistocene Epoch much sea water was locked
in the greatly increased polar ice caps and mountain glaciers, the concomitant
lowering of the sea level by approximately 100 m shifted strandlines much closer
to the edges of the shelf break. Under such conditions rivers debouched their load
not far from the rapidly deepening continental slopes, which precluded the
construction of large coastal lowlands that appear to have been the loci of much
coal formation in the past. The influence of climate-dependent eustatic sea-level
changes on coal formation will be considered further in Chap. 8.
2.4 Evolutionary Trends in Peat and Coal Formation
A brief consideration of the evolution of the plant kingdom serves to establish the
stratigraphic range of coal formation because a certain evolutionary stage had to
be acquired before plants could spread into the environments which offered the
other parameters necessary for the development of large coalfields. The strati-
graphic range of the major members of the plant kingdom is displayed in Fig. 2.14.
It shows the successive appearance of the various members of the plant kingdom
which, similarly to the animal kingdom, can be grouped into several stratigraphic
categories of increasing differentiation and complexity. The oldest group is the
Thallophyta (algae) which dominated the plant kingdom to the end of the Silurian
Period when the Pteridophyta (fern-like plants) developed.
The plant body of algae (thallus) shows little differentiation. Algae do not
possess a vascular circulatory system and are therefore dependent on osmosis and
the presence of water to sustain their life cycle. This restriction renders them
unsuitable for large-scale coal formation and thus only algal coals (boghead coals
or torbanites) and oil shales are known from pre-Silurian periods. Among these
are Precambrian torbanites of anthracite rank in North America, the thucholite
deposits of the Witwatersrand (Snyman 1965; Hoefs and Schidlowski 1967;
Schidlowski 1968; Plumstead 1969; Hallbauer and van Warmelo 1974; Hallbauer
1975), numerous occurrences of graphite schists in Australia and elsewhere and
the Kukersite deposits of Silurian age which are mined and utilised in Estonia.
The latter have been formed mainly from one alga, Gloeoeapsomorpha prise a, so
named because of its similarity with the Recent Cyanophyta genus Gloeoeapsa. It
is a colonial alga which occurs together with brachiopod shells and remnants of
bryozoa. Individual cells are 40 to 100 flm in diameter but form compound struc-
tures within a mucilagenous matrix. The associated fauna indicates a marine origin,
probably in a protected bay. Several seams occur which are up to 80 cm thick
(Miigdefrau 1953).
Evolutionary Trends in Peat and Coal Formation 33
.,.. ,''- M""Vt'1

"'" _ ERA
ICAYTONIALES
ICONIFERALES ; ~
I """'''''' I ITA.L,I'S_
,n, I F~
" ...It",,, ''''

,",vnu""ALES
~co
n
EQUISETALES
r.AI IARIAr.FAF
.~ .. ~, fLLALES
I ~I"" ARIAr.FAF gI
'Ar~A~1 ~
I,,,,, A"'OJC, ACEAF
I LYCOPODI!,rcAc ';
I PTEROP~lnA
IDcollnD",n.
I BRYOPHYTA
IFUNGI
I ALGAE
Ii ~
2 0 '-
m -t rri
I~'i
c:
i~ ~
:;;
~-
en
1'l
%I
>
en
en ~I~ %I
-t
:;; ~
~~
PERIOD
~¥
%I
Z (j -<
:;;
CENO-
PALAEOZOIC MESOZOIC ERA
ZOIC
Fig. 2.14. The stratigraphic range of the major members of the plant kingdom. Modified after
Gothan and Weyland (1954). Note the difference in stratigraphic range between plant- and animal-
based eras
Torbanites and oil shales continue to form after the advent of higher plants
and many of them are of considerable interest as a source of hydrocarbons, among
them the Green River deposits of the western U.S.A. and the Tertiary oil shales
of Rundle and Julia Creek in Queensland, Australia. Also these deposits have been
devived from Cyanophyceae (blue-green algae) which form algal mats at the
depositional interface. Torbanites contain mainly the Chlorophyceae (green algae)
genus Pila, for example in the Permian bogheadcoals of Autun in France, and
Reinschia in many Permian boghead coals of Australia, South Africa (Ermeloo)
and South America. As illustrated in Fig. 2.15 they form floating, somewhat
globular colonies containing up to several hundred individual cells. Both Pila and
Reinschia appear to be closely related to the Recent Botryococcus and (Gothan
and Weyland 1954). The latter is found in both fresh and brackish water and the
present species Botryococcus braunii is commonly regarded as the source of
coorongite, a bituminous substance found at Coorong Lagoon in South Australia.
Tasmanites is another chlorophycea found in some oil shales (tasmanite). It is
Fig. 2.15. Two photomicrographs of a polished thin section of Pi/a algae in Greta coal of the
Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Left incident light in oil immersion; right transmitted light.
Note the contrasting appearance of the algae in incident (dark) and transmitted (white) light.
Actual length of each field of view = 0.2 mm
related to the present genus Pachysphaera and is mainly known from Permian
deposits in Tasmania and Jurassic to Cretaceous occurrences in Alaska (Tissot
and Welte 1978).
The possibilities for coal formation improved when the first land plants
appeared in Early Devonian time. These, the Psilophyta also called Psilopsida or
psilophytes, were descendents of algae but are regarded as a separate group by
some authors and as a class of the pteridophytes (spore plants) by others. In any
case, they occupy a special place in the phylogeny of plants because they are the
first to achieve the transition from water to land-life. This was made possible by
the acquisition of a simple vascular system and differentiation of the plant body,
parts of which became firmly anchored in the ground by means of roots, thereby
permitting the plant body (stems, branches and leaves) to be raised into the air.
The early, transitional forms still lived half-submerged in water and bore sporangia
(spore capsules) at the tips of their leaf-less stems. Later forms bear evidence of
more terrestrial habits but all psilophytes, indeed, all pteridophytes were well
equipped for a life in swampy environments. Psilophytes have thus produced the
first real peat deposits from which the banded, so-called humic coals were formed
Fig. 2.16. Sketch of a

Sigillaria stem with nearly
horizontal stigmarian
roots. The stem is
approximately 1.5 m high.
(After Gumz and Regul
1954)
after coalification of the vegetable matter. Noteworthy are a number of coal-

fields, for instance, on Bear Island and Spitzbergen, as well as in the Kuznetsk,
Kazakhstan and other basins.
Coal formation reached an initial-peak in the Carboniferous Period of the
Northern Hemisphere when towards the end of the worldwide orogenic move-
ments, slow but repeated subsidence within and adjacent to the mobile belts turned
large areas into peatlands. Peat accumulation was sustained on an unprecedented
scale and for many millions of years was based on the then domineering plant
group, the pteridophytes. These plants belong to the vascular cryptogams because
all members show well developed vascular strands, such as leaf veins and stems
differentiated into phloem, xylem and pith. Apart from the above-mentioned
psilophytes, which occupy a transitional position, the main subdivisions of the
Pteridophyta are the lycopsida (lycopidiales Lycophyta, lycopods or lycopsids), the
Sphenopsida (Equisetophyta or Articulatales or horsetails) and the Pteropsida
(Filicophyta Filicales pteropsids, pteropods or true ferns).
The above-mentioned pteridophytes are wetland plants which, among other
features, is shown by their widespread but shallow root system. As illustrated in
Fig. 2.16, the stigmarian root axes, to which numerous rootless were spirally
attached, radiated horizontally away from the stem. They interlocked with the
Stigmaria of adjacent trees (e.g. lycopods) thus forming a dense network of roots
(Wnuk 1985) which rendered the peat rather resistant to erosion. Conversely, the
horizontal anchoring and absorptive system of the pteridophytes made them very
sensitive to even small variations in the groundwater table, such that a minor
lowering of the water table would starve them (Collinson and Scott 1987). This
may explain the frequent occurrence in Carboniferous coal measures of rooted
horizons. in interseam positions, or the likewise frequent occurrence of well-
developed seat earths with rootlets overlain only by a few stringers of inferior coal
(see stratigraphic column in Chap. 7). These indicate that potentially favourable
conditions for peat formation developed quite frequently but they failed to produce
economic coal seams because of the low tolerance span of the not very diverse
Carboniferous flora towards groundwater fluctuations. This was not the case, at
Fig. 2.17. Photograph of Vertebraria

roots underneath the Piercefield Seam
at Saxonvale Mine, Hunter Valley, New
South Wales. Single roots can be traced
for 1m into the floor which consists of
barely disturbed and altered sand-
laminated siltstone. Note the pencil as
scale at the base of the seam.
least not to the same extent, in post-Carboniferous coal measures in which the
arborescent vegetation was dominated by seed plants. Although these too, form
shallow root systems in mature wetland environments, it is not rare to find deeply
penetrating roots in the floors of some Australian Permian coal seams (Fig. 2.17),
particularly in situations where peat began to accumulate in response to
paludification. In such situations arborescent gymnosperms were among the vege-
tational pioneers which began to grow on relatively dry ground and therefore had
to reach deep in the search for water.
The ability of the more robust post-Carboniferous vegetation to adjust to a
larger variety of groundwater positions enabled it to utilise more fully even marginal
peat-forming conditions including those which would have been abandoned by
the the Carboniferous flora. The consequences for the subsequent course of coal
formation are immense. Not only did the Mesophytic flora occupy a wider range
oflatitudes, but the greater tolerance of the vegetation to groundwater fluctuations
also allowed for the formation of thicker coal seams. According to Stille (1926),
the 3000-m-thick coal measures of the Ruhr Basin in Germany contain an aggregate
thickness of 180 m coal distributed over a 200 separate coal seams. This results in
a mean seam thickness of 0.9 m and a proportion of coal of 6%. The Sydney Basin
of New South Wales, which has a comparable tectonic setting, contains a similar
proportion of upper Permian coal in its 1200 m of combined Newcastle and
Tomago Coal Measures but its aggregate thickness of 78 m are distributed over
only 36 seams (Diessel 1980a) resulting in an average seam thickness of 2.2 m with
a range from 0.6 to 11.9 m. It may well be that Stille's figure of 200 seams represents
a maximum number and includes thin seams which would be disregarded elsewhere,
but the fact is that many of the approximately 90 coal seams which have been
named and correlated in the Ruhr Basin occur in numerous splits and, based on
a survey of 2660 m of Ruhr Coal measures (Diessel 1988), any reduction of Stille's
seam number would be minor. It would not affect the conclusion that the greater
tolerance of the Permian flora towards environmental changes enabled it and its
vegetational successors to continue accumulating peat where the Carboniferous
flora would have ceased to do so.
lf it is accepted that the post-Carboniferous flora could adjust itself to a wider
range of peat-forming conditions, including drier ones than the Carboniferous
pteridophytes could tolerate, the greater variety in petrographic composition of
Permian coals expressed in Table 1.1 does not come as a surprise. The percentage
ranges of most macerals are greater in the Australian coals compared with the
Carboniferous coals, which means that in spite of the higher mean percentage of
vitrinite and lower inertinite in the latter, some Australian coals are evidently
very bright, as has been demonstrated by Smyth (1968), Edwards (1975), Bennett
and Taylor (1970), and Taylor and Shibaoka (1976). According to Cook (1975a),
vitrinite contents of Australian coals range frbm 5 to over 80%. This means that
the Permian vegetation was just as capable of producing bright coals as the
Carboniferous flora was but that in addition to vitrinite-rich bright coals, Permian
coal measures contain many dull coals with high proportions of inertinite (group
of coal components formed under relatively dry conditions, see Chaps. 3 and 4).
It follows that the restriction to a moist habitat with permanently high ground-
water levels imposed on the Carboniferous pteridophytes by their shallow root
system and other biological constraints including reproduction, implied a likewise
restriction of biochemical coalification to the relatively narrow vitrinitisation
pathway (see Chap. 3). Apart from some inertinite concentrations in the uppermost
portion of many seams, the Carboniferous coal measures of the Northern
Hemisphere contain few coal seams with consistently high inertinite contents. This
supports the notion that, as the water table dropped and the habitat became a
little drier, peat forming was abandoned altogether whereas in the Permian mires
it would have continued and resulted in an inertinite-rich seam or part of a seam.
A simi air process can also be seen operating on a large scale. As will be discussed
in Chap. 9, foreland basins (molasse foredeeps) marginal to a fold belt, like the
Ruhr Basin or the Sydney Basin, commonly begin their depositional history with
predominantly marine sediments which have gradually been replaced by terrestrial
deposits. In the Sydney Basin of New South Wales this large-scale terrestrialisation
is mirrored by a succession of Upper Permian coal seams beginning with initially
thin, discontinuous and dirty lower delta plain coals to thick, vitrinite-rich coals
formed in alluvial/upper delta plain settings and terminating with likewise thick
but very dull and inertinite-rich seams interbedded with coarse braid plain
sandstones and conglomerates. Apart from being somewhat more complicated
because of a higher frequency of marine transgressions, the development in the
Carboniferous basins of the Northern Hemisphere does not proceed beyond the
high vitrinite equivalents of the alluvial/upper delta plain coals of the Sydney
Basin. Where in the latter the high-inertinite coals begin, the Ruhr Basin shows
only the advent of the respective coarse clastics but the coal content declines
rapidly. Instead, the already frequent occurrence of rooted horizons increases even
further (Strehlau 1990; David 1989), suggesting that repeatedly for very brief
episodes favourable growth conditions emerged but their duration was too short
to allow peat accumulation to be sustained.
Pteridophytes reproduced by using either the heterosporous (e.g. lycopods) or
homosporous (e.g. pteropods) strategy (Collinson and Scott 1987). This requires
a moist environment and free water in order to fertilise the spores. It also
necessitates that the timing of spore release coincides with favourable conditions
for fertilisation and sporophyte growth because the embryo is poorly protected
and has only a small food reserve (Phillips 1979). Because of these somewhat
adverse conditions, fertilisation had a low success rate, which was balanced by
producing spores in large quantities in order to assure that reproduction was kept
at a high level. The spore content of Carboniferous coals is therefore higher than
that of equivalent younger deposits which, from the Permian Period onward, were
increasingly based on seed plants. Their pollen content is considerably smaller
and conventionally counted together with the spores in coal petrographic analyses.
For example, the average spore content of the Permian coals listed in Table 1.1 is
only one half of that of the Carboniferous samples. In some lacustrine environments
spores are so concentrated that they form a special type of coal, called cannel coal.
The term has been derived from the word "candle" because such coals can be lit
like a candle on account of the high hydrocarbon content of the spore exines.
The Carboniferous flora, like the preceding ones, displays only limited
provincialism. The differentiation into geographyically different floral assemblages
(i.e. Gondwana, Angara, Euramerican flora etc.) begins with the advent of the
Spermatophyta (seed plants). Some of them coexisted with the pteridophytes since
the end of the Devonian Period but they never dominated the floral assemblages
to the extent it happened from the Permian Period onwards, although according
to Patteisky (1958) gymnosperms begin to spread from mid-Westphalian B, and
Josten (1962) notes a sharp increase in Cordatitales in the stratigraphically highest
interseam sediments (Westphalian C z ) of the Ruhr Coal Measures before the end
of coal formation. Conversely, the spore content decreases and some types (e.g.
densospores) disappear altogether from mid-Westphalian C onwards (Peppers
1984; Phillips et al. 1985; Strehlau 1988). The Permian Period marks therefore the
end of the Palaeophytic and the beginning of the Mesophytic Era in which the
gymnosperms (plants with naked seeds) constituted the leading plant group.
Similarly to the psilophytes, which were the forerunners of the bulk of the
pteridophytes, the pteridosperms (seed ferns) constitute the link between the spore-
bearing ferns and the seed plants. They reach their maximum development in the
Southern Continents (Gondwana) during the Late Carboniferous and Permian
Periods and are responsible for the formation of rich coal deposits in Australia,
South Africa, South America, India and Antarctica. After one of their leading
genera, the whole plant association is often referred to as the Glossopteris flora,
even though members of other plant divisions, such as the Sphenopsida, Phyllotheca,
Fig. 2.18. Photomicrograph (incident light) of vitrinite from the Bulli Seam New South Wales
displaying a la~ge n~~ber of resi~ bodies in former resin ducts. The surface 'of the specimen ha~
been etched with aCidified potassIUm permanganate according to Diessel (1961). Actual length
of field of view = 0.36 mm
and Sphenophyllum are commonly associated with Glossopteris. Other gymnos-

perms which are frequent in the Permian Period are Cordaitales, Coniferales and
(towards the end of the period) Cycadales.
The preponderance of gymnosperms among the Mesophytic flora led to a
change in the appearance of the respective coals compared with the Palaeophytic
ones. Coals formed after the Carboniferous Period are therefore frequently low
in spore content but are rich in derivatives of plant resins and waxes. Such material
is often difficult to identify under the microscope unless fluorescence microscopy
or etching techniques are employed. An example of the latter is given in Fig. 2.18.
The differences in source material between Palaeophytic and Mesophytic coals has
many consequences for their petrographic composition, as well as for their techno-
logical properties.
Gymnosperms dominated the plant kingdom from the Permian to the
Cretaceous Period when the angiosperms, which first appeared in Triassic time,
underwent a rapid development. They contain two groups, the monocotyledons
and the dicotyledons. In both, the seeds are covered inside a carpel or seed pod with
the former comprising plants with one seed leaf (grasses, palms, lilies) whereas the
latter are plants with two seed leaves (shurbs, trees). The angiosperms which domi-
nate today's flora developed in the Cretaceous Period, which marks therefore the
beginning of the present Cenophytic Era.
In spite of the preponderance of angiosperms, gymnosperms have remained
important contributors to peat and coal to the present day because their wood is
often resinous and resists rapid aerobic decay and they cover large portions of the
temperate and colder regions in which most of the recent peat deposits have been
formed.
3 The Coalification Process
The transformation of vegetable matter into peat and coal is commonly regarded
as proceeding in two steps, called the biochemical and physicochemical stage of
coalification (Stach et al. 1982), respectively. Other terms, such as "first and second
phase" (Mackowsky 1953), or "diagenetic and metamorphic stage" (Teichmiiller
1962) have been used to describe the coalification process. During biochemical
coalification organisms initiate and assist in the chemical decomposition of vegetal
matter and its conversion into peat and brown coal. The results of this process,
i.e. the type of peat and coal formed, depend on the phytogenic input and the
environmental conditions under which it is transformed into peat. Different
biological, chemical and physical constraints. result in different peat types which
during the subsequent physicochemical coalification are transformed into different
coal types without losing their palaeo-environmental signature. Because of the
causal links between coal types and depositional setting the following discussion
will emphasise the conditions and results of biochemical coalification, whereas
physicochemical coalification will be dealt with less rigorously.
3.1 Biochemical Coalification
The discussion of peatlands in Chap. 2 has shown that large present-day mires
house a number of sub-environments ranging from open water to relatively dry
land. Because of physiological differences only a few plant types are capable of
occupying all the possible ecological settings. Much of the swamp flora has thus
been segregated into distinct plant associations relative to the position of the water
level, some present and past examples of which are listed in Table 3.1.
The table is divided into two rheotrophic and one ombrotrophic setting but
the occurrence and type of vegetation of the latter can be assessed with reasonable
accuracy only in Recent peatlands. The most diagnostic plant of today's
ombrotrophic raised bogs in Sphagnum moss but, although it has been documented
as far back as the Permian Period (Remy and Remy 1977), little evidence of it has
been found in coal deposits, either in the form of spores or tissue fragments. This
is surprising because tissue preservation in Sphagnum peat is commonly good on
account of its high lignin content (Grosse-Brauckmann 1980) and the acid nature
of the bog environment which suppresses microbial activity. Perhaps the reason
Table 3.1. Selection of typical plant associations in relation to their peatland habitat and
stratigraphic order
Stratigraphic Ombrotrophic Rheotrophic setting

level setting
Position of water table in relation to ground level:
Water table at or Ground is covered by

below ground surface shallow water ( < 2 m)
Recent Sphagnum, Populus, Picea, Fresh-water: Carex cost.

Temperate Kalmia, Carex, Betula Equisetum, Typha
Canada - Oxycoccus, latifolia, Calamogrostis,
coastal Nuphar, Brackish water:
(Styan and Pinus, Eleoeharis, Carex lyn.,
Bustin Ledum, Scirpus am.
1983a, b) Eriophorum, Salt-water: Salicornia,
Rhynchospora Elymus, Distichlis
Recent Rhizophora mangle,

Subtrophical Conocarpus erecta,
SE-Florida - Laguncularia
coastal (Cohen racemosa,
and Spackman Acrostichum aureum,
1972; Spackman M ariscus jamaicensis
et a\. 1966, 1969)
Recent Litsea, Gonystylus, Rhizophora apiculata

Tropical Shorea albida, Dactylocladus, Avicennia marina,
SE-Asia - Tristania, Shorea albida, Kandelia candle,
coastal Palaquium, Stemonurus, N ypa fruticans
(Anderson Parastemon, N eoscortechina,
1964, 1983; Cratoxylum, Phoenix paludosa
Whitmore Combretocarpus,
1984) Calophyllum
Recent Sphagnum, Alnus glutinosa, N ymphaea alba,

Temperate Andromeda, Pinus sylvestris, Schoenoplectus lacustris,
Europe - Drosera, Betula pubescens Phragmites communis,
inland Polytrichum, Typha latifolia,
(Gottlich Calluna, Vaccinium Carex, Scirpus
1980) Erica, Ledum, Equisetum limosum
Eriophorum
Recent Cyrilla racemij1ora, N ymphaea odorata,

Warm temperate /lex, Gordonia, U trieularia,
U.S. Atlantic Magnolia, Persea, N ymphoides aquatica,
coast - inland Lyonia, Itea Xyris, Orontium, Carex,
(Cohen 1973) Pontederia, Sagittaria,
Vallisneria, P anicum,
Woodwardia, Nuphar,
Taxodium distichum
Oligo/Miocene Tristania, N othofagus,

Warm- Baeckea, Elaeocarpus,
temperate Epacridaceae, Quintinia,
Gippsland Restionaceae, Ackama, Pullea
Basin, Gleichenia, Lagarostrobus,
Biochemical Coalification 43
Table 3.1. (Continued)
Stratigraphic Ombrotrophic Rheotrophic setting

level setting
Position of water table in relation to ground level:
Water table at or Ground is covered by

below ground surface shallow water ( < 2 m)
Australia - Proteaceae . Dacrydium, Callitris,

inland (Kershaw Podocarpus,
and Sluiter 1982) Phyllocladus
Eocene Sphagnum? Sequoia, Araucoria, Phragmites, Juncus,

Subtropical Pinus, Sterculia, Carex, Cladium,
Europe - Cupressus, Ficus, Nymphaea,
coastal to inland Woodwardia, Taxodium distichum,
(Teichmiiller Phoenicites, Sabal, Glyptostrobus, Nyssa
1950, 1958, 1962; Myrica, Laurophyllum,
Magdefrau 1953) Castanea, Taxodium
mexicanum
Permian Walkomiella, Phyllotheca,

Cool temperate Glossopteris, Schizoneura,
Gondwana- Gangamopteris, (Pi/a, Reinschia
coastal to inland N oeggeratiopsis, Tasmanites)
(Plumstead 1969; Sphenopteris,
Falcon 1977) Gondwanidium,
Lycopodiopsis,
Cyclodendron
Carboniferous Herbaceous Cordaites, Calamites, (Pi/a,

Tropical lycopods? Cardiopteris, Reinschia),
Euramerica - Sphenophyllum, Lepidodendron,
coastal to inland Rhacopteris, Chaloneria,
(Teichmiiller Sphenopteris, Lepidophloios,
1962; Magdefrau Alethopteris, Paralycopodites,
1953; DiMichele Mariopteris, Selaginella
et al. 1979; Sigillaria,
Phillips and Neuropteris
DiMichele 1981;
Bartram 1987)
for the absence of Sphagnum in coal deposits is related to its preference for cool
habitats. This does not explain its absence in Gondwana coals, but the other
examples of coal-forming plant associations listed in Table 3.1 represent warm to
tropical peatlands which likewise do not support much Sphagnum except at high
altitudes (Whitmore 1984), under present-day conditions.
The difference in the distribution of Sphagnum between temperate and tropical
lowland ombrotrophic mires has considerable consequences for the respective peat
facies. As mentioned above, Sphagnum peat is commonly characterised by a high
proportion of preserved cell tissue giving it a high framework/matrix ratio and a

fibrous appearance (Styan and Bustin 1983a, b). The F/M ratio is further increased
by the presence of wood fragments contributed by the plants listed in Table 3.1.
In contrast to the well-textured Sphagnum peat, the ombrotelmites of tropical
Southeast Asia consist of a more decomposed, semi-liquid, organic ooze incor-
porating large pieces of wood. Only the peat surface is reasonably coherent because
of the interlocking roots of the vegetation cover (Whitmore 1984). The reason for
the more advanced dec.omposition of the tropical ombrotelmite is the higher and
more evenly distributed annual temperature which results in more efficient tissue
degradation by microbes, in spite of the low pH. In the Sphagnum-dominated
raised bogs of temperate climates, biomass production may not be as high as in
the tropics but, because of the lower temperatures and the frequent frost conditions
in wintertime, bacterial action is slowed down, too, resulting in a better preservation
of cell tissue.
Another important difference between tropical and temperate climates is the
higher degree of specialisation of the temperate flora between rheotrophic and
ombrotrophic types. There is considerably more mixing between the two types in
the tropics and, although Anderson (1964, 1983) distinguishes between six floral
associations in the transition from coastal rheotrophic to inland ombrotrophic
mires, a large number of plant species is common to all settings but at the expense
of a substantial size reduction towards the centres of the raised bogs. The reason
for this is the decrease in nutrient supply by flood waters (increasing oligotrophy)
as the ground surface rises towards the bog.
Among the examples of temperate climates Table 3.1 lists a number of plants
(e.g. Nuphar . Drosera anglica. Eriophorum vaginatum) in the ombrotrophic setting
which require open water or a very wet habitat. In view of the elevated surface
Fig. 3.1. View of a Sphagnum bog in northern Scotland with water-filled depressions and growth
of Eriophorum and Erica (in foreground)
of the raised bog one would expect it to be subjected more frequently to dry
conditions rather than wet ones. Indeed, many bog plants display a xeromorphic
habit in response to occasional drying, yet, water-filled depressions are a common
feature of the bog surface (Fig. 3.1). As has been discussed by Styan and Bustin
(l983a, b), the ponds and lakes on the surface of the raised bogs occurring on the
alluvial and upper delta plain of the Fraser River (British Columbia) are genetically
related to periods of dryness which effect the most elevated portions of the bog
more than other parts. These relatively dry niches are characterised by ericaceous
Sphagnum peat (Styan and Bustin 1983a).
In contrast to tropical ombrotelmites, which require almost constant
replenishment of the large amounts of water lost to evaporation because of the
prevailing high temperatures, the Sphagnum peats of temperate climates are subject
to a more uneven distribution of water requirement. During the winter months,
when there is little plant growth and evaporation is low, most of the precipitation
on the mire is either lost to runoff (see November to mid-January in Fig. 3.2) or
is left on the peat surface as snow during which period there is little runoff (see
mid-January to mid-March in Fig. 3.2). The thawing period in springtime provides
more water than can be retained in the peat which results in another runoff peak
(from mid-March in Fig. 3.2) after which only occasional heavy showers will cause
excessive runoff (see July in Fig. 3.2). Towards late summer and autumn,
precipitation may not be infrequent but is volumetrically small enough to be
absorbed by the growing vegetation, with the result that no runoff occurs at all
and the groundwater table, which has been oscillating throughout the summer
months, reaches its lowest position (see August to October in Fig. 3.2). In normal
years the lowering of the groundwater table is usually restricted to the uppermost
centimeters or decimeters of the peat (Puffe and Grosse-Brauckmann 1963) but
em
N
o
10
...E
.. 20
30
....
OIl
Ground...atel'" Table 1 40
250
200
150
100
50
o
Nov Dec Jon Feb Mor Apr MOY Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Fig. 3.2. Comparison of variations in temperature (mean pentades), precipitation, thickness of

snow cover, position of groundwater table and runoff for the Ki:inigsmoor near Hannover,
Germany, over the 12 months between the end of 1954 and 1955. (After Eggelsmann 1980)
this would be sufficient to cause repeated and, in late summer, prolonged

desiccation of the peat surface.
Persistent periods of severe drought have a more severe effect on the peat than
the more normal drying of the upper few centimetres because, either by lightning
strike or spontaneous combustion, the peat may catch fire and burn right down
to the water table. If the latter has been lowered well below the surface, a return
to normal conditions will fill the burnt out hollow with water. In the developing
lake the autochthonous remnants of Nuphar and other aquatic plants (including
algae) become intermingled with allochthonous and more or less oxidised plant
litter washed into the ponds from the adjacent peat surface because in times of
high precipitation both topogenous and ombrogenous mires are subjected to
considerable water movement on the peat surface itself. As mentioned above, the
reason for the high runoff is the commonly high water saturation of the peat which
cannot retain large volumes of water during heavy falls or when the winter snow
which covers peats of cool temperate climates thaws (Bay 1969). Erosion channels
(washouts) formed by the surface runoff are therefore a common feature of blanket
mires in spite of the considerable resistance of peat to erosion, due to the
interlocking texture of its plant remnants. 'Tree-less Sphagnum bogs and other peat
surfaces, covered with low shrubs only, are affected more so than mires with
arborescent growth. The reason for this difference is not only the greater effective-
ness of a dense tree cover in slowing down lateral water movement but also their
larger surface area compared with a grassy or herbaceous ground cover which
allows less water to reach the ground by adsorption and subsequent evaporation
(Eggelsmann 1980). The Nuphar peat described by Styan and Bustin (l983a, b) is
therefore rich in detrital plant material and is underlain by a fire horizon with a
high concentration of charcoal. Fires also exert a considerable influence on the
composition of topogenous peat deposits as is testified by the fire splay deposit
reported by Staub and Cohen (1979) from the Snuggedy Swamp of South Carolina.
This and other geological consequences will be further discussed in the context of
seam splitting in Chaps. 6 and 7.
The plants listed for the rheotrophic setting in Table 3.1 have been divided
into two groups depending on their assumed biotope in relation to the respective
positions of the water table and the ground surface. Allochthonous spores, pollen
and planktonic vegetable matter represent usually only a small fraction of the
biomass deposited as peat most of which has been formed from rooted vegetation.
Since the latter is usually restricted to a water depth of less than 2 m (Moore
1940), peat layers tend to thin away from the telmatic (water table close to the
ground surface) and limnotelmatic (ground surface is covered by shallow water)
zones and eventually wedge out towards deeper water. A similar thinning of the
seam occurs on the terrestrial margin of the mire, where the peat layer thins under
the xerophytic forests because a low groundwater table will cause oxidation of
the biomass either by fire or by subaerial decay. Although this scenario is common
to topogenous mires, its basic principle applies to ombrogenous settings just as
much, namely, that the preservation of vegetable matter in the form of peat is
possible only when the accumulating plant material is protected from the effects
of prolonged oxidation. Since stagnant water is an efficient air lock, peat deposits
are formed preferentially in poorly drained environments with a high groundwater

table.
The influence on coal formation of the groundwater table is twofold. By
providing the moisture necessary to maintain vigorous plant growth of those floral
assemblages which have been adapted to poorly drained habitats, the water level,
firstly, affects the biological environments in which plants grow and, secondly,
it sets the biochemical conditions under which the dead vegetable matter accumu-
lates. The position of the groundwater table therefore influences the composition
of the coal by determining which plants and parts of plants contribute to peat
accumulation, and by regulating the conditions under which vegetable matter is
converted into peat and coal.
According to Potonic (1920), dead vegetable matter is likely to undergo one
of four processes, the result of which are very different:
1. Plant debris which is exposed to atmospheric oxygen decays and the result of
this process (Verwesung after H. Potonic) are mainly carbon dioxide, water, and
some inherent plant ash. Grosse-Brauckmann (1980) refers to this process as
"mineralisation" of the biogenic matter because the residual products are in-
organic constituents, i.e. minerals in sensu lato.
2. If access of atmospheric oxygen is restricted because of high moisture content
(dampness) in the depositional environment the type of decomposition of plant
material can be described as rotting, mouldering, or humification (Vermoderung
after H. Potonic), which is a slow process of converting vegetable matter into
humic colloids by hydrolytic decomposition. Fungal and bacterial action is the
part of humification which is responsible for the dark colour and acid reaction of
some soils. Since both the microbial activity and the associated oxidation involve
loss of biomass, humification is always accompanied by some mineralisation
which increases with the duration of humification.
3. When the groundwater table remains permanently high, fallen trees and other
plant debris become relatively quickly water-logged and, because of lack of
oxygen, suffer only limited humification. Under such conditions vegetable matter
undergoes peatification (Vertorfung after H. Po tonic) in which vegetable matter
is largely preserved by impregnation with humic acids in an anaerobic, reducing
environment. Depending on the contributing plants and the severity and
duration of oxidation and microbial attack of the vegetable matter before its
final burial beneath the groundwater level, different peat types are obtained.
4. Putrefaction (Fiiulnis after H. Potonic) occurs in stagnant water in which aquatic
plants (mainly algae) and redeposited debris of land plants decompose under
strongly reducing conditions. The result is an organic mud (gyttja or sapropel)
from which the various members of the oil shale family including cannel coal
(mainly spores) and boghead coal or torbanite (mainly algae) are derived.
In view of the varying position of the groundwater level relative to the peat
surface, vegetable matter may be deposited either immediately under anaerobic
conditions (high water level) or it may first accumulate in a relatively aerobic
environment (low water level) which later changes to anaerobic when the
groundwater table rises again, or as a consequence of further subsidence under a

thickening overburden. In the latter case the peat is affected by a changing suite
of microbes resulting in the formation of decomposition products which are
different from those formed under anaerobic conditions only. This means that any
plant debris deposited either in open but stagnant water or in areas of high
groundwater will only briefly be affected by aerobic conditions. In contrast, vegetal
matter accumulating on drier ground remains subjected to oxidising conditions
for a longer period of time until it, too, subsides into the anaerobic zone below the
groundwater table. The composition of the peat formed in the various swamp
settings relative to the position of the ground water table is therefore determined
by the contributing plant species and their modes of decomposition.
As indicated in Fig. 3.2, the position of the groundwater table undergoes many
small-scale episodic and seasonal variations but it is also governed by much larger
changes over the long time span of active peat accumulation in response to climatic
variations, changes in the rate of plant growth, and basin subsidence. Such oscil-
lations are reflected in the stratification of peat and coals which indicate repeated
palaeo-environmental changes ranging from open water to terrestrial conditions
with their respective modes of plant growth and conversion.
In the course of coalification peat constituents become converted into com-
ponents called macerals which are the basic homogeneous, microscopic, organo-
petrographic entities of coal. By their kind and proportions, macerals determine
"coal type", which refers to coal composition in terms of petrographic constituents.
Depending on the position of the water table in relation to the depositional
interface, different coal macerals will be formed from identical source material.
For example, woody and herbaceous cell tissues, i.e. mainly lignin and cellulose,
form the macerals of the vitrinite group under mostly reducing conditions whereas
fusinite represents a group of macerals called inertinite which were subjected to a
period of drying and oxidation during the early peat stage (Mackowsky 1953).
Littke (l985a) referred to the strong inverse proportion in Carboniferous Ruhr
coals between the two maceral groups vitrinite and inertinite in support of the notion
of their common phytogenic precursor. Figure 3.3 shows a similar correlation
80r-~--~~~--~~--~---;
y = -0.9)(+ 83.0
70 r = 0.958
n = 300
60
50
40
....
Cll 30
Fig. 3.3. Diagram showing the strong
'c 20
t inverse relationship between the coal
maceral groups vitrinite and inertinite
~ 10
in 300 seam sections and subsections of
~ O~~--~~--~~--~~~~~ Australian high and medium volatile
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 bituminous coals from the Sydney,
% Vitrinite Gunnedah and Bowen Basins
based mainly on Australian Permian coals which is almost identical to Littke's

(1985a) Fig. 5. The strong inverse relationship between vitrinite and inertinite is
evidence for their common source material and for the existence of two genetic
tracks which can be called the vitrinitisation and fusinitisation (fusinite and
semifusinite being the main representatives ofthe inertinite group of macerals) path-
ways, respectively. An important feature of Fig. 3.3 is the lower maximum percen-
tages of inertinite compared with vitrinite. It suggests that under the conditions
of fusinitisation more cell tissue is destroyed than during vitrinitisation. This leads
to a relative enrichment in partially oxidised peat of spores, pollen, cuticles, resin
bodies, and other resistant non-tissued components, including inorganic matter
(minerals).
3.1.1 The Vitrinitisation Path
Wherever vascular plants grow, humic compounds are present in the supporting
soils, their quantity being the difference between the volume of total biomass
production and the amount lost by mineralisation. As mentioned above, the latter
term is used by Grosse-Brauckmann (1980) and others in order to indicate that
the decomposition ofthe organic compounds leaves behind a residuum of inorganic
compounds, such as carbon dioxide, water and plant ash. Depending on such
factors as climate, the quantity of available vegetable matter and the position of
the groundwater table, an equilibrium exists in most mature soils between the
rates of accumulation and destruction of vegetable matter which keeps the
proportion of humus in an aerated soil relatively constant. The dynamic nature
of this equilibrium implies that the loss of organics to mineralisation is carried
not only by the vegetable matter but also by the humic substances in the soil,
i.e. as new biomass is converted into humus an equal amount of degraded humus
is eliminated (Grosse-Brauckmann 1980).
A shift in the mass balance towards the preservation of vegetable matter in
the form of peat depends on the maintenance of a continuously high groundwater
table during the biochemical stage of coalification. Ideally, the position of the
water table coincides with the ground surface such that it neither hinders the
growth of plants by drowning them, nor allows for too much oxidation, which
would result in excessive loss of organic matter and relative concentration of the
inorganic matter (mineralisation) contained in plants. The frequent variations in
the position of the groundwater table imply that some access of oxygen to the
accumulating vegetable matter is inevitable thus permitting aerobic micro-
organisms to initiate humification.
Humification results in the hydrolytic decomposition of dead vegetable matter
which, in accordance with Waksman and Stevens' (1929) stability series, affects
the soft cell contents first, followed by the cellulose and hemicellulose of the cell
walls and eventually the more resistant compounds, such as lignin. In an example
given by Francis (1961), the cellulose content of a peat dropped from 12.26% near
the surface to 11.20% at 1 m depth while the proportion of hemicellulose decreased

from 11.29% to 8.51%. This trend is in contrast to the lignin content which in the
same peat and over the same depth range showed a relative increase from 16.7%
to 28.5%. Because of the higher carbon content of lignin and its degradation
products compared with cellulose and hemicellulose the proportion of carbon in
the peat also increased with depth.
During humification, i.e. at the beginning of biochemical coalification, before
the source material is completely water-logged, both partial oxidation and aerobic
organisms, such as fungi, ray fungi (actinomycetes), insects, and aerobic bacteria
contribute a great deal to its decomposition. Depending on the intensity and/or
duration of humification, the source material becomes degraded and, eventually,
converted into carbon dioxide and water. Intermediate stages comprise a wide
range of colloidal humic substances consisting of a complex mixture of carboxylic,
phenolic and other organic acids. Advanced humification is therefore accompanied
by an increasing loss of the original plant structures. As the more or less humified
plant litter is buried under a growing overburden and subsides below the ground-
water table, it becomes increasingly difficult for aerobic organisms to function,
particularly at low pH levels. The groundwater table acts therefore as a depositional
base level above which vegetal matter is destroyed in the 5- to 50-em-thick oxida-
tion zone or acrotelm, and below which organic matter can be preserved as
peat in the reduction zone (Jacob 1961; Ingram 1983) or catotelm (Clymo 1984,
1987).
The emphasis in the above division is on groundwater table and does not
necessarily apply to the level of water above ground, which may be quite oxygenated
near the surface. An example are the peat marshes from the Fraser River delta in
British Columbia. Mainly on the basis of the contributing plants, Styan and Bustin
(1983a,b) distinguished six peat types in the marsh habitat, two of which (sedge-clay
and gyttja peats) pioneer peat accumulation on the distal lower delta plain and
are followed in upward succession by the other types. Although virtually always
covered with water, sedge-clay and gyttja peats are highly decomposed because,
being situated on the edge of the delta plain, the water is oxygenated and marine.
The significance of the last point is the elevated pH, i.e. neutral to slightly alkaline
nature of the water, which favours the destructive activity of bacteria and other
microbes. In this situation the upper limit of the reduction zone does not coincide
with the water table but is situated at some distance below the oxygenated layer
of surface water.
Depending on the nature of the source material and the duration of residence
above groundwater, different stages of humification can be observed. Based on
Sernander's (1936) "necrotisation scale", Arnborg (1943) distinguished between the
following eight stages in the decomposition of downed fir trees in the boreal
rainforests of southern Lappland:
1. Needles and bark are in place, wood is hard.

2. Needles have fallen off, small branches are in place, wood is still hard.
3. Bark is warped and has started to peel off, wood is mostly hard but decom-
position has started.
Table 3.2. Estimation of the degree of peat decomposition according to the huminosity grades
(H-grades) based on the squeeze method of von Post. (After Grosse-Brauckmann 1980)
H-grades Plant structure Composition of material State of residue left

in peat extruded between fingers after squeezing
HI Distinct Colourless, clear water Not mushy

H2 Distinct Yellow-brown, almost clear water Not mushy
H3 Distinct Brown, distinctly turbid water Not mushy
H4 Distinct Brown, strongly turbid water Not mushy
H5 Distinct Very turbid water + some peat Slightly mushy
H6 Indistinct Up to 1/3 of peat substance Strongly mushy
H7 Indistinct Approx. 1/2 of peat substance Mushy + fibrous
H8 Very indistinct Approx. 2/3 of peat substance Resistant fibres
H9 Hardly recognisable Most of the peat substance Minor fibres
HIO Not recognisable All of the peat substance No residue
4. Bark has fallen off and wood is mostly soft. The liverworts Ptilidium pul-
cherrimum and Lophozia species m. fl. have started to cover the trunk.
5. Branches have fallen off and the trunk has started to become flattened to the
ground. The lichen Dicranumfuscescens m. m. forms a thin but closed vegetation
cover over the trunk.
6. The trunk has collapsed, its wood is soft and completely decomposed. A carpet
of moss covers the trunk on which cranberries and blueberries have started to
grow.
7. The trunk has been flattened such that it extends only vaguely above the
surrounding ground. A several-centimetre-thick humus layer covers the trunk,
which is overgrown by moss and thick stands of blueberry plants.
8. The trunk has disappeared. The vegetation growing in its place does not differ
from that growing elsewhere in the surrounding soil. The remaining wood is
easily crumbled and the overlying humus layer has the same thickness as in the
neighbourhood.
Depending on the level of necrotisation reached by the time the souree material
subsides into the catotelm, i.e. below the protecting groundwater table, the resulting
peats differ in the proportion between preserved plant structures and derived humic
substances. This relationship has given rise to a number of peat classifications of
which the "huminosity scale" of von Post (drosse-Brauckmann 1980) has been
listed in Table 3.2 as an example. A huminosity grade (H-Grade) is allocated on
the basis of three observations:
1. The degree of preservation of plant structures in the peat.

2. The kind of material that extrudes between the fingers when a bed-moist peat
sample is squeezed in one hand.
3. The state of the residue after squeezing.
Such megascopic methods can be supplemented by microscopic point counts in

transmitted light of structured versus unstructured organics in smear samples, as
have been published by Cohen (1973), examples of which are given in Table 2.2.
Alternatively, a variety of chemical methods have been devised which seek to assess
the degree of plant decomposition (i.e. humification) by determining the proportion
between humic substances and residual plant tissues and other vegetable matter
in the peat.
Although it has been mentioned above that vegetable matter can be preserved
once it has become water-logged, biochemical coalification does not stop altogether
below the groundwater table. Under conditions of total absence of atmospheric
oxygen, the vegetable matter is subjected to further physical and chemical changes
by the action of anaerobic bacteria which extract and utilise oxygen from the
organic molecules of the vegetable matter. This action precludes any selective
destruction of plant tissues but, as has been pointed out by van Krevelen (1952,
p. 359), "in the absence of free oxygen, organic compounds containing the most
oxygen are preferentially attacked by anaerobic bacteria." This affects the rather
resistant but oxygen-rich compounds, like lignin, as much as soft tissues, although
it may proceed at a greater rate in the latter. In this context Clymo's (1987) reference
to an 11 m-thick peat deposit on Beauchene Island in the South Atlantic is of
interest. The peat has been derived entirely from the tussock grass Poa jlabellata
(Lewis Smith and Clymo 1984) which near the surface is relatively uncompacted
and contains visible remnants of plant material. With increasing depth the texture
becomes denser such that at its base the peat appears homogenised and shows
conchoidal fracture when dry. This form of gelification results from the
continuation of biochemical processes and is referred to as biochemical gelification
by Stach et al. (1982). Although this process of obliterating cell structure has some
superficial similarity with the formation of humus colloids during humification, it
is not the same and leads to different results. Under the conditions of prolonged
humification the softening of wood tissue (beginning at necrotisation stage 4) is
merely a transitional phase towards its complete disintegration and eventual
elimination by mineralisation. Conversely, in the case of anaerobic biochemical
gelification of non- or only mildly prehumified tissue the swelling of the cell walls
close the cell lumens such that the tissue loses definition but it does not disintegrate
and remains a coherent entity in which relic cell tissue remains.
The partial extraction of oxygen from vegetable matter by anaerobic bacteria
causes a high concentration of hydrogen in the remaining humic substances part
of which is released as marsh gas in the form of methane (Clymo 1984; Svenssop
and Rosswell 1984) while another portion is absorbed by humic colloids. Their
capacity to absorb H2 is partly responsible for the relatively high H/C ratio of
unstructured gelified coal components compared with those that have retained \
cell structure.
According to Grosse-Brauckmann (1980), the most active anaerobic bacteria
are situated close to the groundwater table, i.e. not far below the aerated acrotelm
or humification zone, whereas high bacteria counts in deeper levels of a peat
deposit usually incorporate a large number of non-vital individuals. This means
that the degree of anaerobic biochemical gelification depends not only on the
INfENSfIY OF 1HUMIFICAllON 1 __ .. ·.1 MINERAIlSAllONI

.~
_ _, . . . _ . . , ._ _. . . . ,_ _ _ _, .• • • _ _ _ _ • • • • • • • • • I I I I I 'Ii
. :I
l. ..... . f""
(mainlycellube)
WOODY TlSSUES
I I I ' ,
(mainlya:llube .;
uullignin) ~
~ VV'VVVV ~
State of preservation u
II
of vegetable matter cell tissues cell tissues llcell tissues disintegrated humus~ p
as deposited below intact

ground water t a b l e !
mildly affected collapsed cell fragments colloids
! ! ! ..
...0
G
.:
G
Macerals formed TEXTINITE TEXTO- EU· PORI-. EU-
in brown coal ULMINITE ULMINITE GELINITE
after compaction HUMOCOLLINlTE
HUMOTELINITE
and dehydration
of peat ATTRINITE DENSINITE I
HUMODETRINITE I
+
I TELOCOLLINITE
Macerals formed
in bituminous coal TELINITE DESMOCOLLINITE g6k~O_COLLINITE
after gelification
and polymerisation TELOVITRINlTE . DETROVITRINITE GELOVITRINITE
of humic colloids
Fig. 3.4. Schematic outline of the formation of macerals of the vitrinite group from tissued
vegetable matter subjected to varying intensities of humification
source material but also on the rate at which the plant material passes through
the active upper portion of the catotelm before reaching its inactive lower realm.
This residence time is a function of the rate at which the groundwater table rises
which is often dependent on the rate of basin subsidence.
In Fig. 3.4 an outline is given of the kind of coal macerals that are derived
from tissued vegetable matter which has been subjected to varying degrees of
humification followed by submergence below the ground water level. The soft
tissues of herbaceous plants have been listed separately from the more resistant
tissue of wood (the same applies to bark) becallse they decompose faster and enter
the mineralisation stage earlier than the former. Evidence of such varying responses
of different tissue types to humification is, for example, provided by the differential
colouring found by Cohen et al. (1987) in microtome sections of peat. Although
the degree of decomposition was generally low, cellulose-rich tissues appeared
quite stained (brown) and had lost much of the characteristic cellulose birefringence
in polarised light, while lignin-rich cell walls showed hardly any staining at all.
Styan and Bustin (1983a) likewise point to the lack of lignin and high cellulose
content as a major reason for the high degree of decomposition found in the
sedge-grass peats of British Columbia.
Stability differences also exist between different kinds of wood. Most
angiosperm wood decays faster than gymnosperm wood, which explains the high
amounts ofhumodetrinite found in angiosperm-derived portions of Tertiary brown
Fig. 3.5. Photomicrograph showing transition from textinite to textoulminite in a Jurassic coal
from the Perth Basin. Note the plastic deformation of the cell walls and the beginning of closure
of the lumens. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.36 mm
Fig. 3.6. Photomicrograph of etched telocollinite from the Bulli Seam, Sydney Basin, New South
Wales, illustrating the dense packing of cell walls due to the collapse of the intervening lumens.
Without etching the polished surface of the telocollinite is without any distinguishing features.
Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.31 mm
coals (von der Brelie and Wolf 1981a, b). It is also suggested that soft-tis sued plants
will probably not leave behind any completely intact cell material because the
largely non-humified, structured plant residues found in peat and brown coal (the
maceral textinite) consist invariably of bark or wood fragments, mostly from roots
because of the protection provided by the ground cover.
With increasing degree of humification the cell walls begin to swell, mainly
due to the hydration and incipient hydrolysis of their cellulose content. This leads
to plastic deformation, a brown coal example of which is shown in Fig. 3.5.
Megascopically, the result of this is the softening referred to under necrotisation
stage 4, and it equates with the fusion of the cell wall layers, as well as closure of
the intracellular spaces, described by Cohen and Spackman (1980). Using etched
bituminous coal as an example, completely closed cell lumens are illustrated in
F~g. 3.6. Further humification leads to disintegration of the cell tissue due to its
hydrolytic decomposition and the generation of fluid humus colloids. The process
is illustrated in Fig. 3.7, which shows the generation of droplets of fluid humic
material from the swollen cell walls of present day humified wood (necrotisation
stage 4 to 5). A coalified equivalent of this hydrolytic decomposition of cell tissue
is illustrated in Fig. 3.8, which shows residual patches of vitrinitic wood tissue
"floating" in completely decomposed, colloidal vitrinite.
The humic fluids generated during humification, have acid character (= humic
acids) and occur in peat as a fine aqueous dispersion which can flow and fill the
gaps between the solids. A coalified example of colloidal vitrinite with flow texture
is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. On compaction and dehydration of the peat due to an
increasing weight of overburden, the fluid humic substances coagulate and form
dopplerite which in brown coal is referred to as humocollinite (see Fig. 3.4) when
derived from relatively pure colloids, or as humodetrinite (see Fig. 3.4) when mixed
with disintegrated residual cell fragments. Some of the small egg-shaped vitrinite
bodies called corpocollinite in Fig. 3.4 have probably been formed in this manner.
Some examples are illustrated in Fig. 3.10.
Fig. 3.7. Photomicrograph of partially humified wood from a rainforest near Fingal in NE
Tasmania. The swollen cell walls in the centre of the illustration are dissolved by cellulose
hydrolysis to form humus colloids, droplets of which occur within the cell lumens (grey spheres
and hemispheres) and attached to some cell walls. Incident light, oil inmersion; actual length of
field of view = 0.18 mm
Fig. 3.8. Photomicrograph of etched vitrinite from the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin, Germany,
illustrating the disintegration of cell tissue during humification. Oxidative etching (with acidified
potassium permanganate) has removed the hydrogen-rich colloidal vitrinite but left residual
tissue fragments intact. Without etching the polished surface of the vitrinite would be uniformly
grey without any distinguishing features. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of
view = 0.6 mm (Diessel 1961)
Fig. 3.9. Photomicrograph of etched vitrinite from the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin, Germany.
A fragment of cell tissue is still visible in the upper portion but the majority of cells have been
converted into humus colloids. The (formerly) fluid state is indicated by the flow texture in the
centre of the illustration. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.6 mm.
(Diessel 1961)
Fig. 3.10. Photomicrograph of corpo-

collinite (grey oblong bodies mainly in
upper portion of illustration) set in
detrovitrinite (grey groundmass) and
other maceral debris in high volatile
bituminous coal from the Gunnedah
Basin, New South Wales. Incident light,
oil immersion; actual length of field of
view = 0.22 mm
Humus colloids can also migrate into the cell lumens of other plant tissues
where they solidify and, after coalification to bituminous coal rank, appear as
gelocollinite (see Fig. 3.4), an example of which is shown in Fig. 3.11. After
precipitation humic colloids may initially be granular (listed as porigelinite in Fig.
3.4) but then gelify to form a clear substance (listed as eugelinite in Fig. 3.4).
Spackman and Barghoorn (1966) and Cohen et at. (1987) have described similar
material from Recent peat deposits.
The huminite macerals listed in Fig. 3.4 under the subgroups humotelinite,
humodetrinite, and humocollinite are the precursors of the members of the vitrinite
group of macerals, before polymerisation and subsequent condensation (geochemical
gelification of Stach et at. 1982) have obliterated much ofthe original cell structure.
For an outline of the correlation between huminite and vitrinite macerals see
International Committee for Coal Petrology (1971) or Stach et at. (1982). According
to Australian Standard 2856 (1986), no terminological difference is made between
pre- and post-polymerisation macerals. Following Smith (1982), the maceral group
term vitrinite is therefore applied to both brown and black coals and is further
divided into the subgroups telo-, detro-, and gelovitrinite the derivation of which
is illustrated in Fig. 3.4. This aspect will be discussed further in Chap. 4.
Fig.3.11. Photomicrograph of gelocol-

linite (grey) filling cell lumens and gaps
between cell walls of semifusinite (light
. grey) in high volatile bituminous coal
from the Sydney Basin, New South
Wales. Incident light, oil immersion;
actual length offield of view = 0.36mm
3.1.2 The Fusinitisation Path
Although the majority of peat and coal constituents have followed the vitrinitisation
path of biochemical coalification, most coal seams contain small and some even
large amounts of tissue-derived inertinite macerals whose high carbon and
relatively high oxygen contents suggest that the more or less humified plant
material suffered a period of intense desiccation and oxidation before final burial.
A rather extreme example is the widespread but commonly dispersed and rarely
concentrated maceral fusinite (Cook 1975a), which shows a high degree of
preservation of cell tissue (except for some mechanical breakage), reflectance, and
polishing relief. Most fusinite consists of fossil charcoal formed by incomplete
combustion of wood (pyrofusinite) either before its incorporation into the peat
or as a result of peat fires during dry periods. Examples of both modes of charcoal
formation have been reported by Cohen (1974) from the Okefenokee Swamp in
Georgia, U.S.A.
According to Cohen et al. (1987), woody plants are more likely to produce
charcoal than soft-tissued herbaceous plants. Furthermore, charcoal (or pyrofusi-
nite in coal) formed from burning vegetation will be dispersed by wind and water
in the form of relatively small fragments and in such a manner that on sedimentation
it will be incorporated in a normal, i.e. unbumt, peat matrix (or detrovitrinite in
coal). An example of this is illustrated in Fig. 3.12. Conversely, the combustion of
dehydrated peat will, on resumption of peat accumulation, result in a discrete
band of charcoal which will form a fusinite-rich layer in coal. An example of this
is illustrated in Fig. 3.13.
Because the dehydrated, charred and commonly thinned cell walls of fusinite
are composed of almost" pure carbon, they are rather inert and resist any
post-depositional alteration by anaerobic bacteria (e.g. gelification) that might
affect less stable macerals. However, between the gelified and low reflecting vitrinite
and charcoal in the form of pyrofusinite exist several coal components, all
belonging to the inertinite group of macerals, which possess lower HIC and higher
OIC ratios than vitrinite macerals without reaching the extreme values of fusinite.
These are grouped under the term semifusinite because they have been derived
from cell tissue which was subjected to partial fusinitisation only. Under the
microscope their lower carbon content is shown by their lower reflectance
compared with fusinite, their lower polishing relief and less well-defined cell
structure, as illustrated in Fig. 3.13.
There are probably three main modes of semifusinite origin. The course of the
fusinitisation path and its products as outlined in Fig. 3.14 suggests that desiccation
of the hydrated cell walls and the dehydration of the humus colloids altered them
so profoundly that they could not rehydrate and continue to hydrolyse when the
Fig. 3.12. Photomicrograph of a bitu-

minous coal from the Sydney Basin,
New South Wales, showing dispersed
fusinite fragments (white with high
polishing relief) in a matrix of detrovitri-
nite (desmocollinite, grey). The black
material near the fusinite splinters is
clay. Incident light, oil immersion; actual
length of field of view = 0.34 mm
Fig. 3.13. Photomicrograph of part of a

layer of concentrated fusinite (white, high
relief) and semifusinite (light grey) from
a high volatile bituminous coal of the
Bowen Basin, Queensland. The smooth,
medium grey material consists of vitrinite
incorporating some inertodetrinite.lnci-
dent light, oil immersion; actual length
moist conditions of normal humification returned, or when the dehydrated humic

substances were buried below the groundwater table (Dormans et al. 1957; Zanger!
and Richardson 1963; Teichmiiller and Teichmiiller 1979b). This notion is
supported by the observation by Cohen et al. (1987) of humified cell tissues in a
Recent peat sample which were transparent in transmitted light but became opaque
after desiccation and oxidation. The resulting semifusinite (after further coali-
fication to at least subbituminous coal rank) can be called oxi-semifusinite, although
the initial humification was affected with the aid of microbes as well.
The second mode of semifusinite formation is related to a more direct
intervention by organisms leading to selective decomposition of mainly wood
tissues. Examples are fungal attack (Fig. 3.15) and the feeding traces of insects and
termites. All of these affect soft tissues and parts thereof more than, for example,
cell walls that have been strengthened by lignin. The extraction of hydrocarbons
from the plant tissue leaves behind a cell skeleton which is relatively enriched in
carbon and has a higher O/H ratio than the original vegetable matter. The result
is a degrado-semifusinite, an example of which (with attached fungal tissue) is
shown in Fig. 3.16.
The third mode of semifusinite genesis is due to incomplete combustion as in
the formation of pyrofusinite. However, in this case, the source material was,
INTENSITY OF 1HUMIFICATIONI-I- - - - - - , - - - ...1MINERAIlSATIONI

.~
r---.....---r----- ....... -......

,Q
g
SOFT T.I$UES - __ I •• I
ill
(~oill~) -~==~~~~~I~:::LI=====1 f
~~ Ii I I --1'" ""
INTERVAL OF DEHYDRATION AND OX IDA TION
~
Macerals funned
in brown coal TEXTINITE ~ :EI_-------,..---------l
after compaction eli:': INERTODETRINITE
and dehydration ~1l
of peat !::~
~Z
~----_4~~I-----~-------------------------4
Macerals funned TELINITE f-.::::J with inc:reasingrefiectance
in bituminous coal L ____---1---.:I>.::.L________________________________...1
Fig. 3.14. Schematic outline of the formation of coal macerals from tis sued vegetable matter
subjected to varying intensities of humification and drying before burial below the groundwater
table
firstly, wood at an advanced stage of humification and, secondly, at the time of

burning the partially humified wood was still moist enough to be only mildly
affected by the combustion. In the case of partially humified wood of necrotisation
stage 4 and above, the outward sign of drying is the development of tangentional,
longitudinal and transverse desiccation cracks which give the wood a blocky
appearance, as shown in Fig. 3.17. More severe fissuring is shown by the wood
illustrated in Fig. 3.18 because it was more humified and its surface has been
signed by a forest fire. The three photomicrographs of this wood illustrated in Fig.
3.19 reveal considerable reflectance differences of the cell tissue at different depth
levels below the surface. A traverse of reflectance measurements, the results of
which are illustrated in Fig. 3.20, indicate a 3- to 4-mm-thick surface layer offusinite
which changes to semifusinite for another 5 to 6 mm, followed by partially humified
wood without any signs of heat effects from about 13 mm below the surface.
The blocky desiccation pattern illustrated in Figs. 3.17 and 3.18 is also found
in wood retrieved from peat (Fig. 2.7) and brown coal, and it is identical to the
blocky pavement structure that is commonly observed on the surfaces of fusinite
and semifusinite layers which have been split parallel to bedding. An example of
this is shown in Fig. 3.21.
The interval of dehydration and oxidation inferred in Fig.3.14 may have several
causes. In most cases it would be related to a lowering of the water table although
Fig.3.1S. Downed tree showing fungal

attack in swampland of coastal New
South Wales
Fig.3.16. Photomicrograph of degrado-semifusinite in the Katharina Seam of the Ruhr Basin,

with attached fungal tissue. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.6 mm.
(Diessel 196 I )
Fig. 3.17. Photograph of part of a dried tree trunk of necrotisation stage 4 showing longitudinal
and transverse desiccation fissures. Sampled in rain-forest in NE Tasmania
Fig. 3.18. Similar to Fig. 3.16 but with stronger fissuring and charring by forest fire
the influx of aerated surface water, as suggested by Gould and Shibaoka (1980)
and Beeston (1982), could bring about the same result. Warm temperatures are
likely to accelerate desiccation but freeze-drying, as suggested by Taylor et al.
(1989) for some Gondwana coals, could have a similar effect. In this case it has
been envisaged that plant detritus becomes partially or totally humified during
the summer months. Such material, if incorporated into a rapidly accumulating,
water-saturated peat without prior desiccation, would later be represented as
Fig. 3.19. Three photomicrographs through the outer 10 mm of one of the charred desiccation
blocks illustrated in Fig. 3.18. The upper frame shows the surface of the charcoal, the centre frame
has been taken from 5 mm below the surface and the bottom frame is from 10 mm below the
surface. Note the decrease in reflectance from top to bottom and the increase in cell wall thickness.
Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of each field of view = 0.36 mm
3_5
•
3.0
•
2.5
•
2.0
•
1.5 ••
1.0
••
,g
l-
0.5 ••
Fig. 3.20. Diagram showing the de- ••
crease in reflectance with depth below ~ 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
surface of charred cell walls from the
specimen illustrated in Figs. 3.18 and 3.19 Depth below surface (mm)
Fig.3.21. View of a bedding plane in the Balmoral Seam of New South Wales exhibiting pavement
texture due to a concentration of blocky fusinite and semifusinite (emphasised with inked rims)
following humification of Permian wood to stage 4 to 5 of Arnborg (1943)
vitrinite in accordance with the scheme outlined in Fig. 3.4. Shrivelled humic
material which had been freeze-dried as a consequence of exposure to persistent
sub-zero temperature in the winter months would lose the capacity to hydrolyse
completely once biochemical activities resumed in the following spring. Yet, the
resulting inertinite might not be chemically altered as much as hot dried humic
material, which could account for the considerable fusibility and other forms of
chemical activity of Gondwana inertinite (DiesseI1983, 1985a; Diessel and McHugh
1986; Diessel and Wolff-Fischer 1986, 1987; Brown et al. 1985a, b).
Irrespective of the reason for the desiccation, it seems essential that the
vegetable matter be more or less humified in order to follow the fusinitisation path,
except in the case of charcoal, which can be formed directly from unaltered plant
material. The humification scheme outlined in Fig. 3.14 is therefore identical to
Fig. 3.22. Photomicrograph of telinite

in a high volatile bituminous coal from
New South Wales. Note the regular
pattern of resin bodies (dark grey), which
indicates that the wood tissue is still
intact in spite of the gelified appearance
of the unetched surface. Incident light,
oil immersion; actual length of field of
view = 0.56 mm
that of Fig. 3.4. Unhumified wood leads to the formation of firstly textinite (Fig.
3.5) and later telinite (Fig. 3.22) because wood can be rehydrated and gelified but
humic substances cannot once they have been dried. Wood unaffected by humifi-
cation (necrotisation stages 1 and 2) forms therefore either charcoal, i.e. pyrofusinite
after coalification, when subjected to incomplete combustion during forest fires,
or it becomes telinite when unaffected by atmospheric oxygen. Telinite formation
also applies to the roots and rhizomes of the vegetation covering the peat surface.
Given the wet substratum of the mire, atmospheric oxygen has little access to
these subsurface organs, which provide the largest proportion of wood in many
present-day forest peat deposits (Cohen and Spackman 1972; Grosse-Brauckmann
1980). Because of either complete absence or low levels of humification, the cell
tissues of the roots are commonly quite intact but become gelified and thoroughly
impregnated with humic acids thus leading straight to the formation of telinite
when coal rank increases. The frequently observed transitions between telinite and
semifusinite (Fig. 3.23) indicate therefore the depth of penetration of humification
into the wood before the onset of desiccation and its final burial in the peat.
With increasing humification (necrotisation stages 4 and 5) any intense or
repeated desiccation will cause severe dehydration and shrinkage of the partially
softened wood which has been stripped of most of its cellulose and hemicellulose
by hydrolytic splitting. The dried surfaces of the remaining wood break up into
Fig. 3.23. Photomicrograph illustrating the transition between semifusinite (centre) and telinite
(top) in the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of
view = O.6mm. (Diessel 1961)
the small cubes or rectangular plates illustrated in Figs. 2.7, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.21 at
various stages of their development. After they have become separated from the
trunk they can be picked up by flood waters and deposited as allochthonous debris
in water-filled depressions.
Dehydration and oxidation of partially decomposed cell fragments and humus
colloids formed as a result of advanced humification (necrotisation stage 6) leads
to concentrations of either inertodetrinite or macrinite. The former, which is
illustrated in Fig. 3.24, consists of remnants of plant tissue, mainly in the form of
cell fragments of fusinite and semifusinite. The second maceral, macrinite, has a
complex origin which includes colloid formation by complete homogenisation of
plant tissue followed by drying and oxidation. Two varieties of macrinite can be
distinguished, one which consists of detrital angular to rounded bodies (Fig. 3.25),
many of them small enough to be grouped as inertodetrinite (Taylor et al. 1989).
This "corpomacrinite" is probably the result of desiccation of humic colloids
(angular) followed by dispersal (rounded). The other variety, illustrated in Fig.
3.26, occurs as elongated bands or laminae ("lammacrinite") probably representing
flocculated humic groundmass which would have formed desmocollinite had the
peat surface not been dried out.
The differential rate between the humification of wood and soft tissues leaves
its signature on the respective coal macerals as well. Wood-derived semifusinite
displays better-preserved plant cells than, for example, leaf-derived (mesophyll)
semifusinite. The latter is less frequent but seems to be more common in Gondwana
coals than in the Carboniferous coals of the Northern Hemisphere, which is
Fig. 3.24. Photomicrograph of the Greta Seam, New South Wales, illustrating inertodetrinite
(white fragments) in a matrix of detrovitrinite (grey to dark grey) together with micros pores (black.
elongated) and micrinite (very small white specks). Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of
probably due to the deciduous nature of the Permian cold climate Gondwana
flora (Diessel 1983~ Taylor et al. 1989). The soft mesophyll cells disintegrate more
easily than wood cells, which is the reason for the occurrence of transitions between
leaf-derived semifusinite and macrinite, as illustrated in Fig. 3.27.
3.1.3 Plant-Specific Coal Components
Whereas all peat and coal components mentioned above can be derived from a
wide range of plants tissues, there are other constituents of coal which are related
to specific plants or parts of plants. Most of these microcomponents constitute
the liptinite group of macerals which, according to Teichmiiller (1974), is character-
ised by very high hydrogen contents. Their atomic Hie ratio is therefore higher
than in all other macerals. In thin section liptinite macerals show a high degree
Fig. 3.25. Photomicrograph of the Bays-

water Seam showing macrinite in the
form of oxidised patches of humic
colloids ("corpomacrinite", two exam-
ples with differing reflectance in lower
centre) together with inertodetrinite
(light grey to white angular cell wall
fragments) and clay (black). Note the
imbrication of many elongated particles
which indicate transport from right to
left. Incident light, oil immersion; actual
Fig. 3.26. Photomicrograph of layered macrinite ("Iammacrinite", light grey in centre) in a high
volatile bituminous coal from the Bowen Basin, Queensland, set in detrovitrinite (grey matrix),
semifusinite (light grey, near top) and inertodetrinite (white fragments at bottom). Incident light,
oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
Fig. 3.27. Photomicrograph of a high

volatile bituminous coal from the Bowen
Basin, Queensland, showing gradation
between semifusinite and macrinite in
the two light grey layers in centre. Other
macerals include the matrix of detrovi-
trinite (grey), some inertodetrinite (white
fragments) and dark, elongated micro-
spores. Incident light, oil immersion;
actual length of field of view = 0.28 mm
of translucency in low rank with a concomitant low reflectance when viewed in

incident light. The algal matter illustrated in Fig. 2.15 is a good example of the
contrasting appearance oflow carbon constituents in transmitted and incident light,
respectively. Another common optical characteristic is the strong microfluorescence
which is emitted after excitation with short wave radiation (ultra-violet to blue
light).
Although the proportion of liptinite is small in most coals and rarely exceeds
20%, its high hydrogen content influences the technological properties of coal
while some of its members have considerable palaeo-environmental significance,
as will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
A large proportion of the liptinite group of macerals consists of remnants of
the waxy protective cover (cuticle) of leaves and young shoots, and of the resis-
tant skins (exines) of spores and pollen. As has been discussed in Chap. 2, Carboni-
ferous coals are often spore-rich because at the time of their formation, spore-
bearing plants (pteridophytes) were dominant. According to Alpern (1960) 1 g of
Carboniferous coal contains in average five million spores. The reason for the
large number is that reproduction by means of spores is not particularly effective
thus necessitating the production of large quantities of spores in order to assure
the survival of the species. As pteridophytes were largely replaced by seed-bearing
Physico-Chemical Coalification 71
gymnosperms, spore production declined in post-Carboniferous peatlands without

being replaced by a matching quantity of pollen.
Other members of the liptinite group of macerals consist of derivatives of plant
resins and waxes. These and further constituents will be discussed in detail in
Chap. 4, where a comprehensive classification of all the petrographic components
of coal is given.
3.2 Physico-Chemical Coalification
Biochemical coalification begins with the accumulation of dead vegetable matter

and ends with the polymerisation of humic colloids at the rank of sub-bituminous
coal. The interaction of its many different physical, chemical and biological
processes leads to the development of a diverse range of degradation products of
vegetable matter which appear as macerals in coal. The biochemical stage of
coalification is therefore characterised by a divergence of maceral properties which,
from the same source material, can produce a fusinite consisting of almost pure
carbon and a vitrinite containing only 79% carbon (Mackowsky 1953).
The subsequent physico-chemical stage of coalification is initiated and main-
tained by deep post-depositional subsidence ofthe seam, which causes both temper-
ature and pressure to rise in response to the local heat flow and a growing thickness
of overburden. Microbial activity ceases when the temperature approaches the
boiling point for water, and since all components contained in a seam are affected
by the same PT conditions, maceral properties begin to converge, in the course
of which the initial chemical and physical differences between the various coal
2·0
Fig. 3.28. The atomic HIC versus

OIC diagram after van Krevelen Hi
(1952 and 1961) illustrating the ~
convergence of maceral composi-
tion during the physicochemical 0·0 +----r--.-----r-.,--r--.-r---r-,--,
stage of coalification. A algal mat- 0·0 0'1 0·2 0·3 0'4 0·5 0·6 0·7 0·8 0·9 1'0
ter; C cellulose; E spore exines
and other Iiptinite; F inertinite; L
lignin; V vitrinite; W wood
macerals are cancelled. Results and some consequences of this trend are illustrated
in Fig. 3.28 by van Krevelen's (1952, 1961) H/C versus O/C diagram, or by the
successive alignment of the reflectance of the various coal macerals with that of
fusinite as illustrated in Fig. 3.29.
The H/C versus O/C diagram suggests that the latent chemical difference
between vitrinite and inertinite manifests itself only during physicochemical coali-
fication. This does not hold for pyrofusinite, which is fully developed already in
peat but the notion is correct for a large portion of low and medium reflecting
inertinite, in particular semifusinite and macrinite. Before polymerisation of the
humic acids, these are often indistinguishable from huminite ( = vitrinite in black
coal) but Smith and Cook (1980) have shown that during the transition from
brown to sub-bituminous coal the reflectance of many inertinite macerals increases
more rapidly than that of either vitrinite or liptinite. The result is that only in
sub-bituminous and higher rank coals low to medium reflecting inertinite is readily
recognisable and follows a separate pathway (Fig. 3.29) until all coal properties
converge towards anthracite. Teichmiiller (1987) refers therefore to "inertiniti-
sation" during coalification, but it should be realised that it was the dehydration
of partially humified plant tissue in the mire that initiated this process.
Also at the high rank end of coalification the convergence of maceral reflectance
can be more complex in detail than depicted in the general trend illustrated in
Fig. 3.29. Vitrinite and liptinite, for exam pie, acquire a stronger bireflectance than
inertinite which pushes their maximum reflectance a little higher. These physical
changes are largely the result of the relative increase in carbon which is affected
by a release of mainly oxygen and hydrogen due to thermal cracking. This trend
is illustrated in Fig. 3.30 which is Callcott's (1986) improved and extended version
of Seyler's Chart (1931, 1938). The area enclosed by the thin line connecting the
point of origin (0% Hand 0% C) with the coordinates for methane (CH 4 = 74.87%
I 6.4
~
I-n,mt-€
FUSINITE Cl>
3.2
.... 1-'"' i--"~
u
SEMIFUSINITE c:
HERBACEOUS ...,'" 1.6
PLANTS MACRINITE .... ..-:::~ u
;r
Cl> 0.8
;;:
~ ~"
... --
VITRINITE Cl>
ct 0.4
W'ORES,roll.EN, X
LlPTINITE
'"
CUTICLES, RESINS,
ALGAE, and WAXI.S "'""'" 1: 0.2
~
0.1
80 85 90 % Corban
Biochemical (whole co,l)
Coalification Physi cochemi ca I Coalification

Peatl Brown Coal Sub-Bitum. Coal HV-MV-L V- Bitum. Coal Anthrac.
Fig. 3.29. Schematic diagram illustrating the convergence of maceral reflectance during physico-
chemical coalification
26 r--r-.,.--.,--r--,..--r--r---,r---r---,
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
C 9
E 8
Fig. 3.30. Seyler's Chart,
.§ 7
'-' 6
modified and extended by
Ca\1cott (1986), illustrating a5 5
coalification trends for 8' 4
vitrinite, inertinite and is 3
liptinite. The squares to the
>- 2
:c 1
upper left of the vitrinite ~OL.. ......- ........K.'--......- .....- ' - -......_ ....._'--....JII
line are plots of peat
samples. See text for o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
explanations :g CARBON (dmmf)
C and 25.13% H) and then down to 100% C and 0% H, includes the elemental
compositions of all organic C-H-O compounds, ignoring minor elements, such as
nitrogen and sulphur. Oxygen is not plotted in the diagram but is obtained by
difference, as
o= 100 - (C + H). (3.1)
The fluid coalification products consisting of the end-members carbon dioxide,

water and methane, form the apices of a triangle, Callcott's (1986) "Effiuent
Triangle", which contains the elemental composition of the mixtures of all liquids
and gases generated during coalification. The centre line of the "bright coal band"
in Seyler' Chart is represented in Fig. 3.30 by the vitrinite line for coals ranging
in carbon content from 64% (brown coal) to 95% (anthracite) while development
lines for inertinite and liptinite are indicated separately. Peat composition (open
squares) is also plotted separately because of the difficulty of identifying and
analysing pure maceral precursors. Their position above the low rank extension
ofthe vitrinite line is due to their high liptinite contents and still immature inertinite.
In the early stages of physicochemical coalification, the release of effiuent fluids
is mainly by decarboxylation, carbon dioxide and water being the end-products,
while the generation of hydrogen-bearing fluids (e.g. by demethanation) is limited
in such a manner that hydrogen in the residual coal remains constant up to
the rank of medium volatile bituminous coal of approximately 80% C. The vitrinite
line remains therefore fixed at 5.35% H, which is also the hydrogen content of the
mixture of vitrinite-generated effiuent gases and liquids whose bulk composition
ranges between A and B in the Effiuent Triangle. As coalification proceeds into
high rank coals, i.e. into the curved portion of the vitrinite line, effiuent composition
can be assessed for each rank increment by extending a tangent to the vitrinite
line into the Effiuent Triangle. Examples given in Fig. 3.30 are the F-F' track for
vitrinite with 88% C (low volatile bituminous coal) and the C-D track for vitrinite
of 92% C (semi-anthracite). It follows that advanced coalification is characterised
by an increase of the CH 4 /CO Z ratio in the effiuent, i.e. by increasing demetha-
nation.
3.2.1 The Concept of Coal Rank
Whereas the development of the organo-petrographic components of coal refers

to the concept of coal type, the various physical and chemical changes they undergo
during subsequent coalification constitute the basis for the concept of coal rank.
The latter indicates how far a coal has progressed along the coalification path,
whereby names such as those listed in Fig. 3.29 (and others) are used in order to
indicate different rank stages. Being a concept rather than a property, rank cannot
be measured, but it can be assessed by means of those physical and chemical coal
properties which change most during coalification. The following discussion gives
a brief overview of the most important rank parameters (see also Fig. 3.31).
RANK % Volatile " In Situ

~ Vitrinite
ReflectHnce
STAGES Matter (dall Mojsture
rendom mox
WOOD
~ >65 ~
PEAT
60 \ >60 '14.7 \ 75 0.20 0.20
BROWN
COAL 71 \ 52 23.0\ 30 0.40 0.42
SUB-
BITUMINOUS
COAL 80 \ 40 33.5\ 5 0.60 0.63
<fl
HIGH UJ:l
86 \ 31 35.6 \ 3 0.97 1.03
~ e:~-J
MEDIUM -<:c <:3 90
~a::Ju
\22 36.0 \ <1 1.49 1.58
lOW >~ 91 \14 36.4 \ 1 1.85 1.97
SEMI-
ANTHRACITE
92 \ 8 36.0 \ 1 2.65 2.83
ANTHRACITE
95 -~ 35.2 ~
" Carbon Speciflc
6.55 7.00 Fig. 3.31. Some rank parameters show-
ing the changing pattern of coal com-
Energy (gross
(dall
in MJ/Kg) position with increasing coalification
3.2.1.1 Solubility in Alkali Hydroxides
A large portion of the humic acids contained in soils, peat and brown coal can
be readily dissolved in diluted alkalis, from which a pitch-like precipitate can be
obtained on acidification. Polymerisation of humic substances occurs at the begin-
ning of the physico-chemical stage of coalification, which leads to the formation
of macromolecules of essentially aromatic and aliphatic habit. The disappearance
of humic acid in sub-bituminous coal is indicated by the loss of its solubility in
alkalis, for example in diluted KOH, which marks the beginning of physico-
chemical coalification and is taken in some coal classification systems as the natural
boundary between brown and black (hard) coal.
3.2.1.2 Moisture Content and Specific Energy
Both moisture content and specific energy (calorific value) are good indicators of
the degree of coalification in brown and sub-bituminous coals because they lose
bed moisture quite rapidly during the early part of coalification due to increasing
compaction with increasing overburden pressure in relation to depth of burial. As
water is lost from the coal, the specific energy must rise because less heat is required
to drive out the remaining moisture during combustion. When in the course of
coalification the moisture content stabilises at around 1%, it loses its significance
as a rank parameter as does specific energy, as shown in Fig. 3.31.
3.2.1.3 Volatile Matter and Fixed Carbon
Once humil. substances have polymerised at the beginning of the physicochemical

stage, any subsequent coalification is characterised by so-called condensation
reactions (Karweil 1966). Like polymerisation, they also create macromolecules
and lead towards the orderly stacking of aromatic ring systems (micelles) which
are both separated and connected by aliphatic and other non-aromatic compounds
(side chains). As illustrated in Fig. 3.32, the aromatic clusters grow and coalesce
with increasing coal rank at the expense of the surrounding non-aromatic
compounds. The result is effiuent generation which, as has been discussed above,
is sustained initially by oxygen fugacity but, with rising temperature, the aliphatic
side-chains are subjected to increasing thermal cracking which, at a more advanced
stage of physico-chemical coalification, shifts the degassing pattern more towards
demethanation.
A simple test of the degree of devolatilisation that has taken place during
coalification is carried out by proximate analysis. It involves heating a coal sample
in an inert atmosphere to about 900°C (the exact temperatures are laid down in
national and international standards), at which temperature practically all of the
remaining oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur and nitrogen have been driven out as volatile
matter (VM). The residual char is referred to as fixed carbon (FC) the amount of
which is inversely proportional to volatile matter. The analysis results can be
"- /A A "" ///>

"" / Fig. 3.32. Cartoon illustrating the relation-
~
~/ ship between aromatic clusters and inter-
A micellar side chains for a high (top) and low
X (bottom) volatile bituminous coal. The
~ ~" hexagons are the aromatic clusters, the

connecting lines are the aliphatic and other
:" ':X)<:<&" non-aromatic bridges. (After Teichmiiller
'X"--.. 1962)
quoted as received (as), on air-dried basis (ad), or on a dry basis (db), i.e. after the
moisture content has been determined. In order to facilitate comparison with other
coals both volatile matter and fixed carbon are conventionally quoted on a dry
ash-free (daf) basis which requires determination of the moisture and ash contents
by heating a separate coal sample in air to 11 0 °C and approximately 900°C, res-
pectively. A slightly more accurate basis is dry mineral matter free (dmmf), whereby
the mineral matter content is obtained either directly by plasma or low temperature
ashing or by recalculating the ash content, taking into account pyritic sulphur
and (if necessary) carbonate-based carbon dioxide. A frequently used conversion
is by Parr's equation:
%Mineral Matter = 1.08 ash (db) + 0.55 sulphur (db). (3.2)
If both carbonate and pyrite occur in only insignificant amounts in the coal, the
mineral matter content can be approximated by multiplication of ash by 1.11, but
any of these corrections is reasonably accurate only when the ash content is
relatively small, say less than 10% (Cook 1982).
Other modes of assessing coal rank by volatile matter and fixed carbon are
the Fuel Ratio and Carbon Ratio of D. White (1915):
Fuel Ratio = %Fixed Carbon/%Volatile Matter (3.3)

Carbon Ratio = %Fixed Carbon/%Total Carbon. (3.4)
In both ratios the numerical value increases with coal rank however, while Eq. (3.3)
involves proximate analysis only, Eq. (3.4) requires ultimate analysis, as well.
3.2.1.4 Elemental Carbon
The most common elements in coal are C, H, 0, N, and S the proportions of

which are determined by ultimate analysis. The strong degassing that accompanies
the condensation of the aromatics and the splitting of the side chains during
physico-chemical coalification causes the carbon content to concentrate from
around 78% in a sub-bituminous coal to approximately 95% in a high rank
anthracite. The percentage of elemental carbon is therefore a suitable rank
parameter throughout much of the black coal range, although at both ends its
usefulness is impaired by lack of sufficient differentiation. However, in both cases
other parameters can be used, such as moisture content and specific energy in low
rank coals, and elemental hydrogen at the high rank end of the scale.
3.2.1.5 Vitrinite Reflectance and Other Physical Rank Parameters
Coals of different rank reveal major differences in their degrees of compaction and
homogenisation in both hand specimen and, more strongly, under the micro-
scope. This trend is part of the convergence of maceral properties during the
physico-chemical stage of coalification whiCh results from the condensation
reactions mentioned above. One ofthe most striking physical changes is the increase
in the ability of macerals to reflect light from a polished coal surface (Figs. 3.29,
3.31). The reason for this is the before-mentioned systematic change taking place
in the molecular structure of coal during physico-chemical coalification. Initially,
the aromatic clusters (micelles) are small and separated from each other by a large
volume of intermicellar aliphatic and other non-aromatic material in which most
of the hydrogen and oxygen is concentrated (Fig. 3.32). As coalification proceeds,
fluids and gases are released by diffusion from the non-aromatic compounds whose
proportion decreases resulting in an increase in the aromaticity (fa = aromatic
Cltotal C) of coal from approximately 0.56 in brown coal to 0.78 in medium
volatile bituminous coal and 0.95 in anthracite (Iyengar and Lahiri 1959). The
aromaticity of coal is the weighted average of the aromaticities of its contained
macerals which show marked differences at the beginning of coalification. Fusinite
enters the physico-chemical stage with such high aromaticity that it changes very
little, whereas liptinite, being less aromatic to start with, undergoes very marked
changes. The relationship between whole coal aromaticity (fJ and mean maximum
vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion (Romv) can be approximated as (calculated
from Davis 1978a, Fig. 10):
fa = 0.34 + 0.78x - 0.33x 2 + 0.05x 3 . (3.5)
Besides clarifying many other properties of coal macerals, the concept of increasing
aromaticity also explains the variation in reflectance of different macerals, as well
as the trend towards higher reflectance with increasing rank. The weak reflectance
of low rank coal or of macerals with relatively low aromaticity is due to the large
proportion of weakly reflecting, carbon-poor intermicellar aliphatic and other
non-aromatic compounds. As this part of the coal decreases during further coali-
fication, the aromatic clusters, which can be regarded as pre-graphitic crystallites
in which the carbon atoms are densely packed and thus highly reflecting, determine
more and more the total reflectance of high rank coal. This has an adverse effect on
transmitted light microscopy in the form of rising refractive and light absorption
indices.
Microphotometry of coal in incident light has therefore become the most
important tool in the arsenal of physical methods of rank assessment. The results
of reflectance measurements correlate well with chemical methods (Hoffmann and
Jenkner 1932; McCartney 1952; Huntjens and van Krevelen 1954; Broadbent and
Shaw 1955; McCartney and Hofer 1955; Murchison 1958; Kotter 1960; McCartney
and Teichmiiller 1972; and others), which for Australian vitrinite is given as (after
Callcott 1986):
%Ro max = (0.15C o.97 - 0.59)/(98 - C). (3.6)
Reflectance measurements have the advantage that the small measuring area
(commonly 2 to 5Jlm diameter) exposed to the photomultiplier permit determi-
nations to be carried out on individual macerals. The chemical rank parameters
discussed above require for the analysis several grams of material which rarely
consists of a pure maceral concentrate but conventionally is obtained from represen-
tative bulk samples of coal. Differences in coal type between samples contribute
therefore a discern able modification to the results of most chemical methods of
rank assessment (Diessel and Wolff-Fischer 1987). However, photometric rank
determinations are also not completely free from ambiguity because it has been
found that reflectance values are consistently suppressed in coals that contain
alginite, i.e. the remnants of algae (H utton and Cook 1980; Kalkreuth and Macauley
1984, 1987) and large amounts of other liptinite macerals (Kalkreuth 1982) due
to absorption of lipids by vitrinite. The proportion of coals affected in this way is
probably small, and a correct rank allocation can be made on the basis of
fluorometric characteristics (Wolff-Fischer 1984).
Instrumentation and analysis procedure of reflectance measurements have all
been standardised and are described in various national and international
standards, International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963, 1971, 1975), Piller
(1977), Davis (1978), Statch et al. (1982), Bustin et al. (1985) and Robert
(1988).Conventionally, vitrinite (more specifically, telocollinite) is used for the
determination of coal rank by micro reflectance for reasons of its relative ubiquity,
homogeneity, and ease with which a well-polished surface can be obtained. Since
the condensation of the aromatic complexes is associated with an increasing parallel
orientation of their layer planes, the rise in reflectance with coal rank is accom-
panied by the development of optical anisotropy. This offers the choice of con-
ducting the reflectance measurements in either polarised or non-polarised light.In
the latter case, random reflectance (Ror or Ro rand ) is determined, which is the most
time-efficient procedure. However, when measuring high rank coals it may be
advantageous to determine maximum reflectance (Rom or Ro max) because its

increments against other rank parameters are larger than those of random reflec-
tance. The "0" indicates that the reflectance measurements have been carried out
in oil immersion (ne = 1.518). Deletion of the "0" infers likewise application of oil
immersion because it is so commonly used in coal microscopy in order to enhance
contrast of the microscopic image that only alternative methods need be specified.
In the older literature the expression "mean reflectance" (from German "mittlere
Reflexion" = Rm) can be found, but the term is ambiguous and should not be used.
According to Neavel et al. (1981), the relationship between maximum and random
reflectance can be expressed as:
%Rmax = 1.106%R rand - 0.024. (3.7)
A similar relationship has been found by Diessel and McHugh (1986) for Australian
coals:
%Rmax = 1.07%R rand - 0.01. (3.8)
Maximum reflectance is determined in plane-polarised light (one polariser) whereby

two reflectance maxima are obtained when the microscope stage is rotated 360 0
during the measurement. The reason for this is the development of uniaxial negative
crystal properties in most high rank coals and graphites (Cornford and Marsh
1976), although some high rank vitrinites with weak biaxial behaviour have also
been reported by Cook et al. (1972), Stone and Cook (1979) and Teichmiiller and
Teichmiiller (1979a), mainly from tectonically deformed regions. Both maxima
should yield similar values, the mean of which is recorded. When reflectance
measurements are combined with fluorescence intensity determinations, it is
advantageous to replace oil by water immersion. The obtained reflectance values
can be recalculated to the more familiar oil equivalents as:
Rw = 1.09 + 1.43 Ro. (3.9)
Correlation between reflectance measurements in oil immersion and air are given
in Prado (1975).
Other physical properties which undergo changes with increasing coal rank
are density, hardness and the microfluorescence of coal. Although application of
the latter was originally restricted to the strongly fluorescing liptinite (Jacob 1952b,
1964), improvements in instrumentation made it possible to process the relatively
weak signals obtained from vitrinite (Ottenjann 1980, 1982; Ottenjann et al. 1982;
Teichmiiller 1982) and inertinite (Diessel1985a; Diessel and McHugh 1986; Diessel
and Wolff-Fischer 1986, 1987; Brown et al. 1985a, b).
A detailed discussion of the principle of microfluorometry and its application
is given by Lin and Davis (1988a, b). A substance which is irradiated with a
high-energy beam absorbs part of the energy and converts it into heat. Part of
the energy which is not absorbed by the substance is emitted again with a longer
wavelength than that of the exciting radiation (Holz 1975). In the case of coal,
the wavelength of the emitted fluorescence is also rank-dependent and shifts from
low to high values with increasing degree of coalification. This offers the possibility
of measuring either the intensity of the emitted light at a fixed wavelength (mono-
chromatic fluorometry) or to determine the spectral range of the emitted light
(spectral fluorometry). In the latter case the results can be expressed numerically
by several parameters (Ottenjann et al. 1974), such as the wavelength with the
highest relative intensity (lambda max), or the red/green ratio Q:
Q = 1650/1500. (3.10)
1650 and 1500 are the relative fluorescence intensities determined at 650 nm and
500 nm, respectively. Both lambda max and Q shift to longer wavelength with
increasing coal rank. When measuring the relative fluorescence intensity at a fixed
wavelength (for example at 650 nm) the instrument is calibrated in reference to
a standard of known fluorescence (e.g. uranyl glass), similarly to the usage ofreflec-
tance standards in microphotometry.
As a rank parameter the red/green quotient of either liptinite or vitrinite is
particularly useful in subbituminous and high volatile bituminous coals in which
the moisture content has decreased such that it has lost its usefulness whereas the
main rank parameters of bituminous coal (volatile matter, carbon, vitrinite reflec-
tance and others) have not yet developed optimum resolution (Ottenjann 1985;
Strehlau 1988).
In very high rank coals X-ray diffraction has some application in distinguishing
between different anthracites because of the rapid graphitic lattice growth that
takes place towards the high end of the coalification range (Franklin 1951; French
1964; N oda 1968; Hamilton et al. 1970; Landis 1971; Grew 1974; Diessel and Offler
1975; and others). Subsequent graphitisation involves
1. the formation of planar networks of six-sided carbon rings,

2. the stacking of the planar carbon networks to form a layered structure with
two-dimensional symmetry,
3. followed by the ordering of layers so that the carbon atoms in anyone layer
lie over the midpoints of the six-member carbon rings of adjacent layers in a
regular, three-dimensional stacking sequence.
The extent of layer ordering is inversely related to the apparent dooz interplanar
spacing (Ubbelohde and Lewis 1960; Diessel et al. 1978) which is 3.354 A for
three-dimensionally ordered graphite (Oberlin et al. 1980). The end of coalification
and the beginning of graphitisation is also indicated by a reversal of the trend for
minimum reflectance. As illustrated in Fig. 3.33, during coalification both maxi-
mum and minimum vitrinite reflectance increase up to a maximum vitrinite reflec-
tance of 3%, at which stage minimum reflectance has reached 2.5%. While this
coalification trend continues for some samples up to a maximum vitrinite reflectance
of 6% (Ro min = 4%) others enter the graphitisation path by reversing minimum
reflectance. Beyond a maximum reflectance of 6% all minimum reflectances are
15
10
" ..
5
.,x
E
Fig. 3.33. Diagram illustrating the changing rela- o
10:::
tionship between maximum and minimum vitrinite
b'!-
reflectance during coalification and graphitisation.
Each data point represents between 30 and 100 o
measurements carried out on coal and metamor-
phic rock samples cut normal to bedding and/or
o 1 2 3 4
schistosity. (After Diessel 1983) %Romin
reversing and hence the bireflectance increases to a combination of both decrease

in minimum and increase in maximum reflectance values until the extreme position
of graphite is reached in which maximum reflectance and bireflectance are
numerically similar because minimum reflectance approaches zero (McCartney
and Ergun 1967; Diessel and Offler 1975; Kwiecinska et al. 1977; Diessel 1983).
The samples which in Fig. 3.33 display signs of early graphitisation in com-
parison to their still moderate coal rank come from high pressure metamorphic
terrains, for which the observations on naturally occurring high rank coal and
graphite by Bostick (1974), Ragot (1976), Diessel et al. (1978), Bonijoly et al. (1982),
Okuyama-Kusunose and Itaya (1987) and the experimental work of Noda and
Kato (1965); Noda (1968); and Inagaki et al. (1977) suggest that high pressure
retards coalification but accelerates graphitisation even of relatively "non-
graphitisable" carbon.
3.2.2 The Effects of Pressure, Temperature and Time
Pressure, either due to an increasing weight of overburden or tectonism, has quite

contrasting effects on coalification. Towards the end of the biochemical and at the
beginning of the physico-chemical stages it causes compaction and dehydration
from peat to brown and sub-bituminous coal which is accompained by a con-
comitant rise in specific energy (Fig. 3.31). Dehydration is a physical process which
responds to compaction and consolidation without any rise in temperature.
Teichmiiller and Teichmiiller (1966a) have shown this experimentally by com-

pressing brown coal at room temperature. Wood (textinite) from a soft brown coal,
after having been sUbjected to a pressure of 270 Kg/cm 2 , which equates to an over-
burden of approximately 1200m, lost all cell lumens (cavities) and appeared as
vitrinite, not unlike telinite under the microscope. Similarly, open-textured brown
coal attritus was converted into a densely packed mixture of spores and vitrinite
(desmocollinite). This trend was macroscopically accompanied by darkening and
increase in lustre but, as Mackowsky (1953) had pointed out previously, both
carbon and volatile matter contents on a dry-ash-free basis (daf) are little influenced
by such changes.
Once subsidence and depth of cover of the coal have caused the temperature
to rise sufficiently to start first polymerisation and then thermal cracking of the
intermicellar side chains, excessive pressure can exert a retarding influence on
coalification by supprissing devolatilisation. According to Karweil (1966), coali-
fication is a first-order reaction, i.e. its effectiveness is governed by the concentration
of the reacting partners. If the developing effiuent gases and liquids are prevented
from leaving the coal by a high confining pressure, they will dilute the reacting
groups in the microfabric of the coal and thus slow down the condensation
reactions. This assumption has been partly based on artificial coalification
experiments by Huck and Patteisky (1964), who found that under vaccum
conditions, a coal heated to 350°C devolatilised from initially 33% VM to 18%
VM, whereby liptinite disappeared. Both liptinite and volatile matter remained
unchanged when the same coal, at the same temperature was subjected to a pressure
of 800 Kg/cm2. More recent experiments by Horvath (1983) and Goodarzi (1985a)
have confirmed these results.
In addition, geological evidence weights heavily in favour of temperature as a
major cause of physicochemical coalification. Comparisons between coal rank and
rock temperatures measured in deep drill holes, such as Miinsterland No.1 in north-
west Germany, show a direct relationship between isovols and isotherms (Lensch
1963; Hedemann 1963). Of importance in this context is the fact that coal rank does
not only increase with depth (Hilt's Rule) but also under conditions of thermal
metamorphism, i.e. by temperature alone. The best results are obtained from a
large acid or intermediate batholith with widely spaced isotherms which intrudes
slowly and remains at some distance measured in hundreds or even several
thousand metres below the coal. This will cause steepening of the geothermal
gradient and increased heat flow over a large area but will not carbonise the coal
as is frequently the case in contact with the very much hotter dolerite dykes or
sills. A fine example of how an intrusive body at depth has influenced the rank
of coals from three geological periods (Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Cretaceous)
is the Bramsche Massif in northwestern Germany. On approaching the area affected
by the intrusion, a centripetal rank increase can be observed up to anthracite rank.
According to Teichmiiller and Teichmiiller (1966a), neither overburden pressure
nor tectonic stress in the region have been particularly high. Moreover, Patteisky
et al. (1962) have presented a coalification chart of the Sonnenschein Seam in the
Ruhr Basin which shows that where folding was most intense close to the Rhenish
Fold Belt coal rank is actually rather low. As a reason for this it has been assumed
that early folding and uplift interrupted coalification. A similar situation has been
reported by Kalkreuth and McMechan (1984) from the Grande Cache region in
western Canada, where coal rank at the Lower Cretaceous level decreases from
semi-anthracite in the Alberta Syncline to sub-bituminous coal towards the Rocky
Mountains. The authors suggest that the westward decrease in coal rank is due
to the eastward migration of the Laramide deformation across the area. Its early
onset in the west interrupted coalification whereas, further east, Lower Cretaceous
strata remained buried underneath a thick pile of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary
molasse sediments, thus allowing coalification to continue much longer.
Conversely, there are also regions where the rank of near-surface coals increases
towards an area of high deformation, for instance, in the southern Canadian Rocky
Mountain Foothills and Frontal Ranges (Norris 1971); Hacquebard and
Donaldson 1974) and close to the orogenic margins of some other foreland basins.
However, these tectonic settings were also places of particularly deep subsidence
which were subsequently incorporated in the deformation and uplift of the adjacent
orogen. As a consequence of this either stratigraphically deeper levels have been
exposed (e.g. Ruhr Basin) or coalification was largely complete before the onset
of uplift.
In view of the perceived temperature dependence of physicochemical coalifica-
tion, its velocity (V) has been expressed by Karweil (1966) as an Arrhenius-type
equation:
(3.11)
whereby n = number of groups capable of reacting; A = number of reactions

actually taking place; T = absolute temperature; R = universal gas constant;
E = activation energy; RT = available thermal energy. With the exception ofn and
T the equation contains only constants, E having been calculated at 8.4 Kcaljmol
and A at 2.27 times 1O-4ja. The velocity of coalification depends therefore on
the temperature the material was subjected to and on the number of groups capable
of reacting. They are plentiful in low rank coals but as even high rank coals still
do contain some of these groups, coalification would theoretically not terminate
before the last couple has reacted with each other, i.e. at the "rank" of graphite.
Assuming therefore that a sufficient number of reacting partners is always present
in coal, temperature takes the leading role. From this link between temperature
and velocity of coalification it follows that the rank of coal depends on the residence
time the source material was subjected to the prevailing end temperature, whereby
the reaction rate decreases exponentionally with time (Robert 1988).
Karweil (1956) has summari~ed the correlation between time, temperature and
coal rank in diagram form a modified version of which is illustrated in Fig. 3.34.
In the diagram, time is represented by a family of curves which relate to temperature
on the ordinate and coal rank on the upper abscissa, either as volatile matter or
vitrinite reflectance. In order to obtain coal rank, the burial history of the deposit
is divided into discrete time segments with similar burial temperature. For each
segment the respective Z-value is obtained from the Z-scale on the lower abscissa.
The sum of the individual values provides a conversion factor from which coal
% Rmax (leJocollinite) 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7

% VM (dar) 40 35 30 20 10 54
Residence lime in million lears 10 12 20 30 40 50 100
rh ~W1
~n,
/,1 ~ ~ ~ ~V200
h 0 ~ W .xl
I'. V ~::r veX
I-'.: v:
u
o
c
f"
"
V ...-V:: ~ra
V V " 3'Ol
VI..-'
~~ V
,.
-
Q)
'-
100
:;, vf' ...-
.....
10 1.--':"::: v~
'-
Q) :.-:~ ~f'
c. ...... ~ ~I-'
E
....
Q)
0
III
0.001 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 2 5 10
Z - Scale
Fig. 3.34. Karweil's diagram relating coalification temperature and residence time to coal rank.
(After Karweil 1956 and Bostick 1971)
rank can be obtained when its numerical value is projected from the Z-scale to
the upper abscissa.
The version of the Karweil Diagram illustrated in Fig. 3.34 was extended and
slightly modified by Bostick (1971, 1973) mainly by adjusting the predicted rank
values in comparison with measured results and by adding a vitrinite reflectance
scale. In addition to the thermo-kinetic approach by Karweil, the relationship
between time and coalification has also been studied on the basis of actualistic
models or by combining both methods. Examples have been presented by Lopatin
(1971, 1976a, b); Hood and Castano (1974), Hood et al. (1975); Cornelius (1975);
Tissot and Espitalie (1975); Shibaoka and Bennett (1977). Their results may differ
in detail, but they all come to the same conclusion, that given sufficient activation
energy, a long residence time at low temperature may yield the same coal rank as
a relatively short residence time at high temperatures. However, since coalification
is exponentially dependent on temperature [see Eq. (3.11); Lopatin 1971; and Waples
1980] a relatively short residence time at comparatively high temperatures will
affect coal rank more than long residence time at low temperature (Kalkreuth and
McMechan 1984). Of course, residence time must be long enough for an equilibrium
to be established between temperature and coal rank. In rapidly sinking rift basins
equilibrium temperature may be established more slowly than the rate of
subsidence, and likewise, it will take time for coalification to reach a level that is
commensurate with the given temperature (Teichmiiller 1987). In order to maintain
rank equilibrium the rate of basin subsidence should not exceed 10m/Ma (Lopatin
1976a, b). In a more rapidly subsiding basin, the result will be (for some time after
subsidence has ceased) a lower coal rank than would be expected on the basis of
temperatures measured at depth. Examples of this kind are the Gippsland Basin
350
:.-
300 .• : ··0 q;0
• • ,. Q
250
. ;:• ,.'.::n
• 1()
'0 0
V'
• Q.-6
200 j. rO:
'0 ••
~ 150 :9: ..
.3
Fig. 3.35. Diagram showing two sets of reflec- "a, 100
tance/temperature correlations based on fluid a.
E
inclusion data (small dots) by Barker and ~ 50
Goldstein (1990a,b) and an oxygen isotopes
(large circles) by Diessel et al. (1978) Rorv 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
in Australia (Kanstler et al. 1978; Shibaoka et al. 1978) and Upper Rhine Graben
(Espitalie 1979; Teichmiiller 1979).
More recently, Barker and Goldstein (1990a) have cast some doubt on the
importance of residence time in coalification. Based on a comprehensive laboratory
and field study of present-day peak temperatures (T peak)' homogenization tem-
peratures (Th) of fluid inclusions in calcite, and mean random vitrinite reflectance
(Rorv) determined in associated coals or dispersed organic matter (DOM), they
found that T h correlates well with the maximum temperature to which the rock
was subjected in its geological history. A similarly close agreement was established
between T hand Rorv independent of the duration of heating, which was estimated
to have varied between thousands and millions of years. From the results presented
by Barker and Goldstein (1990a,b) maximum coalification temperature (T) may
be estimated without any reference to residence time as:
T = [(in Rorv) + 1.26]/0.0081. (3.12)
For comparison, Barker and Goldstein's (1990b) Rorv/fluid inclusion temperatures

have been plotted against the Rorv/oxygen isotope temperatures obtained by Diessel
et al. (1978) from a high-pressure metamorphic belt in New Caledonia. There is
good agreement up to 2% Rorv after which the two data sets diverge. In view of
the many possible sources of error in both methods neither the agreement nor the
disagreement need necessarily be proof or otherwise of the accuracy of the results.
However, it is an interesting contribution to the discussion of the role of time in
coalification that many of the fluid inclusion temperatures, which are based on
samples with very short periods of heating, are slightly higher than the oxygen
isotope temperatures which were established over a metamorphic interval in excess
of 12Ma.
4 Coal Petrographic Entities
The preceding discussion has shown that similar plant tissues can form a wide
range of degradation products when subjected to varying degrees of humification
and dehydration before being incorporated in the accumulating peat. On con-
version into coal some of the differences between the peat components are lost
whereas others are retained and may even become accentuated, such as differences
between macerals in reflectance which develop at the beginning of physico-chemical
coalification, before undergoing the kind of convergence illustrated in Fig. 3.29.
The differentiation into the various organo-petrographic constituents of coal
has been inherited from the biochemical stage of coalification, mainly in response
to fluctuations in the groundwater table which led to frequent changes in both
floral composition and the conditions under which the plants were converted into
peat. When viewed in outcrop or in bore core, humic coal appears therefore
stratified into lithotypes, i.e. macroscopic units which differ from each other in
such physical properties as colour, texture and desiccation patterns in brown coal,
or in texture and lustre in black coal. In contrast, sapropelic coals, such as cannel
and bog head coals (torbanite), display little differentiation because they formed
as organic oozes from spores and/or algae on the bottoms of lakes and ponds
outside the range of minor fluctuations in the position of the water table (Dulhunty
1944). Therefore they appear macroscopically unstratified and often display distinct
conchoidal fracture (Fig. 4.1).
The physical differences between the various lithotypes are an expression of
their maceral composition. These are the basic and relatively homogeneous organo-
petrographic entities of coal which by their chemical composition and physical
characteristics determine its properties and utilisation. Natural associations of
macerals are referred to as microlithotypes. Like macerals, they are grouped into
broad categories, i.e. microlithotype groups, which are identified by the number
and kinds of macerals contributing to the microlithotype. This hierarchical
arrangement of the organo-petrographic components of coal results in the
distinction of three assemblages of components, i.e. macerals, microlithotypes and
lithotypes, which form the basis for the International or Stopes-Heerlen classi-
fication system of the petrographic constituents of coal (International Committee
for Coal Petrology 1963, 1971).
Fig.4.1. Photograph of a Permian boghead coal from the Sydney Basin of New South Wales
showing conchoidal fracture
4.1 Macerals
The term maceral was introduced by Stopes (1935) in analogy to the minerals of
inorganic rocks for the purpose of classifying the elemental microscopic consti-
tuents of coal. All maceral names have the suffix "-inite". Coal macerals are con-
ventionally combined into three groups which in brown coals are referred to as
huminite, inertinite, and liptinite, while in black coals the term huminite is replaced
by vitrinite, the other two maceral groups being the same.
The huminite/vitrinite group of macerals has been derived from plant tissue
which has been humified to varying degrees prior to burial and anaerobic geli-
fication. Much of the inertinite group has also been derived from more or less
humified tissued source material, but has been subject to dehydration and oxidation
during biochemical coalification and before final burial in the catotelm. Liptinite
macerals have been derived from cuticular and other resistant vegetal matter high
in resinous and waxy material. In addition to the mace.rals and maceral groups,
the International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963,1971) distinguishes between
sub macerals and maceral varieties in reference to either their particular vegetal
origin or their respective states of preservation, although some of the genetic
relationships are not clearly defined. For example, irr the conventional Stopes-
Heerlen system, the two main macerals of the vitrinite group are telinite and
collinite. Each ofthese is divided into submacerals and, in the case oftelinite, further
into maceral varieties. The submacerals of collinite all share a seemingly colloidal,
i.e. structure-less, habit when viewed in reflected light, although they show different
Macerals 89
MacO?ral Maceral MacO?ral SubmacO?ral Maceral

Group Subgroup VariO?ty
Ii (dark)
Textinite B (bright)
Humo- Ii (dark)
Texto- UJ mi nite B (bright)
--:z
W Telinite Ul mi nite Ii (dark)
Eu- Ul mi nite B (bright)
H
Humo- Attri nite
Detr1nite Den3inite
~ Levi- Detrogeli nite
Fig. 4.2. The classification
of the brown coal (lignite)
::J Humo- Geli nite Geli- TeJogeli nite
nite Eugeli nite
macerals of the huminite :I: Collinite Porigeli nite
group. (After
International Committee Corpo- Phlobephi nHe
for Coal Petrology 1963, Huminite PsO?udo-Phlobaphinito?
1971)
degrees of cell tissue preservation after they have been etched with an oxidising
agent, such as acidified potassium permanganate (Teichmiiller 1941; Diessel1961;
Mackowsky 1974; Ng et al. 1987). .
Etching techniques reveal that telocollinite possesses a completely intact, albeit
somewhat collapsed and slightly gelified, cell structure and is therefore genetically
more closely related to the structured telinite than to the other collinite sub-
macerals. In the conventional brown coal classification this problem is accounted
for by dividing the huminite group (the brown coal equivalent of the vitrinite
group) into three subgroups as illustrated in Fig. 4.2, which comprises structured,
detrital and colloidal macerals, respectively, and represent increasing degrees in
humification in accordance with Fig. 3.14. The recognition of three subgroups of
tissue-derived macerals according to their state of humification prior to physico-
chemical gelification has been adopted by Australian Standard 2856 (1986) for a
Table 4.1. The classification of bituminous coal macerals and maceral groups. (After International
Committee for Coal Petrology 1963, 1971, 1975). Maceral subgroups are according to Australian
Standard 2856 (1986)
Maceral groups Maceral subgroups Macerals
Vitrinite Telovitrinite Telinite, telocollinite

Detrovitrinite Desmocollinite, vitrodetrinite
Gelovitrinite Gelocollinite, corpocollinite
Inertinite Telo-inertinite Fusinite, semifusinite and sclerotinite
Detro-inertinite Inertodetrinite, micrinite
Gelo-inertinite Macrinite
Liptinite Primary liptinites Resinite, cutinite, sporinite, alginite,
suberinite and liptodetrinite
Secondary liptinites Exsudatinite. flll""-"
unified brown/black coal maceral classification. The same threefold subdivision of

tissue-derived coal components is also applied to the black coal maceral
classification listed in Table 4.1 which is used in this text.
4.1.1 The HuminitejVitrinite Group
Huminite/vitrinite macerals are ubiquitous in humic coals where they frequently

constitute the largest maceral group. The terms huminite and vitrinite are applied
to macerals which have followed the vitrinitisation path of biochemical coalification
as outlined in the previous chapter. These macerals have been formed from wood,
bark, root, leaf, and other cell tissues which have been sUbjected to humification
of varying intensity. The effects of this kind of biochemical coalification are easily
recognised in the huminite macerals of peat and brown coal but they are not quite
as obvious in bituminous coal because of the convergence of the coalification
tracks of the various macerals during physico-chemical coalification (Fig. 3.29). The
associated physical and chemical condensation and loss of textural definition have
their analogy in inorganic sediments, for example, in the gradual post-depositional
obliteration, due to recrystallisation, of detrital minerals and their fabric during
the transition from a loose sand ( = peat) to a sandstone ( = brown coal), and finally
into a quartzite (= bituminous coal to anthracite).
Having been derived from humified cell tissue huminite transforms into vitrinite
at the beginning of the physico-chemical stage of coalification. This is accomplished
by the polymerisation of biodegraded humic substances to form condensed
aromatic and hydroaromatic ring structures, which are connected by covalent
cross-links. With increasing coalification and at the expense of the non-aromatic
matter, the cross-links become degraded and functional groups are lost, which
leads to a tighter packing of the aromatic clusters (Sakurovs et al. 1989). Their
increasing size and degree of crystallinity results in the observed increase in both
reflectance and bireflectance in high rank vitrinites (Mackowsky 1951).
4.1.1.1 The Humotelinite/Telovitrinite Subgroup
Although the outward appearance of the members of this subgroup may vary,
their common characteristic is the retention of cell tissue in various stages of
preservation. Because herbaceous plants degrade rather quickly, it is assumed that
woody and cortical cell tissues constitute the main progenitors of this subgroup.
Except under severe and prolonged conditions of degradation, lignin-rich wood
will often tend to stop short of total breakdown of cell texture. This is related to
compositional differences between the different layers that constitute such cell
walls. For example, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of partially humified
xylite samples from Latrobe Valley brown coals (Gippsland Basin, Victoria,
Australia) has shown that only their secondary and tertiary cell wall layers had
Macerals 91
Fig. 4.3. Photomicrograph showing the effects of termite attack on Pinus radiata. Upper [eji part of
the wood. Upper right termite excreta. Centre termite excreta in polished thin section with remnants
of cellulose (anisotropic, white, fibrous); transmitted light, crossed po lars; actual length of field of
view = 0.22 mm. Bottom. As above, fluorescent mode showing the high concentration of lignin
(light grey to white); incident light, actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
been converted into colloids (Liu et al. 1982). Therefore humotelinite and
telovitrinite macerals show various stages of tissue preservation in response to
their botanical origin and the course of humification.
As summarised in Chap. 3, humification is a process of depolymerisation
of complex vegetal molecules into smaller products. It begins with the least resistant
cell contents and protoplasmic bodies and ends with the decomposition of cell
walls by the hydrolysis of cellulose to monosaccharides and of lignin to phenolic
compounds. According to the work of Hatcher et al. (1981, 1982), Russell and
Barron (1984), Wilson and Pugmire (1984), Wilson et al. (1984, 1986) and Hedges
et al. (1985), the loss of cellulose is accompanied by a loss of methoxy carbon and
oxidation to form carboxylic and OH functionality, followed by dehydroxylation,
decarboxylation, replacement of alkyl groups by hydrogen and subsequent cross-
linking. These processes are aided by organisms in various ways.
Most insects, mites and other organisms feeding on vegetable matter will make
use of only a small portion of the organic intake, the remainder being excreted
either unaltered or only slightly modified in composition. An example of wood
attacked by termites is illustrated in Fig. 4.3, which shows that some portions of
the wood structure have been retained. These portions are impregnated by tannins
and resins. Lignin-rich cell walls are also frequently bypassed, or if chewed and
ingested it may concentrate in excreta, also shown in Fig. 4.3. The mechanical
destruction of such plant material enlarges the surface area of the residue which
prepares the lignin and other resistant components for more efficient microbial
and chemical digestion (Wolf 1988). This is effected by bacterial enzymes, such as
hydro lases which catalytically accelerate the hydrolysis of organic molecules. Some
kinds of wood are more susceptible than others to this kind of degradation. Among
the more resistant ones are wood tissues produced by gymnosperms on account
of their relatively high content of resins and tannins. Most of the large and
comparatively unaltered wood fragments found in peat and brown coal have been
derived from gymnosperms, whereas angiosperm wood is frequently badly
degraded.
In the soft brown coal maceral textinite (Fig. 4.4, upper left) the cell tissue
differs little from that of the original wood and, in some cases (e.g. Gippsland
Basin, Australia), has retained some unaltered anisotropic cellulose and lignin with
primary fluorescence (Russell 1984). Plant genera and species are readily identified
from textinite tissue, which is possibe only with some difficulty in the equivalent
telinite of bituminous coals. Identifications of the phytogenic precursors of some
telinites in British Carboniferous coals have been made by Hickling and Marshall
(1932, 1933).
By the time humification has reached the ulminite stage all cellulose and much
of the lignin will have been hydrolysed which often is accompanied by swelling
and deformation of the cell walls. Two submacerals have been distinguished,
texto-ulminite (Fig. 4.4, upper right and lower left) in which cell lumens are still
open and eu-ulminite (Fig. 4.4, lower right) in which the lumens are closed and
cell walls are in contact with each other and are barely distinguishable under the
conditions of light microscopy. As has been discussed in Chap. 3, this process is
part of the breakdown of cell tissues under the conditions of humification in the
Macerals 93
Fig. 4.4. Photomicrographs of macerals of the humotelinite group. Upper left textinite. Upper right
texto-ulminite. Lower left textinite grading into texto-ulminite. Lower right texto-ulminite grading
into eu-ulminite. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
Fig.4.5. Photomicrograph of wood tissue undergoing plastic deformation and fusion in a xylite
(wood) from the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia. Transmitted light; actual length offield of view
=O.9mm
acrotelm. It is accompanied by softening, swelling, deformation and eventual fusion

of the cell walls, an example of which is illustrated in Fig. 4.5.
Electron microscopic observations by Liu et al. (1982) suggest that the
degradation of cell walls begins with their separation into fine lamellae followed
by their transformation into spheroidal colloidal droplets which appear to
constitute the maceral porigelinite that is frequently observed to fill cell lumens.
In support of this notion Fig. 4.6, shows porigelinite in the lumens of somewhat
degraded textinite. Its cell walls are particularly thin or have disappeared altogether
in the vicinity of porigelinite concentrations. They appear to represent a more
advanced stage of the formation of colloidal droplets illustrated in Fig. 3.7 from
a Recent partially humified wood sample.
With increasing condensation under post-depositional, anaerobic conditions,
both textinite and texto-ulminite also transform into eu-ulminite due to impreg-
nation of cell tissues by humic acids resulting in closure of the cell lumens
and the acquisition of a homogeneous surface when polished (Fig. 4.7). This
gelification of largely unhumified wood is revealed in ultra-thin thin sections by
the widespread occurrence of traces of completely intact and un deformed wood
tissue within the otherwise homogeneous humic background (Fig. 4.7, lower right).
The remnants of cell walls which mostly appear only as faint ghost structures
behind the homogeneous background are reminiscent of the petrified cell tissues
found in carbonate concretions, an example of which has been illustrated in Fig. 2.6.
The mechanism is probably similar, except that in this case the impregnating fluid
consists of fluid humus colloids. This suggests that there are two pathways leading
to the formation of eu-ulminite (and ultimately telovitrinite):
Macerals 95
Fig. 4.6. Photomicrograph of porigeli-

nite (grey, granular) filling the cell lumens
of textinite whose cell walls have been
degraded and thinned in the vicinity of
porigelinite concentrations. Incident
Jigh t, oil immersion; actual length of each
1. Syngenetic eu-ulminite is formed in the acrotelm by the plastic deformation,

collapse and fusion of cell tissue during humification as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.
Before their closure, cell lumens may be filled by porigelinite, i.e. by colloids
presumably generated from within the wood tissue. This eu-ulminite represents
an intermediate phase corresponding to necrotisation stages 4 to 5, in the
biologically aided hydrolysis of cell walls of wood. After polymerisation much
of this material will form telocollinite or alternatively, semifusinitejmacrinite if
the hydrolysate will be subjected to dehydration and oxidation before final
burial in the catotelm.
2. Epigenetic eu-ulminite is formed during diagenesis by the successive impreg-
nation of textinite and texto-ulminite and the filling of their cell lumens with
fluid humic colloids, as illustrated in Fig. 4.7. In the process the components
of the host tissue are metasomatically replaced by humic substances as well,
which is shown by the loss of anisotropy and fluorescence from cellulose and
lignin, respectively. The impregnating fluids may be generated from within the
replaced tissue but they could also represent migrating humic hydro sols formed
elsewhere in the deposit. This post-depositional, epigenetic gelification of the
cell tissue begins in the catotelm during the peat stage and culminates after the
polymerisation of the humus colloids with the formation of telovitrinite, mainly
in the form of telinite.
Fig. 4.7. Photomicrograph of eu-ulminite/telinite in a brown coal from the Gippsland Basin,
Victoria, Australia. Upper left Morwell Seam with homogenised cell tissue, still showing resin ducts.
Upper right Latrobe Seam, of slightly lower rank than Morwell Seam, is less advanced in its
epigenetic gelification and still displays contrast between autochthonous cell tissue and infilling.
Lower left same as upper right, higher magnification. Lower right same as before, showing
undeformed cell structure partially impregnated by colloidal humic fluids. Transmitted light;
actual length of field of view = 0.9 mm in upper left and 0.36 mm in others
Macerals 97
HUMIFICATION
cell tissues
intact
cell tissues
mildly affected
I
cell tissues di'inte"ated, h umw ; I
collapsed cell hagment' ,.II. ids
1 ! !
TEXTI -
NITE
!
after
TEXTO- ULMINITE
1 1
GELIFICATION
EU-U LM INI T E
1 1 1
after TEUNITE I TELOCOLUNITE
POlYMERI -
SATlON TEL OV IT RINITE
Fig.4.8. Outline of the syngenetic humification and epigenetic gelification tracks leading to the
formation of eu-ulminite as the common predecessor of telovitrinite
Fig.4.9. Photomicrographs of telinite (large homogeneous areas without inclusions) in high

volatile bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Note the weak cell structure in
the telinite. Other macerals illustrated are sporinite (flat translucent lenses) and inertinite (either
dark grey or opaque). Transmitted light, actual length of field of view = 0.9 mm (left) and 0.22 mm
(right)
Fig. 4.10. Photomicrograph oftelocollinite (Upper half) demonstrating the lack of other maceral
inclusions due to the preservation of cell tissue now "hidden" behind the homogeneous surface
polish. Also note the contrast in reflectance between the telocollinite and the darker grey matter in
lower half which consists of desmocollinite (subgroup detrovitrinite). Incident light, oil immersion;
'..."
0
1.8 Ror\ = 0 .06 + 0 .95 Rorv
Fig. 4.11. Diagram
'"
"C 1 .6 showing the relationship
~ between mean random
t:0 1.4 reflectance of telovitrinite
~
(Rort closed squares) and
Q> 1.2
u detrovitrinite (Rord open
c:
sq uares) in reference to
....u
<Il
1.0
the weighted mean of
-Q>
Q>
a:
0 .8
Rord = 0.06 + 1.0 3 Rorv
random reflectance of
total vitrinite for
Australian and German
~ 0 .6
0.6 0.8 1.0 1 .2 1.4 1 .6 1.8 bituminous coals. Each
point represents at least
% Rorv
50 readings
Macerals 99
70
60
,...
50 "
. ",
.
.... ':.".-- ... ....
40 .. .....:., i ,..
......CIJ 30 •• I -
.. .'. . ..
'c
·C
......; 20
' . ..
0
Fig.4.12. The proportion Qi 10
between total vitrinite 10-
content and telovitrinite ~ 0
in Carbonife'rous and 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Permian bituminous coals %Vitrinite
The two pathways discussed above have been outlined in Fig. 3.4 and have been
further emphasised for the huminite/vitrinite group in Fig. 4.8. In low rank
bituminous coal it is still relatively easy to identify telinite in transmitted light
(Fig. 4.9) but in incident light and with ihcreasing coalification it becomes
indistinguishable in unetched coals from telocollinite due to the obliteration of
cell structure. The term telovitrinite is therefore used to cater for both macerals. It
constitutes a maceral subgroup the diagnostic feature of which is that it is free
from contamination by other macerals because, in spite of its gelified appearance,
the cell tissue remained sufficiently coherent to resist disintegration and inter-
mingling with other macerals (Fig. 4.10). For the same reason all telovitrinites
display a 5 to 10% higher reflectance (Robert 1979) compared with detrovitrinite
which has been subjected to a higher degree of cell destruction before final burial.
Figure 4.11 shows the relationship between mean random reflectance for telo-
vitrinite and detrovitrinite in reference to random reflectance of total vitrinite
(weighted mean) for coal ranks ranging from high to low volatile bituminous coal,
where the two regression lines merge. A similar convergence would also be
encountered if the relationship between the two vitrinite subgroups were extended
into brown coal and peat thus leaving high volatile bituminous coal as the rank
in which the highest degree of divergence occurs. Consideration of such aspects
is important when using vitrinite reflectance as a rank indicator which caused
Brown et al. (1964) to make a distinction between vitrinite A (= telovitrinite) and
vitrinite B (= detrovitrinite). In addition there seems to be a small proportion of
telovitrinite macerals which have been found to show elevated reflectance and
anomalous fusibility during carbonisation and have therefore been called
pseudovitrinite (Benedict et al. 1968; Thompson and Benedict 1974; Gray 1982).
The proportion of humotelinite/telovitrinite varies in different coals but is
generally low in coals with low total vitrinite content. In these coals the majority
of vitrinite consists of detrovitrinite. As shown in Fig. 4.12, with increasing vitrinite
content the proportion of telovitrinite increases likewise, such that in a vitrinite-
rich coal telovitrinite is the dominant maceral subgroup.
4.1.1.2 The HumodetrinitejDetrovitrinite Subgroup
When the coherence of the cell tissue becomes lost in the course of humification
the result is a mixture of fluid humus colloids which constitute the continuous
phase, and particulate plant debris in all stages of degradation which forms the
discontinuous phase. On compaction ofthe peat and its transformation into brown
coal, the mixture of colloids and solids coagulates to form the maceral subgroup
humodetrinite (see brown coal classification in Fig. 4.2), which becomes detro-
vitrinite during physico-chemical coalification (Table 4.1). Because the soft tissues
of herbaceous plants disintegrate more readily during humification than lignified
cell walls, much of the material. constituting humodetrinite and detrovitrinite has
probably been formed from non-woody cell tissues, although prolonged humifi-
cation would affect trees and other wood producing plants in a similar manner,
as has been shown by the necrotisation scheme in Chap. 3. The genetic relationship
between the main macerals has been schematically indicated in Fig. 3.14 and is
further amplified in Fig. 4.13.
Depending on the relative proportion between continuous and discontinuous
phases in humodetrinite and their state of gelification, a distinction is made in
brown coal between the macerals attrinite and densinite (Fig. 4.2). As illustrated
in Fig. 4.14 (left), attrinite consists ofloosely packed cell fragments and other plant
debris including liptinite and inertinite. On further humification and compaction,
attrinite is converted into densinite in which the partially degraded cell fragments
begin to lose their identity and merge with the surrounding colloidal matrix (Fig.
4.14, centre). Similarly to the syn- and epigenetic formation of eu-ulminite discussed
above, densinite, too, can be the product either of humification, in which case the
dense appearance is due to the high proportion of colloids, or it can be formed
by epigenetic gelification of attrinite, as indicated in Fig. 4.13. The epigenetic
pathway is obviously quite common, as suggested by the observation that contrary
to its frequent occurrence in soft brown coal, practically all attrinite has been
replaced by densinite in the higher rank hard brown coal.
HUMIFICATIONlcellti"""'I,
lnta.d
I
.,ellti,,"", ,ellti,,"", disintegrated, humus colloids
mlldlyaffected (ol1a.p~ed cell mgments
I
1 ! I 1
AITRINITE DETRO- EU- PORI-i PSEUDO-
GEL I NIT E PHLOBAPHINITE
after !
GELIFICATION DENSINITE
1 1
after DESMOCOLLINITE GELOCOLLINITElcORPOCOLLINITE
POLYMERlSATION DETROVITRINITE GELOVITRINTE
Fig.4.13. Outline of the genetic relationship between the macerals of the humodetrinite/
detrovitrinite and humocollinite/gelovitrinite groups
Macerals 101
Fig.4.14. Photomicrograph illustrating the difference between attrinite (left) in Tertiary brown
coal from the Gippsland Basin, Victoria, densinite (centre) from the same locality and detrovitrinite
(right) with pseudocorposcJerotinite (White body with high relief on right margin) containing
gelocollinite in cavities. Note the fungal spores in densinite consisting of a teleutospore slightly
above centre and Sclerotites brandonianus below centre. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length
of each field of view = 0.22 mm
The black coal equivalent of densinite is desmocollinite (= heterocollinite after

Alpern 1966) which belongs to the detrovitrinite subgroup (Fig. 4.14, right)
according to Table 4.1. It constitutes the vitrinitic groundmass and cement (Gr.:
kolla = glue) of sub-bituminous and bituminous coal. In transmitted light micro-
scopy of high volatile bituminous coal, the heterogeneous nature of desmocollinite
is quite recognisable but without etching no differentiation can be made between
the colloidal continuous and the attrital discontinuous phase in higher rank coals.
In spite of this disadvantage, the occurrence of liptinite and inertinite inclusions
is proof of the total loss of a coherent cell structure. A large portion of the enclosed
liptinite debris is too small to be resolved by the light microscope but consists of
absorbed oils, resins and waxes. As illustrated in Fig. 4.10, this has the effect of
lowering the reflectance of the desmocollinite.
4.1.1.3 The Humocollinite/Gelovitrinite Subgroup
Coalified humus colloids without any inclusions of remnant cell tissue are not
frequent but occur sporadically in the form of gelinite and corpohuminite in brown
coal. In most cases they have been precipitated in cavities, cleats and fissures of peat
and brown coal from a humic hydrosol (humic acid) which separated during
humification from the decomposing vegetal matter.
Gelinite is divided into two submacerals, namely, porigelinite (Fig. 4.6) which
has a granular texture, presumably consisting of small droplets of humic colloids
(Liu et al. 1982), and levigelinite with a smooth and sometimes cloudy polished
surface. As shown in Fig. 4.2, levigelinite has been divided into further types, one of
which, telogelinite, is genetically misplaced in the inteniational classification and
should be part of eu- ulminite. The other two, detrogelinite and eugelinite, follow on
from attrinite and densinite, and are distinguished on the basis of increasing colloid
Fig.4.15. Photomicrograph of cortical tissue with phlobaphinite (tabular, smooth bodies in upper
portion on left) in brown coal from the Gippsland Basin, Victoria; transitions from phlobaphinite to
corpocollinite in Permian subbituminous coal from Collie, Western Australia (centre); and
corpocollinite in Permian high volatile bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin, New South Wales.
Note the dark suberinite partitions between the phlobaphinitejcorpocollinite bodies. Incident
light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view on left = 0.22 mm, in centre and on right = 0.22
Macerals 103
ratios. Indeed, detrogelinite is still so closely related to densinite that it, too, converts
into detrovitrinite during physico-chemical coalification, as outlined in Fig. 4.13. The
black coal equivalent of the remaining gelinite macerals is gelocollinite, an example
:>fwhich has been illustrated in Fig. 3.11 as infilling of cell lumens and gaps between
~ell walls of semifusinite. Colloidal humic matter ofthis purity is comparatively rare,
as it commonly contains inclusions of cell fragments and other organic debris.
Cell lumens in coal sqmetimes contain spheroidal and elliptical bodies of
flocculated humic colloids which are called pseudo-phlobaphinite in brown coal.
The prefix "pseudo-" is used in order to separate such secondary infillings from
"real" phlobaphinite which consists of tannin and similar non-humic substances
excreted, for instance, in the cork cells of bark tissue (Fig. 4.15). On disintegration of
the cell tissue these corpohuminite bodies become isolated. In black coal they are
called corpocollinite, examples of which have been illustrated in Fig. 3.10.
4.1.2 The Inertinite Group
This maceral group comprises members which have been thought to possess similar
technological properties, in particular, lack of fusibility during coke making, and
generally low reactivity due to a greater covalent cross-link density than commonly
found in the vitrinite group (Barton and Lynch 1986). However, as a corollary to
their wide range in reflectance and fluoresence intensities (Diessel and McHugh
1986) inertinite macerals display a likewise wide range in other properties, such that
lack of fusibility during carbonisation may be true only for fusinite and other
inertinites with a reflectance in excess of 1.8% in oil (Diessel 1983), although
inertinite fusibilities up to 2.8% reflectance have been found in laser induced
carbonisation experiments (Hall and Coin 1989). The actual degree of inertinite
fusibility is rank-dependent and is highest in medium volatile bituminous coals
(Diessel and W olff-Fischer 1987; Diessel and Bailey 1989).
As outlined in Fig. 3.4, inertinite macerals have the same precursors as vitrinite
macerals and many of them pass through the same stages of humification except
that, before reaching depositional base level below the groundwater table, they are
subjected to a period of intensive desiccation and varying degrees of oxidation
including partial burning of the accumulated vegetal matter (Gould and Shibaoka
1980). The results are coal constituents which possess relatively high OIC ratios and
high reflectance in incident light microscopy because they are rich in aromatic
carbon. Most inertinite macerals are relatively brittle and hard, which in incident
light microscopy is shown by their tendency to develop polishing relief. Similarly to
the huminite and vitrinite groups, inertinite has been divided into three subgroups in
reference to the degrees of cell tissue preservation.
The proportion of inertinite in coals varies over a wide range but is frequently
between 20 and 30%. Figures which deviate substantially either way from this
average occur in coals which have been formed under particular sets of environ-
mental conditions, as will be discussed later. Since no terminological distinction is
made between inertinites contained in brown and black coal, the classification of
inertinite macerals listed in Table 4.1 applies to all coal ranks.
4.1.2.1 The Telo-Inertinite Subgroup
The term telo-inertinite implies that its members consist of structured macerals in
which gelification is either absent or subordinate. The widespread but infrequent
pyrofusinite shows the highest degree of preservation of cell tissue (Fig. 3.19, top),
reflectance and polishing relief. In ordinary incident light it appears white with a
distinct yellow tinge, whereas it is opaque in transmitted light. Unlike semifusinite,
whose cell walls are often swollen as a result of partial humification, the cell walls of
pyrofusinite are rather thin because only their resistant lignified portions survived
the effects of incomplete combustion (Barghoorn 1949). Frequently, the brittle cell
walls are broken by either overburden or tectonic pressure into curved fragments
which is referred to as bogen (bow) structure (Fig. 4.16). Next to wood, cortical
tissues with cork cells can be frequently observed in fusinitised form, an example of
which is shown in Fig. 4.17. Because of its high concentration of aromatic carbon,
pyrofusinite does not undergo further change during physico-chemical coalification
which is in contrast to semifusinite, whose initially lower reflectance, according to
Fig. 3.29, increases until anthracite rank is reached (Alpern and Lemos de Sousa
1970; Smith and Cook 1980). For the same reason fusinite does not fluoresce and
appears completely opaque in transmitted light, whereas semifusinite displays both
translucency and fluorescence, the intensity of which is inversely proportional to its
reflectance. Examples are illustrated in Fig. 4.18.
Fig. 4.16. Photomicrograph of crushed fusinite with bogen structure (curved cell wall fragments).
Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
vl.acerals 105
Fig.4.17. Photomicrograph of fusi-

litised bark (periderm) tissue with
:ork infillings (phlobaphinite). High
wlatile bituminous coal, Sydney
Basin, New South Wales. Incident
ight, oil immersion; actual length of
"ield of view = 0.36 mm
Reference has been made in Chap. 3 to the main modes of fusinite and
:emifusinite formation. Most fusinite is fossil charcoal, i.e. its most common mode of
·ormation is by incomplete combustion (pyrofusinite = Brandfusinit of Teichmuller
1950), whereas the lower reflecting semifusinite is a product of either aerobic
'iodegradation during humification (degradofusinite = Zersetzungsfusinit of Teich-
nuller 1950; also Murchison et al. 1985), or oxidation and incomplete combustion of
Jartially humified cell tissue. An accurate identification of the various modes of
Jrigin is difficult in most cases, because they commonly overlap and rarely proceed
n isolation. Important indicators are the degree of cell preservation which is a
~e1ative measure of the effect of humification and associated biodegradation, and
~eflectance, which increases with the amount of oxidation and/or the extent of
~ombustion the maceral has been subjected to. Since the brightness of coal in
ncident light microscopy is proportional to its carbon content, the reflectance of
;emifusinite, its hardness, degree of cell preservation and other properties range
Jetween those of vitrinite and fusinite. In incident light its colour ranges from light
~rey to white whereby the darker varieties show brown translucence in transmitted
light and some low reflecting varieties display long-wave microfluorescence.
As mentioned before, wood-derived inertinite displays better preserved plant
~ells than, for example, leaf-derived semifusinite, particularly when low reflecting
Fig.4.18. Photomicrographs in white light (left) and fluorescence mode (right) of semifusinite in
Greta Seam, Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Note the decrease in semifusinite fluorescence with
increasing reflectance. Incident light, oil immersion in white light, dry in fluorescence mode; actual
Macerals 107
and still closely related to vitrinite. An example ofthis is illustrated in Fig. 4.19 which
also shows that cell definition improves with increasing reflectance. Depending on
the degree of humification prior to oxidation, wood-derived semifusinite may also
show poor cell preservation and occupy a transitional position to macrinite. An
assemblage of such products which correspond to Beeston's (1987) degradofusinite,
is illustrated in Fig. 4.20. Fusinite and semifusinite occur in the form of layers and
lenses in which the cell cavities (lumens) are either empty or may be filled with a wide
range of substances including gelovitrinite, gelo-inertinite, resinous material and
various minerals.
While fusinite and semifusinite can be formed from a large variety of phytogenic
precursors, the only plant-specific inertinite is sclerotinite, which consists of
structured fungal remains, mainly in the form of spores (corposclerotinite) and, to a
lesser extent, mycelium and hyphae (e.g. plectenchyminite). As is implied by the
name (skleros = Gr. for hard) sclerotinite is the hardest of the macerals and
commonly shows high polishing relief. Its reflectance is usually also very high in
bituminous coals but may be quite low in some brown coals.
Because of their distinct morphology the recognition and identification of
fungal sclerotinite in Late Mesozoic and Tertiary coals is usually not difficult (Fig.
4.14, centre), but problems exist in older coals. Positive identifications of fungal
remains have been made by Thiessen (1920a) and Stach and Pickhardt (1964) in
Fig. 4.20. Photomicrograph of an assem-

blage of semifusinite (degradofusinite
after Beeston 1987) showing various
stages of cell preservation and reflec-
tance in a high volatile bituminous coal
from the Bowen Basin, Queensland. In-
cident light, oil immersion; actual length
Cook (1962), Lyons et al. (1982) and others, some so-called scierotinite appears to
have been formed from oxidised resinous and tissued material and is therefore
referred to as pseudocorposcierotinite (Fig. 4.14, right) or secretion scierotinite in
contrast to the corposcierotinite representing fungal spores. Based on his studies of
Bowen Basin coals in Queensland, Beeston (1987) considers most pseudoscierotinite
to have been derived from a variety of plant tissues, including wood by a two-phase
process involving geiification followed by oxidation. He distinguishes between two
varieties which he calls degradosclerotinite and sclerotodetrinite. Both consist of
commonly rounded but also irregular, elongated, even squared blisters of high relief
and high reflectance material which is sculptured either by deep notches or irregular
vesicies which, in the case of degradoscierotinite are set within degradosemifusinitic
cell tissue. In contrast, sclerotodetrinite occurs as isolated bodies and thus corres-
ponds to pseudocorposclerotinite. Examples are illustrated in Fig. 4.21.
Semifusinite and its various varieties constitute the most common maceral type,
not only of the telo-inertinite subgroup but of the inertinite group in general. Its
proportion varies but it often accounts for more than 50% of all inertinite macerals
in a coal seam. Fusinite and sclerotinite are considerably less common and rarely
make up more than a few percent, although there are notable exceptions, such as the
"Zwickauer Rul3kohle" (= soot coal of Zwick au, a city in Saxony), which is a
Macerals 109
Fig. 4.21. Photomicrograph of pseudo-

corposclerotinite (sclerotodetrinite after
Beeston 1987) in the Bayswater Seam of
the Sydney ~asin, New South Wales.
Incident light, oil immersion; actual
Carboniferous coal seam consisting almost exclusively of fusinite and semifusinite

(H. Potonie 1920; R. Potonie 1924; Stutzer 1929).
4.1.2.2 The Detro-Inertinite Subgroup
This subgroup consists offusinitised detrital plant fragments in which two macerals
are distinguished on the basis of size. Inertodetrinite (Figs. 3.24 and 4.22) consists of
fragmented inertinite ranging in the longest diameter between 30 and 211m, whereas
micrinite (Figs. 3.24 and 4.23) is composed of smaller inertinite grains. The latter was
referred to as granular opaque matter by Thiessen (1920a) and Thiessen and Sprunk
(1936). According to Alpern and Pregermain (1965) and Teichmi.iller (1974) much of
the micrinite forms at the rank level of subbituminous coal from lipid-rich material
by a disproportionation process which results in the formation ofliquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons, such as exsudatinite and bitumen leaving behind micrinite as a
residue. The latter is called submicrinite by Taylor and Liu (1989) and associated
more closely with the liptinite group of macerals than with inertinite. Because of the
difficulty in distinguishing very fine-grained inertodetrinite (= detromicrinite of
Fig. 4.22. Photomicrograph of densely packed inertodetrinite on either side of the telovitrinite
band (grey, in upper half) in the Bayswater Seam of the Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Incident
light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
Fig. 4.23. Photomicrograph of micrinite (small white specks), macrinite (white lenticular bodies in
upper left) and spores (darkjlat lenses) set in detrovitrinite (grey groundmass) of the Katharina Seam,
Ruhr Basin, Germany. Incident light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.17 mm.
(Diessel 1961)
Macerals 111
Fig.4.24. Photomicrographs of macrinite (smooth, light coloured lenses and layers on left top and
bottom) with varying reflectance levels and reciprocal intensities of translucency (top right) and
fluorescence (bottom right). Top left and right has been taken from a polished thin section of the
Duncan Seam, Tasmania; bottom left and right is from a Queensland high volatile bituminous coal.
Left top and bottom incident white light in oil immersion; top right transmitted light; bottom right
fluorescent mode, dry objective; actual length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
Mackowsky 1976) from micrinite (in sensu stricto), Australian Standard 2856 (1986)
regards all inertinite smaller than 2 jlm as micrinite (in sensu lato).
While the proportion of inertodetrinite in coal can vary quite considerably the
percentages of micrinite are usually small. In Carboniferous coals, which contain
generally more micriIiite, than younger coals, micrinite percentages average 3-6%
and may be as high as 19%, whereas Permian and other post-Carboniferous coals
rarely exceed 3%.
4.1.2.3 The Gelo-Inertinite Subgroup
As the name implies, this subgroup has been derived from plant material which was
first biodegraded into humus colloids and subsequently dehydrated and oxidised
(Stach and Alpern 1966). Gelo-inertinite contains macrinite as the only defined
representative but, as discussed in Chap. 3, two varieties of macrinite can be
distinguished, one which consists of detrital angular to rounded bodies, commonly
associated with inertodetrinite. This "corpomacrinite" which has been illustrated in
Fig. 3.25) is probably the result of desiccation of humic colloids (angular) followed by
dispersal and redeposition (rounded). The other variety (Fig. 3.26), occurs as
elongated bands or laminae ("lammacrinite"), probably representing dried humic
groundmass which, as mentioned in Chap. 3, would have formed desmocollinite had
the peat not been exposed to oxidising conditions due to a fall in the groundwater
table. As shown in Fig. 4.24, in both transmitted light and fluorescence mode,
macrinite covers not only a wide range of reflectance in relation to the associated
vitrinite but, like semifusinite, there is an inverse relationship between reflectance
and intensities of translucency and fluorescence.
4.1.3 The Liptinite Group
The liptinite group of macerals has been derived from specific plants or parts thereof
which are charcterised by high aliphatic (mainly long-chain alkanes) contents, as
well as higher atomic HIC ratios compared with other macerals. Reference was
made in Chap. 3 to the high degree of translucency of low rank liptinite in
transmitted light and its low reflectance when viewed in incident light. Another
optical characteristic is the strong fluoresence after excitation with short wave
radiation. As indicated in Fig. 3.29, liptinite macerals increase in carbon content
with coalification which causes them to lose their specific properties and to fade into
the background of vitrinite from which they become indistinguishable in low volatile
bituminous and higher rank coals.
Although no formal subgroups have been named, a distinction can be made
between primary and secondary liptinites. Primary liptinites consist of coalified
plants or parts of plants whereas secondary liptinites form a group of products
derived from thermal condensation and dissociation reactions. Both categories
Macerals 113
occur in only relatively small proportions and rarely exceed 20% in most humic
coals, but they can be very concentrated in sapropelic coals. The nomenclature does
not make any differences between black and brown coal liptinite macerals.
4.1.3.1 Primary Liptinites
Being relatively resistant to decay, the protective skins (exines) of spores and pollen
grains constitute the maceral sporinite. It consists of sporopollenin (Zetzschke et al.
1930, 1932) which, according to Shaw (1970) consists of oxidative polymers of
carotenoid esters. Sporopollenin has a higher degree of cross-linking than the
components of other liptinite macerals, which renders sporinite particularly
resistant to biodegradation (Taylor and Liu 1989). Although it occurs only in cannel
coal in large quantities, in humic coals it is the most common representative of the
primary liptinites, particularly in some Carboniferous coals (see Chap. 2). Since the
spore and pollen exines are usually compacted in coal they appear as small, flattened
lenses in sections normal to bedding. Figure 4.25 gives several examples of the
different forms of sporinite in bituminous coal.
In spite of the extensive spore classification in the palynological literature only
few sporinite types are distinguished in non- macerated coal, mainly by size and
shape. Large spores, ranging in (flattened) diameter between several hundred
micrometres to several millimetres referred to as macro- or megaspores, or as
macro-/megasporinite if regarded as a submaceral of sporinite. The exines are
ornamented by various protrusions, and small, semi-detached, spheroidal ap-
pendages which represent abortive spores (Strehlau 1988) are not uncommon
(Fig. 4.25, bottom). In low rank coals the dark polished surface is marked by reddish
internal reflexions, whereas in fluorescent mode macrosporinite often has a distinct
granular appearance.
In view of their size and relatively low proportion compared with microspores,
macrospores are thought to represent mostly female spores of heterosporous plants
such as lycopods (Kosanke 1969). According to Strehlau's (1988) studies of
Carboniferous coals in the Ruhr Valley the most common percentages of
macrosporinite range from 1-2% with extreme values varying between 0 and 5%.
With the reduced contribution of pteridophytes to post-Carboniferous coals not
only sporinite in general but macrosporinite percentages in particular are even
further reduced.
Microsporinite which has been derived from homosporous plants and the male
microspores of heterosporous plants constitutes the largest group ofliptinite macerals
totalling up to 15% in some Carboniferous humic coals (Strehlau 1988) and up to
80% in some cannel coals. Because of the lower contribution of spores to younger
coals, post-Carboniferous cannel coals are quite rare, while, for example, the
sporinite content ofthe Permian coals of Australia averages only 3% (see Chap. 2.4).
The diameters of microspores measure not more than a few tens of micro metres
although considerable size differences can seen under the microscope. While the
sporinite of Carboniferous and older coals consists largely of true spores, the
subsequent advent of seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) has added an
Fig.4.25. Photomicrographs of different sporinites in high volatile bituminous coal. Upper left
Thin section of Sydney Basin coal with numerous microspores (small translucent, flat lenses)
together with vitrinite (bands = telovitrinite, matrix = detrovitrinite); transmitted light, actual
length of field of view = 0.36 mm. Upper right Carboniferous coal from the Ruhr Basin with
sporangium (spore capsule) filled with fluorescing immature microspores in upper half and part of a
macrospore in lower half. Other fluorescing matter is liptodetrinite (diffuse schlieren) and cutinite
forming elongated strands near lower edge of photomicrograph; incident light, dry fluorescent
mode; actual length of field of yiew = 0.36 mm. Bottom left and right Macrospore with abortive
microspores in high volatile bituminous coal from the Ruhr Basin. Incident white light in oil
immersion (left) and ih dry fluorescent mode (right); actual length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
Macerals 115
Fig. 4.26. Photomicrographs of Ruhr Basin coals showing the morphological contrast between
tenuisporinite (top) with thin exines and thick-walled crassisporinite (bottom), the latter consisting
of densospores. Incident white light in oil immersion (left) and in dry fluorescent mode (right); actual
length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
-
..
Fig.4.27. Photomicrograph of a cross-section through the edge of a leaf cuticle in a high volatile
bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Bottom left The most common
appearance of cutinite in bituminous coal. Bottom right Densely packed cuticles in Triassic paper
coal from Fingal, Tasmania. Incident white light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view
= 0.36 mm in upper frame; dimensions are reduced in lower frames by amount of cutoff
increasing proportion of pollen grains to the younger coals. Because of the difficulty
in distinguishing between microspores and pollen, Guennel (1952) introduced the
term miospores for both groups.
Based on the thickness of their exines Stach (1952, 1954, 1964) distinguished
between tenuispores ( < 2 !lm), examples of which are shown in Fig. 4.26 (top), and
crassispores (> 2 !lm). The latter have been further divided into torispores (Balme
1952, 1959) and densospores (Stach 1952, 1954, 1964). Torispores have very thick
protective exines and form the outer wall of a sporangium (spore capsule or
Bicoloria after Horst 1957). Densospores were first described by Thiessen et al.
Macerals 117
(1931) as "dumbbell spores" because of their characteristic shape, examples of which

have been illustrated in Fig. 4.26 (bottom). According to Butterworth (1966) their
stratigraphic :ange encompasses the Late Devonian to Permian coals of the
Northern Hemisphere.
The maceral cutinite (Fig. 4.27) is formed from cuticles, the waxy cover on the
epidermis of leaves and young shoots, although some chitinous cuticles may have
been derived from the epidermis of arthropods (Goodarzi 1984; Bartram et al. 1987).
Cuticles consist of cutin, a glycerine ester offatty acid (Stach et al. 1982), from which
hydroxy and epoxy fatty acids can be derived by depolymerisation (Kolattukudy
1976). Although not as resistant to biological and chemical attack as sporinite
(Taylor 1989), cutinite survives biodegradation better than its associated soft
mesophyll tissue. The latter may decompose quite readily causing layers of cuticles
to become densely packed, as in the paper coal from the the Fingal Valley of
Tasmania illustrated in Fig. 4.27 (lower right). It is assumed that cuticles concentrate
mainly in shallow ponds soon after detachment from the parent plant and without
much transporatation (Teichmiiller 1950, 1962; Succow and Jeschke 1986) However,
the transitions from cutinite into semifusinite observed in Australian coals (Fig. 4.19)
suggest that the leaves of the deciduous Gondwana flora often wilted before
subaquatic burial (Diessel 1983; Taylor et al. 1989).
Under the microscope, cuticles appear as straight or wavy lines of translucent
(transmitted light) or rather dark (incident light) material, usually with palisade
ridges on one side. Littke (1985a) distinguishes between the following three
morphological types of cutinite in sections cut normal to bedding:
I. Very long and thick cuticles with a width exceeding 10 11m.

2. Thin cuticles with a width of often less than 1 11m and a length of 10011m.
3. A couple of thin cuticles enclosing a liptinitic "middle lamella", possibly a
vascular strand.
The proportion of cutinite is small in most coals and rarely exceeds 2 or 3%.
Resinite incorporates a number of different source materials, although its main
precursors are resins and waxes from vascular plants. Depending on its varied origin
and postdepositional history resinite displays a wider range of optical properties
than the other liptinite macerals. According to Selvig (1945), resinite consists of high-
molecular weight (mainly) aliphatic compounds including resin acid, resin esters and
terpenes. By using 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Wilson et al. (1986)
compared fossil Agathis resin nodules obtained from Miocene brown coal of the
Gippsland Basin (Latrobe Valley) in Victoria, Australia with present-day resin of the
same genus. They found that the fossil resin is a polymer of terpenoids, such as
agathic acid, which can be isolated in large quantity from the resin of modern
Agathis trees. In reference to studies by Cunningham et al. (1983) they concluded
that the fossil resinite had been formed by photolytic polymerisation, i.e. by
exposure after its exudation from the host tree.
Resinite occurs in coal either in situ in resin ducts and cells of xylem, cortex,
mesophyll and seeds (White 1914; Selvig 1945), or in dispersed form as lumps and
nodules, some of them quite large, and rod lets (Kosanke and Harrison 1957;
Fig.4.28. Various modes of occurrence of resinite in high volatile bituminous coals from the
Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales. Upper left Resinite (small dark lenses) preserved in resin ducts
of telovitrinite. Upper right Resinous inclusions (irregular dark grey bodies) between leaf cuticles
(thin black lines). Bottom Diffuse schlieren (dark strands) and impregnations (irregular patches of
various shades of grey) of former humus colloids in detrovitrinite. Incident white light, oil
immersion; actual length of field of view in upper frames = 0.36 mm in upper frame; same
dimensions applies to vertical edge in lower frame
Macerals 119
Lyons et al. 1982, 1984). Much of the dispersed resllllte represents surface
exudations and coverings of wounds (White 1914) but some may have been
concentrated as a residuum after its host tissue had decayed. It seems that a
substantial portion of the resinous matter contained in vascular plants becomes
absorbed by humus colloids during advanced humification. This process may be,
in parts, responsible for the lower reflectance of detrovitrinite.
In situ resinite occurs in resin ducts preserved in some telovitrinites (Figs. 2.18,
3.22 and 4.28, upper left) within leaves (Fig. 4.28, upper right), and in the form of
diffuse schlieren and impregnations of humus colloids in detrovitrinite (Fig. 4.28,
bottom). Various specific terms have been defined in order to describe the many
morphological variations of resinite. For details see International Committee for
Coal Petrology (1963, 1971, 1875) or Stach et al. (1982).
Alginite is a maceral term which, according to Robert (1988), is ill-defined
because it encompasses remnants of very different marine and lacustrine algae. Coal
contains mainly alginite derived from lacustrine or lagoonal strands although
sapropelic coals and other transitions to oil shale may contain marine algae, as well.
An example is the Ordovician kukersite from Estonia, which has been formed from
the remnants of Gloeocapsomorpha prisca, a marine planktonic algal species
(Zalesski 1917; Gothan and Weyland 1954; Downie 1967).
Fig. 4.29. Photomicrograph of Tasmanites, in tasmanite, oil shale from Tasmania. Incident white
light in oil immersion (left) and in dry fluorescent mode (right); actual length of each field of view
=O.22mm
Much of the alginite found in coal belongs to the group of lacustrine colonial
algae of which Botryococcus braunii is the most widespread present-day representa-
tive (Robert 1988). It is often found floating as jelly-like masses on the surface of
stagnant water and as coorongite at Coorong Lagoon in South Australia. The
respective fossil predecessors have been called Pita and Reinschia. As illustrated in
Fig. 2.15, each colony represents a small (up to 0.5 mm in diameter), more or less
spherical aggregate of tubular algal cells, approximately 6 to 10 f.lm in diameter
(Stach et aL 1982). This "structured" alginite is referred to as telalginite in contrast to
lamalginite (Hutton et aL 1980; Cook et aL 1981) which occurs as thin, anastomosing
lamellae formed by algal mats interlayered with mineral grains. The telalginite
bodies commonly represent algal colonies which Kalkreuth (1982) found in some
Cretaceous subbituminous coals from British Columbia to average 1 to 1.5 mm in
maximum diameter, although some bodies were up to 7 mm long. The most
common shape of these algal bodies is spheroidal or flat lenticular but the "needle
coals" from the Elk Formation in the Crowsnest Coalfield of British Columbia
(Gibson 1977), now also being regarded as of algal origin (Kalkreuth 1982) are
distinctly acicular.
Apart from the colonial Botriococcus-type algae there exist unicellular algae
which are almost exclusively marine. Probably the best known among these is the
genus Tasmanites, which is common in tasmanite, a Permian oil shale from
Tasmania. This alga consists of a spherical body, not unlike that of a thick-walled
small macrospore, approximately 0.1 mm in diameter. However, as shown in Fig.
4.29 the spheres are commonly flattened due to overburden pressure.
Algae can exist only in the presence of water, which is the main reason for their
concentration in sapropelic, particularly, bog head coals and other subaqueous
deposits. However, the large amount oflichen-based algal matter produced in moist
rain forests suggests that some alginite might have accumulated in supra-aqueous
environments as well. The amounts of alginite analysed in humic coals are
commonly quite small but its presence is probably underestimated as not allliptinite
of algal origin may be recognised as such (Liu and Taylor 1987). This appears to be
particularly true for liptodetrinite, which consists of degraded liptinite fragments
and may contain a considerable amount of remnants of algae. According to Taylor
and Liu (1989), they have not only a low resistance to biodegradation but their
aliphatic walls may convert into material with the superficial appearance of humic
matter with lower fluorescence (orange to red) compared with the brilliant yellow
fluorescence of alginite in high volatile bituminous coals.
Suberinite is a liptinitic maceral which is similar to cutinite in composition. Its
main constituent is suberin which, according to Kolattukudy (1980), can be likened
to a phenolic matrix with embedded cutin-like polyester domains with long-chain
monomers of fatty acids, alkohols and dicarboxylic acids (Taylor and Liu 1989).
Suberinite originates from suberin-impregnated cell walls of cork tissue (Fig. 4.15).
Usually it traces the outline of the cells of such tissue but in biodegr.aded varieties it
becomes aligned with bedding due to the disappearance of the corpocollinitic cell
fillings. It then appears very similar to the resinite schlieren illustrated in Fig. 4.28
(bottom).
Macerals 121
In spite of their considerable resistance to decomposition, liptinites become

chemically corroded in alkaline environments and may be abraded when subjected
to transportation and redeposition. The residual liptinite debris which is too
rragmented to be identified with any of the above-mentioned liptinite species is
grouped under the maceral term liptodetrinite, some examples of which are shown in
Fig. 4.25 (upper right).
4.1.3.2 Secondary Liptinites
Whereas many of the primary liptinite macerals can be related to distinct plants or
parts of plants, there are several secondary liptinites which are formed during
coalification. Since they are products of chemical dissociation processes and pass
through a fluid stage they do not possess any morphological identity (Teichmiiller
and Ottenjann 1977). They occupy whatever empty spaces were available at the time
of their formation, mostly cell lumens and small fractures and some of them display
intensive fluorescence. Although their proportion is small in most coals they are
widespread in occurrence and have been described from many different coalfields,
sometimes as remobilised or "secondary" resinite (M urchison and Jones 1964; Stach
1966). Teichmiiller (1974) recognised the complex nature of these substances and
distinguished between fluorinite, a dark, i.e. low reflecting decomposition product of
lipid secretions, mainly from leaves (Robert 1979), bituminite, a bacterial decompo-
sition products offats and proteins, and exsudatinite, a liquid derivative ofliptinite
which commonly migrates into cleats and fissures. Further subdivisions have been
suggested by Jacob (1975, 1981) and are under review by the International
Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP).
4.1.4 Maceral Analysis
Detailed recommendations concerning sample preparation and analytical techni-

ques have been made by the International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963), the
International Standards Association (ISO) and various national bodies with similar
aims; it is consequently not necessary to extend the discussion beyond some general
remarks.
Maceral analyses of bituminous coals are carried out by reflected light micro-
scopy on polished blocks of either solid lumps of coal or of grain mounts. The latter
have been prepared from coal samples crushed to minus 1 mm and set in an epoxi-
type resin to give a polished surface area of approximately 4 cm 2 • Solid lumps of coal
are usually analysed as part of a petrographic study of a continuous seam profile. In
such case polished blocks are prepared from a piller sample representing either the
full seam thickness or the part to be analysed. Maceral analyses are then carried out
14
12
10
8
...
Ul
E 6
...... .......
ell
C
.. ..,.
f 4
.....
c5
~
>
2
• •
.-. %Mlnerals (vo!.) = O. 54 %Ash (mass) Fig. 4.30. The correlation between ash
content in % by weight and the optically
~ O~~--~~~--~~--~~~~.
o 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25
assessed mineral content in %by volume for
" (mass) Ash (db) Carboniferous and Permian coals
on the blocks either by dividing them into fixed intervals of, say one, or two, or
several centimetres stratigraphic length, or by making use ofthe natural divisions of
the seam profile into lithotypes.
Semi-automatic point count methods are applied by advancing the sample by
equal steps on the microscope stage and recording the material at a suitable
reference point in the graticule fitted to the ocular. Since some macerals are defined
by size constraints (e.g. inertodetrinite from 2 to 30 !lm, according to Australian
Standard 2856, 1986) the graticule should be calibrated in reference to the total
magnification used. The latter may range from 250x to 600x. In order to enhance
contrast, oil immersion objectives are generally employed. Because the precision of
the result is determined by the size of the sample population, a minimum of 500
counts is usually carried out for most routine analyses.
Maceral analyses of brown coals are conducted in a similar manner but because
of the high moisture content sample preparation is more time-consuming. If the
polished surfaces are required to last more than a few days, careful drying and
frequent re-impregnation of the coal is necessary. In addition to the 500 points
counted in white light, it is recommended (George 1982) to repeat the maceral count
in fluorescent mode. The reason for this procedure is the difficulty of distinguishing
in white light the low reflecting brown coalliptinites from mineral inclusions. In the
first count (white light) a separation is made between the various huminite and
inertinite macerals while liptinite and minerals remain undifferentiated. They are
identified in the second count by making use of the strong fluorescence of liptinite
macerals, while huminite and inertinite are assigned to the remainder. The two
modes are then combined to give a complete brown coal maceral analysis based on a
total of 1000 points.
The identification and assessment of minerals as part of a maceral count is
limited. Quartz and many silicates are barely recognisable in reflected light because
of close similarities between their refractive indices and that of the immersion oil
used (ne = 1.518/23 QC). Minerals which occur in submicroscopic dispersion are
likewise not recognised, which leaves the opaques and minerals with either very high
or low refractive indices as the main inorganic fraction counted as part of a maceral
Microlithotypes 123
analysis. The correlation between ash contents (in weight%) obtained from
proximate analyses of Carboniferous and Permian bituminous coals and their
respective mineral contents (in volume%), as counted as part of maceral analyses, is
presented in Fig. 4.30.
4.2 Microlithotypes
Macerals are not scattered randomly throughout a coal but tend to be concentrated
in layers in which the one or another maceral group predominates. It was therefore
suggested by Seyler (1954) to define a number of typical maceral assemblages in the
form of microlithotypes. The following description of microlithotypes has been
based on the International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963,1971). A list of the
microlithotype groups is given in Table 4.2.
Three types of microlithotypes, mono-, bi- and trimaceral, are identified on the
basis of their composition and depending on whether they contain macerals of one,
two or three maceral groups. With the various possibilities for composition and
band width of these associations the following definitions apply:
1. The minimum band width of a microlithotype band must exceed 501lm.

2. The monomaceral and bimaceral microlithotypes must not contain more than
5% of macerals from maceral groups which are not characteristic of them by
Table 4.2. The Composition of the common microlithotype groups. (After International
Committee for Coal Petrology 1963, 1971)
Microlithotype group Maceral group composition
Monomaceral:
Vitrite Vitrinite >95%
Liptite Liptinite >95%
Inertite Inertinite >95%
Bimaceral:
Clarite Vitrinite + Iiptinite >95%
Durite Inertinite + liptinite >95%
Vitrinertite Vitrinite + inertinite >95%
Trimaceral:
Trimacerite Vitrinite + inertinite + Iiptinite
Coal/mineral associations:
Carbargilite Coal + 20-60vol% clay minerals
Carbopyrite Coal + 5-20vol% sulphides
Carbankerite Coal + 20-60 vol % carbonates
Carbosilicite Coal + 20-60vol% quartz
Carbopolyminerite Coal + 20-60 vol % minerals
Minerite Minerals + 0-40vol% coal
definition; the trimaceral microlithotypes must contain more than 5~~ of all
maceral groups.
All microlithotypes are contaminated to some degree by minerals. If the amount is

sufficiently low that the density of 1.5 g/cm 3 in the range of bituminous coals and
anthracites is not exceeded, the microlithotype term is governed solely by the
maceral constitution, as defined in Table 4.2. More strongly mineral-contaminated
microlithotypes with a density between 1.5 and 2.0 g/cm 3 (in the range of bituminous
coals to anthracite), are grouped together under the term carbopolyminerite (Table
4.2), when several minerals are involved or carbominerite, when mineral types are
not specified. In cases of monomineralic coal/mineral associations, the term is
governed by the mineral species, as listed in Table 4.2.
4.2.1 Microlithotype Analyses
The recording of microlithotype groups is sufficient for most microlithotype

analyses but for genetic and other specialised studies it is advisable to analyse for
individual microlithotypes, or subdivide them further, as shown in Chap. 5.2. The
two methods of microlithotype analysis commonly used are as follows:
I. The 20 point ocular designed by Kotter(1959) is an eyepiece graticule which, given

correct microscope magnification, covers an area of 50 by 50 ~m, the minimum
band width according to the microlithotype definitions. Each maceral covered by
the 20 cross-line intersections in the device is taken to represent 5% of the total 50
by 50 ~m area which assists in microlithotype identification according to the 5%
clause. The 20 point ocular is used in conjunction with an electric point counter.
Examples of microlithotype identification by this method are given in Figs. 4.31
and 4.32.
2. The selon la ligne method makes use of a conventional cross-line eyepiece in
which one axis is graticuled and calibrated such that the 50 ~m minimum band
width can be identified. As the specimen is advanced relative to the cross-wire the
thickness of the natural band underneath its centre point is measured and, iflarge
enough to constitute a microlithotype, its maceral proportions are estimated and
the microlithotype identified, whereby use can be made of the graticule intervals.
The main difference between the two methods is that the 20 point method works
within a rigid frame which, on occasions, will integrate maceral proportions across
natural microlithotype boundaries, whereas the selon la ligne method is more
flexible and will take account of the natural stratification of coal. For this reason the
20 point method will somewhat underscore the amount of monomaceralic micro-
lithotypes in a coal sample but this slight inaccuracy is systematic and therefore
predictable, and it is balanced by a greater precision compared with the selon la ligne
method.
Microlithotypes 125
Fig.4.31. Examples oimicrolithotypes as identified by using the lO-point ocular. Upper left Vi trite,
because all graticule intersections (= 100%) are in vitrinite. Upper right Clarite, because five
intersections ( = 25%) are in liptinite, the remainder is in vitrinite. This c1arite consists of resino-
c1arite since the liptinite is represented by resinite. Lower left Cia rite, because two graticule
intersections ( = 10%) are in liptinite, the remainder is in vitrinite. This c1arite consists of sporo-
c1arite since the liptinite is represented by sporinite. Lower right Vitrinertite, because four
intersections ( = 20%) are in inertinite consisting of concentrations of micrinite, the remainder is in
__ !.t._! __ : .. _ r'\~1 : ______ . __ ~ _ • • . " I
Fig.4.32. Examples of microlithotypes as identified by using the 20 point ocular. Upper left
Trimacerite, because one graticule intersection (= 5%) is in inertinite (small inertodetrinite
fragment in upper centre), two intersections (= 10%) are in sporinite and the remainder is in
vitrinite. For this reason the specific term duroclarite applies. Upper right Durite, because ten
intersections ( = 50%) are in liptinite (mainly sporinite) and the remainder is in inertinite (macrinite
and inertodetrinite). Lower left Inertite, because all intersections ( = 100%) are in inertinite. Because
the latter consists offusinite the specific term fusite applies. Lower right Carbargilite, because eleven
intersections (= ~5°J.:) ::Ire in r.()~1 the: TP:m::.innpr 110: in ,..l !:Hl nt"f"'lInvinlT ,...",,11 In ....... '''' ..... ,..,f fn ... ; ..... ;t ...
Lithotypes 127
Both kinds of microlithotype analyses can be combined with maceral counts, in

the 20 point method by assigning one of the 20 graticule point to double as the
maceral recorder and, in the selon la ligne method by using the central cross-line
point for the same purpose. Further details can be obtained from the International
Committee for Coal Petrology (1963).
4.2.2 The Relationship Between Microlithotypes and Macerals
Although the maceral content of microlithotypes is fixed within defined limits, it

may vary in bi- and trimaceralic microlithotypes over a considerable margin. How-
ever, it has been found by Diessel and Callcoti (1965), Smyth (1970), and Bennett and
Taylor (1970) that within a coal seam or in a group of genetically related seams,
microlithotypes groups are relatively consistent in their maceral group proportions.
Some ofthe relationships found in New South Wales coals are listed below (modified
after Diessel and Callcott 1965):
Vitrite = (vitrinitef/100. (4.1)

Vitrite + clarite = (vitrinite + liptinite)2/100. (4.2)
Inertite = 0.55 inertinite. (4.3)
Trimacerites = 0.6 (inertinite + liptinite) + 0.05. (4.4)
The conditions which control these relationships result from the phytogenic input
and the interaction between biochemical and physico-chemical coalification.
4.3 Lithotypes
The lithotypes of humic bituminous coals consists of macro-petrographic units

which are distinguished and logged on the basis of lustre (bright versus dull) and
fracture pattern (irregular versus smooth), colour and streak of coal, as well as
texture and kind of stratification. While some of these properties also apply to sub-
bituminous and some brown coals, the majority ofthe latter are distinguished on the
basis of colour, structure and desiccation pattern. Shrinkage on exposure is all
important feature of many brown coals because of their high bed moisture content,
which in isometamorphic coals varies with the degree of humification and
gelification displayed by individual lithotypes.
In brown or lignitous coals, several lithotype classifications exist depending on
the preference that is given to the main characteristics, colour or texture. Based on
the latter parameter, Francis (1961) gives the following description of brown coal
types. (In accordance with many authors, Francis uses the term lignite as a synonym
for brown coal. Others restrict the term lignite to "high rank" brown coals. It is used
here in sensu Francis):
1. Earthy-brown or fibrous lignites resemble peat in appearance and properties.

They are light brown in colour and of fibrous and earthy texture. The fibrous
habit commonly results from root penetration, and small pieces of wood are
frequent inclusions in the finely fragmented groundmass which is composed
mainly of attrinite. An example is given in Fig. 4.33 (upper right).
2. Woody or xylitic lignites are oflight brown colour and consist for the most part of
coalified wood (xylite) that has largely retained its woody structure (Fig. 4.33,
upper left). In many brown coals, xylitic bands are observed, whilst occasionally
Fig. 4.33. Photographs ofxylite (wood) on left upper side of photograph and earthy brown coal on
right upper side as two examples of textural differences between brown coal lithotypes. Below are
some examples of hard brown coal
Lithotypes 129
whole seams appear to be composed of woody lignite which microscopically

consists of textinite, occasionally leading towards texto-ulminite.
3. Amorphous brown coals are of light or dark brown colour, and of an amorphous
or uniform texture, free from obvious fibrous and woody structure, sometimes
they are soft and easily powdered, i.e. "unconsolidated," while sometimes they are
hard or "consolidated." The bulk of this material consists of highly degraded
attritus in the form of attrinite grading into densinite.
4. Black lignites (Hartbraunkohle in German) are of slightly higher rank than the
above examples of soft brown coal (Weichbraunkohle in German). They are
denser (Fig. 4.33, bottom) and of dark brown or black colour and, depending on
further rank differentiation have either a dull, matt appearance (Mattbraunkohle
in German); sometimes with a silky lustre, or display dull and bright bands
(Glanzbraunkohle in German), as in bituminous coals. In fact, the latter overlaps
with sub-bituminous coal according to the ASTM classification. Microscopically
their woody inclusions show evidence of the rank-related gelificatioin discussed
above. They consist of texto-ulminite grading into eu-ulminite, whereas the
attrital portion has been transformed into densinite.
Other classification systems stress the colour appearance first and use other physical
parameters as additional information. A example is the lithotype classification
applied to the brown coals of Australia as given in Table 4.3.
The macroscopic properties of brown coal lithotypes, particularly the assump-
tions relating to the degree of gelification are supported by their microscopic
composition listed in Table 4.4. The trend from dark to light coloured lithotypes is
accompanied by a decrease in tissue-derived macerals, although the least humified
Table 4.3. The lithotype classification of air dried soft brown coal. (After George 1975, 1982)
Lithotype Colour Texture Gelification Weathering Strength
Dk: Dark Black High wood Extensive Regular pat- Strong,

to dark content in tern of deep, hard,
brown small pieces wide cracks dense
M-d: Dark brown High to med. Common Regular pat- Fairly
Medium dark to medium wood content but not tern of wide strong,
brown in large pieces extensive cracks hard,
dense
M-l: Medium High to low Uncommon Irregular Medium
Medium light to light wood content, pattern of hardness
brown well preserv. shallow and
wood + stumps cracks density
Lt: Light Light Medium to Rare Random Soft,
brown low wood pattern of low
content fine cracks density
Pa: Pale Pale brown Low wood Very rare Fewexten- Soft,
to yellow content sive cracks crumbly,
brown light
Table 4.4. The maceral composition of brown coal lithotypes (mean of five samples) in the
Yallourn Seam, Yallourn Open Cut, Latrobe Valley, Victoria. (After George 1982)
Lithotypes
Maceral (Sub-)Group Maceral Dk M-d M-l Lt Pa
Textinite 1.2 3.2 2.1 0.7 1.5

Texto-ulminite 14.6 16.4 12.9 7.8 5.3
Eu-ulrninite 16.2 4.0 1.8 1.8 0.5
Humotelinite (Telovitrinite) 32.0 23.6 16.8 10.3 7.3
Attrinite 32.2 51.1 64.5 70.5 63.5

Densinite 21.3 8.6 1.2 0.4 0
Humodetrinite (Detrovitrinite) 53.5 59.7 65.7 70.9 63.5
Eugelinite 5.2 1.4 1.6 0.2 0

Porigelinite 0 1.0 0.8 1.2 0.7
Corpogelinite 4.3 9.5 5.7 5.3 1.2
Humocollinite (Gelovitrinite) 9.5 11.9 8.1 6.7 1.9
Sporinite 0.6 0.4 2.0 3.3 7.8

Cutinite 1.6 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.3
Resinite 0.4· 0 1.6 0.2 2.1
Suberinite 0 1.7 1.8 3.2 1.4
Liptodetrinite 0 1.1 2.0 2.8 12.1
Liptinite 2.6 3.7 7.8 10.5 23.7
Semifusinite 0.4 0.2 0 0 0

Fusinite 0.7 0 0 0 0
ScIerotinite 1.3 0.7 0.6 1.0 2.4
Telo-inertinite 2.4 0.9 0.6 1.0 2.4
Detro-inertinite Inertodetrinite 0 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.5

Minerals 0 0 0.4 0 0.7
cell tissue is recorded in the medium dark lithotypes (M-d), where the combined
textinite and texto-ulminite proportion reaches the highest value of tissue retention
of 19.6%. Gelified cell tissue (eu-ulminite) shows a steady decline from dark to pale
lithotypes which is also shared by humocollinite. In contrast, the liptinite content,
mainly in the form of liptodetrinite, increases significantly in the same direction.
The trends in maceral composition are mirrored by the chemical composition of
the brown coal lithotypes listed in Table 4.5. To some extent it confirms the
microscopic assessment ofthe lithotypes. For example, the increase towards the pale
end-member of both the hydrogen content and the Hie ratio is to be expected on
account of the sharp rise in liptinite. It is interesting to note that the carbon content
increases too, although the contribution of wood to the coal decreases in the same
direction. The reason for this is the higher proportion ofthe relatively heavy oxygen
(compared to hydrogen) in the darker lithotypes. It should be remembered from
Lithotypes 131
Table 4.5. The chemical composition of brown coal lithotypes in Yallourn and Morwell Open
Cuts, Latrobe Valley, Victoria. (After George 1982)
Lithotypes
Dk M-d M-I Lt Pa
Yallourn Open Cut

(Mean of 26 samples)
Ash (db) 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.1
Volatile matter (daf) 50.6 50.4 51.3 56.6 63.4
Carbon (daf) 68.0 68.3 68.0 69.3 70.1
Hydrogen (daf) 4.7 4.7 4.8 5.5 6.5
Oxygen (daf) 26.4 26.1 26.3 24.2 21.9
Specific energy (gross, db) 26.36 26.48 26.27 27.78 29.26
Atomic HIC 0.83 0.83 0.85 0.95 1.11
Atomic OIC 0.29 0.27 0.29 0.26 0.23
Morwell Open Cut
(Mean of 35 samples)
Ash (db) 3.1 3.2 3.7 3.8 4.4
Volatile matter (daf) 48.1 48.6 51.0 54.4 57.4
Carbon (daf) 69.3 68.6 69.9 70.5 70.9
Hydrogen (daf) 4.8 4.7 5.1 5.4 6.0
Oxygen (daf) 25.0 25.8 24.2 23.2 22.2
Specific energy (gross, db) 26.89 26.50 27.45 28.08 29.03
Atomic HIC 0.83 0.82 0.87 0.92 1.01
Atomic OIC 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.23
Fig. 3.30, that methane having the highest atomic HIC ratio of all hydrocarbons
with 4 hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom, contains 75% (by mass) carbon,
whereas in carbon dioxide, which contains only two oxygen atoms per carbon atom
the mass of carbon is down to 27.3%. Another interesting aspect is the increase in ash
from dark to pale lithotypes. It would be tempting to explain these simple trends as
expressions of a continuous change in either the composition of the contributing
flora, in the conditions of its transformation into peat and brown coal, or both.
However, the interpretation of the compositional trends is far from simple and has
been the subject of an ongoing debate in the literature, whereby the origin of the pale
bands attracted most attention. This problem will be discussed in Chap. 5.3.2.
Upon their transformation into sub-bituminous coal, the various types of peat
and brown coal become highly compacted and consolidated. The increase in density
is accompanied by a deepening in colour and the acquisition oflustre in lithotypes of
homogeneous composition, particularly those consisting of vitrite only. This results
in the development of even fracture (occasionally also conchoidal) and leads to a
likewise even light reflexion, which gives this coal type a bright appearance. In
contrast, lithotypes of heterogeneous composition, for example, those containing
mixtures of macerals and microlithotypes, display an irregular fracture pattern with
the concomitant diffuse reflection of light. The result is a dull appearance.
The banded character of humic coals was observed from the earliest beginning
of coal mining and it has also been long established knowledge that the suitability of
coal for various technical processes varied with the prevalence or absence of certain
banded constituents. In 1887 Fayol (in Freund 1952) published the results of
ultimate analyses and coking tests which were carried out on the four different
macroscopic coal types he distinguished in French coals. His four types are the same
four ingredients which Stopes (1919) in the United Kingdom later called vitrain,
clarain, durain and fusain.
The lithotype classification listed in Table 4.6 has been based partly on German
usage which is purely descriptive, provides more subdivisions than Stopes' (1919)
"four ingredients" and can be applied to a wide range of coals. It also correlates well
with radiographs, as obtained from X-rays of bore-cores (Jones 1970). As used
by Diessel (1965a), the minimum band width for an individual lithotype is 5 mm. If,
for example, a number of thin bands of bright and dull coal occur in succession and
each of the individual bands is less than 5 mm thick, the whole unit is taken as
banded bright coal if bright coal exceeds dull coal in quantity, as banded coal if the
proportion of both is equal, and as banded dull coal ifthere are more dull than bright
bands. As soon as one of the individual bands becomes 5 mm thick or more, it forms
a lithotype of its own, such as bright coal or dull coal. An example of the application
of the lithotype classification is given in Fig. 4.34, which demonstrates some of the
detailed information that can be gained by a carefully conducted lithotype analysis.
Table 4.6. The classification of black coal lithotypes. (After Diessel 1965a)
Lithotype Description
Bright coal B Vitreous to subvitreous lustre; even to conchoidal fracture;

(vitrain) brittle; may contain up to 10% dull coal in bands less than
5mm thick
Banded bright coal Bb Mainly bright coal containing thin (less than 5 mm) dull
(clarain) coal bands ranging in proportion between 10 and 40%;
even fracture
Banded coal BD Contains bright and dull coal bands (all less than 5 mm)
(duroclarain) ranging proportion between 40 and 60% each
Banded dull coal Db Mainly dull coal containing thin (less than 5 mm) bright
(clarodurain) bands ranging in proportion between 10 and 40%; uneven
fracture
Dull coal D Matt lustre and uneven fracture; may contain 10% of
(durain) bright coal bands less than 5 mm thick
Fibrous coal F Dull with satin sheen; friable; may contain up to 10% of
(Fusain) other coal lithotypes less than 5 mm thick
Shaly coal Cs Contains between 30 and 60% of clay and silt either in
intimate mixture with coal or in separate bands each less
than 5 mm thick
Coaly shale, Sc Consists of alternating laminae (each less than
mudstone, 5 mm thick) of non-coal and coal, the latter not exceeding
sandstone etc. 40% of total
Carbonaceous shale, Any sediment containing 60 to 90% finely disseminated
mudstone, siltstone etc. carbonaceous matter
Shale, mudstone, Any sediment containing less than 10% carbonaceous
siltstone, matter
sandstone etc.
Lithotypes 133
Scale in em
0
4" Bond 10
20
30
40
50
H i ddll!- Band 60
70
80
90
100
BoUom Band
Miner's Floor
Bright Coal (Vitroin)
Banded Bright Coal (Clorain)
Bonded Coal (Duroclarain)
Banded Dull Coal (Clarodurain)
Dull Coal (Duroin)
Steel Band
Fibrous Coel (Fusain)
Shaly Coal
Coaly/Carbonaceous Shnle
Shale
Claystone IT onstein
Sendstone
Fig. 4.34. Lithotype section of the Borehole Seam from the Sydney Basin (Newcastle Coal
Measures), New South Wales. Four persistent dirt bands, three of which represent kaolinitic
claystones (tonsteins) have been named. Note the occurrence of gross compositional cycles in some
intervals, for example, between the Middle and Four Inch Bands
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Fig. 4.35. Aggregate lithotype compo-
sitions of some New South Wales coals. The
20 seams represented are as follows: a Wallarah
10 S; b Bulli S; c Borehole S; d Yard S; e Dudley
S; jVictoria Tunnel S The lithotype symbols
0
Sc Cs D Db F are as in Table 4.6
Moreover, it has been found (Diessel, 1965a) that many coal seams are characterised
by relatively constant lithotype proportions which are maintained within narrow
limits over many kilometres and do not change abruptly. When plotted as
cumulative curves, as illustrated in Fig. 4.35, generally brighter or duller coal seams
can be distinguished.
4.3.1 Lithotype Analysis
Although the method of identification of various lithotypes is somewhat subjective,

valuable information in terms of coal composition, genesis and technical properties
can be gained from lithotype analysis. When applied to bituminous coal the latter is
also referred to as "brightness log" and is frequently the first step in the assessment of
a bore core or a newly exposed coal face. Even when a full lithotype analysis is not
carried out, lithotype groupings are commonly used to divide the seam into
subsections which are sampled for further analysis.
Analysis procedure is simple and consists of recording the width of each
lithotype either in bore core or in outcrop with the aid of a measuring tape and
noting the readings either in writing or in coded form. When using bore cores, it is
advantageous to split them longitudinally with the aid of a chisel because the
fractured surface allows for a better distinction between different lithotypes than the
drilled core surface. Brown coals are best left to dry and develop their characteristic
desiccation pattern before logging them. The visual identification oflithotype colour
can be supported by the colorimetric determination of the colour index on a ground
sample of air-dried coal (Attwood et al. 1984). According to Higgins et al. (1980) and
Mackay et al. (1985), it is a measure of the "degree of brownness" which correlates
well with conventional lithotype logs.
In recent years visual lithotype identification has been supplemented by
radiographic methods whIch have been specifically developed for non-destructive
bore core analysis (Jones 1970).
Lithotypes 135
4.3.2 The Relationship Between Lithotypes, Macerals

and Microlithotypes
From Table 4.6 follows that any coal lithotype may contain up to 30% inorganic
constituents because only when this figure is exceeded, the term shaly coal is used.
The actual proportions oft'nacerals and minerals contained in the various lithotypes
follow set patterns which are specific for individual coal seams, provided they are not
affected by marked lateral facies and/or rank changes which would alter lithotype
properties. An example of the compositional relationship between lithotypes and
maceral plus minerals is given in Table 4.7, while in Fig. 4.36, trends in lithotype
composition are given for four different sets of Australian bituminous coals. Some of
these consist of several coal seams of similar composition and origin. An example
are the four coal seams of the Lambton Subgroup of the Newcastle Coal Measures
which in the lithotype diagram of Fig. 4.35, have plotted the virtually identical
cumulative curves c, d, e and f.
The diagrams of Fig. 4.36, show gross similarities in maceral composition of the
various lithotypes, although some systematic variations occur. These affect mainly
the heterogeneous lithotypes of coals which have been formed under contrasting
circumstances. For example, the rather dull coals of the Rangal Coal Measures and
the Bulli Seam contain less vitrinite and more inertinite in almost all lithotypes
compared with the generally bright coals of the Lambton Subgroup and the
Wongawilli Seam. Even stronger differences are found in the distribution ofliptinite,
for which there are several rea~ons. The similarity in the liptinite contents of the Bulli
and W ongawilli lithotypes (full circles in Fig. 4.36) is due to their comparatively
Table 4.7. The maceral composition of black coal lithotype of a bituminous coal from the Rangal
Coal Measures, Blackwater District, Queensland, Australia
Lithotype
Macerals and groups B Bd BD Db D F
Telovitrinite 84.4 67.0 46.4 12.2 0.2 0

Detrovitrinite 6.8 14.8 19.6 11.0 2.0 1.2
Vitrinite 91.2 81.8 66.0 23.2 2.2 1.2
Sporinite 0.4 0.8 2.0 1.8 4.0 0.2

Cutinite 0 0 0.6 0.2 0 0
Resinite 3.0 2.4 1.0 0.4 0 0
Liptinite 3.4 3.2 3.6 2.4 4.0 0.2
Telo-inertinite 2.6 7.2 20.0 45.0 26.6 94.1

Detro-inertinite 1.2 4.4 7.2 17.8 50.2 3.6
Gelo-inertinite 0.4 0.4 2.4 6.4 9.8 0
Inertinite 4.2 12.0 29.6 69.2 86.6 97.7
Minerals 1.2 3.0 0.8 5.2 7.2 1.0

100
80
60
40
20
<P-
O
100
Minerals
80
60
40
20 5
<P-
O
B Bd BD Db D B Bd BD Db D F
Fig.4.36. Four diagrams illustrating mean maceral group composition of lithotypes in four
Australian sets of bituminous coals. Open squares Rangal Coal Measures, Queensland; Open
triangles coals of the Lambton Subgroup, Newcastle Coal Measures, N.S.W.; full squares Bulli
Seam, IIIawarra Coal Measures, N.S. W.; filll triangles Wongawilli Seam, IIIawarra Coal Measures,
N.S.W. The full circles used in the Iiptinite diagram (upper right) represent the combined values for
Bulli and WongawiIli lithotypes, which are too closely spaced to be shown separately. The lithotype
symbols are as in Table 4.6
high ranks and the difficulty of identifying liptinite after it has acquired vitrinite
reflectance. The differences in liptinite distribution between the coals of the
Lambton Subgroup (open triangles in Fig. 4.36) and the Wongawilli Seam (full
circles in liptinite diagram of Fig. 4.36) are therefore related to different physico-
chemical coalification paths and have nothing to do with their respective vegetal
sources or the conditions of peat accumulation. This is different when the Lambton
Subgroup is compared with the Rangal Coal Measures (open squares in Fig. 4.36).
Their inertinite content increases from banded coal (or duroclarain, BD in Fig. 4.36)
to banded dull (or clarodurain, Db in Fig. 4.36) and dull coal (or durain, D in
Fig. 4.36) by very large amounts compared with the moderate increases in the
Lambton Subgroup coals (and the Wongawilli Seam). The reverse is the case in
the distribution of liptinite between the two coals over the same lithotype range.
The two sets of coals differ likewise in the distribution of minerals which display
a strong increase in the dull lithotypes of the Lambton Subgroup and the Wongawilli
Seam but only moderate gains in the Rangal Coal Measures and the Bulli Seam.
From the above discussion follows that a distinction can be made between two
kinds of dull coals or durains, one type in which the "dullness" is due to a
concentration on inertinite plus moderate amounts of liptinite and minerals, and
another type which is dull because of high liptinite and mineral contents and a
Minerals 137
Table 4.8. The microlithotype composition of black coal lithotypes of a bituminous coal from
the Rangal Coal Measures, Blackwater District, Queensland. (Analysed by J.G. Bailey, The
University of Newcastle, N.S.W.)
Lithotypes
Microlithotype groups B Bd BD Db D F
Monomaceral:
Vitrite 69.3 60.7 27.0 17.6 1.3 n.d.
Inertite 0.7 7.0 15.8 26.2 89.3 n.d.
Bimaceral:
Clarite 16.0 7.4 1.2 0.7 0 n.d.
Durite 0 0 0.1 2.5 5.8 n.d.
Vitrinertite 9.1 19.9 50.5 45.7 2.7 n.d.
Trimaceral:
Trimacerite 2.1 4.3 5.1 7.2 0.1 n.d.
Coal/mineral associations:
Carbominerite + minerite 2.8 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.8 n.d.
moderate admixture of inertinite. Their microlithotype composition follows the

same pattern, an example of which is given in Table 4.8 for the Rangal Coal
Measures in which dull coal (D) shows a significant concentration of inertite
followed by inertinite-rich durite. Much of this inertinite consists of oxy- and
degrado-semifusinite in contrast to the inertodetrinite and macrinite which
constitutes the inertinite of the spore-rich durite in the dull coals of the Lambton
Subgroup. Mary C. Stopes' observation that "one may say that, on the whole, durain
is essentially composed of a high proportion of opaque, fine granules, with many
macro- and microspore exines scattered through it like currants in a pre-war
pudding" (1919, p. 480) is an apt description ofthe spore-rich durites which with few
exceptions (e.g. Smith 1964) have been variously described as sapropel-durite
(Potoni6 1924), subaquatic oozes (Teichmiiller 1950; Hacquebard et al. 1964;
Reidenouer et al. 1967), or wet durite (Stach et al. 1987), in order to make a genetic
distinction from the fusinite and semifusinite rich dry durite or humus durite of
Potoni6 (1924) which represents a partially oxidised peat (Stach et al. 1987).
4.4 Minerals
Most inorganic matter contained in coal occurs in the form of mineral inclusions.
They constitute the bulk of non-combustible portion of coal which, on burning,
are left behind as ash. Its mass is smaller than that of the mineral content
due to the dehydroxylation of clay, the loss of CO 2 from carbonates and
other alterations which in average amount to a loss in mass by a factor of 1.1.
Because of their effects on coal utilisation, ten elements contained in coal ash are
routinely determined in most commercial coal analyses and listed as oxides. They
are:
The proportions in which these and other elements occur in the ash is governed by
their stoichiometric and crystallographic relationships in the various mineral
species and their proportions in the host coal. Because several elements are often
combined in one mineral, a large amount of one element will therefore require a
proportional presence of another element, sometimes at the expense of some
other elements. An example is silica, a large proportion of which is combined with
alumina in coal in the form of clay. In the Carboniferous coals of the Ruhr Basin this
relationship can be expressed as (Anon 1984):
Al 2 0 3 = - 16.2 + 1.91 Si0 2 - 0.02 SiO~. (4.5)
Conversely, silica has an inverse relationship with iron which in coal is bonded to
either carbonate or sulphur.
Depending on their origin and association with the coal, three groups of
inorganic constituents can be distinguished. The first group comprises phytogenic
minerals derived from the inorganic matter contained in the coal-forming plants, the
second group includes all minerals which were either washed into the coal swamp as
detrital fragments or which were precipitated from migrating solution, whereas the
third group consists of dissolved inorganic matter in the coal's pore or surface water
(Ward 1986a). In contrast to the so-called inherent ash formed from the first group,
the minerals resulting from the second and third group are referred to as
adventitious (Francis 1961).
A clear distinction between the inherent and adventitious groups of minerals is
not always possible, especiallly when they were precipitated from solutions which
may have been derived from either plant ash or from ions transported into the area
of deposition. Commonly both possibilities together will be the source of mineral
matter. Many minerals occur in close association with the coal matrix either as
infillings of cleats, cell lumens or as partial metasomatic replacement of organic
matter (Balme and Brooks 1953; Cook 1962; Beeston 1981) but others are
concentrated in concretions, lenses or dirt bands. Although the list of minerals found
in coal is long (Kemezys and Taylor 1964; Mackowsky 1968; Davis 1982; Warne
1982), only the major groups and those with significance for palaeo-environmental
analysis will be treated here. The latter aspect will be further discussed in subsequent
chapters.
4.4.1 Phytogenic Minerals
Plants require inorganic matter for a variety of purposes, including growth,

protection and others. It is absorbed from the environment in which the plants live,
in the case of aquatic vegetation from the surrounding water whereas land plants
extract the reauired constituents from the soil
Minerals 139
Different groups of plants need different types of inorganic matter, some are
sensitive to small amounts of calcium, others can only thrive in lime-rich soils.
Grasses usually absorb large amounts of silica, which is concentrated in their blades
and renders them quite sharp. This material provides an important source of
dispersed opal found in some soils (opaline phytoliths) and may even be adventitious
to peat, such as the large proportion of dispersed opal which according to Finney
and Farnham (1968) is blown into the Minnesota bogs from the surrounding
grasslands. Also much of the fine crystalline quartz found dispersed in coal, has been
shown to be of biogenic origin (Raymond and Andrejko t 983; David et al. t 984).
Some phytogenic precursors of coal, for example, lycopods, contain substantial
amounts of alumina in their cell walls.
According to Francis (t 96 t), the more commonly occurring inorganic constitu-
ents of plants are compounds of:
Ca, Mg, Fe, AI, Na, K, Mn, Ti, S, Si, CI and P.
Most of these inorganic constituents remain in the peat, though often in changed
form. While incorporated in vegetable matter, the above elements would be part of
complex organic compounds and some of them would remain in organic affiliation,
for example by sorption to humus colloids and the formation of Me-humates after
decomposition of the host plants. Other elements would probably form inorganic
constituents, particularly, during advanced humification ( = beginning ofmineralis-
ation). Some of the above elements may be removed altogether during the
biochemical stage of coalification. These are the chlorides of sodium, potassium and
magnesium, which are dissolved in water and leave the system during compaction
and dehydration. Also, some of the nitrogen and sulphur may be released in this
manner (Baragwanath 1962).
The frequently difficult identification of the organic or inorganic affiliation of an
element was solved by Warbrooke and Doolan (t 986) by splitting the ground coal
sample into five density fractions, namely Fl. (float) 1.30, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60 and S. (sink)
1.60 and by determining the elemental distribution separately for each of the five
subsamples. The authors established that elements in organic affiliation concentrate
in the low density fractions, whereas elements occurring in inorganic affiliation are
found in the high density fractions. Combinations of the two occurrences are
reflected in the proportional distribution of the various elements between the
different density fractions.
The contributions made by inherent inorganic constituents to the total mineral
matter content of coal is relatively small because the total proportion of inorganic
matter contained in plants is usually less than 2% and probably less than 5% in coal
(Finkelman 1982). However, variations will occur in response to the degree of
humification and mineralisation of the biomass before and during peat formation.
For example, Hamilton and Salehi (1986) and Salehi and Hamilton (1986), by
subjecting coal macerals to energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis in SEM
backscattered electron mode (BSE), find both similarities (e.g. sulphur) and
significant variations in the distribution of inherent ash-producing elements
between different maceral groups, as well as between members of the inertinite
of inherent ash) have been found in inertodetrinite which is not surprising since in
coals formed from rather oxidised terrestrial peat it often represents the last organic
residuum before complete mineralisation of the vegetable matter. Moore (1964) goes
as far as suggesting that kaolinitic claystones (tonsteins) may consist of the residual
minerals left after oxidative removal of organic matter, and also Renton and Cecil
(1979) thought this to account for the occurrence of some clay partings in coal seams.
Although in many cases lj.lternative modes of origin might apply to the occurrence of
both tonsteins and other clay partings (see Chap. 4.4.2.1 below), the observations of
Davis et al. (1984) in the Okefenokee Swamp have demonstrated that phytogenic
minerals are likely to be concentrated at the expense of organic matter in heavily
degraded peats. A similar relationship must be expected in coals rich in autochthon-
ous inertinite. This aspect will be explored further in Chaps. 5 and 6.
4.4.2 Adventitious Minerals
This group of minerals is added to the peat or coal from sources which, at the time of
emplacement, existed outside the organic deposit. According to Warne (1982) this
may have been effected in any of the following ways:
1. fallen or blown in by gravity or air movement,

2. washed in, for example, during periods of flood,
3. transported in solution laterally and/or vertically by surface or ground water
currents including compaction fluids,
4. related to changed chemical environments in the peat due to marine or fresh
water influences,
5. due to secondary alterations of minerals, for example, during diagenesis.
Depending on the timing of mineralisation in relation to peat formation and

coalification, a distinction can be made between syngenetic and epigenetic minerals
in coal.
Syngenetic minerals are deposited (if detrital) or precipitated (if authigenic)
concurrently with peat accumulation. Such occurrences are, for example, recognis-
able by the bulging of coal laminae around mineral grains or concretions which
indicates that the resistant component was already in its present position before
diagenetic compaction had affected much of the peat. Well publicised examples are
the dolomite nodules (Stocks 1902; Kukuk 1906; Stopes and Watson 1908;
Teichmiiller et al. 1953/54 and subsequent authors), whose well-preserved inclu-
sions of uncompacted plant and peat fragments have yielded much information
about the phytogenic progenitors of coal. Other common syngenetic concretions
and petrifications of vegetal matter consist of siderite, silica and pyrite.
Epigenetic minerals are practically always the result of chemical precipitation
(authigenesis) at a time when much of diagenesis was completed. Compactional
viinerals 141
listortion of coal bands around such minerals is therefore missing and frequently
hey occur on cleats and fissures in the coal or have metasomatically replaced
)revious minerals or peat.
1.4.2.1 Silicate Minerals
)f all the silicate minerals found in coal none are so widespread and universally
Ibiquitous as the clay minerals which will dominate the discussion in this chapter.
\11 other silicate minerals pale in quantitative significance- compared with clay
ninerals which, when concentrated in the form of claystone layers constitute
mportant marker horizons in coal seams. Although they are highly variable in their
)hysical behaviour and chemical composition, clay minerals have some common
eatures, such as sheet structures with alternating linked Si0 4 -tetrahedrons and
\1203-octahedrons, a high water content and the capacity of ion exchange.
One of the most common clay minerals in coal is kaolinite. It occurs in a variety
)f forms ranging from infillings in plant cell cavities (Balme and Brooks 1953) to
inely dispersed inclusions in vitrinite, from discrete pellets and vermicular
199regates (Kemezys and Taylor 1964) to continuous claystone bands (Loughnan
1966), as illustrated in Fig. 4.37. The latter are commonly only a few centimetres
·jg.4.37. Photograph of a ton-

tein band (Middle Band) in the
lorehole Seam of the Newcastle
:oal Measures, New South
¥ales
thick, but may be laterally quite persistent. Following German usage, the later are
commonly referred to as tonsteins, of which there are. several varieties.
According to Schuller et al. (1956), the following types of tonsteins may be
distinguished:
1. Crystal tonstein: contains vermicular, prismatic or tabular kaolinite crystals

which may range in colour from beige to dark brown according to the proportion
of contained carbonaceous matter. The crystals are embedded in a matrix which
consists of finely-crystalline to cryptocrystalline kaolinite.
2. Pseudomorphous tonstein: (Figs. 4.38 and 4.39) characterised by numerous pseudo-
morphs of kaolinite after feldspar, mica or volcanic glass shards set in a dense
kaolinitic matrix.
3. Pellet (Graupen) tonstein: (Fig. 4.40) consists predominantly of subspherical
kaolinite grains oflighter or darker shades, often surrounded by collinite. These
grains show a cryptocrystalline to finely crystalline structure; the cryptocry-
stalline material is isotropic.
4. Dense tonstein: consists almost entirely of a fine-grained kaolinite groundmass,
showing weak aggregate-polarisation, containing isolated corroded crystals of
kaolinite. Such bands are commonly more than 10 mm thick and light in colour.
According to Stach (1968), the kaolinitic tonsteins are not restricted to particular
positions within coal seams, nor are they confined to coal seams but have been
observed to extend also into interseam sediments (Hartung 1942; Burger 1958, 1960,
1962; Burger et al. 1962; Hartlieb 1962). When these rocks were first described in
1894 in the Saar Basin by Schmitz-Dumont (cited by Hartlieb 1960) volcanic ash
falls were considered to be the most satisfactory explanation for their surprising
lateral persistence over tens of kilometres compared with their thickness of only a
few centimetres. Moreover, volcanism was known to occur in the stratigraphic
vicinity of the coal deposits of Saxony, Silesia and the Saar where the first
observations had been made. Additional evidence for the pyroclastic nature of
tonsteins was seen in the presence of inclusions of sanidine, angular quartz and
volcanic glass shards.
Stutzer (1931) and Bode (1937) were early supporters of the volcanic ash fall
origin of tonsteins, while Hartung (1942) distinguished between fall-out tonsteins
and a second variety derived from reworked ash falls. Petrascheck's (1942) proposal
of a ton stein origin from reworked tuffs was widely supported at the time, although
some authors, among them Stach (1950) continued to adhere to the fall-out
hypothesis. Other authors rejected any connection between tonsteins and volcanism
altogether. Among them was Moore (1964) who, as mentioned above, suggested that
tonsteins may consist of the residual minerals left after oxidative removal of organic
matter. A second "non-volcanic" explanation of the origin of tonsteins is by
derivation from ordinary clay-rich sediments. This idea was first expressed by
Termier (1923) and followed by Schuller et al. (1956). Hoehne (1948, 1951, 1954,
1957) has been the most consistent supporter of another genetic concept. He
considers tonsteins to be chemical precipitates which derived from aqueous
solutions via silica-alumina gels which has also been supported by Teichmuller et al.
Minerals 143
Fig. 4.38. Photomicrograph of a tonstein (intra-seam tulTs) from the Newcastle Coal Measures,
New South Wales, with numerous biotite inclusions in kaolinite/montmorillonite matrix in various
stages of biotite replacement by kaolinite. All in transmitted light, one polar; actual length of each
field of view = 2.6 mm for upper left, = 0.9 mm for upper right 0.36 mm for centre and bottom
(1952), while Bolewski (1937) described a tonstein from Upper Silesia as a "clayey
laterite" formed by coagulation of silica and alumina colloids. This line was later
followed by Loughnan (1962), who does not entirely rl!ject the pyroclastic influence
on tonstein formation but suggests that volcanic parent material might be converted
into laterite under tropical or subtropical conditions. the the weathered material
Fig.4.39. Photomicrographs of tonsteins (intra-seam tuffs) from the Newcastle Coal Measures,
New South Wales. Upper left Devitrified glass shards set in a kaolinitic matrix; one polar. Upper
right As before with crossed polars. Centre left As in upper left but with more feldspar and quartz.
Centre right Pumice fragment with degassing vesicles. Bottom left Two partially kaolinitised
volcanic rock fragments, one aphanitic (on left), the other (on right) with trachytic texture. Bottom
right As before with crossed polars. All in transmitted light, one polar; actual length of each field of
view = 2.6 mm for top and centre left = 0.9 mm for centre right and bottom
then being transported into coal basins where the bauxite minerals are transformed
into kaolinite by resilicification.
From 1960 onward evidence in favour of the pyroclastic origin of tonsteins
begins to mount. Kirsch and Hallbauer (1960) describe high temperature feldspar
(sanidine) in a tonstein from the Ruhr Basin, which is followed by the discovery
(Hall bauer et al. 1962) that kaolinite is not the only clay mineral in these rocks but
that in some Ruhr and Saar tonsteins it is associated with montmorillonite-illite
Minerals 145
Fig.4.40. Photomicrographs of pellet (graupen-) tonsteins (intra-seam tuffs) from the Newcastle
Coal Measures, New South Wales. Upper left and right General view. Centre Enlargement of
central portion of upper right with biotite in kaolinitised volcanic rock fragment, left with one polar,
right with crossed polars. Lower left Pellet tonstein with partially kaolinitised biotite. Lower right
Enlargement of frontal portion of partially kaolinitised biotite. All in transmitted light, one polar;
actual length of each field of view = 2.6 mm for upper left and right and lower left, = 0.9 mm for
centre left and right, = 0.36 for lower right
mixed layer clays. Francis (1961) and Francis and Ewing (1961) describe kaolinitised
tuffs from Scotland, while Bouroz (1962) finds tuffaceous relicts in Japanese
tonsteins and proposes the generic term "cinerite" for all tephra-derived tonsteins.
An important contribution is made by Stoffier (1963), who concludes that the
particle size distribution of quartz and zircon in Saar tonsteins, the habit of their
quartz inclusions, the number and distribution of their accessory heavy minerals,
high beryllium and low chromium contents point towards rhyolitic tuffs as the most
likely source material. This is followed by Schellendorf's· (1964) acceptance of a
pyroclastic origin of tonsteins for reasons of composition and mode of transpor-
tation. O'Brien and McKenzie (1963) describe the widespread occurrence of
tuffaceous claystones in the coal seams of the Sydney Basin, New South Wales, to
which Diessel (1965b) applies the tonstein classification of Schuller et al. (1956) and
presents photomicrographs of well-preserved shards of volcanic glass. The applic-
ation of advanced analytical techniques by Price and Duff (1969), Bohor and
Pillmore (1976), Spears (1970, 1987), Spears and Kanaris-Sotiriou (1979), Fucht-
bauer and Riedel (1979), Bohor and Triplehorn (1981), Triplehorn and Bohor(1981),
Lippolt and Hess (1985), as well as more extensive and detailed field observations in
various parts of the world by Duff(1972), Zaritsky (1977, 1985), Burger (1979, 1985),
Ryer et al. (1980), Pevear et al. (1980), Zhou et al. (1982), Bouroz et al. (1983),
Addison et al. (1983), Bouroz and Spears (1985), Diessel (1985c) including the study
of modern volcanic analogues by Francis (1985) and others, have led to a virtual
consensus about the volcanic origin of tonsteins.
Some of the most convincing evidence for the pyroclastic nature of these rocks
can be found in the Permian Newcastle Coal Measures of the Sydney Basin, New
South Wales, in the form of numerous transitions from barely altered tuffs to both
genuine kaolinitic tonsteins and montmorillonitic bentonites. As discussed by
Diessel (1985c), they have been derived from explosive volcanism which was active
during coal measure sedimentation, probably several tens of kilometers outside the
present boundary of the Newcastle Coalfield. A distinction is made between thick
(up to 15 m) interseam tuffs and thin intra-seam claystones or tonsteins which occur
in large numbers in some coal seams and represent true cinerites. As an example the
coal seams and their tonstein and other dirt bands of the Lambton Subgroup in the
lower portion of the Newcastle Coal Measures are shown in Fig. 4.41.
Many of the Australian tonsteins consist of fine ash particles which have been
converted into a dense matrix of either montmorillonite or kaolinite and are too
small to be resolved by light microscopy. In colour they vary from light grey and
cream in the bentonitic varieties to light and dark brown when dominated by
kaolinite. The darker colour is usually the result of intimate mixing with
carbonaceous matter, although partially oxidised siderite which results from the
devitrification of glass also produces brown tinges. It is a common observation that
the kaolinitisation of the tonsteins has progressed furthest where their contact with
organic matter was closest. The thick interseam tuff bands are therefore hardly ever
kaolinitised.
Coarse intra-seam tonsteins varieties are rich in devitrified shards of volcanic
glass examples of which are shown in Fig. 4.39 (top and centre left). Other
components include pumice fragments illustrated in Fig. 4.39 (centre ridlt) and
Minerals 147
V IC TOR.I A TUNNEL SI: AM

BOREHOlE SEAN YARD SEAN DUOLEY SE AM
............
.........
............
.A ........
LEGEND ~ TOMtelft
_ Coal
-=:II Co.eJl)",ne, I~
mmmmmmn Shaly COllI
Fig. 4.41. The distribution of tonsteins and other dirt bands in the coal seams of the Lambton
Subgroup of the Newcastle Coal Measures, Sydney Basin, New South Wales
volcanic rock fragments in various stages of kaolinitisation (Fig. 4.39, bottom).

Residual minerals consist mainly of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and, most
commonly, biotite. As illustrated in Figs. 4.38 and 4.40, biotite displays numerous
examples of kaolinitisation, whereby the micaceous matter is usually replaced by
kaolinite along basal cleavage planes. The associated increase in volume causes the
resulting aggregates of kaolinite to swell into oblong, subspherical shapes
characteristic of pellet (graupen-}tonstein (Fig. 4.40, top and bottom left). Other
components which have been observed to transform into kaolinite pellets are K-
feldspar and volcanic rock fragments, as illustrated in Figs. 4.39 (bottom) and 4.40
(top right and centre). Such transitions, particularly from biotite to kaolinite pellets,
have been observed so frequently that it must be assumed to be a common
mechanism leading to the formation of pellet (graupen-) tonsteins. The process begins
shortly after the volcanic eruption in the dust cloud where biotite (and possibly other
mica), due to its flakiness travels farther than the less buyoant equant or spherical
minerals (e.g. quartz and and feldspars) and settles together with fine ash particles.
The result is a concentration of biotite set in a dense matrix, which, when
accumulated in a low energy peat environment, is subjected to the illustrated post-
depositional changes. It can therefore be assumed that the various tonstein types
listed above represent a sorting sequence which can be arranged in order of
increasing distance from the vent, as follows:
Crystal tonstein > pseudomorphous tonstein > pellet tonstein > dense tonstein.
The "distance from the vent" is a relative figure which varies from ash-fall to
ash-fall because of its dependence on wind directions and wind strength prevailing
at the time of the eruption. It is possible therefore that different tonstein types can
occur in one locality in vertical succession although they may have been derived
from the same volcanic source.
Because of their wide lateral persistence, tonsteins are used in seam correlation
and regional stratigraphy. Being volcanic in origin, they represent brief episodes of
pyroclastic deposition, probably measured in hours or days. They constitute
therefore excellent time markers which allow not only absolute age dating to be
carried out but by their lateral extent and position within coal seams they are
invaluable aids in palaeogeographic reconstruction. A coal seam may sometimes be
traced over an entire coalfield by means of a tonstein band only a few centimetres
thick.
Volcanic ash constitutes an important source of plant nutrients from which
raised bogs benefit as much as topogenous peatlands do. In the former, oligotrophic
conditions are, in times of volcanic activity, replaced by a relative abundance of
nutrient supply (eutrophy), not only in the form of distinct cinerite bands but also
from the weaker but much more frequent ash-falls which leave only some
disseminated material behind. As has been mentioned in Chap. 2, present-day
examples are the Indonesian raised bogs of Sumatra and Java whose luxuriant
arborescent vegetation is partly due to their tropical setting and partly to the high
level of volcanic activity in the region. Since the hydrolysis of volcanic glass and
associated silicates by the peat water will raise its pH, an opportunity arises for
increased bacterial activity. Mohr and van Baren (1954) found this to be the case in
the vicinity of Recent volcanic ash layers imbedded in tropical peats, and Littke
(1985a) quotes this information in support of this observation of higher than normal
proportions of bituminite (due to bacterial plant decomposition) above and below
the tonstein in the Hagen Seam of the Ruhr Basin. It is likely that a similar
mechanism influenced the lithotype distribution in the Borehole Seam illustrated in
Fig. 4.34. Particularly, above and below the 4" Band and Middle Band heterog-
eneous lithotypes, i.e. concentrations of macerals formed from strongly humified or
decomposed peat (liptinite, detrovitrinite, detro-inertinite), occur, which away from
the influence of these tonsteins grade into the bright lithotypes which are more
characteristic of this part of the Newcastle Coal Measure (Lambton Subgroup).
In addition to the pyroclastic tonsteins, coal seams often contain epiclastic dirt
bands in the form of various kinds of mudrocks and fine sandstone (Britten 1979).
They contain a large variety of silicates, among which illite is common in
Carboniferous coals but it is rarely seen as mineral matter within the Permian coals
of Australia (Ward 1978). In contrast, the latter frequently contain montmorillonite
and mixed layer clays which are seldom found as coal impurities in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Kirsch and Stratmann (1959) consider most illites and mixed layer clays to be
weathered derivative minerals which have been derived by potassium leaching,
mainly from the alteration of initially sericitised feldspars. The distribution of illite
and other clay micas is of interest because they may contain increased boron contents
which is an indication of marine conditions of deposition (Degenes 1958; Adams
et al. 1965; Bohor and Gluskoter 1973; Swaine 1975). However, it should be noted
that the illite associated with high rank coals is probably not of sedimentary but
of diagenetic origin and mav have reolaced montmorillonite and kaolinite.
Minerals 149
Fig.4.42. Photomicrograph showing allophane in the lumens of vitrinitised wood cells of a high
volatile bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Incident white light, oil
immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
As indicated above, montmorillonite and mixed layer clay minerals are

common constituents of Australian coals, where they are concentrated mainly in
tuff-derived clay bands. They are even more commonly found in interseam tuffs, for
example, in the Newcastle Coal Measures New South Wales, where several metres
thick deposits of relatively pure bentonite occur.
Chlorite is rare in coals themselves, but can often be seen as inclusions in shale
bands and interseam sediments. It seems that most chlorites in these sediments are
detrital in origin which have been deposited mainly as Mg-prochlorite with low iron
content (Diessel 1961), although Ward (1978) describes the occurrence of Fe-rich
chlorite among the minerals contained in semi-anthracite from Baralaba, Queens-
land. In shale bands it frequently occurs in alternating strands with sericite and clay
mica, from which it may have been formed by the absorption of magnesium and
some iron (Kisch 1968).
Since kaolinite has a preference for neutral and slightly acid environments, it is
not surprising that this mineral is more frequently found within coal seams and
intra-seam dirt bands rather than in the interseam sediments (Ward 1977). In
addition to well-crystallised kaolinite, which probably formed by authigenic
precipitation and/or as metasomatic replacement of other silicates (Keller 1956), the
amorphous variety allophane is likewise commonly found. It often occurs as an
early precipitate in the still uncompacted cell lumens of telovitrinite or telo-
inertinite, an example of which is shown in Fig. 4.42.
4.4.2.2 Silica Minerals
Silica occurs in coal in various modifications among with quartz is the most
common form in bituminous coal. Most of it may be detrital in origin but some
quartz and chalcedony has been formed from the diagenetic transformation of opal
which is not uncommon in brown coal. According to Ward (1978), quartz may
constitute half of the mineral matter in some Australian coals but usually does not
exceed 10%. Most of the macroscopically and microscopically visible quartz is
detrital in origin, which means that it was transported as mineral grains to the
depositional site. For this reason quartz is usually found together with other detrital
material; in many cases, together with clay in altered tuffs or epiclastic dirt bands left
behind by flood waters or in the form of splay deposits.
Authigenic quartz originates from aqueous solutions during the early stages of
diagenesis. Some quartz of this type seems to have passed through the stages opal-
chalcedony-quartz. Quartz which has derived from the alteration of opal and
chalcedony can be detected only with difficulty. Often, it consists of minute needles
which are under 1 Jlm in length, such that microscopic methods cannot be used for
its analysis. Together with this kind of quartz, true chalcedony of acicular and
spherulitic habit occurs. Acicular chalcedony is distinguished from quartz by its
lower refractive index and optically negative elongation. It has been found as
infilling in the cell lumens of some coal macerals and on cross-cutting cleats (Ward
1986).
4.4.2.3 Carbonate Minerals
The cations Ca, Mg and Fe form four carbonate minerals which are distinguished
by their relative proportions. The end-members are calcite (CaCOh), magne-
site (MgC0 3 ) and siderite (FeC0 3 ). Of these, magnesite does not occur in coal.
Instead there are two mixed carbonates, dolomite (Ca, Mg)C0 3 and ankerite
(Ca, Mg, Fe)C0 3 . They can be found as both syngenetic and epigenetic minerals.
The most common occurrence of syngenetic carbonates is in the form of
spheroidal concretions (Fig. 4.43). Depending on their size and internal organisation
Littke (1985a) distinguishes between three varieties of concretions:
1. Large nodules up to several decimetres in diameter. These consist mainly of

siderite and iron-bearing dolomite which form a mass of small spherulitic bodies
near the centre ofthe large concretions while towards their margins the carbonate
becomes more crystalline although less pure because of increased clay content
plus some pyrite. In some marine influenced coals very large (> 1 m in diameter)
dolomite nodules have been found near the seam roof. They were formed in a very
early stage of diagenesis, which is indicated by inclusions of the original peat.
2. Small spheroidal concretions of siderite occur in some bright coal (vi train) bands.
Marginally the siderite grades into dolomite/ankerite.
3. Small concretions (up to 0.5 mm in diameter) consisting mainly of blocky calcite
crystals internally and of radiating fibrous Fe-calcite or Fe-dolomite near the
margins are also found in some vitrain bands. Occasionally the concretions are so
concentrated that they form continuous bands.
Carbonates are also common as in fillings in the cell lumens of fusinite and
semifusinite an example of which is illustrated in Fig. 4.44 (upper right). It is not
Minerals 151
Fig.4.43. Photomicrograph of syngenetic spheroidal carbonate concretion composed of blocky

calcite crystals in bituminous coal from the Bowen Basin, Queensland. Incident white light, oil
immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.36 mm
always clear in such cases, whether the impregnation is of syngenetic or epigenetic

origin.
Probably the most widespread occurrence of carbonate is as epigenetic pre-
cipitates on cleats and in fissures. These are mostly less than 1 mm wide and are
oriented more or less normal to bedding. Filling is mainly by dolomite/ankerite and,
to a lesser degree, by calcite, often in the form of well-developed crystals. Examples
are given in Fig. 4.44 (upper left and bottom). Syngenetic dolomite is of interest from a
palaeo-environmental viewpoint, since the work of Alderman and Skinner (1957) has
shown that sedimentary dolomite requires high pH conditions for its formation.
Cone-in-cone calcite, commonly found in marls and impure limestones as
telescoped cones consisting of fibres or (more rarely) undulous crystals whose c-axis
coincides with the cone axes (Fiichtbauer and Richter 1988), have also been reported
from concretions in coal seams, although, more commonly, from interseam sedi-
ments (Schone-Warnefeld and Dahm 1962; Franks 1969; Pearson 1979). They form
during early diagenesis by the growth of carbonate more or less normal to bedding
which, in the compacting sediment is the easiest growth direction.
4.4.2.4 Phosphate Minerals
These minerals, which in coal consist mainly of apatite and phosphorite, are not
common but sometimes play an important role (Diessel 1961; Cook 1962; Ward
1978; Corcoran 1979). The term phosphorite is a collective name for those
phosphates which were precipitated in colloidal form and later underwent partial
crystallisation. Most of the phosphorites in coal are arranged in small spherulitic
nodules of only a few micrometres in diameter, and it is rare to find lenses of
Fig.4.44. Photomicrographs of examples of epigenetic carbonates. Upper left Euhedral dolomite

crystal (centre) in a cleat of the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin. Upper right Siderite filling and
replacing semifusinite cells (could be syngenetic). Bottom Fibrous calcite filling fissures in
telovitrinite. All in reflected white light, oil immersion; actual length of field of view = 0.7 mm for
upper left, = 0.36 mm for upper right. and = 0.33 for bottom
Minerals 153
phosphorite which extend as much as 20 mm or more in horizontal diameter. Diessel

(1961) describes phosphorite nodules from a cannel coal below the roof of the
Katharina Seam in the Ruhr Basin consisting of collophane, the amorphous to
cryptocrystalline variety of Ca s(P04hOH and partly of small crystalline zones
consisting of apatite. As illustrated in Fig. 4.45 (top), the phosphorite appears yellow
in transmitted light whereby small colour variations are due to organic inclusions.
Larger crystals of apatite (Fig. 4.45, bottom right) are rare, sometimes they occur as
secondary formation on the surfaces of earlier formed phosphorites or on fragments
Fig. 4.45. Photomicrographs of various forms of phosphates in the upper cannel coal portion of
the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin. Top Nodular phosphorite. Bottom left Fish tooth or part of a
conodont. Bottom right Small prismatic apatite crystal from a phosphorite nodule. All in
transmitted light, one polar; actual length of field of view = 2.6 mm in upper frame, = 0.16 mm for
vertical edge at bottom left and right
of phosphorus-bearing fossils, such as bones, teeth (Fig. 4.45, bottom left) or

conodonts (Diessel 1961).
Additional, more complex alumino-phosphate minerals of the goyazite group
have been found by Ward (1974, 1978, 1986a) and Doolan et al. (1979) in eastern
Australian coals. They form a particularly resistant group of minerals which is
insoluble in most acids.
4.4.2.5 Sulphide Minerals
Sulphur is a common constituent in coal, where it occurs in varying quantities and

forms. Many coal seams contain less than 0.5% sulphur, others carry more than 10%.
Likewise, the proportion of sulphide minerals as a percentage of the total mineral
content varies from less than 1% (by mass) in some Australian coals to more than
30% in some coals from the Illinois Basin of the U.S.A., (Rao and Gluskoter 1973).
The sulphur content of a coal seam may show regional differences. An example is the
Herrin Seam in Illinois, U.S.A., in which total sulphur content varies laterally from 1
to over 8% (Gluskoter and Simon 1968). A distinction is made between organic and
inorganic forms of SUlphur. The former includes such functional groups as thiols,
thiophenes and thiopyrones (Given and Wyss 1961) with a preference for host
macerals in the following desending order (after Raymond 1985):
sporinite > vitrinite> resinite > fusinite.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.46 (top), the correlation between organic sulphur and
sporinite is weak in Permian Gondwana coals, and is similarly poor in other
macerals.
Inorganic forms of sulphur occur mostly as various kinds of iron sulphides,
including melnikovite, marcasite and, most frequently, pyrite, which is also the most
common iron bearing mineral in coal. Altogether, Mackowsky (1968) and Davis
(1982) list approximately 20 metal sulphides which have been found in European
and U.S. coal seams. In a study of sulphur formation and occurrence in peat and coal
Casagrande (1987) makes the following observations on U.S. coals:
1. In general, low sulphur coals contain more organic than pyritic sulphur and vice
versa but some notable exceptions occur in which coals with greater than 5%
organic sulphur contain less than 0.5% pyritic sulphur. The relationship between
organic and pyritic sulphur is similar for Australian coals, illustrated in Fig. 4.46
(bottom), which shows a reversal in most samples in the proportion between
organic and pyritic sulphur when the total sulphur exceeds 1%.
2. High sulphur coals are associated with marine roof rocks.
3. The sulphur content of a coal seem is often highest in the upper portion of the
seam and near the floor (see also Gluskoter 1977)
Pyrite and marcasite occur as syngenetic and epigenetic minerals in a variety of

forms which have been discussed in some detail by Balme (1956), Neavel (1966),
Minerals 155
.9 o
0
.8 o o
.7 e 0
o
0 0
.6
0 8 o
.5 8 0 0
00 go. 0
.00
.4 0
•
0
0
00 <t. 0
.3 0
•
••
.2
.1 • ••
••
o
••••••
•
" 0 • • • • • •
0 2 4 6 8 10 11
" Sporinite
1.2
0 · •
0
•
.8 8
• ••
0%00
o PoI8
~og 0 0 o
.6 00 0 0 •
Fig. 4.46. Two diagrams ~08.0 o
illustrating the quanti- .4 o
•
.0.::.. ..
tative relationship in '0 0 0 o
•
,.:,....:
Australian Permian coals
between organic (open .2
circles) and pyritic
sulphur (closed circles)
and sporinite (top), and
" 0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8
~
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
total sulphur (bottom) " Sulphur (db)
Gluskoter and Simon (t 968), Love et al. (t 983) and Littke (t 985a). The following list
of common Fe-sulphide occurrences is partly based on their findings:
1. Small pyrite crystals occurring as isolated inclusions in vitrinite and semifusinite

(Fig. 4.47, upper left) are frequently found in association with framboidal pyrite.
2. Small nodules of pyrite and/or marcasite ranging up to several centimetres in size
are commonly composed of elongated, radiating crystals, up to several millimetre
long (Fig. 4.47, upper right). Similar occurrences have been described by Parrat
and Kullerud (1979) and Price and Shieh (1979).
3. One of the most common forms of syngenetic Fe-sulphides are small pyrite
crystals, usually less than 211m in diameter, which form spheroidal clusters rarely
exceeding 30 11m in diameter. These framboids occur mainly in vitrinite or in dirt
bands (Fig. 4.47, lower left).
4. As with carbonate, iron sulphide may be precipitated in the cell lumens of wood
tissue, commonly in the form of semifusinite or fusinite. This is partly the case in
Fig. 4.47 (upper left), although most of the pyrite in that case has actually replaced
cell tissue.
Fig.4.47. Photomicrographs displaying various types of iron sulphides in Australian bituminous

coals. Upper left Single crystals of pyrite in semifusinite. Upper right. Aggregates of radiating
marcasite crystals in telovitrinite. Lower left. Clusters offramboidal pyrite in detrovitrinite. Lower
right Pyrite band formed by the fusion of aggregates of framboidal pyrite. All in reflected white
light, oil immersion; actual length offield of view = 0.36 mm for upper and lower left, = 0.22 mm for
upper and lower right
5. Concretions of type (3) may fuse together to form either flat lenses or continuous
bands in which areas of good crystallinity alternate with dense, almost cryp-
tocrystalline pyrite. Love et al. (1983) describe such pyrite bands up to 5 cm
thick from the Halifax Hard Bed Coal northwest of Sheffield, u.K., which exhibit
both plastic deformation and fractures healed by a second generation of pyrite.
The latter is continuous with pyrite filling cleats in the adjacent coal, which
suggests that precipitation of the second generation pyrite took place during late
diagenesis, i.e. at the time of cleat formation during compaction and dehydration.
It may be regarded as being transitional to epigenetic pyrite.
6. Epigenetic pyrite and marcasite are frequently found on cleats and in fissures
(Taylor and Warne 1960). In the Katharina Seam of the Ruhr Basin, Diessel
(1961) found that cleats and joints carried more pyrite in the upper portion than
elsewhere in the seam which is probably related to the occurrence of marine
sediments in the seam roof, suggesting relatively early emplacement. Other
occurrences indicate late mineralisation, for example during tectonic defor-
mation (Fig. 4.48).
7. Cone-in-cone pyrite is another form of epigenetic pyrite. According to Woodland
(1975) and Love et al. (1983), the pyrite is formed as metasomatic replacement of
cone-in-cone carbonate.
Minerals 157
Fig. 4.48. Photomicrograph of epigenetic pyrite (white, high relief) filling cleats in sporoclarite of
the Katharina Seam, Grillo 1/2 Colliery, Ruhr Basin. Note the displacement of the grey vitrinite
layer in the centre of the frame. Incident white light, oil immersion; actual length of field of
view = O.56mm. (DiesseI1961)
Apart from melnikovite, an amorphous form of Fe-sulphide, pyrite and marcasite

are both widespread. In a study of the Alton Marine Band and the Halifax Hard Bed
Coal, Love et al. (1983) found framboidal pyrite and associated microcrystalline
pyrite to be the first "preserved" sulphide phase but not necessarily the first
precipitate. Studies of Recent sediments have shown that the first Fe-sulphides to be
precipitated are metastable modifications, such as mackinawite (FeS O. 94) and
greigite (Fe 3 S4 ), which are short-lived and convert into pyrite (Goldhaber and
Kaplan 1974).
4.4.3 Mineral Analysis
The correlation illustrated in Fig. 4.30 between the mass percentages of coal ash and
the volume percentages of minerals determined by incident light methods in the
course of conventional maceral analyses demonstrates quite clearly that a
considerable amount of inorganic matter in coal is not recognised by the latter
technique. The distinction between different non-opaque minerals, particularly the
silicates and carbonates, is even more difficult, although the appplication of different
immersion methods, fluorescence microscopy (Teichmiiller and Wolf 1977), staining
(Warne 1962) and other techniques may enhance mineral recognition. Transmitted
light microscopy will overcome many of the difficulties, but at the expense of not
being able to differentiate between the opaque mineral fraction unless polished thin
sections are available. These are probably the best source of information concerning
compositional and genetical questions, particularly when combined with SEM and
electron microprobe analysis. However, the area covered is too small to give
quantitative representation of a seam, and the difficulty and costs involved in
manufacturing satisfactory polished thin sections of mineral impurities in coal
without losing the latter assure that this technique remains reserved for the solution
of special problems of a qualitative nature.
By far the best approach to quantitative mineral analysis is by a combination of
techniques which require that the minerals to be studied must first be liberated from
the coal matrix without causing too much damage to them. No method is available
at present which does not affect the minerals in some small way but minimum
damage can be achieved by removal of the enclosing coal by careful oxidation, for
which the following three methods have proved to be successful:
1. Hydrogen peroxide oxidation has traditionally been used by pedologists for the
removal of organic matter from soils (e.g. Carver 1971) and has been successfully
applied to the separation of minerals from coal by Nalwalk and Friedel (1972)
and Ward (1974). As described by Ward (1986a), the coal is reacted with 35%
H 2 0 2 at temperatures up to 100°C for several days during which the organic
matter is destroyed with a slow, effervescent reaction. The precise time required is
rank-dependent and ranges from a few days for bituminous coal to weeks for
anthracite. Damage to the minerals reported by the above authors include partial
or complete solution of water-soluble compounds, reaction of carbonates with
organic acids formed during the treatment and some oxidation of sulphide
minerals.
2. Low temperature ashing is a well-tried method for both qualitative and
quantitative mineral analysis. As used by Diessel (1961), the coal sample is
carefully crushed to minus 0.5 mm and dried at 110°C until constant weight is
established. Subsequently, the sample is thinly spread on a suitable base and kept
in a mume-furnace at a temperature 380°C ± 5 ° until the organic fraction has
disappeared whence the sample is re-weighed in order to establish loss in mass.
Depending on coal rank, the process takes several days, its completion is
recognised by the light colour of the residue and, in pyritic coals, by a reddish hue
resulting from the oxidation of pyrite to hematite. The temperature has been
chosen because it remains below the dehydroxylation temperature of even badly
crystallised clay minerals, which begin to lose OH-groups from 400°C onwards.
Likewise, no loss of CO 2 has been recorded from carbonate. The only obvious
alteration is the above-mentioned oxidation of pyrite and any other sulphides.
3. Oxygen plasma ashing (also called "radio frequency oxidation" = RFO) is today
the most widely used method of separating minerals from coal (Gleit 1963;
Gluskoter 1965, 1967; O'Gorman and Walker 1971: Frazer and Belcher 1973;
Miller et al. 1979). According to Ward (1986a), in this method the crushed coal is
exposed in an evacuated chamber to a stream of oxygen which has passed
Minerals 159
through a high energy electromagnetic field produced by a radiofrequency

oscillator. The ionised oxygen reacts with the organic matter at temperatures
between 150 and 200°C, which makes it the least damaging technique currently
available.
Once the mineral residue has been separated, the complete range of chemical and
petrographic techniques of sample preparation and analysis is available for the
subsequent investigations. Commonly they begin with further separation of the
residue into related mineral groups and fractions, including the recovery of heavy
minerals by float/sink methods, the removal of magnetic minerals, the sizing of the
residue by sieving and elutriation or sedimentation in order to concentrate the clays
for further analysis, etc. Among the analytical work a combination of microscopy of
particulate mineral concentrates and X-ray diffraction (XRD) will represent the
main techniques, supplemented by other methods directed to the solution of more
specialised tasks of a mineralogical or geochemical nature. These include differential
thermal analysis (DT A, DTG), Fourier transform infra-red spectometry (FTIR),
electron and iron probe work, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and others for
which the reader is referred to the respective literature (see also Chap. 5 for further
discussion).
5 Coal Facies and Depositional Environment
In the preceding chapters coal components have been classified on the basis of
physical, chemical and genetic relationships. In the following discussion these will
be employed in a filtering process that is designed to detect the signatures left
behind by depositional environments in the form of a distinctive coal facies. The
concept of depositional environment will be targeted at two levels: one is specific
and refers to the type of mire and the conditions of peat accumulation within it,
whereas the other takes a broader view and seeks to establish the relationship
between coal facies and the sedimentary setting of the mire. The questions to be
asked in the first case, which is the main subject of this chapter, will concern the
hallmarks of rheotrophy and ombrotrophy, as well as the influence on coal type
of the vegetal progenitors after the local variabilities have been filtered out. The
aim is akin to what Walker (1980, Fig. 4) calls the "pure essence of environmental
summary", which constitutes a facies model obtained from the common
denominator of a variety of local examples. The results of this enquiry are then
linked to their sedimentary settings, such as delta plains, alluvial valleys and the
like, which will be discussed in detail in Chap. 7.
The techniques employed in the palaeo-environmental enquiry are based mainly
on the standard methods of coal quality testing. Analytical emphasis is on coal
microscopy, but the range of maceral and microlithotype analyses has been widened
beyond the requirements of conventional application. Related disciplines, such as
palynology and both organic and inorganic geochemistry, have been included in
the search for palaeo-environmental signatures, but not palaeobotany as such.
Since coal has been formed from vegetal progenitors, plant ecological considera-
tions would contribute much to the enquiry, but palaeobotany is such a large
discipline in its own right, that any consideration of specifically botanic aspects
of coal formation would be beyond the scope of this text.
5.1 Phyterals and Macerals in Palaeo-Environmental Analysis
In all previous references to the smallest and relatively homogeneous pertographic

entities of coal, the term "maceral" has been used. As originally introduced by
Stopes (1935), the term emphasises material differences, rather than botanical
affinities or a specific origin. It is true that the macerals comprising the liptinite
group have been derived from specific organs or products of the original plant
material, but the stress remains on the physical and chemical characteristics of
the material they consist of. In order to emphasise the botanical derivation of coal
components, Cady (1944) introduced the term "phyteral". The term has not been
widely accepted, although there has been an increasing tendency to include it into
the general maceral concept. Indeed, as pointed out by Stach (1971), because the
term phyteral relates to the phytogenic fossil and its morphology only, it is virtually
included in the wider context of maceral terminology. The subsequent discussion
will follow the same practice, but it may be useful to keep in mind that a term
such as "densosporinite", which is a sporinite composed of Densosporites, refers
as much to a phyteral as it does to a maceral. The same applies to other botanical
attributes of macerals.
Coal macerals contribute to palaeo-environmental analysis at two levels of
inquiry which can be described as attribute and scalar properties. According to
Potter and Pettijohn (1963, p. 3), attributes are "those properties that are specified
by their presence or abesence. Neither magnitude nor abundance need by specified".
The authors apply this concept to the recognition of a diagnostic rock type or key
mineral which may identify the depositional environment of a particular sediment,
not unlike the role of an index fossil in determining the age of a stratigraphic
horizon. This does not mean that attribute properties are totally independent from
quantitative considerations, but frequency or magnitude alone is not the deciding
factor as is the case with scalar properties. In the context of palaeo-environmental
coal analysis an example would be the presence of telalginite, which has been
derived from planktonic algal progenitors and therefore indicates aqueous
conditions for the formation of the seam section in which it occurs, no matter
whether its proportion in the coal is large or small. Conversely, small amounts of
almost all other macerals would not indicate any specific mire setting, but when
present in large quantities, their environmental significance increases considerably.
5.1.1 Botanical Attributes of Macerals
For many macerals the place of burial does not necessarily coincide with the place
of origin. Only few components would therefore, by their presence or absence,
define the type of peatland the coals originated in. For example, fusinite requires
desiccation, oxidation and, in most cases, partial pyrolysis for its formation, but
the occurrence of a few fusinite lenses in a coal sample does not infer a dry peat-
forming environment. In fact it may do the opposite, because a few isolated fusinite
grains set in a detrovitrinite matrix are likely to have been blown into the mire
from the site of a bush or forest fire and therefore have no palaeo-environmental
significance as far as the depositional site is concerned. Moreover, dispersed
fragments of semifusinite and fusinite in trimacerite and vitrinertite could have
been formed as a result of crown fires and fallen into waterlogged peat below
Phyterals and Macerals in Palaeo-Environmental Analysis 163
(Scott 1989), because fires spreading through foliage and branches of trees growing
in limnotelmatic environments have been reported by Komarek (1972), Cohen and
Spackman (1980) and Cohen et al. (1987). In Australia, where such fires are a
common feature and an essential part of the ecological fabric, fine char particles
have been observed to spread over tens, and in large bush fires, hundreds of square
kilometres. However, if instead of a small amount of dispersed inertinite inclusions
the coal contains a persistently large concentration offusinite plus semifusinite and
macrinite, such a paragenetic maceral assemblage acquires palaeo-environmental
significance, not merely 'by its attributes, i.e. the presence or absence of consan-
guineous macerals, but by their frequency, which is a scalar property.
As mentioned above, probably the only example of a maceral with palaeo-
environmental significance in its own right is alginite, in particular telalginite. It
invariably signifies lacustrine conditions and it does so irrespective of whether the
sample consists predominantly of alginite, as in a boghead coal, or whether the
coal contains only a few isolated algal bodies. Indeed, the coexistance of a high
proportion of inertinite and a small amount of alginite would be indicative of the
allochthonous (i.e. redistributed) nature of the inertinite.
The process-response relationships between the phytogenic precursors of
macerals and their biotopes can produce noteworthy attributes in macerals. Such
features are often disregarded in routine analyses, but considerable insight can be
gained from simple observations. An example is the thickness of cuticles in cutinite
which is related to the avilability of water to the host plant because the cutinite
protect the underlying tissue from drying. Plants of wet environments are therefore
characterised by thin cuticles whereas those growing in comparatively dry positions
(= xerophytic plants) possess relatively thick cuticles (Strasburger 1983). Likewise,
the thick walls in crass is pores have been interpreted as a protective cover against
dehydration. Naumova (1953) regards parctically all small spores with thin exines
and simple sculptures as having been derived from plants that either grew in or
around water, in contrast to more sculptured spores with thick exines and a
perisporium which are typical of terrestrial plants.
A considerable number of palaeo-environmental studies of coal has been based
on the botanical affinities of the maceral group liptinite. In this context a distinction
has been made in Chap. 4 between spores on the basis of size (e.g. macro- and
microspores). Because microspores are difficult to separate from pollen grains, they
are grouped under the collective term miospores, which have received more
attention than macrospores, although Bartram's (1987) work on the Low Barnsley
Seam in Yorkshire, U.K., is a notable exception.
It is known from the study of Holocene peatlands in southern Florida, SE-Asia
and elsewhere (Spackman et al. 1966, 1969; Anderson and Muller 1975) that
different swamp ecologies leave behind discrete miospore assemblages in the peats
formed in them. Although no detailed taxonomic identification is possible without
the application of specialised palynological techniques, coal petrologists have for a
long time used simple morphological features, such as the above-mentioned
thickness and shape of the exines of miospores to group them into crassi-, tenui-,
tori-, and densosporinite, the latter being a type of crassisporinite. These different
kinds of spores have been derived from different parent plants which have palaeo-
environmental significance. For example, the thin-walled tenuispores, particularly

in the form of lycospores, are characteristic of wet, arborescent lycopod swamps
(Felix 1954; Smith 1957, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1968; Smith and Butterworth 1967;
Grebe 1966, 1972; Grebe and Josten 1964; Hagemann 1966; Mittapalli 1966; Scott
and King 1981; Peppers 1984; Fulton 1987; and others), whereas densospores have
been derived from herbaceous lycopods (Butterworth 1966; Phillips and Peppers
1984; Phillips et al. 1985). Wagner (1985) found densospores associated with
Sporangiostrobus, but the precise botanic affinity of these sporomorphs remains
largely unknown.
Due to their origin from large arborescent lycopods (e.g. Lepidodendron and
Sigillaria) lycospores are commonly associated with bright coals (vitrain) rich in
vitrite and clarite (Fig. 5.1 top). In the Illinois Basin the greatest abundance of
lycospores (concurrent with strong dominance of Lepidophloios) occurs in the
thickest coals with high vitrinite/inertinite ratios (Harvey and Dillon 1985) in close
proximity to palaeochannels which, according to Phillips et al. (1985), is consistent
with maximum preservation of biomass in continuously wet terrains with possibly
long periods of standing water on the ground. The frequent coexistence of
densosporinite with inertinite (Fig. 5.1 bottom) in durite and dull coal (durain) has
led a number of authors to conclude tqat the presence of densospores signifies
relatively dry peat forming conditions including ombrotrophic raised bog
environments (Smith 1962, 1964; Littke 1985a, b, 1987; Fulton 1987).
In addition to the frequent coexistence of densospores with inertinite, it is also
their anatomy which suggests their association with a relatively low groundwater
table. The dumbbell shape of the spore results from a wedge-shaped thickening of its
equatorial zone (cingulum), which has been interpreted by Tschudy (1969) and
others as a protection against desiccation. However, the photomicrographs of
densospores in Fig 4.26 demonstrate that outside the cingulum the spore wall is
quite thin and conforms to Kosanke's (1969) observation that the body of Denso-
sporites is thin and transparent. Likewise, the occurrence of densosporinite in cannel
coal (Littke 1985a; Strehlau 1988) and in durite, which laterally grades into sapro-
pelic coal (Moore 1968; Strehlau 1988) suggests hypautochthonous to allochthonous
subaqueous deposition and possibly an, at least periodically, wet environment
for the parent plants. van Wijhe and Bless (1974) consider the densosporinite
facies to be indicative of a strand-plain setting, while the work of Habib (1966),
Habib and Groth (1967), Ting and Spackman (1975), Rimmer and Davis (1988) and
Ting (1989) on the Lower Kittanning coal of western Pennsylvania suggests that the
parent plants of Densosporites oblatus. the main densospore occurring in the Lower
Kittanning Seam, were possibly halophytic and grew most likely on the shores of
the Carboniferous sea in a manner not unlike that of present-day mangroves. Indeed,
Habib et al (1966) make a direct comparison with the Recent peat deposits of
southwestern Florida discussed in Chap. 2, in which environmental relationships
and the superposition of peat types indicate peat formation during a marine
transgression, a condition which is mirrored in the Carboniferous Lower Kitanning
seam. It is overlain by dark shale, in which marine, brackish and fresh-water en-
vironments have been recognised (Ting 1989) on the basis of boron content, clay
mineral distribution and fossils (Degens et a11957; Williams 1959, 1960). The marine
Phyterals and Macerals in Palaeo-Environmental-Analysis 165
Fig. 5.1. Comparison of lycospores set in c1arite (surrounded by vitrite in top) and densospores
set in durite (bottom) from a high volatile bituminous coal of the Ruhr Basin. Left top and bottom.
Incident white light in oil immersion; right top and bottom fluorescent mode, dry objective; actual
length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
portion of the roof shale contains Lingula along the coal contact, followed by other
brachiopods such as M esolobus higher up. Densospores are restricted to the
uppermost coal although the other spore assemblages which follow downward
through the seam are also represented. Tenuispores of the Lycospora (i.e. lycopod)
assemblage occur mainly in the lower vitrain-rich portion of the seam. The den-
sospores near the seam roof are contained in durite-rich dull coal, and it is suggested
that the high inertinite content is largely redistributed forming Ting's (1989) genetic
lithotypes allosite and kittosite (see Chap. 5.3).
Rimmer and Davis (1988), while accepting that the original plant assemblages
had some bearing on sporinite and maceral distribution in the Lower Kittanning
Seam, have provided additional evidence for the influence of changing pH/Eh
conditions on the humification of the coal-producing plants. This has affected
mainly the axial portion of the Appalachian Basin, where due to a high rate of
subsidence during seam formation a large proportion of wood tissue was preserved
as telovitrinite, except in the late stage of peat accumulation, when the influx of
brackish and marine waters raised the pH such that woody tissues could be more
easily biodegraded. This led to a relative rise of the detrovitrinite (de5mocollinite)
content in the upper portion of the seam. A similar increase in inertinite is regarded
as being the result either of reworking and redistribution of inertinite formed
elsewhere, or by in situ oxidation due to alternating periods of drying and wetting by
oxygenated water under tidal influence. Based on the combined evidence provided
by the distribution of macerals and their botanical attributes, Rimmer and Davis
(1988) also interpret the densosporinite-rich upper portion of the Lower Kittanning
Seam as the product of increasingly wet peat-forming conditions, which eventually
led to the drowning of the seam.
The possibility of Densosporites oblatus being an indicator of marine influence
on coal formation does not mean that other species of the same genus follow the
same pattern. Indeed, many concentrations of densosporinite assemblages have
been reported from the upper portions of coal seams without marine roof sediments.
However, even then the densosporinite remained linked with high inertinite cont-
ents in contrast to lycospore-based tenuisporinite which has a general prefer-
ence for vitrinite-rich coal plies. This coexistence has led to virtual unanimous
acceptance of the notion that coal seams or parts thereof with high vitrite and
vitrinite-rich clarite contents are typical products of wooded peatlands (von
Karmasin 1952; Kremp 1952; Stach 1954,1955; Smith 1957, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1968;
Navale 1962; Teichmiiller 1962; Alpern et al 1964; Hacquebard et al 1964;
Teichmiiller et al 1965; Hagemann 1966; Mittapalli 1966; Moller 1966; Kutzner
1967, 1987; Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969), Hacquebard and Barss (1970);
Schneider 1971; Phillips and Peppers 1984; Littke 1985a, b, 1987; Esterle and Ferm
1986; Strehlau 1988; Rimmer and Davis 1988; Ting 1989; and others).
Even when marine fossils are absent from the roof sediments of denso-
sporinite-rich coal seams strong indications can frequently be found of termination
of peat accumulation by drowning of the seam. In many of such cases the coal is
part of a distal transgressive sedimentary sequence (discussed in detail in Chap. 8)
in which the roof consists of shale whose non-marine, subaqueous origin is indicated
by its low boron content (Ernst et al. 1960) and/or the presence of fresh-water
Fig. 5.2. Photomicrograph of densospores (encircled) set in trimacerite together with syngenetic
pyrite (arrows) in high volatile bituminous coal from the Ruhr Basin. Left Incident white light in oil
immersion; right fluorescent mode, dry objective; actual length of each field of view = 0.22 mm
ElITROPHY OUGOTROPHY
-
Fig. 5.3 A, B. Two cartoons
illustrating possible modes
of origin of the densospori-
nite facies. See text for
explanations F"loor Sediments Shsly Fecles Vttrlnlte-Fuslnlte F. Densosporln1te F. SepropelHe F.
fossils above a dull coal portion with densospore assemblages (Stach 1954; Fiebig
1960; Littke 1985a; Fulton 1987; Strehlau 1988). It can be assumed that the peat
of these seams gave way to spreading fresh-water lakes, or was covered by the
landward extensions oflow salinity lagoons. The pyrite content of such coal seams
may be low but the mineral is rarely missing altogether. An example is shown in
Fig. 5.2.
From the above follows that there are two schools of thought concerning the
palaeo-environmental significance of densosporinite, namely, one which favours a
wet origin from hydrophytic plants which grew in a topogenous setting along lake
and/or sea shores, and another which regards densospores to have been derived
from a vegetation, which represents the climax in ombrotrophic mire development.
However, in the same manner as oligotrophic conditions can ensue in a topogenous
setting, lacustrine environments can be accommodated in a raised ombrotrophic
bog. It is possible therefore to establish the two models of densosporinite formation
illustrated in Fig. 5.3, in which their essential features have been combined to offer
the two alternative possibilities discussed below.
5.1.1.1 The Topogenous Model of Densosporinite Formation
In model A of Fig. 5.3 seam formation is thought to take place on a delta plain
to fluvial environment. The envisaged delta may conform to the classical Mississippi
model or any other delta prograding into an ocean basin, it may be prograding
into an inland sea or into a large fresh-water lake. In either of these cases the mire
setting is truly rheotrophic because the water that sustains peat accumulation
moves slowly through the wetlands, not only within established channels, but also
outside, where it appears to be fairly stagnant. Another rheotrophic peatland
setting to which Model A could apply occurs on low-lying ground that is traversed
by rivers such that their channels split and open into lakes, marshes or swamps.
Examples are the wetlands of EI Sudd on the White Nile in Sudan, the Pripyat
marshes in Russia and many others.
Finally, some of the general features of Model A can also be found in peatlands
that are quite different from the above-mentioned examples, because they do not
occupy a transitional setting through which water is conveyed on its way from
the hinterland to the receiving sea or lake, but in this case the mire itself is situated
at the receiving end of the drainage system. The result is a delta that does not
prograde into a body of deep water but into a swampy topographic depression,
where the inflow/evaporation ratio is so low, that little permanent water is found
outside the delta itself. Several current examples of this type accumulate very
effectively large masses of peat, although the latter is mostly based on herbaceous
vegetation, which does not conform entirely with Model A. The dimensions of
the peat seams formed in this manner are very large, as can be gauged by the
Okavango Delta, or more commonly referred to as the Okavango Swamp, in
Botswana, which shows some interesting aspects of peat formation (McCarthy
et al. 1989). While much of the so-called peat in the proximal portions of the delta
contains around 60% ash (db), this proportion declines distally to an average of
14~/~ (db) with individual values as low as 6.3~/~ (db), due to the combined filtering
effect by vegetation and rainwater leaching. In evaluating these results it should
be realised that, firstly, the area producing low-ash topogenous peat takes up a large
portion of the 6000 km 2 of permanently flooded papyrus marsh, and secondly, for
reasons of access, McCarthy and his co-workers could sample only in the vicinity
of channels, where the peat is naturally more contaminated than further away
from the channels, where even lower ash values could be expected.
The following discussion of densosporinite formation under the conditions
of Model A is based on a comprehensive study of the coal facies distribution in
the Upper Carboniferous coals of the Ruhr Basin by Strehlau (1988), but it also
takes account of the implications and constraints imposed by current examples of
peat accumulation under a topogenous regime.
1. The shaly coal facies (tonige Fazies) consists of alternating thin bands of clean
coal, shaly coal, coaly shale and shale. Coal composition varies but is dominated
by detrovitrinite-rich trimacerites and only low concentrations of durite. The
conditions of peat formation are similar to the ones in the vicinity of autosedi-
mentational seam splits (Chap. 6.3.2), where the ash content of the coal is elevated
due to its disseminated clay and silt and the occurrence of stone bands. A deposi-
tional site in the vicinity of a river is envisaged for this example because the filter
effect of the swamp vegetation (Frazier and Osanik 1969; McCarthy et al. 1989)
and flocculation due to the' acid nature of the swamp waters (Staub and Cohen
1979) would prevent the suspended load from reaching the more distal
portions of the mire.
The shale bands have probably been deposited from flood waters which either
overtopped or breached the levee banks but they are not part of the levee banks
themselves. The fact that in many coal seams containing thick sections of the
shaly coal facies, a centimetre-thick shale (or silt) band is often separated by at
least as much coal, is suggestive of long periods of peat formation between brief
stages of severe flooding, because minor episodic or periodic, e.g. seasonal, flooding
would probably not result in the deposition of discrete stone bands. For example,
Anderson (1976) observed in southern Kalimantan that the Sebangau River (Sungei
Sebangau) inundated/quite regularly the adjacent swamp forest with floodwaters
rich in organic detritus but practically free from inorganic sediment. In settings
of coastal flood plains or strand plains, major inundations could also have been
linked to influxes of brackish water, banked-up by king tides and storm waves.
The concomitant increase in pH in the tide-affected marginal portions of the
swamp may be responsible for the syngenetic pyrite occasionally found in this
facies.
Seams which consist of shaly coal facies. only have been found in many upper
delta/alluvial plain environments although more frequently this facies is combined
with the vitrinite-fusinite facies in which it often constitutes the basal portion. The
frequent intercalations in this facies of bands with high fusinite/semifusinite
contents (Hoffmann 1933) indicate a proximal setting high on the alluvial ridge
of trunk streams, where the ground surface dried out and burned down to water
level during low water stages.
2. The vitrinite-fusinitefacies is dominated by wood-derived vitrinite, which in Car-

boniferous coals is commonly linked to the occurence of lycospores. The minero-
trophic, telmatic nature of this facies is indicated by the large production and preser-
vation in mainly gelified form of structured biomass, as well as by the occasional
occurrence of carbargilite and shale bands brought into the swamp by flood waters.
Following Remy and Remy (1977), Strehlau (1988) also stresses the importance of
the tree-supported canopy of foliage in keeping the ground moist and protecting
the accumulating vegetable matter from desiccation by wind and sun.
The setting of the vitrinite-fusinite facies is the broad transitional belt ranging
from distal flood plain to proximal flood basin, i.e. from the foot of the often broad
and flat alluvial ridge (see Model A in Fig. 5.3 and Chap. 7), where gradients flatten
and the water level begins to rise above the ground surface to the limnotelmatic
forest swamps surrounding lakes and ponds. Depending on the extent of upstream
transitions into the drier braided stream environments or onto the higher ground
of the alluvial ridge, fusain layers and lenses consisting of fire-generated semifusinite
and fusinite may be found in some seams, but vitrinite mainly in vi trite, clarite
and duroclarite usually remains dominant, thus resulting in bright lithotypes with
thick vitrain bands. Persistent horizons of fusain are probably drought-related
because they represent ground fires senso Davis (1959) and Scott (1989) and affect
the upper portions of the peat as well.
Further into the flood basin, detrovitrinite and detro-inertinite, together with
dispersed liptinite, collect in rivulets and ponds as hypautochthonous trimacerite
and durite. The distal loss of the protective canopy because of an increasing
replacement of trees by smaller vegetation suggested by Teichmiiller (1950, 1962)
and van Wijhe and Bless (1974) could cause occasional drying of the peat surface,
resulting in the formation of some autochthonous inertinite by oxidative degreda-
tion.
In terms of nutrition the vitrinite-fusinite facies appears to occupy a
meso trophic setting between the eutrophic shaly coal and the oligotrophic den-
sosporinite facies. Its low ash content indicates that it formed beyond the reach
of water-borne particulate inorganic matter, either because its peat surface was
raised above flood level, or because any mud sespended in flood waters was trapped
on its passage through the proximal belt represented by the shaly coal facies. The
vitrinite-fusinite facies is therefore characterised by a pronounced edaphic gradient
ranging from nearly eutrophic on the boundary with the shaly coal facies to
oligotrophic towards the distal densosporinite facies. The result is a decline in
arborescent vegetation in the same direction and its replacement by herbaceous
plants.
3. The densosporinite facies is characterised by dull (durain) and banded dull

(clarodurain) coal, while under the microscope high concentrations of durites and
clarodurites rich in detro-inertinite can be seen. Densospores dominate the liptinite
content while detrital minerals are rare, and also syngenetic pyrite is not
widespread, which accounts for the generally low sulphur contents (Stach 1954).
According to Butterworth (1964), the low mineral content of this facies requires
a setting beyond the reach of adventitious minerals. The concomitant low influx
of nutrients can be assumed to cause the shift away from wood-bearing arborescent
to herbaceous and possibly even a marsh vegetation analogous to the N ymphaea
marshes in the central portions of the Okefenoke Swamp, or the papyrus marshes
of El Sudd and the Okavango Swamp. Except for their roots, such soft-tissued
plants are often more readily degraded, in spite of a likely drop in pH and lowered
bacterial activity because of the reduction in the supply of allochthonous mineral
bases. The result is a decline in the precipitation of iron sulphides and a reduction
in total vitrinite content. The latter is accompanied by a shift in composition from
predominantly telovitrinite to a greater proportion of detrovitrinite (desmocol-
linite). This shift is not merely due to a more thorough humification of wood
because the increased loss in biomass would result in a concomitant increase in
inherent ash for which there is no evidence. Indeed, the ash content of the
densosporinite facies is commonly very low, which is also a consequence of the
reduced bacterial activity. In the Okavango Delta McCarthy et al. (J 989) found
both a downstream decline in the contribution by allochthonous inorganics to the
composition of peat ash and a change in its composition. Based on mass balance
considerations of the distribution of elements in the ash of peat and its source
plants (see Chap. 5.5.1), they regard average Okavango peat ash to contain 90%
of adventitious (allochthonous) detrital matter plus inherent plant ash. The
remaining 10% (predominantly Fe, Mn, Ca, Na, K, and P) are thought to have
been added in complexed form by bacteria. This notion is based on the high
proportion of nitrogen in the peat, which is widely regarded (e.g. Bajor 1960;
Casagrande and Given 1980; Chaffee et al. 1986) as an indication of extensive
microbial reworking of the peat forming vegetation. It can be concluded that low
ash peats will result when the distal decline in adventitious detrital minerals is
accompanied by a reduction in microbial activity.
As mentioned above, more open mire conditions probably caused some
occasional desiccation and fire in times of low rainfall or water influx which might
have resulted in the formation of some autochthonous durite, particularly along
the shores of shallow ponds which dry out much faster than the peat, in which
water is better retained by capillary action (Thomson 1951, 1956; Jacob 1961;
Phillips et al. 1985; Strehlau 1988). It is also possible that in the densosporinite-
bearing Carboniferous peatlands the water budget was seasonally regulated,
although the lack of well-developed annual growth rings in Carboniferous wood
does not suggest pronounced wet and dry seasons. Indeed, even small variations
in moisture supply would have affected the distal portions of the mires more than
the areas situated close to the channels supplying the moisture. The result would
have been uninterrupted growth of arborescent vegetation near the channels but
distally more intermittent growth and periodic or episodic drying would have lead
to desiccation and burning of the exposed vegetation. This is currently a common
process in the Okavango Swamp in contrast to the more severe destruction by
fire of dried peat, which happens only when part of the water supply system has
become defunct due to channel abandonment (McCarthy et al. 1989) or during
periods of severe drought leading to the so-called fire splays reported by Staub
and Cohen (1979) from the Snuggedy Swamp in South Carolina (see Chap. 6).
With renewed water supply the charred plant and peat fragments collect in
topographic depressions, which is evidenced by the previously mentioned transi-

tions with cannel coal and by a high content of redistributed inertodetrinite,
sporinite and liptodetrinite. Many of these macerals have been washed in from
the adjacent rainforest in accordance with the depositional gradient towards the
poorly drained portions of the mire.
4. The sapropelic coalfacies covers both cannel and boghead coals, although pure
cannel coal seams are quite rare and seem to be restricted to the Carboniferous
Period, the flora of which provided the large amounts of spores necessary for their
formation. Deposits consisting exclusively of low ash boghead coal are likewise
not frequent (Stach and Hoffmann 1931) but occur in the form of occasional
intercalations with humic coal seams. Transitions from the densosporinite facies
into sapropelic coals observed by Moore (1968) and Strehlau (1988) represent
gradations from hypautochthonous limnotelmatic environments into deeper water
beyond the reach of rooted vegetation, where allochthonous sedimentation took
place. Vertical successions in which vitrain-rich coals grade upward into durain
of sapropelite have been known for a long time (Raistrick and Marshall 1939).
5.1.1.2 The Ombrogenous Model of Densosporinite Formation
In Model B of Fig. 5.3 the eutrophic portion on the left hand side of the diagram
is identical to Model A, and Strehlau's (1988) coal facies and their interpretation
can be applied just the same. The shaly coal facies (1) and parts ofvitrinite-fusinite
facies (2) would be equivalent to the eutrophic margins of raised bogs (rand) and
could probably be compared with the Rhizophora mangrove and the fresh-water
swamp forest peat Cohen et al. (1989) found at the base and margin of the
Changuinola peat deposit in northwestern Panama. This mire occurs as a raised
bog behind a barrier beach, but while the mangrove peat separates the domed
portion of the mire from the brackish water of the Almirante Bay to the south,
swamp peat forms the northern margin, where it interfingers with flood plain
sediments of the Rio Changuinola. Accordingly, these two marginal peat types show
the highest ash contents with 10 to 12% for mangrove and 1 to 25% for forest
swamp peat, compared to 1 to 13% sedge-grass-fern, 1 to 17% for Sagittaria-
dominated and 2 to 12% for Nymphaea-dominated peats.
The distal (oligotrophic) portion of the vitrinite-fusinite facies with its
increased detrovitrinite and autochthonous durite may be considered to be the
beginning (rand) of the raised bog, the central portion of which consists of the
densosporinite facies. Indeed, the possibility of a raised bog setting for the distal
portion of the vitrinite-fusinite facies is also included in Model A, where this part
ofthe facies has been depicted as occupying the highest elevation of the peatland.
The main contrast to Model A is the raised bog setting for the densosporinite
facies which has been the accepted view of many authors ever since Smith (1957,
1961, 1962, 1964, 1968) published his work relating coal type to miospore
assemblages. Initial reasons for the development of the raised bog model were:
1. Densospores are a distinct group of miospores which presumably were derived

from herbaceous or shrub-like lycopods. As stunted growth is commonly an
indication of oligo trophy, the raised bog hypothesis is well served by this
observation.
2. The parent plants of densospores did not form an understory underneath a
canopy of arborescent lycopods but grew in a separate habitat, as do the
somewhat xeromorphic, hardy plants of the inner portions of raised bogs, which
do not support luxurious vegetation.
3. Densospores are mainly associated with inertinite, usually in durites or
inertinite-rich trimacerites (clarodurites), which was interpreted to be
autochthonous thus suggesting periods of dryness in the elevated portions of
raised bogs.
4. Densosporinite is associated with relatively low ash contents in general and
low pyrite in particular. The low pyrite content was thought to be related to
the absence of a strong sulphur source (e.g. sulphate from sea water) and the
acid nature of the raised bog which suppresses bacterial activity.
An important corollary to the ombrogenous interpretation of the densosporinite

facies is the necessity to accommodate the sapropelite facies within this environment
because the association with subaqueous deposits is common to the densosporinite
facies (Strehlau 1988). As discussed in Chap. 3, bog pools are a frequent feature
in many present day raised mires where they are separated by low ridges resulting
in a hummock and hollow pattern. They are part of Osvald's (1923) regeneration
complex, a hypothesis according to which hummocks result from rapid plant
growth and peat accumulation in the semi-quatic hollows. As the hummocks grow
above water level they dry out, resulting in slower peat accumulation compared
with the higher accumulation rate in the surrounding hollows, which then become
hummocks, while the previous hummocks revert to form hollows. Although the
general applicability of this hypothesis has been disputed (Gore 1983), it could
explain the coexistence of inertinite (derived from the dry peat hummocks) and
alginite (formed in the hollows). However, it fails to explain the frequently observed
systematic change from lycospore-rich bright coals in the lower portions of
Carboniferous coal seams to densospore-rich dull coals in their upper sections.
Apart from Osvald's (1923) regeneration hypothesis for the formation
of hummocks and hollows, other reasons for pool generation have been discussed
in the literature. One example is genetically related to periods of dryness which
affect the most elevated portions of the bog more than other parts. Protracted
periods of drought have a more severe effect on the peat than the normal seasonal
drying of the upper few centimetres because, either by lightning strike or
spontaneous combustion, the peat may catch fire and burn down to the water
table. A return to normal conditions will fill the burnt-out hollow with water in
which aquatic plants (including algae) become intermingled with allochthonous
and more or less oxidised, including charred plant litter washed into the ponds
from the adjacent peat surface because in times of high precipitation both
topogenous and ombrogenous mires are subjected to considerable water movement
on the peat surface itself. The Nuphar peat described by Styan and Bustin (1983a, b)
from the Fraser River delta in British Columbia is rich in detrital plant material
and is underlain by a fire horizon with a high concentration of charcoal. In this
context reference has also been made to the fire splay deposit reported by Staub
and Cohen (1979) from the Snuggedy Swamp of South Carolina, which likewise
fill with water and allochthonous, including inorganic, matter. Fossil examples of
this kind in the form of shale-covered fusain bands have been described from
British Carboniferous coals by Scott and Collinson (1978) and from the Herrin
No.6 coal in the Illinois Basin by Phillips and DiMichele (1981). Recent peat
fires and their associated fusinite formation have been described by Johnson (1984)
from Borneo, where peat was burned to a depth of 2 m, by Teichmiiller (1989)
from Holland, and were also observed by the author during the 1980/81 drought
along the eastern seaboard of New South Wales.
Further examples of the formation of open-water bodies on the surface of
raised bogs have been reported by Cameron et al. (1989) from the United States.
One is from the Great Heath in Maine, which contains shallow, waterlogged
depressions on a mature, domed bog surface that has reached maximum elevation
and now decays more rapidly than it accumulates new peat. A different origin has
been proposed for the existance of Myrtle Lake, a water-filled depression in the
surface of a raised bog in the Lake Agassiz peatland in Minnesota. The beginnings
of Myrtle Lake pre-date paludification and it persisted as a lake beca,use, in the
absence of inorganic sedim~nt supply, it was too deep to be completely infilled
by organic matter. As peat accumulated around the margin of the lake, algal
matter plus the mire's allochthonous outwash was deposited in it, which caused
the lake floor and surface to rise at a rate similar to the surrounding peat surface.
The low degree of tissue preservation found in the densosporinite facies
corresponds well with its assumed raised bog setting and a warm Carboniferous
climate. Also in this context reference has been made in Chap. 3 to the contrast
between the well-textured Sphagnum peat of present-day temperate climates and
the ombrotelmites of tropical SE-Asia, which consist of a more decomposed,
semi-liquid, organic ooze incorporating large pieces of wood. The reason for the
more advanced decomposition of the tropical ombrotelmite is the higher and more
evenly distributed annual temperature which results in more efficient tissue
degradation by microbes, in spite of the low pH. However, the climate argument
does not particularly favour Model B, because the efficiency of tissue destruction
in topotelmites would benefit from high annual temperatures just the same.
5.1.1.3 Densosporinite as Part of a Sedimentary Sequence
In either of the two models the densosporinite facies occurs in the upper portions
of the peat deposits. As has been mentioned before, coal seams of this composition
are often overlain by subaqueous deposits ranging from lacustrine to marine in
origin. In deciding which of the two models is the more likely one, the genetic
relationship between the densosporinite facies and the overlying subaqueous
clastics is of critical importance. Either the coal seam and its clastic roof are part
of the same transgressive tract, in which the densosporinite facies marks the shift
from predominantly autochthonous organic to predominantly allochthonous

inorganic sedimentation, or the densosporinite facies represents the conclusion of
a regressive phase (from wet to dry conditions) of coal formation, with the clastic
facies marking the beginning of a new transgression (proximal, if represented by
marine shales; distal, if lacustrine). In the first case Model A applies and in the
second case Model B is the logical choice.
Additional insight into the above problem can be gained by considering
composite coal seams in which the vertical sequence depicted in the cartoons of
Fig. 5.3 are repeated several times. An example of this is the Thick Coal described
by Fulton (1987) from the Warwickshire Coalfield in the southern Pennine Basin,
U.K. As illustrated in Fig. 5.4, it consists of four subsections, each terminating
upward with a clastic band, two of which (one above Leaf 1 and the other forming
the roof above Leaf 4) contain fresh-water bivalves. Once again the previous
question arises, i.e. whether the clastic intercalations mark the beginning of
renewed subsidence following regressive phases, which began with shoreline
progradation and peat formation on the reclaimed land and climaxed with raised
densosporinite bogs, or whether the clastic bands are the deeper water terminations
of repeated transgressive trends each beginning with the leucospore-rich
vitrinite/fusinite facies. The trend lines connecting the concentrations of Fulton's
.. Dominant fJenso- Laevi- Faoa- L!lcO-

b miospore sporites !1atospo' sporites spora
~ species spp
.
rItes
minor
exi/Is pusillo
Leaf 4
Leaf 3
Leaf 2
Leaf 1
Fig. 5.4. Subdivisions of the Warwickshire
Thick Coal with positions of the concentra-
tions of dominant miospore species. Their o ::::::::::::::::::
...... __ ... -_ .. .
-_------------------
relative frequency is indicated by the width ------------------
.............. ----
---------------_.-
-------_._._---_.-
of the bars. (After Fulton 1987)
(1987) significant and dominant miospore species in Fig. 5.4 seem, in this author's
opinion, to favour Model A and so does the observation that densospores extend
from the densosporinite facies into the overlying clastics, where they coexist,
presumably as allochthonous constituents, with freshwater bivalves. It is also
noteworthy that densospores appear to be the only dominant miospore species
present in the seat earth, and that they have been observed in other clastic sediments
by Peppers (1984) and Kosanke (1969).
The coexistence of densospores, inorganic detritus and subaquatic fossils would
be difficult to explain under the conditions of Model B, because the change from
a bog surface raised metres above the general groundwater level involves rapid
subsidence and complete submergence of the raised bog which would leave few
sources of densospores to be deposited together with the incoming clastics in the
spreading lakes. Further support for this notion can be obtained from the
sedimentation pattern in the vicinity of the area covered by the densosporinite
facies. The Warwickshire Thick Coal is restricted to an area of approximately
100 km 2 (Fulton 1987), which is likewise the extent of the maximum development
of the densosporinite facies. Outside this area the seam splits into subsections
which become' increasingly interbedded with clastic sediments. This suggests that
the combined seam occupies a portion of the basin which was less affected by
subsidence than the surrounding areas, in the direction of which the seam tends
to split. Similar situations have been reported by Strehlau (1988) from the Hagen 4
Seam in the Ruhr Basin, and also Butterworth (1964) notes that the greatest
concentration of coals with densosporinite appears to occur in areas of reduced
coal measure thickness.
In the context of the ombrogenous model (B) the portions of the Warwickshire
Thick Coal with high densosporinite concentration represent islands of raised bogs
formed in response to a low rate of subsidence which was commensurate with the
growth rate of low ash ombrotrophic peat. The islands were surrounded by open
water in areas of increased subsidence, in which peat sometimes developed, but
which were mostly sites of subaqueous inorganic sedimentation. The repeated
capping of the densosporinite facies by fossiliferous sediments indicates periodic
increases in subsidence rates resulting in inundation of the raised bog islands
followed by renewed terrestrialisation. Since in this model the parent plants of
densospores are assumed to have occupied the highest and driest portions of the
raised bogs, the change to subaqueous conditions in the peat islands makes it very
difficult to find a source for the densospore content of the clastic bands in such
seams as the Warwickshire Thick Coal.
In the topogenous model (A) the densosporinite facies within the Warwickshire
Thick Coal would be interpreted as the last vestiges of peat accumulation, which
persisted in areas of reduced subsidence, while the surrounding terrain was already
flooded due to higher rates of subsidence. The trapping of sediments in the latter
would leave the low lying peat islands free from inorganic contamination, but as
the islands were reduced in size by the rising water table a blanket of mud and
sand spread over the peat. The intra-seam stone bands, for example between the
four subsections (leaves) in the Warwickshire Thick Coal, represent stages of
maximum flooding followed by land reclamation and renewed peat accumulation.
As illustrated in Fig. 5.4, the dominance of lycospores in the lower portions of the
subsections extends into the underlying stone bands, which suggests that peat
formation had already recommenced in some parts of the mire, while in others
subaqueous conditions still persisted.
5.1.2 Scalar Properties of Macerals
The scope of the following discussion is restricted neither to the mere presence or
absence of a particular maceral, nor (if present) to its morphological features and
botanical affinities, but the emphasis of the inquiry will be centred on the
quantitative relationship between macerals at the place of burial. There are many
examples in the literature in which coal facies trends have been portrayed, ranging
from the most basic level showing vertical and regional distributions of macerals
or maceral group percentages (Abramski et al. 1951; Diessel 1961; Backer 1965;
Kutzner 1965; Marchioni 1976, 1980; Warbrooke 1981; Haverkamp 1984; Littke
1985a; Strehlau 1988; and many others), either as contoured raw data (e.g. Trinkle
and Hower 1984; Tadros 1988a; Littke and Ten Haven 1989) or as trend surfaces
(e.g. Rimmer and Davis 1988), to the portrayal of various combinations in the
form of maceral ratio maps (e.g. Diessel 1982). Also ternary diagrams of macerals
and maceral groups have been widely used (e.g. Diessel and Callcott 1965;
Mackowsky 1975; Navale 1985; Navale and Saxena 1989; Bertrand 1989; Smyth
1989; Hunt 1989; Correa da Silva 1989; Scheidt and Littke 1989; Littke et al. 1989;
and others) for the purpose of highlighting compositional similarties between
genetically related coals and of contrasting them with coals perceived to have been
formed under different circumstances.
Practically all of the above analyses have been applied to bituminous coals,
but palaeo-environmental relationships have also been illustrated by using ternary
diagrams of brown coal macerals, e.g. in Greek brown coals by Cameron et al.
(1984). By using the giant (350 to 550m thick!) brown to sub-bituminous coal
deposit of Hat Creek as an example, Goodarzi (1985b) summarised vertical seam
development in a set of facies triangles, in which the apices consisted of minerals
(top), humotelinite plus humocollinite (right), and humodetrinite plus inertinite and
liptinite (left). A gradation from "very wet" to "dry" conditions was inferred along
the base line to 20% minerals (= coal) from left to right, while the upward
transitions from coal to carbominerite and to argillaceous shale were taken to
indicate greater water depth, more turbulence and a higher rate of subsidence.
In most presentations of the results of macerals analyses, the authors have
included the full spectrum of components, either by referring to maceral groups or
by combining macerals or their subgroups in a manner deemed suitable to highlight
the desired effect. However, unless the coals in question differ very substanitially
in composition, the analysis results often overlap such that the purpose is not
achieved. A higher degree of resolution is obtained by contrasting carefully selected
key macerals in the form of facies ratios. As discussed in Chap. 2.2, Cohen (1973)
Table 5.1. Percentages of the main constituents of the six peat types identified in the Okefenokee
Swamp of Georgia, U.S.A. (After Cohen 1973)
Plant Depositional Peat type Pre-telo- Pre- Pre- Pre-detro- Pre-resi-

type setting vitrinitic fusinitic scleroti- vitrinitic nite
cell walls charcoal nite debris
Marsh Nymphaea 49 1 0.3 49 1

Herba- Shallow Carex 65 2 0.3 32 I
ceous glades and Panicum 62 2 0.3 35 I
fringes . W oodwardia 46 3 0.3 49 2
Arbo- Tree islands Cyrilla 56 4 25 15
reous and swamps Taxodium 60 5 24 10
----------
applied this principle to the peat types of the Okefenokee Swamp by defining a
ratio of framework particles to matrix (F1M) and a ratio of non-sedimentary to
sedimentary material (N/S). Because of the obliteration of much of the diagnostic
cell tissues during coalification, these ratios cannot be readily applied to coal,
particularly not the NIS ratio because it relies on the identification of roots and
rhizomes, which is rarely possible in coals. Although it is possible to distinguish
between cell tissues of different origin in brown and black coal, respectively, such
differentiation is difficult in more humified cell tissues and cannot be applied
quantitatively. Nevertheless, Cohen (1973) did consider the post-coalification
nature of his peat constituents whose quantitative relationships are listed in
Table 5.1.
The percentages of the components given for each of the six peat types in
Table 5.1 are based on point counts of vertically oriented microtome sections. The
coal maceral interpretation of the peat constituents given in the column headings
follows closely that of Cohen but two modifications have been made. One of them
is merely for the sake of brevity and refers to the pre-resinite in the last column
of the table which in Cohen's interpretation includes all cell infillings, such as
pre-phlobaphinite. The plant debris listed in the fourth column has been called
pre-detrovitrinitic, which deviates somewhat from Cohen's (1973, Table 2) inter-
pretation, who refers to it as "predominantly pre-micrinites with some pre-vitrinite".
In view ofthe predominantly limnotelmatic environment in the Okefenokee Swamp
a reversal of the emphasis might be more appropriate, apart from the possible
confusion about the term micrinite.
Excluding the cell secretions listed in the last column of Table 5.1, all other
constituents have been derived from cell tissues. The first three columns contain
plant remnants which still display tissue fragments. This might not be true for all
of the fungal matter listed in the third column, but its quantity is too insignificant
to be of much concern. By establishing a ratio of columns 1 + 2 + 3 versus column 4,
a measure of the retained cell tissue is obtained not inlike the tissue preservation
index discussed below. When applied to the six Okefenokee peat types the ratios
give the following numerical values:
1. N yrnphaea peat = 1.0

2. Carex peat = 2.1
3. Panic urn peat = 1.8
4. W oodwardia peat = 1.0
5. Cyrilla peat = 2.4
6. Taxodiurn peat = 2.7
The figures show that the two peats with the largest proportion of woody
progenitors (5 and 6) have the highest tissue ratios, although in the case of the
Taxodiurn peat, tissue preservation appears to vary widely depending on the
position of the groundwater table and the duration of dry periods (1. Dehmer,
pers. comm.). The lower tissue counts reported by Yeakel (1981) and Dehmer
(1988) for this peat type, apart from having been carried out differently to Cohen
(1973), indicate more advanced humification and oxidation. This is, for example,
shown in Yeakel's analyses by the high proportion of charcoal (6.6%), which
probably resulted from crown fires, and a likewise high humic acid content of
38.1% compared with 21.7% in the Nyrnphaea peat. In the interpretation of these
results it is also important to realise that they have been derived from near the
depositional interface where active peatification is still in progress. It is likely that
with increasing maturity the tissue ratios of the peats with herbaceous precursors
(1 to 4) will be lowered more than for peats formed primarily from woody plants.
The reason for this is the very low shoot/root ratio found in the peats of
non-lignified herbaceous plants, in which the surviving tissue is frequently restricted
to root material alone (Grosse-Brauckmann 1980). In arborescent plants too, much
of the aerial vegetal matter is lost during humification, but relatively more aerial
plant tissue may be preserved. Phillips et al. (1985) estimate a shoot/root ratio for
complete Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) lycopod trees of approximately 4
compared with an average of 1 (range 0.69 to 2.69) found in lycopod-rich (80 to
95% lycopods) fossil peats preserved in European coal balls. In the United States,
where the lycopod content of the coal balls is often smaller and the proportion
of cordaites is higher, the reported shoot/root ratios range from 0.47 for 54.5%
lycopods and 36.7% cordaites in the peat to 1.3 for 91.1 % lycopods and 1.7%
cordaites (Phillips et al. 1985, Table 3). The proportion between lycopods and
cordaites in the Carboniferous mires appears to exert some influence on the origin
of the preserved cell tissues. In lycopod-rich coals aerial bark tissue is more common
than wood tissue. An example is the Lancashire Coalified in the U.K., where Phillips
et al. (1985) found a periderm/wood ratio of up to 8.5, in contrast to the
cordaitean-rich U.S. coals, in which often more wood tissue from roots has been
preserved than bark tissue.
There have been several suggestions in the past to characterise coal and coal-
forming environments on the basis of the quantitative relationship between tissue
derived components. For example, von der Brelie and Wolf (1981a) correlate
different brown coal lithotypes of the Lower Rhine Valley with their gelification
quotient (Vergelungsquotient) which is defined as:
G el1'fi' . Ulminite + densinite + gelinite

lcatlOn quotIent = ~-"--"-"-" --- (5.1)
Textinite + attrinite
The average gelification quotient for the Lower Rhine brown coal is 0.38 ± 0.34,
while a range from 0.08 to 1.28 is quoted for the Miocene brown coals of the
Oberpfalz in southern Germany by Dehmer (1989a). According to her, the gelification
quotient has a threefold application:
1. The gelification quotient is a measure of wet/dry conditions, because gelification

requires the continuous presence of moisture.
2. The gelification quotient is a relative indicator of pH, because effective microbial
activity requires low acidity resulting in tissue degradation followed by floccula-
tion of the generated humic acids and other decomposed organic matter as
humates.
3. The gelification quotient can also be a measure of diagenesis during which bio-
chemical gelification, as part of syngenetic humification, is increasingly replaced
by epigenetic gelification.
George (1982) uses a gelification index for the brown coals of the Gippsland Basin
in Victoria, Australia, which he defines as:
Gelification index = densinite + eu-ulminite + levige1inite
+ 1/2 phlobaphinite (pseudophlobaphinite). (5.2)
This index correlates well with brown coal lithotypes showing a systematic
progression in ge1ification from pale (gelification index = 1.1) to dark (gelification
index = 44.7) lithotypes.
The application of either Eqs. (5.1) or (5.2) to bituminous coal is not possible
because of the difficulty in some macerals to make a clear distinction between the
effects of syngenetic humification and epigenetic gelification. For example, densinite
and attrinite occur in Eq. (5.1) in the numerator and denominator, respectively, but
in bituminous coal the distinction between the two macerals has been obliterated
by epigenetic gelification and subsequent polymerisation, as both macerals are
transformed into detrovitrinite (or desmocollinite). However, this disadvantage is
balanced by the better distinction in higher rank coals between the members of
the inertinite and vitrinite groups of macerals. With the exception of pyrofusinite
and pyrosemifusinite which, according to the partially charred wood illustrated
in Figs. 3.18 to 3.20, have responded instantly with elevated reflectance to
incomplete combustion, the milder effects of desiccation and oxidation experienced
by other precursors of inertinite are barely recognisable in peat and brown coal.
They are thought to develop during or immediately after polymerisation when
coal properties attain their maximum divergence at the beginning of high volatile
bituminous coal rank. Irrespective of the mode of inertinite formation, when present
in high concentration and as an autochthonous component of a bituminous coal
seam, it indicates that the higher reflecting macerals have been oxidised and/or
partially pyrolised. Unless the proportion of macrinite is particularly high, such
coal will show low levels of gelification.
Gelification is characteristic of vitrinite, the precursors of which may have
been in contact with some oxygen during humification but without ever undergoing
dehydration and desiccation, except, perhaps, for very short periods which may
Phyterals and Macerals in Palaeo-En'l'ironmental Analysis 181
have led to the formation of so-called pseudovitrinite (Benedict et al. 1968;

Thompson and Benedict 1974; Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984). An intermediate
position is taken by macrinite which has been first gelified and subsequently
oxidised or partially pyrolised.
Based on the above considerations, Diessel (1982, 1985b, 1986a, b) developed
two coal facies indices, a gelification index (GI) contrasting gelified (e.g. vitrinite) with
fusinitised (e.g. inertinite) macerals, and a tissue preservation index (TPI) which
emphasises degrees of tissue preservation versus destruction. These indices are
defined as follows:
Telovitrinite + telo-inertinite
TPI=------------------------------- (5.3)
Detro- + gelovitrinite + detro- + gelo-inertinite
G I = __V_it_fl_·_n_it_e_+_g_e_Io_-_in_e_r_ti_n_it_e_
(5.4)
Telo-inertinite + detro-inertinite
Given similar source material, the tissue preservation index is a measure of the
degree of humification because under conditions of mild or brief humification
much of the cell tissue produced in a peatland would be retained either as
telo-inertinite (= fusinite + semifusinite) in a relatively dry peat, or as telovitrinite
(telinite + telocollinite) under more moist conditions. Advanced humification leads
to tissue destruction, which is expressed in the tissue preservation index by a low
numerical value. The complementary gelification index relates to the continuity
in moisture availability. Slow subsidence resulting in marginal peat-forming
conditions, or intermittent, e.g. seasonal drying (hot or cold) of the peat will bring
about oxidation and other irreversible changes in the more or less humified plant
tissues, which can be expressed by the gelification index. A more detailed discussion
of the two indices follows below.
5.1.2.1 The Tissue Preservation Index
The ratio of tissue-derived structured macerals versus tissue-derived unstructured

macerals is a measure not only ofthe degree ofhumification suffered by the maceral
precursors but, to some extent, it gives also an indication of the proportion of
wood which has contributed to the peat and was preserved in it. Cellulose is known
to degrade quite readily, even under anaerobic conditions (Given et al. 1973;
Chaffee et al. 1986), except when Eh and pH are very low (Francis 1961; Russell
and Barron 1984). It follows that cell tissues of herbaceous plants, which often
lack the structural support provided by lignin in their cell walls, tend to decompose
more quickly than lignin-supported wood cells. However, actual decomposition
rates of cellulose seem to fluctuate widely, as shown by the experiments Given
et al. (1983) conducted in Florida peat swamps. The preservation potential of wood
also varies and prolonged humification, for example due to an extended residence
time in the acrotelm because of a slow rate of subsidence, will also tend to lower
TPI. Conversely, an increase in the proportion of structured maceral derived from
non-woody cell tissues can be brought about by special conditions, such as a cold
climate. An example are the Permian coals of Australia, where a notable contri-
bution to the amount of telovitrinite and semifusinite has been made by the
seasonally abundant leaflitter produced by the deciduous Gondwana flora (Beeston
1982; Diessel 1983; Taylor et al. 1989).
Maximum tissue preservation indicates a balanced ratio of plant growth and
peat accumulation versus rise in groundwater table, for example due to basin
subsidence. This notion applies primarily to a topogenous mire setting, but it
probably holds for raised bogs just the same, since no ombrotelmite can be
preserved as coal without basin subsidence. Although cell tissues can be preserved
in both vitrinite and inertinite, the highest TPI values of approximately 2.5 recorded
by Diessel (1986a) for Permian and by Strehlau (1988) for Carboniferous coals are
based on telovitrinite rather than telo-inertinite. The conclusion that ideal
peat-forming conditions with the least loss of biomass are indicated in the coal
by telovitrinite-based high TPI values is supported by the compositional changes
observed in coal seams which have been formed under the influence of a lateral
increase in subsidence. An example of this is the Maules Creek area in the Gunnedah
Basin of New South Wales.
As illustrated in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6, the Maules Creek area is located near the
northeastern margin of the Gunnedah Basin, which is part of the 2000 km-Iong
foreland basin to the New England Fold Belt in eastern Australia. The coal
measures (Maules Creek Formation) are of Middle Permian age, they rest on
-l----"""""[li"-"',;:;:----r--------I-20'
-----<-2.'
--:,----1_2.'
-+----i-32'
-+""-='----=''''T---t/'----------i- 36'
Fig. 5.5. Location of the Boggabri Ridge
within the Gunnedah Basin. The ruled
area encompasses the molasse foredeep to
,
30.0
the New England Fold Belt in eastern
Australia. (After Diessel 1985b)
SW NE
70 47 42 51 28 19 M
Fig. 5.6. Traverse of borelogs (numbered above the columns) showing coal seams (black) and
prominent conglomerates (circles) along the section line displayed in the inset between Boggabri
and Narrabri. (After Butel et al. 1983 and Diessel 1985b)
Permo-Carboniferous volcanics, which are exposed in the Boggabri Ridge to the

west of the traverse of boreholes displayed in Fig. 5.6. The setting of the coalfield
on the eastern flank ofthe Boggabri Ridge has resulted in an asymmetric transverse
cross-section of the Maules Creek Formation, which thins towards the Boggabri
Ridge but thickens to almost 800 m in a northeasterly direction towards the
border thrust with the New England Fold Belt. The NE-SW traverse of boreholes
illustrated in Fig. 5.6 gives the positions of coal seams, which in the deep holes to
the northeast increase in rank from 0.75% mean maximum telovitrinite reflectance
near the surface to over 0.8% at depth. The contrast between the thin coal measure·
section near the Boggabri Ridge and the increasing thickness away from it towards
of
the northeast suggests that the rate subsidence increased in the same direction,
thus providing an opportunity to relate coal composition to the changing
depositional regime. Petrographic analyses carried out on representative whole
seam samples of washed coal (floats at 1.6 gjcm 2 ) show an increase in vitrinite
towards the Maules Creek Subbasin.
More than one half of this increase in total vitrinite content is based on
telovitrinite. It consists of both telinite and telocollinite and appears to have been
derived mainly from xylem and cortex tissues, thus indicating an origin from
wood-producing plants under rather moist conditions. It is therefore not surprising
that both the tissue preservation and gelification indices, whose isopleths are
illustrated in Figs. 5.7 and 5.8, also increase into the basin.
A low TPI suggests either predominance of herbaceous plants in the mire or
large scale destruction of wood because of extensive humification and minerali-
sation. In the latter case, the remaining coal should be relatively enriched in
comparatively stable liptinite macerals, including sporinite and resinite, as well
as dispersed residues offusinite and semifusinite in the form of inertodetrinite.
The presence in coal of detro-inertinite, i.e. mainly inertodetrinite, has two
aspects depending on whether it occurs in situ (autochthonous) or has been
redeposited (hypautochthonous or allochthonous). Consisting essentially of
fragmented cell walls of fusinite and semifusinite plus small corpomacrinite grains,
the phytogenic precursors of autochthonous inertodetrinite have been subjected
to severe humification followed by desiccation and, in many instances, by
incomplete combustion. In this case the inertodetrinite is associated with a maceral
debris consisting of partially oxidised resinite, corroded spores, other liptodetrinite
and inherent ash (phytoliths) in the form of disseminated clay and silica, all of
70 47 42 51 28 19
0
100
200
CONCENTRATION
D <0.6
300
fZ2Zl 0.6-0.8
~ 0.8-1.0 400
§ >1.0
500
BOGGABRI RIDGE 600
700
800
Fig. 5.7. lsopleths showing the increase in tissue preservation index (TPI) from the flank of the
Boggabri Ridge into the Maules Creek Subbasin along the section line of Fig. 5.6. (After Diessel
1985b)
47 42 51 28 19
0
100
200
CONCENTRA TlON 300

Dc,
~1-2 400
~ 2-4
§ >4
500
Horizontal Scale 600

Fig. 5.8. Isopleths showing the incr-
ease in gelification index (GI) from
the flank of the Boggabri into the 700
Maules Creek Subbasin along the
section line of Fig. 5.6. (After Diessel BOGGABRI RIDGE
1985b) 800
which comprise the remnants of an oxidised peat formed during a period of low
groundwater conditions.
Increased inertodetrinite contents due to relatively dry peat-forming conditions
have also been found on the Boggabri Ridge referred to above. The inertodetrinite
percentages which are high above and on the flank of the basement ridge decrease
towards the adjacent Maules Creek Subbasin, i.e. in the direction of accelerated
basin subsidence resulting in a consistently higher groundwater table and more
optimum peat accumulation, which particularly affects the lower stratigraphic
sequence.
While for autochthonous inertodetrinite the places of origin and burial are
the same and may very well included raised bog environments, hypautochthonous
(redistributed locally) and allochthonous (transported to the place of burial from
some distance including from outside the swamp) inertodetrinite have separate
sites of origin and burial. The redeposited inertodetrinite is not necessarily the
product of the same extreme humification suffered by the autochthonous inerto-
detrinite referred to above but it has been formed during transportation by
mechanical abrasion from larger pieces of fusinite, the precursors of semifusinite,
and flocculated and oxidised humic acid. In most cases, the depositional site is a
subaqueous environment, such as a water course or a lake into which the inerto-
detrinite has been transported, for example, by flood waters, as envisaged by
Beeston (1982) for his detrital coal facies. Evidence for this is the coexistence of
inertodetrinite with pyrite, alginite (Fig. 5.9), the occurrence of imbrication
(Fig. 3.25) graded bedding (Fig. 5.10) and microcross-lamination (Fig. 5.11) in
inertodetrinite and associated liptodetrinite concentrations. It is also noteworthy
Fig. 5.9. Two photomicrographs showing inertodetrinite and tel alginite in a high volatile
bituminous coal from the Maules Creek Formation, Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales. Incident
white light in oil immersion (left) and in dry fluorescent mode (right); actual length of each field
of view = 0.22 mm
that Falcon (1989) finds a posItive correlation between concentrations of

inertodetrinite and non-spinose acritarchs.
The very low TPI values commonly found in sapropelic coals and other
subaqueous maceral deposits are linked to the low total vitrinite content which,
according to Fig. 4.2 in the previous chapter entails reduced tissue preservation,
as well as to the relatively high degree of fragmentation in the form of inertodetrinite
of the dispersed maceral precursors in relation to distance of transportation from
the place of origin. An example is given in Fig. 5.12, in which the mean TPI and
GI values represented by open circles, have been calculated from Strehlau's (1988,
Figs. 10 and 11) analysis results. The marked decline in tissue preservation indices
from lycosporinite-bearing durite to the sapropelic coal appears to indicate a
change from proximal hypautochthonous to distal allochthonous depositional
conditions.
Also included in Fig. 5.12 are TPI and GI values calculated from Rimmer and
Davis (1988, Fig. 11), for two sections (full circles) of the above-mentioned Lower
Kittanning Seam, subdivided into bottom, middle and top portions. The two
sections differ in their gelification indices (they are higher in the sample from the
central portion of the Appalachian Basin in accordance with the larger proportion
Fig. 5.10. Photomicrographs showing two layers of inertodetrinite set in vitrinite. Note the
pronounced graded bedding of the inertodetrinite. Incident white light in oil immersion; actual
vertical length of the field of view = 0.36 mm
of vitrinite due to the higher rate of subsidence compared with the basin margin)
but both show the same decline in TPI and GI values towards the seam roof.
Their numerical values are not as low as the arithmetic mean for Strehlau's (1988)
densosporinite facies but the trend in the direction of the allochthonous
sapropelite facies is obvious and supports the notion . that the densosporinite
assemblage is likely to indicate a wet peat-forming environment. However, it
should be stressed that this assumption is based as much on attribute properties,
such as the observed gradation of the facies into sapropelic coal, as it is on the
TPI and GI values. After all, numerically low indices can also be obtained from
a dry durain formed in a raised bog, in which the structured inertinites
(telo-inertinite) have been degraded into inertodetrinite due to excessive oxidation.
An indication of the amounts of inertodetrinite found in coals which formed
either under exceptionally dry conditions or in which the peat was reworked and
oxidised during redistribution is illustrated in Fig. 5.13, in which the percentages
of telo-inertinite (fusinite + semifusinite) of hundreds of Australian Permian coal
samples are correlated with their associated inertodetrinite contents. The point
cloud is divided into two areas, the more concentrated portion of which (sector A)
shows a high telo-inertinite/inertodetrinite ratio of 4 to 8. This appears to be a
Fig. 5.11. Photomicrographs showing

microcross-Iamination by the alignment
of inertodetrinite and sporinite on a
telovitrinite surface in a high volatile
bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin,
New South Wales. Incident white light
in oil immersion; actual vertical length
of the field of view = 0.36 mm
14 M
12
10
8 T 8
4
T~
DFO
2 SF DSD DST DSl
(j 0 0----00-----0
0.0 TPI 1.0 2 .0 3.0
Fig. 5.12. Bivariant plot of the tissue preservation and gelification indices of various
Carboniferous coals facies from the Ruhr and Appalachian Basins based on analyses by Strehlau
(1988) = open circles and Rimmer and Davis (1988) = closed circles. SF Sapropelic facies, mean
of three samples; DF densosporinite facies, mean of 13 samples; DSD duritic subfacies with
densosporinite, mean of ten samples; DST duritic subfacies with torisporinite, mean of three
samples; DSL duritic subfacies with Iyco-(tenui-) sporinite, mean of 17 samples. B bottom; M
middle; Ttop of the Lower Kittanning Seam
50
A
40
30
B
20
!
:~
i10
c
T
o
Qi
I-
~'O~--~~r------.------r-~--~----~
o 10 20 30 40 50
'l(, Inertodetrinite
Fig. 5.13. Diagram showing the correlation between inertodetrinite and telo-inertinite
(semifusinite + fusinite + scierotinite) in Australian bituminous coals. Sector A "Normal"
relationship; Sector B excessive inertodetrinite. (After Diessel 1982)
normal relationship because a coal with a given telo-inertinite content will always
be associated with a small proportion of likewise in situ inertodetrinite as a result
of some mechanical disintegration. The considerably smaller ratios in sector Bare
based on inertodetrinite concentrations of up to 45% on a whole coal basis. They
are the result of unusual circumstances and, as discussed above, have been brought
about either by fragmentation of inertinite during transportation or by excessive
humification, oxidation and possibly burning.
5.1.2.2 The Gelification Index
While the tissue preservation index (TPI) is affected by the duration and severity
of humification of the maceral precursors, the gelification index gives an indication
of the relative dryness or wetness of autochthonous peat-forming conditions. Hypauto-
chthonous and allochthonous coal components, such as the "wet" i.e. subaqueous
durites plotted in Fig. 5.12 and sapropelic coals do not follow this rule because
they represent only the redistributed detrital fraction of the peat but not its entirety.
Since in many cases even macrinite has been fragmented during transportation
and is therefore counted as inertodetrinite, the GI values of such coals are
commonly quite low.
Like the tissue preservation index, the gelification index too is related to rates
of peat accumulation and basin subsidence (or rise in groundwater table), as has
been demonstrated by the traverse across the flank of the Boggabri Ridge discussed
above. The GI values plotted in Fig. 5.8 are low above and on the flank of the
basement high, but they increase in the direction of accelerated basin subsidence
into the Maules Creek Subbasin, where a consistently higher groundwater table
inhibited desiccation and caused the vegetable matter to follow the vitrinitisation
path.
The presence or absence of remnant cell tissue is not considered in the
gelification index but emphasis is put on the degree of homogenisation of the
former vegetable matter. This is achieved by contrasting the gelified structured
and unstructured vitrinite macerals plus macrinite (that the latter has been affected
by some drying is of no consequence since it was substantially homogenised first)
with telo- and detro-inertinite macerals, all of which show no or only little
gelification. The gelification index is therefore similar to the vitrinite/inertinite
ratio of Harvey and Dillon (1985), although micrinite was excluded from the latter.
Micrinite presents a problem, because not all of it is merely very finely
fragmented inertinite (Hartlieb 1962b; Mackowsky 1976), but is a byproduct of
petroleum generation from liptinitic materials (Teichmiiller 1974). As mentioned
in Chap. 4, this secondary micrinite is called submicrinite by Taylor and Liu
(1989) and associated more closely with the liptinite group of macerals than with
inertinite. On account of their small sizes it is not possible to distinguish the two
varieties under the light microscope with sufficient accuracy, which raises the
question of whether to in- or exclude this maceral when calculating coal facies
indices. Equations (5.3) and (5.4) include micrinite as part of the subgroup
detro-inertinite, because in many Gondwana coals, the total amount of micrinite
is not only very small (see Table 1.1) but consists mainly of finely fragmented
inertinite. However, where a high proportion of secondary micrinite would
introduce a significant bias, as may be the case with some Carboniferous coals, it
might be better to exclude micrinite altogether.
Both GI and TPI define four coal facies whose palaeo-environmental
characteristics are summarised in Table 5.2. The table is based on palaeo-
environmental studies carried out in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales on
coal seams whose depositional setting had been established over many years of
field and laboratory investigations. The result of the investigations are listed in
Table 5.3, in which a type seam has been named for each depositional environment.
The tabulated indices represent composite values, which have been obtained from
whole coal samples. It is expected that a pillar sample or a set of subsamples from
a channel sample would yield a similar average signature, although the stratigraphic
progression through each seam will show considerable and systematic variations
from floor to roof (Tasch 1960; Smith 1961, 1962; Diessel1961, 1965a; Smyth 1967,
1970, 1972; Britten and Smyth 1973; Shibaoka and Smyth 1975; Shibaoka and
Bennett 1975, 1976; Marchioni 1976, 1980; Littke 1985a, b, 1987; Strehlau 1988,
1990; Ting and Spackman 1975; Ting 1989; and others). Except for the coals of
the upper delta plain and alluvial valley, which cannot be separated, and the distal
back barrier coals, the various environmental settings have exerted a distinct
Table 5.2. Summary of the relationship between coal facies indices and conditions of coal formation
High TPI Low TPI
High GI Coal type: Bright (vitrain) to banded Coal type: banded bright (cia rain);
bright (ciarain); wood- and bark- tissue-derived detrovitrinite plus
derived telovitrinite some gelovitrinite
Origin: In forested peatlands (telmatic Origin: (I) In forested peatlands from
swamps), when relatively high in strongly decomposed wood under
coal ash and/or interbedded with conditions of slow subsidence in
epiciastic stone' bands. In forested, telmatic or limnotelmatic setting (high
continuously wet raised bogs, when ash and epiciastic bands). (2) From
low in ash. Mild humification and herbaceous plants in tree-less marshes
strong gelification of plant tissues (high ash and epiciastic bands). (3)
due to high rate of subsidence From herbaceous plants in conti-
nuously wet raised bogs (low ash, no
bands). Telmatic or limnotelmatic.
Advanced humification and strong
gelification of plant tissues
LowGI Coal type: Banded dull (ciarodurain); Coal type: Dull (durain) to banded
wood-derived telo-inertinite dull (ciarodurain); tissue-derived inerto-
detrinite
Origin: In intermittently dry forested Origin: (I) In slowly subsiding, inter-
swamps when high in ash, or in mittently dry swamps from aerobically
forested raised bogs, when coal ash is decomposed autochthonous plants.
low or moderate. Mild humification (2) Redistributed as subaqueous sedi-
and gelification of plant tissues ment. (3) In slowly subsiding relatively
dry raised bogs
Table 5.3. Coal facies indices for different sedimentary settings in the Sydney Basin of New South
Wales. (After Diessel 1986a)
Environment Type seam Mean TPI Std. Error Mean GI Std. Error n
Abandoned delta Greta 0.40 0.261 3.58 2.262 IO

(transgressive)
Lower delta plain Rathluba 0.85 0.059 10.76 2.139 32
Backbarrier Wynn 0.90 0.103 2.60 0.497 5
(transgressive,
proximal)
(transgr., distal) Borehole 1.52 0.376 4.86 0.470 7
(regressive) Bayswater 0.67 0.289 0.64 0.228 18
Upper delta/Alluvial Dudley 1.50 0.053 3.68 0.264 41
valley
Braid plain (sandy) Bulli 1.23 0.059 1.04 0.051 13
(gravelly) Wallarah 1.49 0.096 0.78 0.089 18
Table. 5.4. Approximate IV and SAL ranges in relation to depositional environments for 20
Hunter Vaney coals based on 155 samples (After Warbrooke 1987)
Depositional environment Type seam IV Factor SAL Factor
Reed marsh Greta 15-35 45-60

Fen Borehole 5-35 60-80
Wet forest swamp Victoria Tunnel 5-35 80-90
Wet/dry forest swamp Fassifern 35-65 65-85
Relatively dry forest swamp Wanarah 45-85 55-75
influence on coal type which will be the subject of a detailed discussion in Chaps. 7
and 8.
An interesting approach has been taken by Warbrooke (1987) who combines
maceral analyses with coal ash-based geochemical information and obtains two
ratios which he defines as:
IV Factor = Inertinite x 100/(inertinite + Vitrinite). (5.5)

SAL Factor = Si0 2 x 100/(Si0 2 + AI 2 0 3 ). (5.6)
By applying the two parameters to the Hunter Valley coals of the Sydney Basin
of New South Wales, the relationships given in Table 5.4 have been established.
The palaeo-environmental significance of minerals and ash composition is further
discussed below.
5.2 Microlithotypes as Tools in Palaeo-Environmental Analysis
Coal facies studies have been traditionally the principal field of application of
microlithotype analyses. Because microlithotypes consist of associations of
micropetrographic coal components, they reflect to a greater extent the coal
forming environment than individual macerals. For this reason the above coal
facies indices TPI and GI were estabilished, so that several macerals can be
contrasted with each other. These coal facies indices differ from microlithotypes
by their concentration on key macerals, whereas microlithotypes are more broadly
based and take account of mrtural maceral association.
5.2.1 Microlithotype Proportions and Bandwidth
Microlithotypes can be applied in various ways to palaeo-environmental analysis.

Vertical profiles and ternary diagrams have been used by Abramski et al. (1951),
Tasch (1960), Diessel (1961), Diessel and Callcott (1965), Hacquebard and Donaldson
Microlithotypes as Tools in Palaeo-Environmental Analysis 193
(1969), Hacquebard and Barss (1970), Smyth (1968, 1979), Marchioni (1976, 1980),
Warbrooke (1981), Hunt (1982, 1989), Miao et al. (1989) and many others. Smyth
(1968, 1979, 1984, 1989) used density contoured triangular diagrams of micro-
lithotype groups in order to distinguish between coals from different depositional
environments. Falcon (1989) combined microlithotype with palynological analyses
and found systematic correlations of saccate pollen with high-vitrinite micro-
lithotypes, trilete spores with inertodetrite (as mentioned above, this microlitho-
type also correlates positively with non-spinose acritarchs), and carbominerite-rich
microlithotypes, and finally, plicates with inertinite-rich microlithotypes.
Another approach has been taken by Hunt (1982) and Hunt and Hobday
(1984) with the addition of a fourth parameter called bandwidth. The facies triangle
illustrated in Fig. 5.14 displays the microlithotype groups inertite plus durite on
the left apex and vitrite plus clarite on the right apex. This leaves vitrinertite plus
trimacerite for the upper apex, i.e. the microlithotype groups with the highest
degree of mixing between vitrinite and inertinite. A coal in which the macerals are
arranged in clearly defined mono- or bimaceral microlithotypes plots near the
baseline. A coal which is coarsely banded and shows little mixing of its macerals
will have a low proportion of trimacerite and vitrinertite. It will therefore plot
near the baseline of the triangle, whereas a coal with a high proportion of these
components shows a considerable degree of mixing. This is possible only when
the bandwidth is so very fine that only a small amount of mono- and bimaceral
(other than vitrinertite) microlithotypes is present. Such a finely banded coal will
plot closer to the upper apex. For this reason Hunt (1982) has subdivided the
triangle by a set of curves, which separate areas of coarse, medium, fine and very
VITRINERTITE
+
DUROCLARITE
+
CLARODURITE
100
Fig. 5.14. The microlitho-

type facies triangle sub-
divided on the basis of 1 00 ""'---"'---"'---'--"--"'---:!,::---"'---"--'--"--"'--'S1 00
curves of relative band- INERTITE VITRITE
+ +
width. (After Hunt 1982) DURITE CLARITE
fine bandwidth, respectively. In reference to depositional environments Hunt and

Hobday (1984) found the following relationship:
1. braided fluvial (alluvialfans) = medium banded

2. meandering fluvial = very finely banded
3. upper delta plain = finely banded
4. lower delta plain = medium banded
Other authors have overcome the restrictions imposed by triangular plots by

spreading the analysis results over two interconnected triangles. In fact the oldest
and most widespread application of microlithotypes in coal facies analysis makes
use of this technique.
5.2.2 Hacquebard's Double Triangle
When applying conventional microlithotypes of the kind listed in Table 4.2 to

palaeo-environmental studies, it was found that some adjustments had to be made.
Based on the pioneering work by Teichmiiller (1950, 1958), Teichmiiller and
Thomson (1958), Smith (1962) and Spackman et al. (1966), a system of micro litho-
type analysis for the purpose of coal facies studies was developed by Hacquebard
et al. (1964, 1967). They constructed a four-component facies diagram based on a
double triangle in which the apices represent Teichmiiller's (1950) four peat facies
and Osvald's (1937) mire zones. Recent examples of the application of the technique
are given by Chandra and Chakrabarti (1989).
The analysis can be carried out by any of the methods described in Chap. 4
and the results are plotted on the double triangle shown in Fig. 5.15. If fewer than
20% D-components (limnic zone) have been recorded, the upper triangle is used
and A- and D-components are combined. Alternatively, B- and C-components are
combined and the lower triangle is used when D-components amount to more
than 20%. Their meaning and palaeo-environmental interpretation is given below
together with extensions to the original concept by Marchioni (1976, 1980),
Warbrooke (1981) and others. Such extensions consist of additional microlitho-
types, which have been estabilished in order to suit local conditions and requirements.
The dispersed nature of some organopetrographic components, in particular
among the liptinite and inertinite macerals, opens possibilities for further refinement,
but it should be noted that, in its present form, the double triangle has no real
provision to accommodate ombrotrophic environments.
1. The A-components sporoclarite and duroclarite have traditionally been

associated with reed-like herbaceous vegetation, as found in topogenous
marshlands or in the fringe zones of treed swamps. When plotted on the upper
triangle, these components refer to the telmatic zone which is situated between the
high and low water mark in intertidal marshes or in other environments periodically
TERRESTRIAL FOREST
ZONE
B
LIMNOTELMATIC 't-*-*---*---*---7(----'I LIMNOTELMATIC

FOREST ZONE REED ZONE
Fig. 5.15. The double triangle accor-

ding to Hacquebard et al. (1964,
1967) facilitating coal facies analysis D
on the basis of microlithotypes LIMNIC ZONE
inundated by water. As mentioned above, coal formation under ombrotrophic

conditions was not considered in the formulation of this facies concept, but a
concentration of A-components in a low ash coal could also have originated in
the tree-less central portions of continuously wet raised bogs.
In the lower triangle the depositional setting is assumed to be limnotelmatic,
i.e. transitional between the telmatic and limnic zones. The area is permanently
covered with shallow water down to a water depth of2 m, which is the approximate
limit for rooted vegetation.
The paucity of woody vegetation and the preponderance of soft-tissued
spore and pollen-bearing plants produces a coal type in which sporinite and
desmocollinite are concentrated in varying proportions. They are covered by the
microlithotypes sporite and sporoclarite, respectively. In many cases the claritic
matrix contains some inertinite which has been washed into the mire from drier
parts of the swamp and occurs in the form of inertodetrinite. Hacquebard and
Donaldson (1969) therefore recognised duroclarite as part of their reed moor
environment. The specific origin of the liptinite could be further emphasised by
referring to this microlithotype as duro-sporoclarite which is a trimacerite in which
vitrinite exceeds the inertinite content whilst sporinite dominates the liptinite. The
microlithotype vitrinertoliptite added by Marchioni (1976) is a trimacerite in which
the liptinite content exceeds that of inertinite. By referring to it as vitrinertosporite,
once again, the spore origin of the liptinite is emphasised.
2. The B-components fusitoclarite (= fusite in a clarite matrix) represent the

terrestrial zone, which is affected by periods of dryness. Also intermittently dry
raised bogs could possibly be incorporated with this environment, although, once
again, this possibility does not appear to have been envisaged at the time the
system was established. This facies is characterised by both arborescent vegetation
and a relatively low groundwater level. Wood-derived macerals formed under partial
oxidation dominate the resulting coal types, which occupy the upper apex in Fig.
5.16. The mono-maceral microlithotypes are represented by fusite, semifusite,
sclerotite, and macroite, respectively. Of these the first two are the product of
either incomplete combustion (e.g. pyrofusinite) or biochemical degradation under
partial access of oxygen. Sclerotite incorporates both coalified remnants of fungal
tissue, as well as oxidised resinous and humic matter. Finally, macroite is the
microlithotype equivalent of macrinite and thus differs from the before-mentioned
microlithotypes by its lack of any residual cell structure. Two bimaceral micro-
lithotypes could be added to this facies. One is durite, in which the inertinite
portion consists of either fusinite, semifusinite, sclerotinite or macrinite while the
liptinite need not be specified. The other is vitrinertite, which consists of vitrinite
TERRESTRIAL
B
TELMATIC TELMATIC
• ~ 6. .6
C ':,... 6 A+D
~~~--~~----------~A
B+C
LlMNO- TELMATIC
o Bright Coal A Sporoclarite'Duroclarite'

• Banded Bright Coal Vitrinertoliptite
B Fusito-clarite'Vitrinertite-1
• Banded Coal
6
..
Banded Dull Coal
Dull Coal
o
LlMNIC
C Clarite-V'Vitrite'Cuticloclarite
Vitrinertite-V
D Clarodurite+Durite·Macroite·
Carbominerite
Fig.5.16. The microlithotype composition of the Liddell Seam (Sydney Basin, New South Wales).
(After Marchioni 1980)
and a total of more than 50% of any or all of the above mentioned macerals of
the inertinite group. The same inertinite components dominate the trimaceral
microlithotype clarodurite which may be regarded as transitional to the wet forest
zone.
3. The C-components comprise vitrinite-rich clarite and cuticloclarite ( = cutinite-

based clarite). They are considered to have accumulated in a continuously wet
forest swamp with consistently high groundwater table. Similarly to the A-compo-
nents, a telmatic setting is assumed in the upper triangle, leading to more limno-
telmatic conditions in the lower triangle. Like the terrestrial zone this facies is
characterised by arborescent vegetation with or without herbaceous undergrowth.
Wood tissues become more or less gelified leading to a concentration of vitrite in
which telovitrinite predominates. Where humification has been more intense and
occasional drying has occurred, inertinite fragments are incorporated in a collinitic
groundmass. The resulting bimaceral microlithotype could be called inertovitrite,
which is a reversal of the term vitrinertite and indicates that the vitrinite content
exceeds that of inertinite.
Because of the high arborescent proportion and particularly in coals formed
in temperate climates with deciduous vegetation, remnants of leaf cuticles (cutinite)
are characteristic of this facies in the form of cutite, vitrinerto-cutite which is a
cutinite-based vitrinertoliptite, cuticloclarite, and duro-cuticloclarite which are
cutinite-based clarites and duroclarites, respectively. Other facies indicators are
remnants of plant resins and waxes grouped under the maceral term resinite, as
well as cork tissues in the form of suberinite. Analogous to the preceding liptinite
macerals sporinite and cutinite, the respective microlithotypes can be extended
to include resite, resinoclarite, vitrinertoresite, and duro-resinoclarite for resinite
and suberite, and suberinoclarite, vitrinertosuberite and duro-suberinoclarite for
suberinite.
4. The D-components consists of clarodurite, durite, carbargilite and other dispersed

matter. This facies occurs beyond the fringe of rooted vegetation and consists of
lakes and ponds which collect detritus blown or washed in from all other parts
of the swamp. Indigenous vegetation is represented mainly by algae which lead
to the formation of such microlithotypes as algite, algoclarite, vitrinertoalgite and
duro-algoclarite. Among the allochthonous macerals inertodetrinite may be
common. It forms the bulk of the inertinite fraction of inertodetrite, vitrinertodetrite
(= inertodetrite with less than 50% vitrinite), and inertodetrinite-based clarodurite
and durite. Although the designated association of this facies with lacustrine
conditions refers to a topogenous environment, a concentration of inertodetrite
in a low ash coal could be derived from an ombrotelmite formed in a raised bog
under a seasonally dry climate. Conversely, under rheotrophic conditions, both
allogenic and authigenic minerals collect in mire lakes together with dispersed
organopetrographic constituents. Such combinations are covered by the
microlithotype groups carbominerite and mine rite which can be further subdivided
according to the associated mineral species, as listed in Table 4.2.
The microlithotype-based facies analysis can be applied to full seam sections as

well as to subsections or, as illustrated in Fig. 5.16, to individual lithotypes among
which the status of dull coal is of particular interest. In Fig. 5.16 all dull coals plot in
the lower triangle, which according to the above discussion could indicate an
intermittently dry ombrogenous environment or a topogenous setting under wet
conditions if the mineral content is high. According to Marchioni (1980, Table VII)
the values for carbominerite range up to 18% (mean = 4.3) for banded dull coal and
11 % (mean = 5.9) for dull coal, which appears too high for dry durain (because of the
grey colour due to a high inertinite content they are also called "grey durains")
formed under either rheotrophic or ombrotrophic conditions. The dull coals in
Fig. 5.16 appear therefore to represent wet durains (also called "black durains",
because of the dark appearance of liptinite concentrations).
A detailed facies analysis of a coal seam is obtained by subdividing a bore core
or a piller sample into individual lithotypes and subjecting them to the coal facies
analysis described above. However, this is a time-consuming procedure and, more
frequently, a seam section is divided into plies or subsections containing groups of
similar lithotypes. The subsections are then crushed and representative samples are
obtained by coning and quartering or with the aid of mechanical sample splitters.
Grain-mounts or particulate blocks are then prepared and, after polishing, the
analyses are carried out by ordinary point count method whereby the use of an
additional counter unit may be necessary if a large number of microlithotypes is
distinguished. It is obvious that the contrast between subsections of a coal seam
diminishes with the number of different lithotypes incorporated in them, since
opposing trends will cancel each other. Nevertheless, even when whole seam sections
are analysed in this way it is usually possible to determine lateral and vertical facies
patterns between adjacent seam samples.
Within the above-mentioned limits, microlithotype analyses, particularly when
modified and extended in accordance with local requirements, have proved to be a
reasonably successful petrographic approach to palaeo-environmental reconstruc-
tion. Their usefulness is enhanced when supported by additional techniques such as
geochemistry or palynology. An example of the latter is Bartram's (1987) work on
the Lower Barnsley Seam in the U.K., in which the microlithotype analysis of a full
seam section was supplemented by a detailed investigation of megaspores. One of
the many interesting results of this study was the realisation that petrographic and
palynological boundaries do not necessarily coincide, a notion which, in relation to
the colour banding of brown coal, has also been voiced by Hagemann and
Hollerbach (1979), von der Brelie and Wolf (1981), Dehmer (1988, 1989a) and others,
although Blackburn (1981) and Kershaw and Sluiter (1982) found a good
relationship between colour-based lithotypes and their floristic content in the brown
coals of the Gippsland Basin in Victoria, Australia.
A disadvantage of the microlithotype-based facies analysis is that in spite of
being considerably more time consuming, its discriminative power is not better than
that offered by the maceral-based tissue preservation and gelification indices
discussed above.
Lithotypes as Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 199
5.3 Lithotypes as Palaeo-Environmental Indicators
The origin oflithotypes in both black and brown coals has been the subject of much
discussion in the international literature. Depending on the modern analogue
chosen for comparison and the technique employed in the investigation opposing
conclusions were reached about identical lithotypes. The densosporinite-bearing
dull coals discussed above. are a typical example.
Tasch (1960) used lithotype diagrams for both seam correlation and genetic
interpretation over relatively short distances within the Ruhr Basin, but this
procedure is valid only if applied to a limited area in which the composition of the
coal is well known. For example, Tasch's conclusion that in the region where he used
this technique, dull coal represented a subaqueous environment of deposition,
cannot be applied to other areas without verification by microscopic and possibly
other analyses.
Lithotypes are used here as defined in Chap. 4.3, i.e. they are regarded as
macroscopic units of coal, which are distinguished from each other by their physical
properties. Although the origin and mode of formation of the various lithotypes is
naturally of interest, the classification used is purely descriptive and has no genetic
base. As applied here, the lithotype concept differs from that of Ting and Spackman
(1975) and Ting (1989), who distinguish between five genetic lithotypes on the basis
of the following parameters:
1. Shape, size, condition of preservation and association of vitrinite;

2. cross-sectional shapes of miospores and their association with micrinite;
3. shape and form of inertinite, i.e., whether dispersed or clustered;
4. presence or absence of flow or other synsedimentary structures.
By applying the above criteria to both thin sections and polished blocks made from
piller or column samples (continuous lump samples from top to bottom of coal
seam) Ting (1989) obtains the following genetic lithotypes, which are identified as
such by the suffix-osite:
1. Allosite (from allochthonous) was originally called detrosite by Ting and

Spackman (1975) and is composed of reworked peat. This is shown by the high
proportion of well sorted, equiangular maceral fragments resulting from
extensive redistribution of organic matter under current and possibly wave
influence.
2. Kittosite (after the Lower Kittanning Seam) is characterised by the dominance of
densospores with the addition of clustered inertodetrinite and anastomosing
vitrinite. Also common is semifusinite with swollen and poorly defined cell walls
(degrado-semifusinite) referred to as quasigelifusinite-like after Timofeev et al.
(1962). An aquatic environment is envisaged, possibly with tidal influence.
3. Klastosite (from Greek for broken) consists of large fragments of vitrinite,
inertinite and megaspores together with alginite and detrital minerals. The
inferred environment is lacustrine, possibly with some wave action.
4. Herbosite (from Latin for herb) was formerly called pophyrosporosite by Ting
and Spackman (1975) and consists of various miospores set in a vitrinitic
groundmass as in sporoclarite. With increasing admixture of dispersed detro-
inertinite it may grade into duroclarite. It appears to have been formed in a
limnotelmatic reed marsh.
5. Arborosite (from Greek for tree) was previously called lignosite by Ting and
Spackman (1975). It is dominated by well developed vitrinite bands (telocollinite)
and contains fewer spores than the other units. Also present are thin layers of
inertinite, mainly as fusinite and semifusinite as the result of wildfires. A fresh-
water forest swamp environment in inferred.
These genetic lithotypes occur in the previously discussed Lower Kittanning Seam
from top to bottom as listed above, but similar genetic sequences have been
recognised in many other coal seams. In their composition and genetic interpreta-
tion these units are more comparable (in reverse order) with Strehlau's (1988) facies
zones 1 to 4 discussed in Chap. 5.1.1.1, rather than with the more conventional
lithotypes discussed below.
5.3.1 Black Coal Lithotypes
In view of the foregoing discussion about the origin of the densosporinite facies and
the microlithotype composition of bituminous coal lithotypes, the question of a wet
or dry origin has involved mainly the dull lithotypes. Most coalfields contain
examples of both varieties and frequently they occur in the same coal seam. Based on
Australian examples, a relatively dry formation of dull coal (dry durain) can be
assumed in the following circumstances:
1. Coal seams containing dry durains are associated with coarse, often conglomera-
tic interseam sediments having high sand/shale ratios (e.g. Newcastle Coal
Measures: Warbrooke 1981).
2. Increases in dull coal content towards the basin margin or basement highs
suggest presence of autochthonous inertinite. Examples are the Bulli Seam in the
Southern Coalfield of the Sydney Basin (Cook and Wilson 1969), the Dudley
Seam in the Newcastle Coalfield (Warbrooke and Roach 1986) and the high
concentration of dull coals in the Maules Creek Formation on the flank of the
Boggabri Ridge (Diessel 1985a).
3. Sedimentary structures indicative of desiccation, such as mud cracks, have been
found to penetrate into the dull top section of the Bulli Seam in W ongawilli
Colliery near the margin of the Southern Coalfield of New South Wales (Diessel
et al. 1967). An illustration is given in Fig. 5.17.
4. The oxidative removal of biomass during humification results in a concentration
of inherent ash in the residual peat (Johnson and Cook 1973; Cook and Johnson
1975; Warbrooke and Roach 1986).
Fig. 5.17. Photograph of mud cracks in the immediate roof of the BulIi Seam, Wongawilli Colliery,
Southern Sydney Basin, New South Wales. During mining the mud cracks were seen to penetrate
between 5 and 10 cm into the coal. The base plate of the roof b61t in the centre is approximately
20 cm across. (Diessel et al. 1967)
5. High proportion of telo-inertinite (structured inertinite, such as fusinite, semi-

fusinite and sclerotinite) in dull coal is indicative of autochthonous formation,
but, as has been discussed above, excessive oxidation may result in an auto-
chthonous concentration of inertodetrinite.
6. High proportion of layered macrinite (lammacrinite) suggests lowering of
groundwater table under a regime of autochthonous peat formation.
7. Irregular vitrinite layers cross-cutting microstratification suggest origin from
roots (Littke and Ten Haven 1989) thus indicating (but not proving) the
possibility of autochthonous accumulation of inertinite.
Much of the evidence for wet (black) durain formation has been mentioned before.
Since the place of subaquatic deposition of inertinite is separate from the place of its
generation, substantial redistribution takes place leading to fragmentation and
concentration of inertodetrinite. The above-mentioned coexistence of the latter with
pyrite and alginite, the occurrence of graded bedding, imbrication and microcross-
lamination in inertodetrinite and associated liptodetrinite concentrations all
support the notion of dull coal formation under limnotelmatic to limnic (lacustrine)
conditions. Similar subaquatic environments must be assumed for the combination
of detrital inertinite and liptinite Scheidt and Littke (1989) found in mudstones and
siltstones of the German Ruhr Basin.
In order to form inertinite, the accumulating detritus need not come from a
particularly dry portion of the mire since oxidation of more or less humified plant
debris can also take place during transportation in aerated water (Beeston 1982).
While dull coals formed in bog lakes or in the distal portions of a flood basin might
be low in mineral impurities, high proportions of adventitious mineral detritus give
evidence of the dispersed nature of these occurrences. Marchioni (1980) describes a
characteristic association of clastic dirt bands in the Liddell Seam of the Hunter
Valley with over- and underlying dull lithotypes rich in durite and clarodurite due to
"the increased level and circulation of ground-water before and after a period of
inundation during which clastic material was deposited". It is quite possible that the
concentration of dull coal around the dirt bands was assisted by a rise in pH due to
the influx of sediment such that increased bacterial activity assisted in the
biodegradation of plant tissues.
In the discussion of the topogenous model in Fig. 5.3 (Model A) it was assumed
that the bright coals ofthe vitrinite-fusinite facies would change upward (i.e. distally)
into fusinite- and semifusinite-dominated autochthonous dull lithotypes before
grading into the increasingly allochthonous densosporinite-bearing dull coal near
the top of the seam. This was considered to be possible assuming a distal, meso- to
oligotrophic flood basin setting behind a broad and possible raised belt of
arborescent vegetation which confined rivers to their channels and effectively
filtered out any suspension load that might have been carried by high flood waters. It
is almost mandatory in this scenario that the change from low ash coal to epiclastic
roof sediments is quite abrupt following the rapid filling of the flood basin, once its
densely vegetated perimeter has been breached. Without keeping adventitious
minerals out of the distal flood basin and preserving oligotrophic conditions until
the end of seam formation any gradual rise in water level combined with influx of
even small quantities of suspension load would have increased eutrophy and caused
a reversal to arborescent vegetation and the formation of vi trite-dominated bright
lithotypes. Coal seams of this kind, which grade from bright coal to dull coal and are
capped by another bright coal section have been described from many parts of the
world, for example by Smyth (1957, 1961, 1964, 1968), Smyth (1967, 1968, 1970),
Smyth and Cook (1976), Strehlau (1988), Tadros (1988a) and others.
The dualistic nature of durain (wet/dry) emphasises the problem of using
lithotypes as palaeo-environmental indicators without any microscopic or chemical
backup. In order to highlight the situation further, the carbon and hydrogen
contents of two sets of Tertiary brown and almost isometamorphic Permian black
coal lithotypes have been plotted in Fig. 5.18, which is based on Callcott's (1986)
modified and extended version of Seyler's Chart. The black coal samples come from
five bituminous coal seams, two from the Bowen Basin in Queensland (one which
has been used in Tables 4.7 and 4.8) and three from the Gloucester Basin in New
South Wales. The latter have been combined into one set of mean values.
It is significant that banded dull coal (Db) and banded coal (BD) occur in two
positions with reference to the bright coal band. The banded coal (BD) from the
Gloucester Basin plots close to the upper boundary of the bright coal band, while the
respective banded dull coal (Db) is situated even within the perhydrous field. In
contrast, the same lithotypes from the Bowen Basin occupy positions close to and
within the subhydrous field. It seems that in the first case the comparatively high
hydrogen content is related to a high proportion ofliptinite in Db and BD, although
7r-----~-r--~----~----~----~------T
perhydrous
6.5
70 BO 90 100
Fig. 5.1S. Various lithotypes plotted in relation to Seyler's bright coal band, modified after
Callcott (1986). The designation of brown coal lithotypes from the Yallourn and Morwell Seams
in the Gippsland Basin, Victoria, Australia (recalculated from George 1982), follows Table 4.3,
while bituminous coal lithotypes from the Sydney and Bowen Basins in eastern Australia (based
on unpublished data by J.G. Bailey, T.G. Callcott and C.F.K. Diessel), are according to Table
4.6. Also included are Russell's (1984) analysis results for Recent wood and variously gelified
xylites from the Yallourn and Morwell Seams, respectively. The thick lines indicate biochemical
and the dashed lines physico-chemical coalification tracks, respectively. The dash/dot line marks the
charcoal generation track, while the two drawn-out and curved lines trace the boundaries of the
coalification band
maceral counts in white light yielded only 3.5% more liptinite in the Gloucester Db
samples than in the Bowen Basin samples. However, the aliphatic/aromatic ratios,
analysed by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIRS) in the Gloucester Db
and BD lithotypes are also high, which suggests that the coal probably contains
more finely dispersed liptinite (liptodetrinite) than is recognised by maceral analysis.
The aliphatic/aromatic ratio is an inverse measure of aromaticity, which up to the
rank of medium volatile bituminous coal is lower in liptinite macerals, due to a
relatively high proportion of aliphatic compounds, than in vitrinite and inertinite. A
comparison of the FTIRS results of the two sets of coals, illustrated in Fig. 5.19,
reveals therefore contrasting trends. While in the Gloucester Basin samples the
mean aliphatic/aromatic ratios peak in banded dull coal (Db), the most perhydrous
of the bituminous coal lithotypes, the Bowen Basin samples show a steady decline in
aliphatic/aromatic ratios from bright to dull coal, which is in keeping with their
lower liptinite and very high inertinite contents.
An interesting reversal (verified by repeat analysis) of the decline in
aliphatic/aromatic ratios with increasing inertinite content is displayed by fusain
(F), the most extreme case of inertinite concentration. This suggests that the
inertinite contained the dull coal (D) has evolved differently from the pyrofusinite
and pyro-semifusinite contained in fusain. As shown by thick lines in Fig. 5.18, the
n8
n8
u 4
:;:;
to
Fig. 5.19. Comparison of mean aliphatic/
E 3 aromatic ratios obtained from FTIRS
0
'- analyses of high volatile bituminous coal
~
u 2 lithotypes from the Gloucester (open circles,
:;:;
to na no analyses available) and Bowen (dots)
.r:
0. Basins in eastern Australia. (Based on
:;( 0 unpublished data by J.G. Bailey with kind
B Bd BD Db D F permission)
biochemical coalification (humification) tracks take the woody precursors of brown

coal xylite (gymnospermous) into the subhydrous field, where also the variously
gelified medium dark (M-d) and dark (Dk) lithotypes plot. Infra-red and solid-state
NMR spectroscopic analyses by Russell and Barron (1984) of the wood and xylite
samples plotted in Fig. 5.18 indicate that gelification is accompanied by the
progressive elimination of cellulose and a modification of lignin, including the
reduction in the proportion of methoxyl groups, an increase in the ratio of non-
oxygenated to oxygenated aromatic carbon, and an increase in the relative
proportion of carbonyl groups. Studies carried out by Stout et al. (1989) and
Hatcher et al. (1989a, b) have produced similar results. Hatcher et al. (J989a) lists the
following steps in the biochemical coalification of gymnosperm wood:
1. Selective removel of cellulosic compounds and transformation of lignin into

macromolecular components;
2. demethylation of lignin to form catechol-like (phenol-related with excess OH-)
structures, accompanied by condensation reactions and cross-linking;
3. de hydroxylation during coalification from brown to subbituminous coal rank
resulting in a decrease of catechol-like structures and increase in phenol content
of xylem.
The biochemical coalification of angiosperms follows a similar pattern of destruc-

tion of biopolymers and their replacement by geopolymers, but because of the
greater variability in composition of angiosperm wood, a more complex humifica-
tion path is followed.
The overall biochemical trends involved in the humification of ungelified to
gelified xylite are elimination of cellulose, minor oxidation oflignin and increase in
aromaticity from just under 0.2 in the two wood samples of Fig. 5.18 to around 0.4 in
ungelified and 0.6 in gelified xylite (Russell and Barron 1984). A similar biochemical
increase in aromaticity has been reported by Verhey en et al. (1981) for the following
brown coal lithotypes: Pale (Pa) to medium light (M-l) = 0.54 to 0.66 and medium
dark (M-d) to dark (Dk) = 0.58 to 0.65. The accompanying loss in hydrogen
manifests itself by demethanation, i.e. by the generation of marsh-gas or the "early
biogenic gas" of the petroleum geologists. In Fig. 5.18 the hydrogen loss is shown
by the downward displacement of the xylite plots, which was also recorded by
Allerdice et al. (1977), Given et al. (1984) and Chaffee et al. (1984). The gelification
tracks of the lithotype samples in Fig. 5.18 follow a similar trend starting with the
liptinite-rich pale (Pa) lithotype above the extension of the bright coal band and
finishing with the dark (Dk) lithotype below.
The degree of oxidation, which is invariably part of the humification process,
depends on several influencing factors, among them moisture content and oxygen
availability, temperature, redox potential (Eh), which is influenced by the hydrogen
ion concentration (pH), and the diffusion rate of oxygen to the organic molecules,
which is related to the degree of fragmentation of the biomass due to mechanical
breaking and organic interference (e.g. chewing and excretion). While the
biochemical gelification track leading to the dark lithotypes and the gelified xylite
below the bright coal band in Fig. 5.18 was affected by the mild oxidation, an
increase in its severity would have no fundamentally different result. The
combination of microbial attack and increased oxidation would still lead to the
stripping of aliphatic chains from the cell walls, but cross-linking of the aromatic
residue and the occupation of its remaining reactives sites by quinone, carboxyl
and hydroxyl groups (Saxby and Shibaoka 1986) might be more complete than
in the above case of milder oxidation. It has been mentioned before that at this
low rank the physical differences between the products of mild and more severe
oxidation are not obvious, but they develop with increasing coalification by raising
the reflectance of the more oxidised ("pre-semi-") inertinite above the level of
vitrinite.
When coal rank begins to increase, the ungelified and partly gelified xylites
are likely to follow a straight coalification track along the centre of the coalification
band in Fig. 5.18, as had been envisaged by van Krevelen (1952). Its result is the
formation of telovitrinite, mainly in the form of telinite. The fate of the gelified
xylite (previously called doppleritic xylite by Jacob, 1958a), together with the more
or less gelified humic degradation products contained in the dark and medium
dark lithotypes depends on the amount of desiccation and oxidation suffered
during humification. If it was small, they will follow a coalification pathway,
characterised by the loss of oxygen-bearing compounds [mainly OH-, according
to (3) above, plus CO, CO 2 and COOH -], that takes them into the bright coal
band, where the gelified xylite will appear as telocollinite and the other humic
degradation products as detrovitrinite. This trend is accompanied by an increase
in HIC and the decrease in OIC ratios, as recorded by Hatcher et al. (1982) and
also observed by Black (1989) in a comparative study oflow and high rank lignites
from Eastern Southland, New Zealand. Conversely, ifmore severe oxidation during
humification led to substantial cross-linking, condensation and a preferential
replacement of aromatic hydrogen by oxygen (quinone formation) rather than
hydroxyl groups (catechol and phenol formation), the subsequent coalification
track will remain in the subhydrous field below the bright coal band. The resulting
bituminous coal macerals include (degrado-) semifusinite and various transitions to
macrinite.
The above-mentioned trend leading to the formation oflow reflecting inertinite
by humification is quite different from the formation of the telo-inertinite that is
1000
100
Lt
M-]
+/+-+,
+
I + Dk
M-d
Bd ' /0 B
/0 • B
10 Pa BD e-e /
/ ° Bd Fig. 5.20. Diagram showing the gelification
Db. IBD
D JI and tissue preservation indices of black and
brown coal lithotypes. Dots Example of a
/~.F
D 0 __________
predominantly bright coal, calculated from
Marchioni's (1980) analyses; open circles
.1 °F example of the predominantly dull Bowen
Basin coal, calculated from Table 4.7; crosses
a brown coal, calculated from George's (1982)
.01 +-~~~~~~~-~~~~-~
"01 .1 10 analyses in Table 4.4. Lithotype identifica-
TPI tions are as in Tables 4.3 and 4.6
50
40 NymPh.e. pe.! eo
70
Fi brous cool
(Fus.'n)
BO o F"lbrous coel
(Fus.'n)
30 so
20 60
40
10 SO
30
Or-~-U~~ ____ ~ __ 40
20
60 30
Ccrex peat 10
so 20
40 o~---~~~----~
10 Oul1 co. 1
30 40
O~-~~---~~- (Ou'OIn)
40 30
20
30 20
10
20 10
60
10
SO Panicum peot 40 B.nded dull co.'
O ~~~~~~~~U
30 (ClorodurOln)
40 30
30 20 20
20 10 10
10 o~~~~-W~~~~ o~~~~-U~~~~
40 40
or-~~~~--------
30 )0
40 Woodwerd l O peat
20 20
30
10 10
20
O~~~~~~~~~~
10 60
O~~~~---~~ 50 so
SO Cyr1J1~ put 40 40
40 )0 )0
30 20 20
20 10 10
o~~~~~~~~~.
10 68~~~~~~~~~·
70 Bright co.1 eright co. I
o~~~~---~L-
60 (Vllr .. n) 70 (Vltroln)
50 50 60
40 40 50
30 30 )0
20 20 20
10 10 10
o~~~~----~L- O~~~~--~~~~-
O~~~~----~~-
2 2 2 2 2 2 "iQ'" 2 2 2 2 2 2 '" 2 2 2 2 2 2 '"
"c "c "c "c "c "c "c "c "c "c :£ "iQL- "c c § "c "c :5 .,c
"iQ
:r t ~ "
L- L-
:;:;
E:;: :5 :5 :5 t :;:;
t a. "C :5 :5 :;:;
t a.
", ", , "," ," ", "," ," .."
L- CI. C L- L- L-
0 0
c c" "
":;: " c ::::; f "'0> "'0> c c "c ::::; f "'0> "'0> c c c ::::; f
q; Q; 0 0 0 Q; Q; 0 0 0 Q; Q; 0 0 0
I- 0'
+ Q; b Q; I- 0'
+ Q; b Q; I- 0'
+
q; b Q;
0
L-
-.;
I-
"
0
l!l 0
L-
-.;
I-
"
0
l!l 0
L-
-.;
I-
'"
0
l!l
0 0 0
concentrated in the fusain sample of Fig. 5.18. Its largest proportion consists of
pyro-semifusinite followed by pyrofusinite similarly to the gradation between the
two macerals illustrated in the charred wood in Fig. 3.19. Fusain has been derived
by incomplete combustion mainly directly from wood along the charcoal
generation track shown by the dash/dot line. Although charred peat might have
contributed to the formation of fusain, its microscopic appearance reveals little
evidence of biochemical gelification, which may account for its slightly elevated
aliphatic/aromatic ratio. It suggests that the large semifusinite fraction contained
in fusain was able to retain some aliphatics, because it missed out on the biochemical
increase in aromaticity Russell and Barron (1984) found to be a part of gelification.
Figure 5.20 displays a comparison of GI/TPI plots for two high volatile
bituminous coals, one consisting of predominantly bright lithotypes,and the other
being mainly dull and representative of one of the Bowen Basin coals listed in
Tables 4.7 and 4.8, and included in Fig. 5.18. Although their respective coal facies
indices differ in actual values, they follow the same trend in both examples with
bright coal (B) and fusain (F) displaying the highest tissue preservation, followed
by banded bright coal (Bd). High TPI and GI values have been interpreted as the
result of a high input by wood tissues and optimum biomass retention under
predominantly wet conditions. The position of the xylite (brown coal wood) samples
at the beginning of the bright coal band in Fig. 5.18 supports this notion, as well
as the comparison of the composition of Cohen's (1973) peat types, listed in Table
5.1, with the black coal lithotypes illustrated in Fig. 5.21. There is a striking similarity
between the Taxodium and Cyrilla peats and the vitrinite-rich lithotypes banded
bright and, to a lesser extent, banded coal. Bright coal (vitrain) could be included
too, although its progenitors would be pieces of wood or bark rather than a mixed
peat. Nymphaea and Woodwardia are the other peat types with some similarity
with coal lithotypes, in this case, banded dull coal. The Okefenokee peats, as well
as the bituminous coal samples, come from topogenous mires, which may account
for some of their similarities.
5.3.2 Brown Coal Lithotypes
As has been discussed in Chap. 4.3, brown coal lithotypes can be classified on the
basis of several physical properties, including texture and colour. See also
Hagemann (1978), who distinguishes between different lithotypes on the basis of
their wood and mineral content, matrix/tissue ratio, stratification, colour,
gelification, accessory components, and fragmentation pattern. In spite of some
~---------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 5.21. Comparison of the components of different peat types from the Okefenokee Swamp
(left column, after Cohen 1973) with the macerals composition of lithotypes from a predominantly
bright HV bituminous coal from the Sydney Basin, NSW (centre, after Marchioni 1980) and the
predominantly dull HV bituminous coal from the Bowen Basin used in Tables 4.7 and 4.8, and
Fig. 5.18 (right column). All components have been expressed in equivalent maceral terms
reservations about its petrographic significance (von der Brelie and Wolf 1981a)
the colour coding of lithotypes is quite common. Australian examples are listed
in Table 4.3, together with the respective textural features also used to distinguish
between different brown coal lithotypes. Beside the visual determination of
lithotype colour, there are optical methods available, by which a colour index or
the brightness of the coal can be determined. An example is the Hunterlab
Colorimeter used in Australia (Hunter 1979), which, as mentioned in Chap. 4.3.1,
gives a numerical value for the degree of "brownness" of ground and air-dried
26 66
28 68
30 70
32 72
34 74
36 76
38 78
40 80
42 82
44 84
46 86
46 88
50 90
92
52
54 94
56 96
58 98
60 100
62 102
64 104
Depthin
Metres
66
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Colour Index Colour Index
Fig. 5.22. Comparison of a lithotype and colour index log of an Australian brown coal seam
from the Gippsland Basin, Victoria. (After Mackay et al. 1985)
coal (Higgins et al. 1980; Attwood et al. 1984; Mackay et al. 1985). The colorimetric
°
determination is expressed by the colour index consisting of three parameters:
L = opacity, ranging from (black) to 100 (white); a = green/red ratio; b = blue/
yellow ratio (Russell 1984). The colour index correlates not only reasonably well
with the visual identification of lithotype colour, but, as shown in Fig. 5.22,
differentiates it even further. An alternative quantitative assessment of lithotype
appearance is by remission measurements (diffuse reflectance), which are carried
out under the microscope on freeze-dried coal samples. An intensity of 8% for the
remitted light determined at a wavelength of 660 nm in reference to a barium
sulphate standard is taken as the boundary between light and dark lithotypes
(Jacob 1958b, 1967; Wolff-Fischer 1989).
There has been an ongoing discussion in the literature about the nature and
origin of the colour banding in brown coals. Jurasky (1928), Teichmiiller (1950,
1958, 1989), Pflug (1952), Teichmiiller and Thomson (1958), Thomson (1950,
1951, 1954, 1956), Blackburn (1981) and Kershaw and Sluiter (1982) found good
correlation between colour-based lithotypes and their floristic content in Tertiary
brown coals, but Heinhold (1909), Gothan (1924), Pietzsch (1925), Walk (1935),
Jacob (1955), Hiltmann (1976), Hagemann and Hollerbach (1979), von der Brelie
and Wolf (1981a), Dehmer (1989b) and others dispute such a relationship for the
Rhenish brown coals and regard the colour banding as the result of different
biochemical conditions of peat formation from essentially similar phytogenic
precursors. The light brown and pale coals have been variously interpreted as:
1. rheotrophic, limnotelmatic "reed moors" with anemophilous pollen and spores

from extrapaludal sour.ces (Jurasky 1928; Teichmiiller 1950, 1958, 1989; Pflug
1952; Teichmiiller and Thomson 1958; Thomson 1950, 1951, 1954, 1956);
2. largely unvegetated, open water, lacustrine environments with mainly
allochthonous accumulation of reworked peat (Jacob 1968; Hiltmann 1976) and
plant detritus (Luly et al. 1980; Kershaw et al. 1982; Klein-Reesink et al. 1982;
Minnigerode and Riegel 1983; Gloe 1984);
3. the residues of aerobic decomposition of (ombrotrophic) peats consisting of
relatively stable components, such as liptinite (Heinhold 1909; von der Brelie
and Wolf 1981a; Hagemann and Wolf 1987);
4. terrestrial, i.e. relatively dry, wooded mire environment (Hiltmann 1976);
5. the dry end-members of repeated Gycles of groundwater oscillations between
high and low positions (Mackay et al. 1985).
The Australian brown coal lithotypes included in Fig. 5.23 bear little resemblance
in composition to either the bituminous coal lithotypes or to the Okefenokee peat
types of Fig. 5.21, both of which represent topogenous (rheotrophic) environments.
This assumption is based on the present setting of the Okefenokee Swamp and, in
the bituminous coals, on the high ash content, the occurence of several epiclastic
stone bands in the seams and on the frequency of seam splitting. In contrast, the
brown and subbituminous coals illustrated in Fig. 5.23 contain little ash and hardly
any stone bands, which would suggest an ombrotrophic origin. The gelification
indices of their lithotypes are very high (see Fig. 5.20), which is not a function of their
70
60
SO
40
30
20
10
0
80
70
60
SO
40
30
20
10
0
70
60
SO
40
30
20
10
0
70
60
SO
40
30
20
10
I
0
i
60 1Hf.
SO 6713A Dk
1~~~
40
30
:i:
'iO.
20
10
1111
!I!I::
0
TV D+GV In Lipt Min TV D+GV In Lipt Min TV D+GV In Lipt
Fig. 5.23. The maceral composition of the lithotypes of two brown coals and one subbituminous
coal (all Tertiary). Left column. Hauptfloz, Niederrheinische Bucht, Germany (after von der Brelie
and Wolf 1981b); central column Yallourn Seam, onshore Gippsland Basin, Victoria, Australia,
as in Table 4.4 (after George 1981); right column. Seam A and B in Fortescue A-3 Bore (after
Palmer 1986). TV telovitrinite; D + GV detro- + gelovitrinite; In inertinite; Lip liptinite; Min
minerals
rank, since Palmer (1986) reported similar GI values from stratigraphically

equivalent subbituminous coals at 3.3 km depth in the offshore Gippsland Basin.
The high GI readings correspond to generally low TPI values, which is due to
the predominance of humodetrinite (detrovitrinite), as shown in Table 4.4 and Fig.
5.23. The varying admixtures of some humotelinite (telovitrinite) result in limited
gradation in tissue preservation from dark to pale lithotypes. According to Table
4.4 the proportion of humotelinite (telovitrinite) decreases from 32% in the dark
to 7.3% in the pale lithotypes. A similar decline is shown by humocollinite

(gelovitrinite) and by densinite, the more gelified member of the humodetrinite
(detrovitrinite) subgroup. These trends are balanced by an increase of less or
non-gelified macerals within the light-coloured lithotypes, such as attrinite, plus
liptinite, in particular liptodetrinite and sporinite. The latter survives well in
subaqueous, reducing conditions, as is evidenced by its widespread occurrence in
oil shales and other sediments but it has also been found. to possess a good
preservation potential in oxidising environments (von der Brelie and Wolf 1981a),
provided they are not too alkaline (Pfaffenberg 1953/54; Taylor and Warne 1960;
Dehmer 1988).
While the presumably ombrotrophic Victorian brown coal shows little
resemblance to the rheotrophic examples in Fig. 5.21, its lithotype composition,
particularly the mostly high proportions of detro- and gelovitrinite, as well as the
compositional trends between different lithotypes, correspond well with German
Tertiary brown coals from Helmstedt and the Niederrheinische Bucht (Lower
Rhine Embayment), as reported by Winkler (1986) and von der Brelie and Wolf
(1981b), respectively. The composition of the latter is illustrated in the left column
of Fig. 5.23. The lithotypes have not been identified by colour, as in the Victorian
brown coal illustrated in the central column, but by their pollen content. According
to von der Brelie and Wolf (1981 b), an upward change from wet to moist conditions
is indicated by the combination of decreasing tissue preservation and palynological
variations. Samples 67/3A to 60/6B contain relatively high proportions of
telovitrinite (humotelinite), which is associated with a pollen assemblage consisting
of Sequoiapollenites polyformosus, Disaccites, Sciadopityspollenites serratus and
Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus in varying proportions. Because of the high
proportion of the latter, von der Brelie and Wolf (1981b) refer to this assemblage
as the wet "megaexactus forest", in which wood tissues were preserved because of
a high groundwater table and relatively rapid subsidence. The upward deterioration
in tissue preservation, as indicated by the shift from telo- to detrovitrinite +
gelovitrinite in samples 67/5 and 58/2, is accompanied by a change in the pollen
assemblage: Disaccites, Sciadopityspollenites serratus and Cyrillaceaepollenites
megaexactus decline in proportion and are replaced by Quercoidites microhenrici.
Apart from Sample 67/3A in Fig. 5.23, which with its high degree of tissue
preservation shows more resemblance to some of the rheotrophic peats or the
banded bright and banded bituminous coal lithotypes of Fig. 5.21, there is
considerable similarity between the maceral content of the wet "megaexactus forest"
and the dark and medium dark lithotypes of the Victorian brown coal illustrated
in the central column of Fig. 5.23. Also, the drier "microhenrici forest", represented
by Samples 67/5 and 58/2, shows considerable resemblance to the pale and light
lithotypes. As indicated above, the offshore portion ofthe Gippsland Basin contains
at depth sub-bituminous coals in stratigraphically similar position to the brown
coals in the onshore portion ofthe Latrobe Valley. Palmer's (1986) maceral analyses
of some of the subsections of two such seams are illustrated in the right column
of Fig. 5.23. As expected, they can be readily correlated with George's (1982)
colour-coded lithotypes in the central column. Corresponding to their rank close
to the boundary between biochemical and physico-chemical coalification, the
sub-bituminous coals have lost their brown coal habit but have not yet developed
full contrast between bright and dull bands. However, Samples A/5 to A/3, which
according to their relatively high detrovitrinite content correspond to the medium
dark (M-d) and medium light (M-1) brown coal lithotypes, are more distinctly
laminated into banded bright (Bb) and banded coal (BD) than Samples B/4 and
B/3, which appear more massive and matt. These observations support the genetic
relationship indicated in Fig. 5.18 by the coalification track leading from the two
perhydrous (because of high liptinite and lack of biochemical gelification) pale
brown coal lithotypes (Pa) to the likewise perhydrous banded dull coal (Db) and
the hydrogen-rich banded coal (BD). It should be noted that the inertinite content,
which hardly varies in the Victorian brown coal lithotypes, is higher in the slightly
matt sub bituminous lithotypes (Samples B/3 and B/4 in Fig. 5.23). It is assumed
that with increasing coalification more of the attritus, at this low rank still included
in detrovitrinite, might develop into low reflecting inertinite.
Because of the low soft brown coal rank (60 to 65% bed moisture) of the
Australian samples, the relatively high concentration of gelovitrinite (humocolli-
nite) in the dark lithotypes cannot be related to epigenetic gelification but is due
to advanced syngenetic humification with high bacterial activity. The latter is also
suggested by Dehmer (1988) for the dark lithotypes in the brown coal from the
Niederrheinische Bucht in Germany. In a comparative'study of the origin of colour
banding in peat and brown coal, she has found light and dark peat types in both
ombrotrophic and rheotrophic mires, the latter including limnotelmatic settings.
For example, the Mariscus peat from the Everglades in Florida is dark but the
likewise limnotelmatic Nymphaea peat from the Okefenokee Swamp is light-
coloured. Similar differences occur in ombrotelmites, such as a dark sedge peat
from Soos, CSR and a light Combretocarpus peat from Palangkaraya in Kalimantan.
Also when occuring in a raised bog setting, Cohen et al. (1989) find Nymphaea-
dominated peat to be least decomposed ( = fibric) and lightest in colour compared
with the other peat types they identified in the Panamanian Changuinola deposit.
The opposite is shown by the swamp forest peat, which is dark and rather
decomposed (= sapric).
While Cohen et al. (1989) regard persistence of wetness and accessibility of
oxygen as a controlling factor in peat type, Dehmer's (1988, 1989) work points
towards the hydrogen ion concentration in the peat-forming environment and the
pH-related microbial activity as being of paramount importance. Evidence for this
is seen in the high proportion of bacteria generated biomarkers, such as
homohopanes and picenes (see Chap. 5.5.2) found in dark peat types in contrast
to their paucity in light-coloured peats. In reference to the recent ombrotelmite
from Kalimantan, Dehmer (1988) concludes that the dark lithotypes of the brown
coal from the Lower Rhine area indicate weakly acid to neutral pH and a relatively
good supply of nutrients (eutrophy), whereas the pale lithotypes were formed under
oligotrophic and rather acid conditions with little input by bacteria. The result is
humification under more sterile conditions, which might account for the predomi-
nance of ungelified attrital tissue fragments in the pale lithotypes. The likewise
relatively ungelified pale lithotypes in the Tertiary brown coals of the Gippsland
Basin, Australia, support this interpretation, as well as the above-mentioned
observation that low Eh and pH conditions favour the preservation of cellulose

and unmodified lignin.
As has been discussed above, biochemical gelification raises the aromaticity
ofthe peat. It is therefore not surprising that the largely ungelified and liptinite-rich
(albeit much of it in very fine dispersion resulting in high fluorescence) pale
lithotypes contain a high alipathic/aromatic ratio (Johns et al. 1981) and plot well
in the perhydrous field of Fig. 5.18. According to Klein-Reesink et al. (1982) the
likewise perhydrous nature· of the pale lithotypes in the Eocene brown coals of
the Borken deposit near Kassel in Germany is due to the high proportion of
bituminite in the strongly fluorescing groundmass of the lithotype. This bituminite
is thought to be of algal origin and has been inherited from the lacustrine
environment in which the pale lithotypes accumulated. It is interesting to contrast
this conclusion with Winkler's (1986) observation that the brown coals from
Helmstedt in Germany contain alginite only in the dark lithotypes, whereas fungal
remains are more frequent in the light lithotypes.
Markov chain analyses by Mackay et al. (1985) have led to the recognition
of many depositional cycles in the Morwell Seam, Gippsland Basin, Australia, an
example of which is illustrated in Fig. 5.25. The cycles commonly begin over a
sharp basal contact with dark lithotypes, which may represent a rheotrophic phase
with influx of nutrients and low acidity, followed by more restricted oligotrophic
and possibly ombrotrophic conditions as the lithotype colour lightens upward.
Also Schneider (1986), based on palaeo botanic research, recognises a systematic
vertical change in seam development from eutrophic to oligotrophic conditions
in the Miocene brown coals of the Oberlausitz (Lusatia) in Saxony. A similar
genetic development was recognised by Dehmer (1989a) in Miocene brown coal
from the Oberpfalz in Bavaria, where the lowest ash contents of 4.3% (ad) are found in
the un banded pale lithotypes, which are interpreted as indicative of drier conditions.
Even stronger evidence for the capacity of ombrotrophic settings to produce light
coloured lithotypes has been reported from China by Lu and Zhang (1986) and
Jin and Quin (1989). The Pliocene brown coals of the Jinsuo Basin in Yunnan
Province contain a number of "yellowish brown" bands, (greyish white when
weathered), which consist of almost pure Sphagnum coal. The chemical composition
of these bands is not unlike that described by Johns et al. (1981) from the pale
bands of the Australian Gippsland Basin coal, i.e. they are characterised by high
extract bitumen, high H/C and aliphatic/aromatic ratios and low ash basicity.
Conversely, Dehmer (1988) finds higher proportions of alkanes, aromatics and
heterocompounds in the dark lithotypes of the Lower Rhine brown coals, compared
with the extract composition of their light-coloured bands.
As mentioned above, the ombrotrophic interpretation of the pale and
light-coloured bands has not found general acceptance. Blackburn (1981),
investigating megafossil/lithotype correlation in the Yallourn Seam of the
Gippsland Basin in Victoria, presents an almost reverse interpretation to that of
Mackay et al. (1985) by regarding the dark lithotypes as the "dry" termination
rather than the "wet" beginning of each depositional cycle, and Teichmiiller (1989)
has only recently reiterated her interpretation of the pale bands as being the
products of limnotelmatic accumulation. In the light of this controversy Dehmer's
(1988) petrographic and geochemical results from the Lower Rhine brown coal
and both ombrotrophic and rheotrophic peats from various parts of the world
are particularly interesting, because they suggest that the colour banding is not
primarily a matter of wet or dry formation but one of acidity, bacterial activity
and oxygen supply, which can be almost as effective in aerated water (Jacob
1968) as in air. This notion is supported by Jacob's (1952a) earlier work on the
hydrogen ion concentration in brown coal lithotypes, which showed that light-
coloured humus with a high residual tissue content shows a lower pH than dark
humus with low tissue preservation. The dark colour of the latter is related to its
higher proportion of bacteria generated colloidal humic substances. In the light
lithotypes the at least partial presence of oxygen and high acidity not only suppress
anaerobic bacterial activity and thus the formation of humic colloid, but the latter
are also actively destroyed by fungi. Most ofthese tolerate low nitrogen availability
and acidities ranging in pH between 3.5 and 5.5, whereas the majority of anaerobic
bacteria prefers a pH between 5.5 and 7.5 (Mohr and van Baren 1959; Zeichmann
1980) and a higher nutrient supply, including nitrogen (Flaig et al. 1975).
On the available evidence it can be concluded that pale bands are the product
of partial oxygenation, oligotrophy and its concomitant high acidity, which can
be achieved in raised bogs as much as in topogenous settings with limited nutrient
supply (low rheotrophy or minerotrophy).Since the question of pH has not been
addressed in the above mentioned rather contrasting interpretations (Items 1 to 5)
of the origin of light and pale lithotypes they may not be as exclusive of each
other as it seems at first sight. This conclusion encompasses the likewise contro-
versial question of phytogenic input. The various states of preservation of the
xylite plotted in Fig. 5.18 demonstrate that identical source materials can yield
different products, but the ecologic specificity of many plants and their sensitivity
to environmental changes (Connell and Slatyer 1977) assures that differences in
the position of the groundwater table, nutrient availability and pH will also affect
floral distribution in the mire. Different plant communities differ in their composi-
tion, such as their cellulosejlignin ratios. Given that under most peat-forming
conditions lignin is more likely to survive longer than cellulose (Hatcher et al. 1989a),
some influence of vegetal type on coal type cannot be denied.
5.4 Optical Properties as Palaeo-Environmental Indicators
As discussed in Chap. 3.2 and illustrated in Fig. 3.28 to 3.30, the fundamental
differences in physical and chemical properties of coal macerals become increasingly
obliterated during the physico-chemical stage of coalification. Few attributes of
coal demonstrate this convergence more clearly than the optical properties of
reflectance and fluorescence, which is the reason for their capability of being used
as rank indicators. However, even within such a relatively homogeneous maceral
as telocollinite, small but measurable differences in reflectance and fluorescence
intensities persist into advanced coalification. While some of these residual
Optical Properties as Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 215
variations may have been inherited from different vegetal sources, the discussion
below will show that others can be traced back to differences in the depositional
environment.
5.4.1 Vitrinite Fluorescence
Carbon atoms are joined with each other and with atoms from other elements by
covalent bonds, i.e. by pairs of electrons, in which one electron of each pair has
been donated by each of two adjacent atoms. Outer shell electrons are also shared
by adjacent atoms, but varying degrees of mobility are retained in conjugate double
bonds (Bertrand et al. 1986; Lin and Davis 1988a, b), as in the case in unsaturated
hydrocarbons, such as aromatics (e.g. in lignin), substituted aromatics (in various
plants), isoprenoids (e.g. in bacterial lipids) and carotenoids (high in algae).
According to orbital theory, the cause of the fluorescence is the recovery of
part of the irradiation energy as the excited electrons of an atom or molecule, which
had been elevated to higher energy orbitals by absorption of energy, return to the
ground state (Lin and Davis 1988a, b). Because a portion of the excitation energy
had been dissipated, the energy recovered by the return of the promoted electrons
to their original positions is of a lower level, i.e. of longer wavelength. As illustrated
in Fig. 5.24, when a substance that is capable of fluorescing, is irradiated with
ultra-violet light, the result will be fluorescence in the green band of the wave
spectrum. Alternatively, irradiation with blue light, which has been used in the
analyses discussed below, will result in likewise longer wavelength fluorescence. The
relatively mobile electrons that can be promoted to higher energy orbitals, are
referred to as n-electrons, and the chemical groups, molecules or their nuclei that
contain excitable n-electrons and therefore have fluorescent properties, have been
called fluorophores by Lin and Davis (1988a, b).
substance capable
of fluorescing
o
UV-radiation
365-f--=-=-=-=-=O_~
0::0::
°0°000:.0
400
"energy loss·
500
555 - - - - - - - .....- - -. . .
(green = visible) fluorescence
600
emission
700
Fig. 5.24. Schematic diagram illustrating
the energy loss between high energy
excitation and longer wavelength fluores-
cence. (After Holz 1975)
Although fluorescence properties of different spectral intensity are displayed

by most macerals (Fig. 5.25), the sensitivity and varied responses of cell tissue to
the conditions to biochemical coalification make vitrinite a particularly suitable
object of research in this field. As shown schematically in Fig. 5.26, in wood, peat
and brown coal the original plant tissue displays a strong primary fluorescence,
which is largely based on the biopolymers cellulose, lignin and various lipids (van
Gijzel 1975; Teichmiiller and Wolf 1977; Teichmiiller 1982; Teichmiiller and
Durand 1983; Russell 1984; Stout and Bensley 1987). With increasing biodegrada-
tion during humification, fluorescence intensities decrease, until they reach a
minimum before the onset of large scale repolymerisation at the beginning of the
physico-chemical stage of coalification (Teichmiiller 1982; Ottenjann et al. 1982;
Wolfet al. 1983b; Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984; Stout et al. 1989; Black 1989); Jin
3.4 Ro max Telocollinit-l.28"
J
~
17 ill y"-3.87 x+3.19
:f
3.0
16 .E r"-0.917
2.6 x Desmocollinlt
15
o Telocolllnit
2.2
14 + Makrlnlt
1.8
~
• Semlfus.+Fus.
13
12
J~ xo
1.4
~~ 1.0
~\;
'V
11
l
:\ 6 0.6
10
9 0\0 •
0.2
-0.2 B
't.
8 6 h6 \
'V 6~ • + +.r -0.6
:~
7 Iv y"-2.62x+l.41
6
.~6~~ ~::: :"~::!ocollinit
Telocollinit
-t\, .
\.. • 6
5
• • +.r \.+~ - 1 . 8 . Makrinit
4 .~. + Semifus.+Fusinit
•• •• ••• ;... -2.2 Ro max Telocollinit 0.80"
3 .:. .", • • +-r---r-,.------,r---.-..---,--.""--,--..."L
• .... + ~ -0.6-0.4-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
2 • ••
In Ro max
o
:g A.·• ~+~• •
••
+ •• ~.
~ y-~~ ..
~ o~'-"-'-r'-"-"-rl"--r'-"',-r,~,~.~,--',~~~,~,~':;'~'~'~+=;'~~~I·~,=;~~,~~~~,=T,=?i·~,-r"
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
" Ro max
Fig. 5.25 A, B. Correlation of fluorescence and reflectance intensities measured in various

macerals of two coals from the Sydney Basin, NSW, Australia. The left curve refers to the Great
Northern Seam, a high volatile bituminous coal of 0.80% mean Romax for telovitrinite; the right
curve represents the Bulli Seam, a medium volatile bituminous coal of 1.28% mean Romax for
telovitrinite. Real numbers have been plotted in A, whereas in B natural logarithms have been
plotted for the purpose of linear regression. (After Diessel and McHugh 1986)
\
\
....
>. \
\
en \
c:
....c:
(I) \
\
\
(I) \
0 \
c: \
.(1) \
0
en \
(I)
....
:.----------
0
:> \
\ ..............
--
IJ..
\ "-
*
"1 "-
Primary Secondary Fluorescence
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

% Rort
Fig. 5.26. Schematic representation of the correlation of micro-fluorescence intensities of

vitrinite/huminite with coal rank expressed as random telovitrinite reflectance. The dashed line
applies to a measuring wavelength of 546 nm, the solid line refers to 650 nm. (After Ottenjann
et al. 1982; Wolfet al. 1983b; Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984; Diessel1985a; Hagemann et al. 1989)
and Qin 1989). This decline in primary fluorescence properties as an expression

of the degradation of the biopolymers offers a possibility to quantify photometri-
cally degrees of humification (Jacob 1973). Its highest degree is reached
when depolymerisation is largely complete and fluorescence has almost ceased at
a vitrinite/huminite reflectance of approximately 0.5%. With increasing coalification
the depolymerised nuclei begin to combine again to form organic geopolymers,
in the course of which a condensed aromatic network and a mobile phase are
generated. By the time the rank of high volatile bituminous coal has been reached,
a secondary fluorescence has developed (Wolf et al. 1983b; Lin et al. 1986; Quick
et al. 1988), which, according to Lin and Davis (1988b), is carried mainly by the
fluorophores contained in the intervening mobile phase. Beyond the rank of high
volatile bituminous coal the mobile phase is increasingly degraded by thermal C-C
bond cracking and is partly released from the coal as fluids and gas, while the
cross-linking and condensation ofthe remainder results in the decline and eventual
disappearance of the fluorescence properties in semi-anthracite.
Marine influence on peat formation raises the pH, thus increasing bacterial
activity which, on the one hand, results in biodegradation and loss of biomass,
while on the other hand, bacteria-derived lipids are added to the humic degradation
products. Particularly active in the formation of some lipids are species of the
anaerobic bacterium genus Clostridium, which, according to Belyaev (1981), converts
cellulose into fatty acids. Because these bacteria share the same environment and
are often associated with the sulphate-reducing bacteria Desulphovibrio desul-
furicans and Clostridium desulfuricans (Degens 1965), syngenetic pyrite is often
found in coalified cell tissue (Given and Miller 1985). The resulting coal shows
low tissue preservation and a high proportion of detrovitrinite commonly with
some relative enrichment of the more hardy components, such as detrital inertinite
fragments, and/or liptinite. The latter is quite resistant in acid mires, but will
decompose under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. This leads to the formation
of dispersed liptodetrinite, which occurs as submicroscopic impregnations in humic
compounds, often too fine to be resolved by the optical microscope (see reference
to the aliphatic/aromatic ratio above), although they were readily identified in
TEM (transmission electron microscope) studies by Taylor and Liu (1987, 1989).
On a molecular scale the incorporation of bacterial lipids and absorbed and
otherwise finely dispersed liptinitic material into the variously humified precursors
of vitrinite increases the ratio between interstitial (intermicellar) material with low
aromaticity and the condensed aromatic clusters (micelles). The result is enhanced
development of the above mentioned mobile phase during physico-chemical
coalification, and a lowering of the rate of cross-linking and condensation of the
aromatic framework. In terms of optical properties the consequences are a
reduction in reflectance and an increase in fluorescence intensity of practically all
humic degradation products.
At this stage it is uncertain whether a genetic link exists between the strongly
fluroescent vitrinites described here, and the likewise highly fluorescent huminites
recently described by Jin and Qin (1989) from Mid-Pleistocene (!) brown coals
and younger peats in the Tengchong Basin in the western Yunnan Province of
China. Two seams of soft brown coal, the oldest dated 600 ka BP, occur within
240 m of what appears to be alternating fluvial and lacustrine sediments. In addition
to ordinary huminite (vitrinite) macerals, the coal contains members of this group
with unusually high H/C ratios and fluorescence. In these and other properties the
strongly fluorescent macerals appear to occupy a position between normal huminite
and liptinite, although their microscopic habit is that of huminite. Jin and Qin
(1989) refer to them as liptohuminite and distinguish the subgroups liptohumo-
telinite and liptohumocollinite. Both appear to have derived from Alnus glutinosa
wood, which is significant in view of the preference of this species for very wet,
including periodically flooded locations in eutrophic, topogenous mires of the
temperate zones of Europe and northern Asia. Jin and Qin (1989) found liptohuminite
to be commonly associated with "sclerotinite-like" phlobaphinite, which, together
with some of the liptohumotelinite tissue has been interpreted as mycorrhiza (root
nodules), i.e. a symbiotic association of intergrown root cells and fungal hyphae
producing lipid-rich tissue compared with unaffected roots.
Detrovitrinite shows generally higher fluorescence intensities than telovitrinite,
which can be related to three main causes:
1. Probably the main reason is the difference in aromaticity. As has been discussed
in Chap. 5.1.2, given similar conditions of biochemical coalification, telovitrinite
would form preferentially from lignin-rich (e.g. woody) progenitors, whereas
cellulose-rich herbaceous plants would be the preferred phytogenic sources of
detrovitrinite. At the beginning of physico-chemical coalification, the lignin-based
aromaticity, and this includes aromatic complexation (micelles) and cross-
linking, is therefore inherently higher in telovitrinite than in detrovitrinite. The
latter contains more intermicellar mobile phase and thus potentially more
fluorophores.
2. Since under conditions of marine influence cellulose can be partly converted

into lipids by Clostridium, within the cell tissue, the higher proportion of cellulose
in the precursors of detrovitrinite, once again results in increased fluroescence
compared with telovitrinite.
3. Because the capacity to absorb other substances increases with the degree of
degradation and colloidal transformation of the host material, pre-detrovitri-
nites may have absorbed more lipid-rich humic fluids than pre-telovitrinite. The
possibility of humic and other solutions being able to impregnate cell tissue
has been mentioned in Chap. 4 and is further supported by Dehmer's (1988)
discovery of presumably migrated angiosperm biomarkers (e.g. picene, a
polyaromatic triterpene-(see discussion of biomarkers in Chap. 5.5.2) in
humified conifer xylite.
In spite of its lower fluorescence response to irradiation, telovitrinite is the preferred
material on which fluorometric measurements are carried out, because its intensities
vary less widely than that of detrovitrinite, which commonly contains varying
amounts of submicroscopic liptodetrinite admixtures and, depending on the degree
offragmentation and colloidal transformation, accommodates fluctuating amounts
of fluorophores in its humic phases as well.
When plotted in relation to coal rank, the fluorescence intensities of telovitri-
nite, detrovitrinite and inertinite, measured at a wavelength close to their maximum
spectral intensity (A max), approximate normal Gaussian distribution curves with
varying kurtosis. The highest intensities occur at the transition from high to medium
volatile bituminous coal, after which the fluorescence deteriorates due to the
thermal destruction of the fluorophores during advanced coalification. An example
of the correlation of fluorescence properties and coal rank is illustrated in Fig. 5.27
which is based on freshly mined Permian Australian coals, all of which have been
18
16 0 0
o 0
00
0 0 00
...
14 00
0
••••
12
0° ~
.
o ....
•
.•
..~.:o
10
8
•
~
.
.. 0
;. a •
6 eO i
• re
;;:: 4 • ++ ++ +
+ ++ + 1:
8
i ~
"'1:+ .... +
*+
,
0
l{)
\l) 2 • :j: ... +
+ ...
+
+ +
~ 0
.4 .6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
% Rort
Fig. 5.27. Correlation of mean fluorescence intensities measured in Australian Permian coals in
water immersion at a wavelength of 650 nm (I 650 w) of telovitrinite (dots), detrovitrinite (open
circles) and inertinite (crosses) with coal rank, expressed as mean random reflectance oftelovitrinite
in oil immersion (% Rort). (After Diessel and McHugh 1986)
obtained from deep mines. The latter is important since open cut coal samples
often yield lower fluorescence values than would be expected on the basis of their
rank (McHugh 1986). Each entry in the diagram represents a mean of mostly 50
individual readings. In accordance with previous practice (Diessel 1985a),
measurements on inertinite macerals have been restricted to those with a
fluorescence intensity exceeding 0.5%. Data acquisition in fluorescence mode using
water immersion and blue light excitation of 450 to 490 nm wavelength has been
carried out as described by Diessel (1985a), Diessel and McHugh (1986), and
Diessel and Wolff-Fischer (1987).
The fluorescence intensity distribution illustrated in Fig. 5.27 is based on
ordinary humic coals without any marine or other unusual influence. As mentioned
above, coal seams which have been affected by marine conditions, either because
they carry a marine roof or because they were formed in a coastal setting, are
commonly characterised by excessive fluorescence intensities for both vitrinite and
inertinite. An example of this is illustrated in Fig. 5.28, using a comprehensive set
16 A B • c
14
12 • •• •
•
.....
".
• • •
10 ••
8
•
6 •
~ 4 .... •
g 2 .. •
r-- y =-
9.64 + 29.80x + 12.86x 2 Y = 4.59 + 1O.73x - 6.41x 2 =
y 14.55 + 1.77x - 4.58x 2
•
O~~--~--~~--~--~--~--~~--~~~~~--~--~~--~--r--
.6 B 1.2 1.4 1.6 .6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6 .6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
c: % Rort .
060 0 E .. F
-40
-60
.6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6 .6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6.6 .8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
% Rort
Fig. S.28A-F. Mean fluorescence intensities measured on telovitrinite in three sets of

Carboniferous coals from the Ruhr Basin in water immersion at a wavelength of 700 nm (I 700 wt).
A Normal humic coals formed on alluvial and upper delta plains; B coals with fresh-water
lacustrine to brackish roof sediments; C coals with marine roof sediments; D to F residuals as
normalised deviation (in %) from fitted curve in A. The two dashed bars in F and the corresponding
data points in C refer to the Greta Seam in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales
of Carboniferous coals from the Ruhr Basin. In this case, intensity measurements
were carried out at a wavelength of 700 nm, after comparative measurements on
identical coals under different analytical conditions demonstrated that 700 nm gave
the most even intensity distribution about the mode. The distribution curve of
Fig. 5.28A also refers to normal humic coals without any noticeable marine or
other unusual influence. Conversely, the distribution in Fig. 5.28B has been
constructed from coals which carry a lacustrine to brackish roof. Identification
of these conditions was based on the occurrence of the respective fossils in the roof
sediments, mainly bivalves, worm burrows and feeding traces (e.g. Planolites
ophtalmoides). In the lower coalification range the position of many data points
obtained from coals with strong bioturbation in the roof is well above the normal
distribution curve in Fig. 5.28A, whereas most of the seams with fresh-water
bivalves in the roof plot more closely to the latter. In the upper coalification range
all values converge with the normal distribution. Figure 5.28C gives the fluo-
rescence intensity values for the marine influenced coals. They all represent well-
known marine horizons in the European Carboniferous System including Aegir,
Domina (L Seam), Katharina, Wasserfall, Plasshofsbank, Girondelle and Wasser-
bank. Because they do not contain low rank examples, two samples from
the Greta seam from the Australian Sydney Basin have been added. The seam is
strongly marine-influenced and carries a rich brachiopodal fauna in its roof. The
lower rank coals display considerably higher fluorescence intensities than the
normal coals, and several samples plot also above the brackish-influenced coals.
In order to highlight differences between the three palaeo-environmental
settings, normalised residuals of the measured fluorescence intensities are illustrated
in Fig. 5.28D to F. The use of normalised residuals has the advantage that they
are independent of actual fluorescence values and thus allow comparison between
different instruments and methods of intensity determinations. In all three diagrams
the zero line represents the regression curve for ordinary humic coals displayed
in Fig. 5.28A, whereas the bars extending into the positive and negative regions
above and below zero indicate the deviation in percent of the measured values
from the fitted values in accordance with the regression equations indicated in
Fig. 5.28A to C. In Fig. 5.28D the positive and negative variations are more or
less in balance, although some very low values occur in the lower rank range.
They have been measured in stratigraphically high Westphalian C coals which are
situated not far below the Late Carboniferous unconformity and have been affected
by Permian weathering. According to Australian mining experience (Diessel,
unpubl. data) vitrinite fluorescence intensity (as well as Gieseler Fluidity) may be
suppressed to a depth of up to 150 below the present surface. As shown in Table 5.5
this has resulted in a slightly negative arithmetic mean. Diagrams E and F of
Fig. 5.28 display strong positive trends of the residuals, particularly the marine
influenced coals. Negative deviations occur in some high rank marine-influenced
coals, but they are likewise artefacts due to oxidation, having been sampled in
defunct open cuts.
Further applications of fluorescence measurements to coals from different
geological environments have been indicated in Table 5.5 together with arithmetic
means of the normalised residuals displayed in Fig. 5.28D to F, plus mean total
Table 5.5. Comparison of mean deviation (normalised residuals in %) of measured fluorescence

values (at 700nm) from fitted regression curve displayed in Figure 5.28 with mean total sulphur
(db) and liptinite contents for five palaeo-environmental groups of Carboniferous Ruhr coals.
Mean liptinite refers to coals with less than 1.25% mean random telovitrinite reflectance
Coals having the following characteristics:
Ordinary With Fresh-Brackish- Marine- Partly

humic coals densospores influenced influenced sapropelic
% Deviation -3.6 +8.0 + 10.8 +26.7 +30.9

n 86 43 28 17 14
Standard error 2.201 2.315 2.913 6.107 5.742
% Sulphur (db) 1.62 1.39 1.35 3.13 2.24
n 59 29 26 9 14
Standard error 0.113 0.114 0.119 0.513 0.345
% Liptinite 12.3 11.6 7.8 7.5 19.6
n 56 33 20 4 14
Standard error 0.753 1.231 0.968 0.289 1.923
sulphur and liptinite contents of the coals used in the construction of Fig. 5.28. In
addition, two new palaeo-environmental categories have been included in Table 5.5.
These refer to rlensosporinite-bearing coals and those with a conspicuous propor-
tions of sapropelic components in the whole coal sample. The former includes
samples which have also been used in the compilation of Fig. 5.28, where coals
were divided into the three illustrated palaeo-environmental categories on the basis
of their roof sediments irrespective of their spore content. Since samples containing
densospores occur in ordinary humic coals and those with fresh-water and brackish
roof sediments, the 43 samples with densosporinite listed in Table 5.5 do not
represent a new suite of samples but have been drawn from a combination of
these environments. This does not apply to coals with sapropelic influence, which
have not been previously included in Fig. 5.28.
The five palaeo-environmental categories listed in Table 5.5 differ in their mean
deviation of measured from fitted fluorescence intensities between - 3.6% for
ordinary humic coals to + 30.9% for coals with strong sapropelic influence, mainly
in the form of transitions to cannel coal. As previously noted, the negative mean
value is related to unusually low fluorescence intensities of coal seams situated
close to the Permian/Carboniferous unconformity. Likewise, some individual
negative values recorded among the marine influenced coals are similar artefacts,
the reduced fluorescence being related to the prolonged residence of the respective
coal seams (= splits of the Wasserbank Seam) under shallow cover beneath the
present day earth's surface. If these are subtracted from the listed figure, the new
mean for marine influenced coals increases to 31.8%, i.e. it exceeds the high value for
the partially sapropelic coals.
The fluorescence values of fresh-water to brackish-influenced coals differ only
insignificantly from those containing densosporinite. The reason for this is the
listing of several samples in both categories, i.e., a number of seams in which
densospores occur, are also overlain by either fresh-water or brackish sediments,
as, for example, is the case with the many splits of the Zollverein Seam. Indeed,
in the roof of Zollverein 1, the uppermost split of this seam, foraminifera (Michelau
and Tasch 1958; Rabitz 1966) and high boron contents (Ernst et aL 1960) have
been found in several parts of the Ruhr Basin, thus suggesting a weakly marine
rather than brackish influence. This situation is not unlike the marine cover on
the densosporinite-bearing Lower Kittanning coal of western Pennsylvania (Habib
1966; Habib and Groth 1967; Ting and Spackman 1975; Rimmer and Davis 1988;
Ting 1989).
While the fluorescence intensities of the Zollverein 1 Seam are well within the
range of those measured in strongly marine-influenced coals, a decline in vitrinite
fluorescence is noticed in coals with decreasing marine influence. This is due to
the suppression of bacterial activity under increasingly acid conditions, which
reduces both the microbial transformation of liptinite into protobitumina and the
contribution to fluorescence by bacteria-generated submicroscopic lipids. The high
fluorescence intensities recorded for coals with (presumably lacustrine) sapropelic
influence in Table 5.5 might therefore be surprising, but in these cases the supply
of liptinite is so large that even under less than optimum conditions of bacterial
activity a high amount of fluorescent liptodetrinite is produced and absorbed by
the humic degradation products. In this context note the mean liptinite content
of 19.6% listed in Table 5.5 for coals with sapropelic influence, which is almost twice
that indicated for normal or ordinary humic Ruhr coals. This is in sharp contrast
to the reduced liptinite percentages in the brackish and marine influenced coals,
which has been previously noted by Stach and Michels (1955/56) and Teichmiiller
(1962). The notion that pH has a controlling influence on the preservation of
sporinite and other liptinites is supported by Pfaffenberg's (1953/54) work on
Recent limnic peat deposits. Well-preserved pollen grains and cuticles were always
found in strongly acid peats but their state of preservation deteriorated sharply
with increasing alkalinity.
The highest values in Table 5.5 for total sulphur (db) occur in the marine
influenced coals, but even in the ordinary humic coals the arithmetic mean is still
elevated due to the inclusion of some exceptionally high sulphur concentrations
in the stratigraphically uppermost coal seams. Apart from the observation that
the sulphur contents of both marine and freshwater influenced coals are generally
higher in the warm-climate Carboniferous coals than in equivalent cold-climate
Gondwana coals, the sulphur concentration in these coals is related to their specific
stratigraphic position. As has been mentioned above, they are situated not far
underneath the Carboniferous/Permian unconformity above which the Permian
system begins with the saline Zechstein deposits from which the mainly pyritic
sulphur in the coal has been derived by seepage of sulphate complexes and
subsequent reduction.
5.4.2 Vitrinite Reflectance and Other Rank Parameters
Over the past 30 years vitrinite reflectance has become the most widely used
parameter in assessing coal rank (Murchison 1958, 1987; Teichmiiller and
Teichmiiller 1966a; Davis 1978; Neave11981; Bustin et al. 1985; Teichmiiller (1987)
including maturation levels in dispersed organic matter (DOM), also referred to
as kerogen (Bostik 1973, 1979; Murchison et al. 1985; Robert 1981, 1988). Its
usefulness in this field is due to its precision, excellent repeatability, satisfactory
reproducibility, and the possibility to make numerous low cost assessments on
very small sample sizes and quantities. In addition to its primary role as rank
indicator, vitrinite reflectance can also be employed to reveal small variations in
photometric responses of isometamorphic vitrinites due to differences in source
material and palaeo-environmental conditions. When used in this role, it is important
that the measurements are carried out on comparable macerals (e.g. telocollinite
only), and that the changing pattern of vitrinite reflectance with increasing rank
is taken account of. The latter aspect refers to the relatively high dispersion and
slow increase in vitrinite reflectance in low rank coals up to the level of high
volatile bituminous coal. At this low rank interval, characterised by a low degree
of condensation of the aromatic molecular fabric, reflectance depends on changes
in refractive index, which proceed slowly. This changes in the more advanced
stages of physico-chemical coalification, when increased condensation and
cross-linking of the aromatic clusters results in increased molecular ordering such
that absorption becomes the dominant fundamental optical property causing a
more rapid increase in reflectance (Murchison 1987).
The changing rate of reflectance with increasing coalification means that
reflectance variations in isometamorphic vitrinites due to differences in source
material -and depositional conditions are large in low rank coals but become
gradually eliminated with increasing coal rank. An example of this is illustrated
in Fig. 5.29, in which the mean random telovitrinite reflectance of coal seams
encountered in two deep diamond drill holes sunk into the Upper Carboniferous
(Westphalian A to C) strata of the Ruhr Basin in Germany has been plotted against
present depth of burial. The relatively low reflectance values in KB Specking 1
display a considerably larger scatter compared with the tighter correlation of
reflectance with depth of burial shown by the higher rank coals encountered in
KB Bergbossendorf 1. Although a great deal of low rank reflectance scatter may
be rather unspecific, persistent deviations from an average reflectance/depth of
burial curve, particularly at higher rank levels, have probably a good chance of
being traced to a palaeo-environmental cause. Among these are coals with sapropelic
and marine influence, which have been indicated by crosses and open circles in
Fig. 5.29. In both bores they consistently take up positions at the low reflectance
side of the data distribution. These observations agree well with the fluorescence
behaviour discussed above and also support the previously mentioned suppression
of vitrinite reflectance values in coals that contain alginite (Hutton and Cook 1980;
Hutton et al. 1980; Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984; Kalkreuth and Macauley 1984,
1987; Price and Barker 1985) or large amounts of other liptinite macerals
(Kalkreuth 1982; Goodarzi 1985b; Correa da Silva et al. 1985; Wenger and Baker
1987; Correa da Silva 1981, 1989). The last-mentioned author, as well as Correa
da Silva and Wolf (1980), also considered facies changes to be the reason for the
vertical changes in vitrinite reflectance and other rank parameters observed in
Brazilian coal seams.
900 ••
I.
.
-,...
1000
'J
•
1100 +••
• • ... .....
•
1200
+. 0
1300 ++ ••
• •••
1400
••• •
••• ••
1500
•
,
Fig. 5.29. Correlation of mean random ••
telovitrinite reflectance (% Rort) of coal
+
0
••
seams measured in KB Specking 1 (left) and 1600
+
:. •
•••••
Bergbossendorf 1 (right), two diamond drill E
•
holes sunk into the Upper Carboniferous ::;; 1700
•
•
0
(Westphalian A to C) strata of the Ruhr 4-'
c-
Basin, with current depth of burial. Crosses (J)
0 1800
coals with sapropeJic influence; open circles
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 14 1.6
coals with marine influence. (With data
kindly supplied by Ruhrkohle AG) % Rort
Although most authors, following Jones and Edison (1978), Teichmiiller (1982)
and Kalkreuth (1982) and others, have regarded absorption oflipids or bituminous
substances as the main reason for the increased fluorescence and suppressed
reflectance of vitrinite, this notion has been challenged by Wenger and Baker
(1987). They subjected powdered high-TEOM (total extractable organic matter)
samples with suppressed vitrinite reflectance (compared to associated humic coals)
to 48 h of Soxhlet extraction with chloroform, during which a large proportion
of the contained bitumens was removed. A comparison of vitrinite reflectance
values measured before and after Soxhlet extraction showed no significant
difference. Wenger and Baker (1987) conclude therefore that the suppression of
vitrinite reflectance is not so much a consequence of actual absorption of low
reflecting matter, but that both are concomitant effects of anoxic depositional
environments, which caused this vitrinite to be lower in carbon and to advance
in physicochemical coalification at a lesser rate than a vitrinite formed under more
oxic conditions.
Another example of the influence of depositional facies on vitrinite reflectance
is the general trend towards lower values in vitrinites occurring as dispersed organic
matter (DOM) in predominantly inorganic sediments compared with isometamor-
phic vitrinite measured in associated coals. According to Damberger (1968), Jones
et al. (1972) and Goodarzi (1985b), the reflectance of dispersed vitrinite depends
on the thermal conductivity of the rock matrix, its permeability, and underground
water circulation. Different enclosing rock types have different effects on vitrinite
reflectance. In some sediments, such as shale, a uniform trend towards lower
reflectance than that recorded in associated coal has been found, while in others,
such as limestone, opposing trends were reported from different localities (Timofeev
and Boguliubova 1970; Kuenstner 1974; Bostick and Foster 1975; Goodarzi 1985b).
In a comprehensive study over a wide rank range in the Carboniferous coal
measures of the Ruhr Basin, Scheidt and Littke (1989), found a consistent decline
of isometamorphic vitrinite reflectance from coal to sandstone, while mudstone
and siltstone occupied an intermediate position. Although the authors considered
the possibility of bias towards telocollinite in the coal samples, they regard
enhanced microbial activity due to decreasing acidity gradients from coal to
sandstone environments as a reasonable explanation for the lowered vitrinite
reflectance.
Variations in vitrinite composition have likewise been held responsible for the
considerable differences in vitrinite reflectance encountered in some isometamor-
phic coals from the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island (Newman 1985a, b).
These coals are of Cretaceous to Eocene age, they are quite thick (in some cases
over 10m) but of variable lateral extent. The coals of the non-marine Paparoa
Coal Measures (for stratigraphic details and depositional setting (see Chap. 9.2)
are the thickest but are discontinuous and rarely exceed a few kilometres laterally.
Seams in the overlying marine-influenced Brunner Coal Measures are thinner but
can be correlated over a much larger area (Newman 1985b). Coal ash contents
are low to very low, occasionally averaging less than 1% in the raw coal, which
may contain in excess of 90% total vitrinite. Coalification is variable, but when
of bituminous rank, the coals exhibit extraordinarily high swelling and fluidity
values.
29
23
•
27
20 • •
25 •
••
•
24
••
3"
l:
>
23
: f'
-w.
Fig. 5.30. Diagram showing the partial depen-
dence of the volatile matter yield of Australian
isometamorphic coals (Rort = 1.22 ± 0.1 %) on
~ 22
90 80 70 00 50 10 30 20 their inertinite content (Y = - 7.6x + 243.6). (After
" Inertinite (mf) Diessel and WoltT-Fischer 1987)
Wellman (1952) and Suggate (1959) were among the first to realise that in the
West Coast coals of New Zealand the conventional rank parameters, such as
elemental carbon and volatile matter, displayed variations which are explained
neither by differences in thermal maturity (physico-chemical coalification), nor by
contrasting petrographic composition. An example of the latter's influence on
volatile matter yield is illustrated in Fig. 5.30, but such extreme differences do not
occur in the New Zealand coals referred to. As mentioned above, vitrinite,
particularly detrovitrinite, is their predominant constituent, whereas inertinite
occurs only in small proportions, although liptinite contents are quite variable.
Unless vitrinite contains a high proportion of submicroscopic liptinite, the strong
variations in vitrinite reflectance, volatile matter yield and other properties found
in isorank West Coast coals must be related to vitrinite chemistry. In order to
reduce the influence of extraneous effects, Suggate (1959) adjusted volatile matter
yields to a "dry mineral matter andl sulphur free" (dmmSf) basis:
VM (dmmSf) = 100[VM (db) - 0.1 ash (db) - sulphur (db)] .

(5.7)
100 - 1.1 ash(db) - sulphur (db)
Following detailed investigations of ash composition, Newman (1986) and Newman

(1987a) changed the above correction method to read:
VM (dmmO.5Sf) = 100[VM (db) - a (db) - 0.5sulphur(db)]

100 - ash (db) - a (db) - sulphur (db) + As (db) + Afe(db)
(5.8)
where a = ~0.40[K20 x ash (db)]/lOO (illite)

0.35[Al 20 3' x ash (db)/I00 (kaolinite), where A1 20 3' = Al 20 3- 2.5K 20)
0.78[CaO x ash (db)/100(CaC0 3)
1.10[MgO x ash (db)/100(MgC0 3)
0.55[Fe20 3 x ash (db)/100(Fe 20 3);
and As = (S03 x ash (db)/l00 = sulphate (in ash) factor
Afe = 0.1 (Fe 20 3) x ash (db) = iron (in ash) factor.
By using the above formula (5.8), Newman (1986) updated Suggate's (1959) volatile
matter/moisture relationship as illustrated in Fig. 5.31. The curve refers to an
average coal type and samples which plot in the fields above or below the average
are inferred to have been derived from either stagnant, poorly oxygenated or
relatively well-drained mires, respectively. By combining this concept with the
tissue preservation index (TPI) discussed above, Newman (1987b) was able to
distinguish between various peatland types including raised bog (low TPI, VM
deficient, also low in ash), wet brackish (low TPI, above average VM, also high
pyrite content), and frequently flooded (high TPI, variable but close to average
VM, also higher in ash) conditions.
Since vitrinite reflectance correlates well with volatile matter yield it is not
surprising that Newman and Newman (1982) and Newman (1985a, b, 1986,
45
40
Q 35
1fJ
In
c:i
E
E 30
~ Fig. 5.31. The "average"
~ volatile matter/moisture
relationship for New
tfi 25
0 2 4 6 8 10 Zealand West Coast coals.
% Moisture (ash freel (After Newmann 1986)
1987a, b) found an inverse relationship between the two rank parameters in isorank
coals of different type. They concluded that the coals with the highest volatile
matter, which tend to have lower than normal rank-related reflectance, formed in
poorly drained, ponded swamps, whereas the lowest volatile coals with relatively
high reflectance, accumulated in raised bogs.
5.5 Geochemical Palaeo-Environmental Signatures
Coal contains a large variety of major, minor and trace elements, some of which
have been inherited from its vegetal progenitors, while others have been introduced
from outside sources. These elements have been combined to form many different
compounds in response to source material and depositional setting. It should
therefore be expected that such a rich reservoir of elements and their compounds
contain chemical signatures of the physical, chemical and biological conditions of
peat formation. These chemical signatures can be discussed on an elemental, as
well as a compound level. When employed as palaeo-environmental indicators,
the form of occurrence of a particular element is not an important consideration,
which is different when studying compounds. The latter do not necessarily contain
special elements and, when of organic origin, consist mostly or rather common
elements, such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the interest in this
group is related to the manner in which the common elements have been combined
to form organic compounds of unique biochemical significance, which makes them
analogous to index fossils in biostratigraphic reconstruction.
5.5.1 Elements of Palaeo-Environmental Significance
Because the elemental composition of coal and its ash is one of the quality
parameters frequently determined in routine analyses for a variety of practical
purposes, it was the generally high concentration of sulphur in coals with marine
Geochemical Palaeo-Environmental Signatures 229
roof sediments that was first noted to be of palaeo-environmental significance

(Mackowsky 1943; Stach 1949; Edwards and Baker 1951; Petrascheck 1952; Brooks
1954; Teichmiiller 1955; Balme 1956; Degens 1958; Suggate 1959; Diessel 1961;
Bailey 1981; and others mentioned elsewhere in this text). Subsequent studies by
Ernst et al. (1958, 1960), Keith and Degens (1959), Potter et al. (1963), Eagar and
Spears (1966) on the distribution of boron and other trace elements in coal and
clay minerals extended further the scope of identifying marine influence on coal
and fossil-free sediments. It is not surprising therefore that much of the geochemical
interest in the elemental composition of coal has been directed towards the
identification of palaeosalinity indicators.
While most of the early work was carried out on whole-coal samples, Alpern
and Quesson (1956) used autoradiography for the detection of inorganic elements
in individual macerals. Since then the comparison of elemental spectra of vitrinites
from different sources by Chen et al. (1981), Minkin et al. (1987), Morelli et al.
(1988) and Lyons et al. (1984b, 1987, 1988a, b, c) has opened new avenues for the
microchemical analysis of coal constituents made possible by the development of
new microprobe techniques (Dutcher et al. 1964; Augustyn et al. 1976; Boateng
and Phillips 1976; Stanton and Finkelman 1979; Finkelman 1981; Minkin et al.
1979, 1982, 1983; Chen et al. 1981; Gaines and Page 1983; Wolf et al. 1983a;
Makjanic et al. 1983; Thorne et al. 1983; Dobell et al. 1984; McIntyre et al. 1985;
Martin and McIntyre 1985; Palmer and Wandless 1985; Martin et al. 1986;
Creelman et al. 1986; Hamilton and Salehi 1986; Salehi and Hamilton 1986;
Corcoran 1989; Salehi et al. 1989), among which laser micro mass spectrometry
(Denoyer et al. 1982; Morelli et al. 1987, 1988; Lyons et al. 1984b, 1987, 1989a, b, c)
holds particular promise for future palaeo-environmental coal research. Another
new technique for the detection of trace elements is instrumental neutron activation
analysis (INAA), which has been used by van Berkel and Filby (1988) to determine
nickel and vanadium contents in porphyrins of Green River oil shales.
The elemental composition of coal has been inherited from two sources: the
bulk ofthe coal consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, which have been
contributed by the coal's phytogenic precursors, mainly in the form of cellulose,
lignin, proteins and lipids. In addition to these organic compounds plants contain
small amounts of inorganic matter which they have extracted from the substratum
on which they grew. A list of the elements essential in plant growth is given in
Table 5.6. List of elements necessary for healthy plant growth. (After Weier et at. 1974, Nicholas
and Egan 1975, and Warbrooke 1981)
Carbon C Potassium K Zinc Zn

Hydrogen H Sodium Na Molybdenum Mo
Oxygen 0 Calcium Ca Copper Cu
Nitrogen N Magnesium Mg Cobalt Co
Phosphorous P Iron Fe Vanadium V
Sulphur S Manganese Mn Chlorine Cl
Boron B
Table 5.6. According to Weier et al. (1974) and Warbrooke (1981) these elements
are utilised by plants in mainly four different modes:
1. The bulk elements C, Hand 0 form the structural components of the plant
body and its organs.
2. Some of the extracted elements become part of organic molecules affecting
various forms of metabolism, such as Mg and N in chlorophyll, P in adenosine
triphosphate, Nand S in proteins etc.
3. Several kinds of trace elements are contained in enzymes, which catalytically
determine the course of many physiological functions, e.g. B in carbohydrate
breakdown, Mn as activator in anaerobic respiration, Co in bacterial nitrogen
fixation etc.
4. Some alkalis (K, Na) are contained in the cell sap in ionic form where they
assist in maintaining osmotic balance.
In view of the important functions of trace elements in plants it is not surprising

to find similar trace element spectra in peat and coal (Palmer and Cameron 1988),
although their molecular association may be very different. Apart from the higher
proportion of bioliths in peat and brown coal than in bituminous coals, many of
their inorganic elements are bound to humic and other derivatives of organic acids
(Miller and Given 1978) or occur in amorphous and poorly crystallised minerals
(Cohen et al. 1989), only to be re-arranged during coalification (epigenetic
recrystallisation).
Apart from the essential elements listed in Table 5.6, most plants absorb
additional elements that happen to be dissolved in their intake water (Weier et al.
1974). The presence of such non-essential elements in vegetal matter is often an
indication of their concentration in the substratum and is therefore used in the
geochemical prospecting for ore-bodies. It is likely that regional differences in the
distribution of non-essential trace elements in identical coal macerals reflect similar
variations in the elemental uptake by the parent plants in response to different
geochemical mire settings.
The primary reservoir of elements concentrated by the coal's vegetal progenitors
is supplemented by a large variety of elements contributed to the coal from the
depositional environment in the form of adventitious minerals. By definition of
the term coal the total ash content must be less than 30%, i.e. the contributed
mass from this secondary source of elements has to be relatively small, but the
various introduced elements may exert a strong influence on the chemical
conditions of peat accumulation and thus on the composition of the organic
compounds as well.
The concentration of a non-detrital inorganic element in coal is subject to
several constraints, the first of which is its availability in the depositional environ-
ment. The second constraint is its solubility in water. Apart from carbon and
oxygen, which terrestrial plants extract from the air in the form of carbon dixoide
by photosynthesis, all other elements which have been chemically incorporated in
peat either organically or as authigenic minerals, were once dissolved in water.
Water is the continuous phase that acts as solvent, transmitter and donor of
elements, and thus constitutes an indicator for mire chemistry, irrespective of

whether it occurs above ground or is confined in the substratum. In Table 5.7
average concentrations of a number of elements contained in modern river water
and sea water are compared. The listed enrichment factors, although they must
be regarded as general guides only and are bound to vary from case to case,
indicate a considerable degree of contrast between the two environments, which
are likely to affect the chemical milieu of any mire under their influence. Similar
contrasts are likely to have affected the peatlands of past geological periods, since
ocean water appears to have reached more or less its present composition well
before the onset of large scale coal formation (Rankama and Sahama 1950; Kramer
1965; Krauskopf 1967).
The third constraint is its precipitability in immobile form, which depends
on the presence of other suitable elements or compounds with which the element
can combine in order to form a stable, water-insoluble compound. In reference
Table 5.7. The mean distribution of some elements with contrasting concentrations in modern
fresh- and sea water of 3.5% salinity. (After Wedepohl 1969 and Warbrooke 1981)
Element Concentration (ppb) in Enrichment factor in

Sea water River water Sea water River water
Ag 0.28 0.39 1
AI 1 360 360
As 2.6 1.7 2
B 4450 13 342
Ba 21 11 2
Ca 411000 15000 27
Co 0.39 0.19 2
Cr 0.2 1 5
Cu 0.9 3 3
Fe 3.4 670 197
Ga 0.03 0.09 3
K 392000 2300 170
La 0.003.4 0.2 59
Li 170 3.3 52
Mg 1290000 4100 315
Mn 0.4 6 15
Mo 10 1 10
N 670 230 3
Na 10800000 63000 1714
Ni 6.6 0.3 22
P 88 19 5
Pb 0.03 7 233
S 90400 3733 242
Si 2900 6113 2
Sr 8100 50 162
Ti 1 2.7 3
U 3.3 0.06 55
V 1.9 0.9 2
Y 0.013 0.07 5
Zn 5 25 5
Zr 0.026 2.61 100
to Table 5.7 this means that a high enrichment factor of an element, such as
shown by sodium in sea water, is oflittle consequence ifthe element has a preference
for mobile and, in the case of sodium, water-soluble compounds. Conversely,
sulphur and boron are very successful palaeosalinity indicators because they form
stable compounds in spite of their rather modest enrichment factors compared
with sodium.
The fixation of an element can take several forms, including organic
complexation by living plants, as well as by humus colloids. Many minor elements
are absorbed into the co"al by the formation of organo-metallic complexes during
biochemical coalification (Zubovic 1966; Cooper and Murchison 1969). Also
sorption on clays, and reaction with other dissolved elements followed by
precipitation as authigenic minerals are common modes by which inorganic
elements become part of the coal ash. The precipitation of authigenic minerals is
commonly related to changes in chemical equilibrium which destabilise the
dissolved element. Such changes may involve the redox potential, hydrogen ion
concentration and water temperature (Warbrooke 1981). Additional changes may
be brought about by variations in salinity due to the flooding of a fresh-water
swamp by sea water, or the dilution of brackish swamp water by an influx of
fresh water. Another source of change in the elemental concentration of peat water
depends on the activity of sulphate reducing bacteria.
From the above discussion follows that in palaeo-environmental analysis it
is desirable to know the origin of the elements contained in coal in terms of the
relative contribution made by the various inherent and adventitious sources.
Emphasis in this chapter is not on the major elements C, H, 0, and N, but on the
minor and trace elements, that are commonly concentrated in the ash.
Elements whose proportion correlates positively with the total ash content of
the host coal are of adventitious origin, having been added to the organic matter
either by authigenesis or as detrital minerals. In the coal seams of New South Wales,
Slansky (1985) found the percentages (by weight) ofSi, AI, Ti, K, and Mn to increase
with ash yield, which can be accounted for by the high clay content ofhigh.:ash coals.
An interesting method of elucidating the elemental origin has been applied
by McCarthy et al. (1989) to the peat deposits ofthe Okavango Swamp by comparing
the elemental composition of peat with the average composition of the source
plants. In their case the source plants were not only known but also extremely
low in species, which made the task of obtaining an average composition of the
feedstock relatively easy. The principle of the method is explained in Table 5.8
and Fig. 5.32, where the total ash (db) in peat (or coal) is plotted on the abscissa
(X-axis), while the proportion (normalised to total ash) of plant ash is plotted on
the ordinate (Y-axis). McCarthy et al. (1989) found the amount of inherent plant
ash to average 5%, which therefore marks the starting point of Column 2 in
Table 5.8. If there is no other source of ash (e.g. allochthonous minerals) and the
inherent ash has not been increased, for example, by excessive oxidation or other
removal of organic matter, the 5% plant ash corresponds to the total peat ash, as
indicated in Column 1. In view of the inevitable loss of biomass, this correlation
is not strictly correct, but considering that also some inorganic matter is lost
during humification, it gives a minimum value. In relative terms, the plant ash
100
A B
90
60
70
.J::
60 Ul
-<{
.J:: 50 Ul
Ul
-<{ "o
:;:;
...., 40
:;:;
C
<IJ 30 c
L <IJ
<IJ >
.J:: 20 "0
E -<{
~ 10 ~
o·.I-~~~~~~:::=~*=- ....... .j............~-~~~~~~~~

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100
% Total Ash % Total Ash
Fig. 5.32 A, B. Diagrammatic representation of the proportion of inherent (A) and adventitious
ash (B) in total ash. (After McCarthy et al. 1989)
Table 5.8. Calculation of the changing proportion of plant ash (inherent) and its components in
total ash content of peat (or coal) with varying degrees of mixing between inherent and adventi-
tious ash. (After McCarthy et al. 1989)
Total ash Plant ash in Relative % plant Relative % of component n

in peat (%) total ash (%) ash in total ash in total ash
1 2 3 4 5
5 5.0 100.00 60.00 20.00

10 4.5 45.00 27.00 9.00
20 4.0 20.00 12.00 4.00
30 3.5 11.66 7.00 2.33
40 3.0 7.50 4.50 1.50
50 2.5 5.00 3.00 1.00
60 2.0 3.33 2.00 0.67
70 1.5 2.14 1.28 0.43
80 1.0 1.25 0.75 0.25
90 0.5 0.55 0.33 0.11
100 0 0 0 0
constitutes therefore 100% of the total ash content of the peat. A reverse situation is
indicated at the bottom of each of Columns 1 to 3. The total ash content is 100%
(db), which means that the material is totally adventitious (e.g. a stone band) and
does not contain any organic matter. The proportion of plant-derived ash in total
ash is therefore zero. Between the two extremes, Columns 2 and 3 give the
incremental changes in the contribution of plant ash to total ash in absolute and
relative percentages, respectively. A graphic display of the relative distribution of
inherent plant ash is given in Fig. 5.32A, while the opposite relationship of the
relative proportion of adventitious ash in total ash is illustrated in Fig. 5.32B.
If the plant ash were to consist of one element only, the relative proportion
of the latter would coincide with the trace of the former illustrated in Fig. 5.32A.
70 A B
60
50
{i 40
-<{
c Zone of Enrichment
.~ 30
...,
c
~ 20
o
0-
E 10 Zone of
o
u Depletion
~ o~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Tot1l1 Ash % Total Ash
Fig. 5.33 A, B. Diagram illustrating the proportion of a wholly plant-derived component n in total
ash under the conditions of incremental mixing with adventitious ash. In A the concentration of
n in pure plant ash is 60%. Succesive dilution with adventitious ash reduces the proportion of n
in the total ash content along the illustrated curve (mixing line). In B pure plant ash is assumed
to contain between 20 and 30% of component n. The single mixing line of A is therefore replaced
by a mixing band constrained by the upper (60%) and lower (20%) curve. (After McCarthy et aL
1989)
In practice this is unlikely to happen, but a similarly shaped curve can be drawn
for each elemental percentage in peat, if its proportion in the original plant ash
and the total ash content of the peat are known.
Another hypothetical example is given in Table 5.8, Column 4 and Fig. 5.33A,
where it is assumed that a component "n" makes up 60% of the total ash and has
been inherited exclusively from the source plants without any contribution from
external sources, such as allochthonous minerals or the like. Two entries can be
made in the diagram, one at 100% total ash, where n is zero, and one at 5% ash,
where its proportion is 60%. Increasing admixtures of adventitious ash to the pure
plant ash produce a trace, called "mixing line" by McCarthy et al. (1989) between
the two entries, which is obtained by calculating 60% of each of the entries in
Table 5.8, Column 3 in reference to their corresponding values in Column 1. As
indicated in Fig. 5.33A, any analysis result for component n that plots above the
mixing line is either partly adventitious, or has been concentrated in some other
way, for example, by oxidation of the organic matter. Conversely, any entry below
the mixing line indicates depletion of component n by postdepositional processes,
e.g. leaching. Where source plants with different ash contents have been recorded,
an upper and lower mixing line can be used resulting in a "mixing band". An
example of this is illustrated in Fig. 5.33B, where component n has been assumed
to range in plant ash between 60 and 20%. The results of the respective calculation
are given in Column 5 of Table 5.8. It is obvious that the hypothetical data plot
will conform to the configuration of the mixing line illustrated in Fig. 5.32B, when
the source of the element is totally adventitious.
When applying this method to coal, considerably more assumptions will have
to made. Since neither the composition of the source plants nor their ash content
is known, both have to be estimated from the coal itself. This can be done by
either hand picking a sample of clean vitrain, or by crushing and washing the coal
to the density of clean coal. The density of mineral-free coal depends on its maceral
distribution and rank. Because devolatilisation in the early stages of physico-
chemical coalification affects the relatively heavy oxygen more than hydrogen-
bearing compounds, many macerals drop in density untill hydrogen becomes
increasingly part of the degassing process beyond the rank of medium volatile
coal. The pathways of maceral densities in relation to rank are illustrated in Fig. 5.34.
The ash contents of various density fractions of the Dudley Seam, a high volatile
bituminous coal from the Newcastle Coalfield in eastern Australia, are illustrated
in Fig. 5.35. Also included are three samples of hand-picked vitrain from the same
seam plus the respective analysis results obtained from four samples of clean
ombrotrophic peat. The results indicate that at a density of 1.3 g/cm 3 the coal has
reached an average ash content of3% (by mass), which can be regarded as a reason-
able approximation of the inherent ash, because the value is very close to the
density of 1.28 g/cm 3 for clean vitrain for this coal rank (see Fig. 5.34), and further
washing or hand picking does not seem to alter the result significantly. The value
of 3% ash, which represents the mean value for the three vitrain samples from the
Dudley Seam, has been used in the calculation of the mixing line for the elements
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5 Fusinite
Semifusinite Macrinite
'" 1.4
E
o
....Cl
>- 1.3 Vitrinite
l-
e;;
Z
UJ
o 1.2
Fig. 5.34. The density dis- Liptinite

tribution of some macerals 1.1 +------.--------y------,--
and maceral groups in rela- 70 80 90 100 %C
tion to coal rank. (After van
Krevelen 1961; Dyrkacz i I Iii
et al. 1984; Diessel and 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 2.0 4.0 %Rort
Wolff-Fischer 1986) 1.0 1.5 3.0 6.0
60
••
SO .,
.-
Q)
•
c.
40
u
:<=
0
c. .".;:
c
!::;
•
!::;
0
30 I...
.c
1:l
Q) I
E
0
-'"
u
.0.
• Fig. 5.35. Diagram illustrating
20 .,
c I the ash contents of various
1:l
Q)
.,c • density fractions of the Dudley
U ~
Seam, Newcastle Coal Measures,
.r:: 10 Sydney Basin, NSW, Australia,
• •
(f)
-<{ plus the respective values for
~ 0 some peat samples. (Calculated
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 >1.6 from analyses by Naucke 1980;
Washing Fraction (g/cm 3) Ward 1980; Warbrooke 1981)
listed in Table 5.9. As an example of the application of the method, the results
obtained from the various washing fractions ofthe Dudley Seam and some adjacent
coals of similar composition, are illustrated in Fig. 5.36 for the two compounds Si0 2
and Fe 2 0 3 . The silica values follow a pathway not unlike the one illustrated in
Fig. 5.32B for adventitious matter, whereas iron is more randomly distributed with
more values plotting close to the mixing line. As expected, the greatest departure
from the mixing line occurs for all analysed elements in the highest density fractions,
where the largest proportion of detrital admixtures occurs.
The analyses of the Dudley Seam, for which a topogenous setting is assumed,
revealed no unequivocal evidence for element depletion, which would have been
indicated by the respective results plotting below the mixing line. In contrast, consi-
derable depletion should be expected in coals of extremely low ash content. Examples
are some of the above mentioned West Coast coals from New Zealand, as well as
Table 5.9. Calculation of the changing proportion of inherent ash in total ash content of a high
volatile bituminous coal and some of its constituting elements with varying degrees of mixing
between inherent and adventitious ash. (Based on analysis results reported by Warbrooke 1981)
% Coal Vitrain ash Vitrain ash SiOz Al 2 0 3 Fe z0 3 PzOs

ash absolute % relative % % % % %
3 3.0 lOO.OO 61.65 19.51 5.370 0.360
lO 2.7 27.00 16.64 5.27 1.450 0.097
20 2.4 12.00 7.40 2.34 0.644 0.043
30 2.1 7.66 4.72 1.49 0.411 0.028
40 1.8 4.50 2.77 0.88 0.242 0.016
50 1.5 3.00 1.85 0.58 0.161 0.011
60 1.2 2.00 1.23 0.39 0.107 0.007
70 0.9 1.29 0.79 0.25 0.069 0.005
80 0.6 0.75 0.46 0.15 0.040 0.003
90 0.3 0.33 0.20 0.06 0.018 0.001
lOO 0 0 0 0 0 0
100
80 • . ..
• ..
60
.•
40
20
N
0
Fig. 5.36. Two diagrams <h 0
illustrating the proportion 8
of silica (top) and iron
oxide (bottom) in various
density fractions of the 6
~..
Dudley Seam and related
coals from the Newcastle
4
Coal Measures, Sydney
Basin, NSW, Australia.
The drawn-out trace repre-
sents the mixing line (after 0
.. 2
McCarthy et al. 1989) of N
CII
each of the two elements if u. 0
they were wholly plant- 0 20 40 60 80 100
derived. % Ash in cOZll
the brown coals from the Gippsland Basin in Victoria, Australia, and others. The
total ash content of some of these coals, determined on raw coal, is less than 1%,
which is lower than the plant ash of their vegetal progenitors. There are two possible
reasons to account for the depletion: one is due to rain- and groundwater leaching,
while the other results from a nutrient conservation strategy, whereby essential
elements are recycled from senescent and dead vegetable matter to living plants.
McCarthy et al. (1989) found evidence of this strategy operating in the topogenous
and rheotrophic Okevango Swamp, but it would be a more common mechanism
of sustaining healthy plant growth in an ombrotrophic setting.
Although plant-derived elements frequently form chelate complexes and other
organic compounds (Kiss and King 1977, 1979; Kiss 1981, 1982; Given and Spackman
1978; Miller and Given 1978) whereas adventitious matter occurs commonly in
inorganic compounds, both groups of elements can enter into a variety of different
bonds. The determination of the various modes of molecular associations of
elements in coal has been based mainly on statistical correlations, for example, by
Gluskoter et al. (1977). A more recent study of the occurence of elements contained
in coal in organic, inorgainc or both phases was carried out by Warbrooke and
Doolan (1986), who established a theoretical distribution pattern for an organically
and inorganically bound element in five different density fraction of washed coal.
Figure 5.37 A shows the distribution of a wholly organically bound element in five
density fractions of a hypothetical coal expressed on dry (db), dry organic matter
free (domf) and dry mineral matter free (dmmf) bases. According to Warbrooke
3.5
3 A
01 2.5
......
01
::J. 2
....c:
III 1.5
E
III
W
0.5
Fig. 5.37 A, B. Two diag-

0
rams illustrating the dis-
800 tribution of an element in
B five density fractions of a
700
--
hypothetical coal. The ele-
01 600 ment has been calculated
01 to three different bases: dry
~ 500 (db) = dots; dry organic
c: matter free (domf)= tri-
III 400 angles; and dry mineral
E matter free (dmmf) = squa-
III 300
W res. In A the element is
200 assumed to be organically
bound, in B it is considered
100 to be restricted to the
mineral impurities of the
0 coal. (After Warbrooke
Fl.30 Fl.40 Fl.50 Fl.60 S 1.60 and Doolan 1986)
and Doolan (1986), the configuration of the three resulting curves is unique for
the organic affiliation of the element, which is characterised by a strong dependence
on the density (i.e. ash) of the coal for the (dom/) base, weak dependence for the
(db) base and no dependence for the (dmm/) base. In contrast, the inorganic
affiliation of an element illustrated in Fig. 5.37B, shows constant concentration on
a (dom/) base, because the diluting effect of the organic matter has been eliminated,
while the same element calculated to (db) and (dmm/) base increases with increasing
density.
The two distribution models obtained by the above method are then compared
with actual analyses of the respective washery fractions by statistical correlation
analysis. The results, which display the changing preferences of a large number of
elemets analysed in six major coal seams of the Sydney Basin (Australia) are given
in Table 5.10 together with some general seam characteristics. The listed elements
are divided into 5 groups in order of increasing inorganic affiliation. Group 1
elements have the strongest organic and Group 5 elements the strongest inorganic
affiliation. Individual codes have been numbered in the same manner and, although
the numbers assigned to each code will mostly reflect the group in which the
element has been listed, small variations occur in response to the other encoded
properties. Alpha coding is as follows: 0 = organic bond, I = inorganic bond,
Table 5.10. General coal characteristics and elemental bonding in some coals of the Sydney Basin
in eastern Australia. (After Warbrooke and Doolan 1986)
Seam: Big Bore- Victoria Austral- Great Wonga-

Ben hole Tunnel asian North. willi
Ash (db) 17.1 24.1 37.6 36.9 14.S 24.0

V.M. (db) 33.2 29.6 24.4 24.8 29.6 22.6
Total S 0.92 0.48 0.30 0.36 0.34 0.57
Vitrinite 68.S 80.4 84.6 83.9 46.3 74.1
Liptinite 9.6 6.6 S.O 1.9 6.S O.S
Inertinite 21.9 13.0 10.4 14.2 47.2 2S.4
Romt 0.80 0.91 0.90 0.83 0.80 1.19
Group 1 elements
Carbon ION ION ION ION ION ION
Hydrogen ION ION ION ION 1 OL 1 OL
Nitrogen ION ION ION ION ION 1 ON
Oxygen 1 OL 1 OL ION 1 OL 1 OL ION
Sulphur (org.) 2 ON 2 ON 2 ON ION 1 OL 1 ON
Germanium 1 OL 3 BN 10M 1 OL 2 ON 3 BN
Group 2 elements:
Molybdenum 1 OL S 1M 10M 10D 3 BN
Nickel 4 IN 2 ON 1 OL 2 ON 1 OL
Group 3 elements:
Beryllium 3 BN 3 IN 3 IN 2 BN 3 BN 4 IN
Bromine 3 BM 3 BM 3 BM 3 BN 3 BM
Chromium 3 BM
Copper 3 BD 3 BM 3 BD 4 IN S ILD 3 BM
Mercury 3 BD 3 BD 31M 4 IN 41LD 10D
Scandium 3 BD 3 IN 4 IN 10M 3 BN 4 IN
Selenium 4 IN 1 OL 10M 4 IN
Tungsten 4 IN 1 IN
Vanadium 3 BD 3 BD 3 BD 4 IN 3 BN 4 IN
Yttrium 3 BD 4 IN 4 IN 3 BN 3 BN
Group 4 elements:
Arsenic 4 IN SID 3 BN 4 IN
Boron 3 BN 4 IN 4 IN 3 BN 3 BN S IN
Cerium 4 IN 10D S ILD 4 IN 4 IN 4 IN
Gallium S ILD 4 IN S ILD 4 IN 4 IN 41N
Lanthanum S IN 41N S ILD 3 BN 3 BD 4 IN
Lead S ILD 4 IN S ILD 4 IN 4 IN 3 BD
Silver S BD 4 IN 4 IN 41LD S ILD 4 IN
Strontium 4 IN 4 BN S ILD S ILD 4 IN 4 IN
Sulphur (inorg.) 4 IN 10M 4 IN 4 IN 4 IN 4 IN
Thallium 4 IN 4 IN 41LD 4 IL 41N 4 IN
Titanium 4 IN SID 4 IN 41LD 41LD 4 IN
Uranium 4 IN 41LD 4 IN S IL 4 IN 3 BM
Zirconium 4 BN 4 BN 4 BN 4 BN 4 BN 3 IN
Group S elements
Aluminium SID S IL S IN S IN SID SID
Antimony SID SIM S IL SID 3 BN
Barium SIM S IN S IN SID S ILD S IN
Cadmium SID SIM S 1M 4 IN
(continued)
Seam: Big Bore- Victoria Austral- Great Wonga-

Ben hole Tunnel asian North. willi
Calcium 5ILD 5ILD 5 IN 5ILD 5 ILD 5 IN

Caesium 5ID 5 IL 5 1M 5 IN
Fluorine 5ILD 5 IL 5ILD 5ILD 4 IN 5 IN
Iron 5ILD 51LD 5 IN 51LD 4 IN 5ID
Magnesium 51LD 5 IN 5ID 51LD 5 1M 5ID
Manganese 5ID 5ILD 5ID 5 ILD 51LD 5 ID
Phosphorous 5 IN 3 BN 4 IN 4 IN 4 IN
Potassium 5ILD 5ID 5 1M 5 1M 5ID 5 1M
Silicon 5 1M 5ID 5ID 5ID 5ID 5 IN
Sodium 51LD 5ID 5 IN 5 ILD 5 IN 5 IN
Tin 4 IN 4 IN 5 IL 5 IL 4 IN 5 IN
Thorium 5ID 5ID 5ID 5 IL 4IN 41M
Zinc 4 IN 5ID 5ILD 5ILD 3 BD 5 IN
B = both organic and inorganic bonds. The concentration of inorganically bound

elements in the light, middle and dense washery fractions is expressed by the letters
L, M and D, respectively, whereas N stands for non-fractionated. The results
demonstrate that the occurrence of elements in coal in organic or inorganic bond,
or both, follows broad patterns of preference. However, in some cases significant
differences between seams have been recorded, which may reflect local conditions
of the accumulation of peat and its post-depositional history.
This above results demonstrate the considerable contrast in the percentage
distribution of elements obtained for the different analysis bases used for the
calculation of the results. The same element concentration in the coal yields very
different numerical values depending on whether the analysis results are expressed
on a db, dmmf or domf basis. The difference in information obtained from the
post-analysis treatment of the results has also been stressed by Glick and Davis
(1987) on the basis of a regional study of inorganic element distribution of US
coals. By using cluster analysis techniques they found that in spite of some local
variations between the major elemental composition of coal seams, a well-defined
partition into regional/stratigraphic clusters consisting of eastern, interior and
western provinces was recognised. This provincialism lends support to Finkelman's
(1981) notion that positive statistical relationships between elements indicate a
common source. Work by Minkin et al. (1982), Slansky (1985) and Lyons et al.
(1989c) likewise support the notion of strong provincialism in elemental distri-
bution.
5.5.1.1 Sulphur
The distribution of sulphur and sulphur-bearing minerals in coal has been variously
referred to in previous chapters, the following discussion therefore emphasises the
origin of sulphur and its characteristics. Based on similarities between the

occurrence of this element in Recent peats and some u.s. coals of Carboniferous
age, Casagrande (1987) concludes that all syngenetic sulphur in coal can be
accounted for in the peat stage. The main source of sulphur in low sulphur coals
« 1% total sulphur) appears to be the peat-forming plants themselves and their
saprophytes, where it occurs mainly in amino acids, cuticles and exines (Brooks
1954; Berner 1971). Although most of this sulphur is organically bound, the work
of Altschuler et al. (1983) suggests that small amounts of pyrite can be formed by
bacterial reduction of organic sulphur compounds. Sulphur isotope studies of
Smith and Batts (1974) and Price and Shieh (1979) demonstrate that the sulphur
e
isotope ratios 4 Sj 32 S) of low sulphur peats and coals are characterized by a small
relative enrichment in the heavier isotope and plot consistently within a narrow
band of a34 s = + 4.6 to + 7.3 permil. Casagrande's (1987) sulphur isotope ratios
obtained from low sulphur fresh-water peats of the Okefenokee Swamp are slightly
higher and range from + 9 to + 13 permil. These figures correlate well with the
isotope ratio of + 10 permil obtained from the peat-producing Nymphaea vege-
tation, where sulphur is contained mainly in proteins. The reason for the compara-
tively high a34 s is the small supply of sulphur in non-marine environments, which
forces sulphate-reducing bacteria to make use of all available sulphur in spite of
their preference for the lighter isotope (Price and Shieh 1979; Westgate and Anderson
1984; Lyons et al. 1989b).
In contrast to the narrow spread of positive values for a34 s found in coals
with a low total sulphur content (most of this is organic sulphur), the isotope ratios
of high sulphur coals (> 1% total sulphur) are more variable. This is a reflection
of the greater abundance of sulphates in sea-water, which allows preferential
reduction of the 32S-isotope (Lyons et al. 1989b). The combined values reported
by Smith and Batts (1974), Price and Shieh (1979) and Love et al. (1983) range
from - 6.49 to + 24.4 permil, whereas Casagrande's (1987) analyses of marine
influenced Florida peats with sulphur contents up to 10% (much of it in the form
of pyrite), yield only negative values ranging from - 8 to - 30 permil, while Lyons
et al. (1989b) quote a range of - 17.8 to 28.5 permil for high-sulphur Carboniferous
U.S. coals. These results are in agreement with the findings of Kaplan et al. (1963),
Kaplan and Rittenberg (1964) and Price and Shieh (1979) that hydrogen sulphide
formed by the bacterial reduction of sulphates is enriched in 32S thus giving 15
to 40% lower a34 s values than those obtained from the original sea-water sulphate,
currently at a a34 s ratio of + 20 permil (Casagrande 1987). The sulphur isotopic
ratio of sea water sulphate is a reflexion of the sea water ratio. which, for past
periods, is commonly obtained by analysing the isotope ratios of evaporates. On
this basis the isotopic ratios of sea water seem to have fluctuated during the earth's
geological history, although no unanimity exists about the precise values. For
example, Holster and Kaplan (1966) give a a34 s ratio of + 18.5 permil for Late
Carboniferous sea water, whereas Claypool et al. (1980) suggest +15 permil. For
Permian sea water, which is of special interest for Gondwana coals, Claypool et al.
(1980) give a a34 s ratio of + 10 to + 15, whereas Smith and Batts (1974) suggest
+ 20 to + 24 based on sulphur isotope determinations on massive pyrite
concretions in the Greta Seam of New South Wales.
The reduction of sulphates contained in sea water by the anaerobic bacteria

Desulphovibrio desulfuricans and Clostridium desulfuricans results in the oxidation
of organic matter. According to Berner (1971), the following reaction applies to
carbohydrates:
(5.9)
The generated H 2 S reacts either with organic matter to produce organic sulphur
or with ferrous iron resulting in the syngenetic precipitation of pyrite (Casagrande
1987) or any of the other modifications of FeS 2 • There is a preference for pyrite
to form under neutral to slightly basic conditions, whereas marcasite prefers a
more acid environment according to Tarr (1927), Edwards and Baker (1951),
Rosenthal (1956), Rickard (1975) and Littke (1985). In particular, the work of
Sweeney and Kaplan (1973), Berner (1970), Berner et al. (1979) and Cecil et al.
(1979) has shown that framboids of pyrite cannot be generated at low pH condi-
tions, which is supported by Littke's (1985) observation of low framboidal pyrite
counts in coal seams or parts thereof assumed to have been formed under acid
conditions. Conversely, marine influenced coal seams are generally high in their
content of framboidal pyrite. Iron, being a very common and widespread element,
appears to be freely available under peat-forming conditions, probably from within
the mire. Because of its frequently observed concentration in the vicinity of dirt
bands and near roof and floor sediments, it has been suggested (Reidenouer et al.
1967; Klare 1983; Littke 1985a) that some iron has been transported into the
swamps. The consequences of marine influence on sulphur distribution in coal will
be further explored in Chap. 8.
While the bulk of sulphur in coal is either organically bound or contained in
Fe-sulphides, other metal sulphides have been listed by Mackowsky (1968).
Additional sulphur has been found in coal as sulphate, although many such
occurrences have been interpreted as artefacts resulting from sulphide oxidation
during sample preparation (Ward 1989). As a natural coal component sulphate
has been reported from arid zones, such asLeigh Creek in South Australia (Kemezys
and Taylor 1964), and from Utah, U.S.A., by Ward (1986a). In both cases, the
mineral concerned was epigenetic gypsum, possibly precipitated from percolating
groundwater (Ward 1989).
5.5.1.2 Boron
As indicated in Table 5.7, boron shows a significant enrichment in sea water, where
it occurs mainly as boric acid and its dissociation products (after Kemp 1956):
(5.10)
Boron owes its use as a palaeosalinity indicator to its concentration in seawater

(Table 5.7) and tight fixation in clay minerals, notably (in order of preference) illite,
montmorillonite and kaolinite (Harder 1961; Couch 1971). Its initial absorption
appears to be followed by metasomatic substitution, since boron is considered to

be an ideal replacement for aluminium, particularly in the tetrahedral position. In
reference to mica, Degens (1965) calculated the theoretical limit of tetrahedral
aluminium substitution by boron to amount to a maximum boron content of 2.9%.
Since the highest analysed boron content amounted to only 0.2%, he concluded
that substitution affects only the outer aluminium positions and ceases once they
have been replaced by boron.
Because the fixation of boron in clays involves reactions between fluid and
solid phases, the effectiveness of the fixation depends on the total surface area of
the solids (clay minerals), the concentration of boron in the fluid (water), its
temperature, and the reaction time. Analysed boron concentrations vary therefore
not only between different depositional environments but also within similar
settings in response to variations in the above reaction parameters. Illite-rich
marine clays have been found to contain boron concentrations ranging between
100 and 200 ppm compared with 10 to 50 ppm in fresh-water clays (Degens 1965).
However, Spears (1971) believes that salinity is not the only controlling factor in
boron fixation, and suggests that in many cases boron is allochthonous, having
been transported into the mires with clay minerals from physiographically mature
hinterlands.
Because ofthe particular mode of its fixation in clay most palaeo-environmental
studies involving boron were targeted on coal measure shales and the clay-rich ash
concentrations of coal. However, from a comparison of the distribution of elements
in different density fraction of Newcastle coals from the Sydney Basin, Warbrooke
(1981) concluded that in addition to its fixation in clays, a large proportion of
boron is organically bound. Since its proportion is higher than can be attributed
to the boron content of the parent plants, it appears to be absorbed by the humic
degradation products during peat formation. This conclusion concurs with the
high boron content of 400 to 450 ppm analysed by Lyons et al. (1989c) in vitrinite
concentrates of marine-influenced coals from Illinois. These boron concentrations
far exceed those found by Bohor and Gluskoter (1973) in illites (200 ppm maximum)
from the Illinois Basin. Since the boron in vitrinite does not correlate positively
with either ash or silica, Lyons et al. (1989c) conclude that it is organically bound.
Apart from being a valuable palaeosalinity indicator in its own right, boron
has also been used in ratios with other elements, such as boron/lithium and
boron/gallium. However, none of this work was carried out on the coal itself but
either on interseam sediments (Degens et al. 1957; Ernst et al. 1958) or on sediments
unrelated to coal (Walker and Price 1963; Reynolds 1965).
5.5.1.3 Other Elements
In addition to the two classical elemental palaeosalinity indicators, sulphur and

boron, there are some other elements, which have been associated with marine
influence on coal. One of them is phosphorous which according to Table 5.7 has
a fairly low enrichment factor in sea water but has been found to be concentrated
in some marine influenced coals (Mackowsky 1968). In spite of its occurence as
an essential elemental in living plants, phosphorous does not appear to be bound

to organic matter in coal (Brown and Swaine 1964), but occurs mainly as
fluor-apatite (Brown et al. 1959; Cook 1962; Durie and Schafer 1964; Kemezys
and Taylor 1964; Ward 1978; Corcoran 1979), although, as mentioned in
Chap. 4.4.2.4, Diessel (1961) reported hydroxyl-apatite and phosphorite together
with conodonts and possible fish teeth from the sapropelic upper portion of
Katharina Seam in the Ruhr Basin. Other phosphorous-bearing minerals, such as
goyazite, an aluminium phosphate of the crandallite group, have been reported
from Australian coals by Ward (1974, 1978, 1989) and form the U.S.A. by Palmer
and Wandless (1985).
Among the common carbonate forming metals, calcium and magnesium are
enriched in sea water, and iron in river water (Table 5.7). The frequent occurrence
of dolomite in marine and of siderite in fresh-water-influenced coals bears out this
relationship. However, the mineralogical distinction is less clear on the elemental
level, where marine influenced coals appear to contain more iron than fresh-water
coals because of their high pyrite concentration (A. Bailey 1981).
Another element, which has been mentioned as a possible palaeosalinity
indicator, is manganese (Spears 1964), which according to Table 5.7, shows a small
amount of enrichment in sea water. Warbrooke (1981) found manganese in
Australian coals to be equally distributed between organic and inorganic phases,
but none of the common manganese minerals have been found (Frazer and Kinson
1972). According to Brown and Swaine (1964), it occurs mainly in siderite, calcite
and dolomite, where it replaces iron and some of the alkaline earths.
Nitrogen has been associated with both increasing (Stach et al. 1982) and
decreasing (Suggate 1959) marine influence. Warbrooke (1981) found the nitrogen
content of Australian Sydney Basin coals to decrease with increasing departure
from marine conditions. However, in the same direction the coals changed from
predominantly bright to dull coals, which suggests that nitrogen, which commonly
occurs in organic bond, has a preference for vitrinite, rather than a particular
depositional environment.
Additional elements that have been found to be enriched in marine influenced
shales, include nickel, cobalt, vanadium and copper (Potter et al. 1963; Tourtelot
1964; Swaine 1967), although A. Bailey (1981) reports an enrichment in fresh-water
coals for the latter. According to Swaine (1967), lead also appears to be slightly
enriched in non-marine coal seams. Concentrations of these and other elements
are often overly dependent on the geochemical spectrum of the mire setting to be
universally useful as palaeosalinity indicators. Better palaeo-environmental resolu-
tion may be obtained by establishing ratios of several elements, as has been done
for both carbonaceous and non-carbonaceous sediments (Ernst 1970). When used a
ratio, even soluble elements, such as sodium and potassium may be useful indicators.
For example, in the Ostrava-Karvina Coalfields of Czechoslovakia Kessler et al.
(1967) found the Na/K ratio to show positive correlation with the degree of marine
influence.
Finally, the depletion in cerium has been mentioned as a possible palaeosalinity
indicator by Lyons et al. (1989c). These authors found particularly low Ce-contents
in vitrinite concentrates in marine influenced coals from the Illinois Basin, which
suggested to them leaching by sea water, which is depleted in cerium.
5.5.2 Organic Geochemical Characteristics
Although most vegetal constituents undergo profound changes during coalification,

some organic molecules found in coal can be traced back to their phytogenic
precursors, because they either remained unchanged or were altered only
insignificantly, mainly by loss of hydroxyl, carboxyl and other functional groups
leaving the carbon skeleton intact (Tissot and Welte 1978). For this reason they
have been variously tagged with such terms as "biological markers", "biomarkers",
"biological fossils", "geochemical fossils" or "chemofossils", because they provide
information about the phytogenic sources of the coalified biomass and thus about
the depositional environment. Seifert and Moldowan (1986) have listed the
following qualities demanded from a chemical compound before it can fulfill its
role as a biomarker or chemofossil:
1. It should have a high degree of specificity towards its source material;

2. it should be relatively abundant;
3. it should be detectable with precision in a complex mixture;
4. it should have a wide distribution in different basins with varying thermal
histories.
Most of the early studies of these compounds were directed towards the
identification of the biological progenitors and maturity levels of crude oil, but
over the last decade increasing use has been made of geochemical signatures in
palaeo-environmental studies of coal as well. This rapidly developing branch of
organic geochemistry has become so complex that only a brief overview can be
given in this chapter. Biomarkers that are either mainly found in crude oil or
merely indicate derivation from higher plants, which may be of interest in the
search for the biogenic precursors of oil and natural gas, are not considered here,
because detailed knowledge of the vegetal sources of humic coal can be obtained
much better from their spore and pollen content, as well as from other associated
plant fossils. Emphasis will therefore be on those chemofossils in coal which can
provide specific information about peat-forming environments. For a more detailed
treatment of the subject the reader is referred to the specialised literature or some
comparatively recent summaries provided by Brooks and Welte (1984), Philp
(1985), Johns (1986) and Yen and Moldowan (1988).
Geochemical biomarkers have two principal sources consisting either of
molecules synthesised by living plants, or of the metabolites generated by
saprophytes (bacteria and fungi) feeding on the plants after their death. Lipids,
carbohydrates, amino sugars and acids formed in this manner were found in peat
by Given and Dickinson (1973) and others, which gives testimony of the important
contribution made by microbes to the products of humification and subsequently
to coal. Because higher plants, which have been the main contributors to peat,
are relatively poor in lipids (Tissot and Welte 1978), concentrations of the latter
in coal correspond therefore to a high input of lipid-rich algal plant material, or
to enhanced bacterial activity during the peat stage. As has been variously referred
to, the latter activity is related to the biochemical milieu of the peat-producing
environment and its depositional setting. Although concentrations of lipids in coal

are indicated by high fluorescence or can be detected in transmission electron
microscopy (Taylor and Liu 1987, 1989), their identification and correlation with
the phytogenic precursors responsible for their presence requires the application
of chemical methods.
The two kinds of chemofossils, i.e. source plant- or microbe-derived, differ in
their respective usefulness for the palaeo-environmental enquiry. In geologically
young deposits, source plant-derived biomarkers can be compared with those from
living representatives of the same genera or species, whose environmental preference
is known. With increasing age of the coal, fewer 'Plants with living representatives
will have contributed to the original peat, which increases the degree of uncertainty.
An additional problem arises from the higher degrees of thermal degradation
frequently suffered by the organic molecules contained in more ancient coals due
to the possibility of prolonged residence time at elevated temperatures. The range
of available chemofossils and their usefulness decrease therefore after the coal has
entered the physico-chemical stage of coalification.
The identification of the geochemically interesting organic constituents is
carried out by different methods. Non-destructive techniques: such as Fourier
transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIRS), and various modifications of 13C
solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) have been applied to
whole coal samples (Zilm et al. 1979; Barron and Wilson 1981; Russell and Barron
1984; Hatcher et al. 1989a, b), but destructive tests, in which a dissolved or pyrolised
extract of the coal is investigated, have been more commonly applied to the search
for biomarkers. Various techniques have been used, ranging from semi-quantitative,
relatively low-resolution Rock-Eval kerogen typing (Espitalie et al. 1977; Espitalie
1979) to gas chromatography (GC), mainly in combination with mass spectroscopy
(GC-MS), as discussed by McFadden (1973), Hayatsu et al. (1978), Littke and Ten
Haven (1989), and others.
Since the raw samples commonly consist of rather complex mixtures of organic
compounds, it is necessary to seperate the target constituents of the coal into
analytically manageable groups of related components without damaging them
beyond recognition. However, having survived coalification, the resilience of the
geochemically interesting biomarkers in coal is such that they can go through the
conventional extraction methods without much alteration (White et al. 1977; Philp
and Gilbert 1986). The fractionation is usually carried out by one of two methods:
The first one is by dynamic pyrolysis, of which different methods exist (Horsfield
1984), which are all based on the principle that a sample can be fractionated by
heating it under controlled conditions to a predetermined temperature range, e.g.
400 to 600 0c. A carrier gas is used in order to transport the pyrolysis gas to the
detector system employed in the analysis (Horsfield et al. 1989). Some recent
examples include pyrolysis-gas chromatography plus mass spectroscopy (Py-GS-MS)
by Philp et al. (1982), van de Meent et al. (1980), Larter and Senftle (1985), Philp
and Gilbert (1986), Hatcher et al. (1989a, b), Jin and Qin (1989), Bertrand (1989)
and others.
The second method of preparing samples for analysis employs a solvent
extraction process. A variety of methods has been applied to the fractionation and
different solvents have been used in the various solvent extraction processes, among
them dichlormethane, chloroform, acetone, methanol, either singly or in various
combinations. An example of the main steps and intermediate products in the
analysis of organic chemofossils is illustrated in Fig. 5.38. Following the analysis
procedure of Piittmann et al. (1989) and Hagemann et al. (1989), the pulverised
coal sample is first treated in a Soxhlet apparatus for 24 h with dichlormethane
(CH 2 CI 2 ). This separates the feed coal into a soluble fraction and an insoluble
residue. The yield of the soluble organics is dependent on both coal type and rank
and varies slightly in accordance wih regional differences. According to Radke et
al. (1980), maximum soluble yield is obtained from high volatile bituminous coals
between 0.9 to 1.0% random vitrinite reflectance or between 80 and 85% Carbon
(daf). The example from the Ruhr Basin illustrated in Fig. 5.39 supports this notion.
The soluble coal extract is fractionated by column chromatography using
pre-washed silica gel and with methanol (CH 3 0H) as an eluent for the heterocyclic
compounds, n-hexane for the saturated hydrocarbons and dichloromethane for
aromatic hydrocarbons. Subsequent analyses of the fractions were carried out as
above by GS and GS-MS methods, which have been variously described under
such terms as capillary gas liquid chromatography (LC), discussed by Henderson
et al. (1969), McFadden (1980), Piittmann et al. (1986), Dunham et al. (1988)
Hagemann et al. (1989) and others; or high-performance liquid chromatography
Pulverised Feed C02l1
Residue I
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
with Silica gel followed by elution
with dichlormethane and methanol
1
I Heterocyclic Compounds ~ porphyrins
Satur!lted Hydrocarbons I Alkanes ~ n-, iSo-, cyclo-paraffins;

(fatty acids)
J Aromatic Compounds phenanthrene; nephthaline
Fig. 5.38. Flow chart showing the main steps and intermediate products in the ,analysis of
organic chemofossils. (After Hagemann et al. 1989 and Dehmer 1988) .. r
u
18 • •
~ 16
o •
0> 14
--...
0>
E 12
•
c
•
•
...... 10
u
b 8
~ 6 ,. Fig. 5.39. Correlation between the proportion
<lJ • ,,-
of coal (in reference to total organic carbon)
~ 4 ') soluble by Soxhlet extraction for 24 h in dichIor-
o
~ 2~~~~--~--~--~--~
• methane and coal rank (expressed as total
78 80 82 84 86 88 90 carbon) for a set of Ruhr coals. (Calculated
% Carbon (daf) from data published by Hagemann et aI. 1989)
(HPLC), employed by Dark et al. (1977) and others for separating the tlUld coal
extract into molecular classes, followed by gas chromatography-mass spectro-
scopy-computer (GC-MS-C) techniques for molecular identification (Winkler 1986;
Piittmann et al. 1986; Philp and Gilbert 1986; Chaffee et al. 1986; Dehmer 1988;
Hagemann et al. 1989; and others). This may be preceded by the recently developed
tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS), which appears to be a useful tool for the
preliminary screening of the target material (Philp and Johnston 1988; Quirke
et al. 1988).
5.5.2.1 Alkanes
Long-chain unsaturated aliphatic molecules (e.g. n-alkenes) are rather unstable

during coalification (Chaffee et al. 1986), although Meuzelaar et al. (1984) obtained
strong alkene peaks from Curie-point mass spectrometry ofliptinite concentrations.
Conversely, alekanes are often well preserved and have therefore been the subject
of intensive geochemical investigations. This group of saturated open-chain or
acyclic hydrocarbons constitutes the paraffin series, which is characterised by the
general formula C n H 2n + 2' The members of this group are termed saturated because
the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds only while the remaining valences
are taken up by hydrogen. A distinction is made between n-alkanes, the prefix
"n-" indicating the presence of "normal", unbranched carbon chains, and
iso-alkanes, in which the carbon chain is branched. Alkanes of low molecular
weight (n-C 1 to n-C 6 ) are gaseous at room temperature, they are liquid from n-C 7
to n-C 21 , and solid from n-C 22 to n-C 62 . The alternative term paraffin implies
that these compounds are relatively inert and are therefore able to withstand
postdepositional degradation better than many other organic molecules, although
they, too, are subjected to thermal cracking during advanced coalification.
The proportion of n-alkanes in coal t:xtracts is usually less than 1% (Allan
and Douglas 1977; Bartle et al. 1978; Radke et al. 1980) and it shows negative
correlation with tissue preservation (Hagemann and Hollerbach 1979). In spite of
their small proportion, n-alkanes are of geochemical interest, particularly those
which have been synthesised by plants, for example, in cuticular waxes, spore and
pollen exines, and seeds. According to Koons et al. (1965) these range in carbon
number from n-C 7 (heptane) to n-C 62 (dohexacontane), whereby each plant and
group of plants are characterised by a limited number of alkane species, although
there is much overlap between different groups. Algae, for example, have a relatively
narrow range from n-C 14 to n-C 32 , among which n-C 15 and n-C17 are dominant,
whereas terrestrial higher plants show a wider range between n-ClO and n-C 40
with strong dominance of.n-C 23 , n-C 2S ' n-C 27 , n-C 29 , n-C 31 , n-C 33 and n-C 3S
(Tissot and Welte 1978). Spectra of the distribution of n-alkane species are obtained
by gas chromatographic analysis of solvent extracts from plants, peats and coal.
As in the two examples above, they frequently demonstrate a clear preference of
many plant groups for n-alkane molecules with odd-numbered carbon atoms,
referred to as OEP (= odd-over-even predominance) by Chaffee et al. (1986).
According to Bray and Evans (1961), this can be expressed numerically as the
carbon preference index (CPI), which is the mass ratio of odd to even molecules
within the range:
CPI = ,![C 25 +C 27 +C 29 +C 31 +C 33 + C 2S + C 27 + C 29 + C 31 + C 33 J.
2 C 24 +C 26 +C 28 +C 30 +C 32 C 26 + C 28 + C 30 + C 32 + C 34
(5.11)
Alternative but basically similar ratios have been defined by Philippi (1965), Scalan
and Smith (1970), and Allan and Douglas (1977). Since in contrast to terrestrial
vegetation, algae and other marine plants have little odd-carbon number preference
above n-C 18 (Koons et al. 1965) CPI values are commonly small in extracts
obtained from marine sediments (Powell and McKirdy 1973) compared with those
found in peat and coal (Welte 1967; Leythaeuser and Welte 1969; Brooks 1970).
The latter, having been derived from terrestrial plants, not only contain a higher
proportion of total n-alkanes than algal matter, but most of them are of high
molecular weight with a preference for odd-carbon numbers. Microbial activity
on the one hand destroys the n-alkanes contained in the source plants, but also
adds new ones to the degraded biomass from the bacteria-generated lipids, parti-
cularly in the form of long chain paraffins without any obvious odd/even predomi-
nance (Tissot and Welte 1978).
Care should be exercised in the palaeo-environmental interpretation of alkanes,
since oxidative biodegradation reduces not only the total amount of n-alkanes in
the peat (Dehmer 1988), but also the proportion of odd-numbered species can be
increased during humification by the stripping of functional groups (e.g. COOH)
from even-numbered alcohol-derived acids (by oxidation), fatty acids and esters.
Conversely, in strongly reducing environments the reduction of alcohols and acids
may increase the proportion of even-numbered n-alkanes (Tissot and Welte 1978).
Much of this reduction appears to take place in the catatelm during diagenesis
and is independent of the conditions prevailing at the peat surface (acrotelm). This
is based on Winkler's (1986) observation of a fairly even proportion of C 16 -, C 18 -,
and C 20 - n-alkanes in all brown coal lithotypes analysed by her, which she
1.3
1.25
•
1.2
1.15
1.1
• •
1.05
• •
•
• •• •
.95
f:J r =0.765 • Fig. 5.40. Correlation between the carbon

.9
Y =-0.02x + 2.96 • preference index (CPI) and coal rank (expres-
.85+--~-~-~~~~--~ sed as total carbon) for a set of Ruhr coals.
78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92
(Calculated from data published by Hagemann
% Cllrbon (dllf) et al. 1989)
interprets as late stage reduction by anaeorobic bacteria either of even-numbered

b-fatty acids or of suberin from deep-seated roots.
Another factor which influences the carbon preference index is coal rank. The
work of Radke et al. (1980) has shown that the maximum yield of n-alkanes
coincides with the solubility maximum in high volatile bituminous coal referred
to above and illustrated in Fig. 5.39. These and other authors (e.g. Moldowan
et al. 1985) also found a decrease with increasing coal rank in the proportion of
high-molecular weight alkanes and the carbon perference index. An example of
the latter trend is illustrated in Fig. 5.40.
As mentioned above, in addition to the normal (n-) alkanes there are other
alkane groups, in which the chains are branched. These iso-alkanes (from isomeric)
of the 2-methyl and the anteiso-alkanes of the 3-methyl series are associated with
n-alkanes and, although less frequent, follow a similar pattern of occurrence but
with a tendency toward an even-number preference (Chaffee et al. 1986). Saturated
paraffins in which the carbon chain is closed to form a single ring structure are
called cyclo-alkanes or cyclo-paraffins. They follow the general formula C nH2",
and as in the normal alkanes, the number of carbon atoms in the molecule determines
the name of the compound after the prefix cyclo- (Degens 1965). They appear to
have been targeted more for geochemical research of petroleum and oil source
rocks than for coal environments.
5.5.2.2 Fatty Acids
The lipids of plants and animals consist largely of oils, waxes and fats (= esters
of glycerol), which upon hydrolysis yield chain-like fatty acids or n-aliphatic
monocarboxylic acids with the general formula C nH 2n + 1 COOH. The low carbon
members of the group are colourless, water-soluble, corrosive liquids (e.g. acetic
acid = CH 3 COOH) having a pungent smell, those with intermediate carbon
numbers (e.g. butyric acid = CH3[CH2J2COOH) form slightly water-soluble,
greasy fluids with a strong sweaty smell, whereas from C lO onwards they lose their
smell and they become solids, which are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol
and some other organic solvents.
In this context only the high-carbon numbered fatty acids are of interest. They
show some similarity to n-alkane, which, as has been mentioned above, can be
derived from fatty acids by decarboxylation during humification. The reason for this
affinity is that fatty acids can be thought of as having been formed from paraffins
by the substitution of one hydrogen atom by one carboxyl group as:
(5.12)
While the influence of the carboxyl group on the properties of fatty acids with
low carbon numbers is strong (pungent smell etc.), its effect weakens with increasing
carbon number, when the rest of the molecule grows into a long chain of increasing
molecular weight, which apart from the one attached carboxyl behaves much like
a normal alkane. As in the latter, the molecular chains may be normal (n-fatty
acids) or branched (= iso-fatty acids). Even-numbered n-fatty acids ranging from
C 24 to C 32 appear to be concentrated by terrestrial plants in limnic environment
and have been found in the montan wax fraction of brown coals from the Gippsland
Basin in Victoria, Australia (Brooks and Smith 1969) and Czechoslovakia (Wollrab
and Streibl 1969). Lower molecular weight n-fatty acids ranging from C I4 to e 22
with preference for C 16 , CIS and (occasionally) C 22 have probably been produced
by algae of marine origin (Tissot and Welte 1978). Chaffee and Johns (1985) observed
n-fatty acids up to the rank of high volatile bituminous coal, although at much
reduced chain length and with less pronounced even-carbon number preference
(Pederson and Lam 1975; Lam and Pederson 1978).
5.5.2.3 Isoprenoids
The two geochemicaIIy important members of this group are terpenes and steroids.
They are common plant products consisting of multiples of isoprene, which has
the general formula (CsHS)n. The value of n forms the basis of the classification
and nomenclature of terpenes, which constitute such varied plant products as
essential oils, rubber, vitamins and pigments. The molecular structure of isoprene
is shown below:
Isoprene: (5.13)
Because of its two double bonds, the molecule is quite reactive and capable of
polymerising into both chain and cyclic isoprenoids. Two isoprene molecules
combine to form terpene or monoterpene, "mono"-because the basic molecule can
be looked upon as representing a "hemiterpene" CsHs. Monoterpenes are volatile
substances and are associated with essential oils.
Three isoprenes form sesquiterpene (C 1S )' which occurs in cyclic and chain-like
(acyclic) configuration. They are widespread components of plant resins and
essential oils (Simoneit 1986). They have been found in low rank coals associated
with resins (Streibl and Herout 1969; Douglas and Grantham 1974), predominantly
of gymnosperm origin for which they can be regarded as biomarkers (Grantham
and Douglas 1980).
Isoprenoids with four isoprenes constitute the various modifications of
diterpene (C 20 ). Cyclic structure with two or three rings are common, for example,
in gymnosperm resins (Thomas 1969; Hollerbach 1980; Grantham and Douglas
1980; Noble et al. 1985). Of greater biological and geochemical significance are
acyclic diterpenes, which are based on the phytol nucleus. This is an important
constituent of chlorophyll-a, where it forms a side chain (-CO-O-phytyl).
attached to the main molecule. Although bacterial sources of some isoprenoids
have been found (Volkman and Maxwell 1986), the quantitative contribution of
chlorophyll-based phytol to coal probably outweighs any bacterial input.
Depending on either transient oxidising or reducing depositional condition (Welte
and Waples 1973), phytol is thought to be transformed into either pristane (C 19 )
by phytol oxidation and decarboxylation or into phytane (C 20 ) by dehydration
and hydrogenation (Brooks et al. 1969; Powell and McKirdy 1973; Murchison
1987). Both products constitute the most frequent isoprenoid hydrocarbons found
in coal (White et al. 1977). According to Powell and McKirdy (1973) and Didyk
et al. (1978), reducing, anoxic depositional environments are characterised by
(pristane/phytane) < 1, whereas ratios exceeding unity are typical for oxic conditions.
In support of this notion the pristane/phytane ratio has been correlated with the
tissue preservation index and the detrovitrinite content, respectively. The results,
compiled for high volatile bituminous coals (random vitrinite reflectance between
0.78 and 0.97%) from the Ruhr and Saar Basins, are illustrated in Fig. 5.41A and
12
A • B •
• •
10
8
•
•
•
• • . •
•
•
••
Q)
c
...,'" 6 •
>-
.r::
0.. • •• • • ••
•• •
Q:;
c
4
• •
BIJl
T:
2
r = 0.701
Y = -4.1 x + 11.9
• • r = 0.706
Y = 0.2x - 2.7
0..
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.21.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.22.425 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
TPI Oetrovitrinite + Liptinite
Fig. 5.41 A, B. Correlation between the pristane/phytane ratio and tissue preservation index (TP/)
in A and with detrovitrinite (desmocoIIinite) + Iiptinite in B for high volatile bituminous coal
ranging in random vitrinite reflectance from 0.78 to 0.97% from the Ruhr and Saar Basins in
Germany. (Calculated from data published by Hagemann et al. 1989)
B. An inverse relationship exists between the pristane/phytane ratio and TPI,

partly because of the negative correlation with telo-inertinite (fusinite and
semifusinite) which is part of the tissue preservation index and indicates occasional
dehydration and oxidising conditions, including fire, during peat formation.
Conversely, a high detrovitrinite content suggests tissue destruction in the acrotelm
followed by prolonged residence under anoxic conditions in the catotelm, with
which the pristane/phytane ratio correlates quite well, particularly, after liptinite
had been added to the diagram in Fig. 5.41B.
The relatively high pristane/phytane ratio of 1 to 3 in brown and subbitu-
minous coals and from 4 to 10.2 in high volatile bituminous coals (Brooks et al.
1969; Brooks 1970; Connan 1974; Powell and McKirdy 1975; Radke et al. 1980)
can therefore be explained by the initially oxidising nature ofhumification, followed
by a further increase of the ratio with coal rank, which is due to the generation of
pristane during coalification by the decarboxylation of phytanic acid (Tissot and
Welte 1978). According to Brooks et al. (1969) and Radke et al. (1980), the pristane/
phytane ratio increases during coalification until it peaks at the rank of high
volatile bituminous coal between 83 and 85% carbon (daf). Further coalification
beyond this rank appears to initiate thermal degradation and aromatisation
(Hayatsu et al. 1979), resulting in a reduction of the pristane/phytane ratio in
higher rank coals. An illustration of this trend based on Hagemann et al.'s (1989)
analyses of Ruhr coals is illustrated in Fig. 5.42. In comparison to Fig. 5.39 it is
interesting to note that the peaks for both pristane/phytane ratio and carbon
solubility occur at the same coal rank.
Six isoprene molecules combine to triterpenoid (C 30) mainly of pentacyclic
configuration. According to Tissot and Welte (1978), they consist either of
6-membered rings only or of four 6-membered rings and one 5-membered ring.
The corresponding hydrocarbons are called triterpanes (e.g. hopane) when
saturated, or triterpene, when unsaturated. The latter may become aromatic, when
one or several rings acquire three conjugated double bonds.
Among the many pentacyclic isomers, many of which are common plant
constituents, the hopanoids are of particular interest for their high concentration
14
G
12
10
Fig. 5.42. Correlation bet-

<l!
~
....,
>--
.c
8
6
i .~
...
ween pristanejphytane 0.. 4
ratios and coal rank "-
.---
<l! ,.~
(expressed as total carbon) 2
C
2
for a set of Ruhr coals. (J)
(Calculated from data pub- C

0.. o~--~----~--------~----~--------~
lished by Hagemann et al. 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92
1989) % Carbon (daf)
in bacteria and blue-green algae (Rohmer and Ourisson 1976). Triterpenic hopanes
form three isomeric series consisting firstly, of (17a, 21/3) H-( = homo-) hopane,
commonly shortened to a/3 hopane, secondly of (17/3, 21a) H-hopane or /3a hopane
and thirdly, of (17/3, 21/3) H-hopane=/3/3 hopane (van Dorsselaer 1975; Ourisson
et al. 1979). Chaffee (1981) and Johns et al. (1984) have found significant differences
in the hopanoid composition between different brown coal lithotypes in Victoria,
Australia. Their findings have been supported by Hagemann and Hollerbach (1980),
Winkler (1986) and Dehmer (1988), who used the high proportion of a/3 hopane
and hop-17 (21 )-ene, an unsaturated pentacyclic triterpene, found in dark peat and
brown coal lithotypes to associate their formation with strong bacterial activity
under mildly acid conditions in contrast to the paucity of these triterpanes in the
light lithotypes. As mentioned before, this was interpreted as the result of a low
level of microbial activity due to increased acidity. Further geochemical evidence
for acid conditions during the formation of pale lithotypes is seen by Dehmer
(I 989b) in the presence of tetra cyclic steroids, which are of similar composition to
triterpenes and can be derived from them by loss of methyl groups.
Steroids are a complex group of polycyclic hydro-aromatic compounds which
contain a perhydrocylcopentan-phenanthrene nucleus and are common cons-
tituents of animal and plant tissues, for example algae. Some are alcohols and are
referred to as sterols, while the corresponding saturated and unsaturated hydro-
carbons are called steranes and sterenes, respectively. Polyunsaturated sterenes
may become aromatic compounds, their names depending on the number of aromatic
rings in the molecule, e.g. monoaromatic steroid. Up to 30 different steranes have
been identified in some coals (Gu et al. 1988) with varying palaeo-environmental
significance. Earlier, Huang and Meinschein (1978, 1979) had established a threefold
palaeo-environmental relationship between C 27 , C 28 and C 29 sterols allocating
them to marine planktonic, lacustrine and terrestrial (higher plants) sources,
respectively. The derivation of C 29 sterols from land plants has been supported
by Hoffmann et al. (1984) and Philp and Gilbert (1986), while the specificity
of the two other sterols has been disputed (Volkman 1986). Because steranes
are not widely distributed in bacteria (Ensminger et al. 1973), their presence in
peat and low rank coal is taken as an indication of reduced bacterial activity in
spite of their frequent occurrence in marine-derived organic matter.
Another geochemically interesting group of pentacyclic triterpenes consists of
the oleannane, ursane, lupane and related families, including the polyaromatic
picene referred to in Chap. 5.4.1, which have been derived from squalene, a
polyunsaturated isoprenoid with the general formula (C30HSO)' This group is of
evolutionary interest, because of its apparent restriction to angiosperms as source
plants. Its occurrence in coal is therefore confined to post-Upper Cretaceous
deposits (Chaffee et al. 1986).
Tetraterpenes (C 40 ) consist of eight isoprenes, which combine to form a large
number of isomeric compounds. They comprise many plant pigments, such as
chlorophyll (green) or the carotenoids, which form red and yellow pigments in the
fruits of many plants (e.g. carrots, tomatoes) as well as in many algae and in spore
exines (Brooks 1971; Shaw 1971). Their molecular preservation during coalification
is poor, but unsaturated derivatives persist into high volatile bituminous coalifica-
tion causing high fluorescence intensities (van Gijzel1971). Higher molecular weight
polyterpenes have been found in plant gums (e.g. caoutchouc and gutta) and in
spore and pollen membranes (Brooks and Shaw 1972), which are well preserved
during coalification and form important constituents of land-derived vegetation.
5.5.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds
This group is characterised by ring systems, which contain other elements beside
carbon. Sizes range from three to ten members per ring, but most frequent are
five- and six-membered heterocycles, the latter often of aromatic derivation.
Elements substituting for ring carbons are called hetero-atoms, among which
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur are of particular importance. Porphyrins constitute
a biologically significant group of heterocyclic compounds, which occupies a special
place in organic geochemistry, because it was the first group of organic compounds,
where a link between biological source and fossil product was established by Treibs
(1934a, b, 1935a, b, 1936). Their structure is based on the five-membered ring of
the pyrrole molecule, which has the following structure.
HC~CH
II II
Pyrrole: HC~CH. (5.14)
\/
NH
Four pyrrole nuclei linked by me thine (=CH--) groups form double bonded
porphin, from which a variety of biologically important members of the pyrrole
group, such as chlorophyll (complexed with Mg) and hemoglobin (complexed with
Fe), are obtained by substitution. On account of its conjugate double bonds
hemoglobin is a fully aromatised porphyrin, while chlorophyll, having one double
bond less, belongs to the subclass phorbide (Zelmer et al. 1988). Fossil porphyrins
appear to have been derived mainly from chlorophylls by phorbide to porphyrin
aromatisation. Different plants produce different kinds of chlorophylls, which differ
slightly in their molecular architecture and are designated chlorophyll-a, -b, -c etc.,
each of which can be divided into further isomeric forms. For a detailed discussion
of this highly complex subject the reader is referred to Baker and Louda
(1986).
Many fossil porphyrin varieties are known, among which the two most
common series are the desoxophylloerythroetioporphyrins, or DPEP-series, with
an isocyclic ring in addition to the tetrapyrrolic nucleus and mesoetioporphyrins,
or ETIO-series, without the isocyclic ring (Tissot and Welte 1978). Both series
have been found by Treibs (1935a, b) to occur in alginite-rich sapropelic coals, but
porphyrins found in humic coal consist predominantly of the latter series where
it is confined to members below C 32 (Palmer et al. 1982; Baker and Louda 1986)
and is commonly complexed with gallium, iron and manganese (Bonnett and
Czechowski 1980, 1981; Bonnett et al. 1984). In Chinese brown coals (Lower
Tertiary) form the Fushun Basin, Yang and Cheng (1988) found a DPEP/ETIO
256 Coql Facies and Depositional Environment
ratio of 0.3 (C 32 -ETIO being most abundant in a range C 2S -C 36 ) compared with

4.5 for oil shales (C 32 -DPEP being most abundant) and between 2.2 and 3.4 for
crude oils from various Chinese basins, with C 31 - D PEP being the most abundant
free porphyrin. Higher rank Cretaceous coals form the Uinta region, Colorado,
have yielded even lower DPEP/ETIO ratios of 0.2 for a subbituminous and 0.03
for a high volatile bituminous coal, respectively (Gu et al. 1988), which suggests that
DPEP-porphyrins are preferentially degraded during coalification.
Several chlorophyll derivatives, such as pheophytin-a from vascular plants
and bacteriopheophytin from bacteria, have been discovered in Recent peat
deposits by Sanger and Gorham (1973), Pratt and Gorham (1977), Hatcher et al.
(1977) and Palmer et al. (1982). Because of its biosynthesis under reduced
conditions, bacteriopheophytin is considered to have a better preservation
potential than pheophytin-a, which tends to suffer oxidative biodegradation in
the acrotelm before reaching the catotelm. Simoneit (1978) found porphyrins to
correlate with low pristane/phytane ratios, which would suggests an anoxic deposi-
tional environment (Volkman and Maxwell 1986), but it is not clear whether they
consisted of bacteriaopheophytin.
5.5.2.5 Aromatic Compounds
Although coal, particularly vitrinite and inertinite (Meuzelaar et al. 1984), contains
large amounts of aromatic carbon (see discussion of aromaticity in Chap. 3) only
a small proportion of this is extracted by conventional organic solvents. Some of
the soluble aromatics have already been referred to above as having been derived
from the aromatisation of unsaturated polycylic isoprenoids and hetero-
compounds. The reason for the poor solubility of much of the aromatic carbon
in coal is its concentration in condensed multi-layered ring systems (Fig. 3.32)
which become increasingly cross-linked and ordered during coalification and
acquire graphitoid crystallinity. Solubility is therefore restricted mainly to the
mobile intermicellar phase and to the plate edges of the aromatic stacks, where
they are flanked by functional groups and linked by hydroaromatic and methylene
bridges (Tissot and Welte 1978).
In contrast to the large number of ring structures present in the macromolecular
framework left behind in the insoluble residue, the mobile phase aromatic nuclei
found in coal extracts consist of only a small number of condensed benzene rings
per molecule. According to Chaffee et al. (1986), the most common isomeric species
range from mono- to hexa-aromatic, many of them probably formed by the
aromatisation of cyclic isoprenoids. Others, including the phenols found in peat
and brown coal extracts have probably been derived directly from remnant lignin
and tannin nuclei inherited from the vegetal progenitors (Fischer and Schrader
1922). Lignin in particular is a common constituent in the walls of wood and some
other plant cell (including those of Sphagnum and other mosses), where it is packed
between the bundled cellulose fibrils for the purpose of strengthening the tissue.
Chemically, a phenol can be regarded as hydroxybenzene, i.e. it consists of one
or several benzene rings to which OH- groups have been attached. Lignin can
be thought of as high molecular weight polyphenols, which are synthetised in
plants by dehydration and condensation of aromatic alcohols (Tissot and Welte

1978). Reference was made in Chap. 5.3.1 to the loss in OH- from catchol-like
structures during coalification, which, according to Hatcher et al. (1989a), resulted
in an increasing concentration of phenols in gymnosperm wood up to subbituminous
coal rank. Further dehydroxylation during subsequent coalification to bituminous
coal rank will affect the phenols with the result that their proportion decreases
with increasing coal rank, as shown by the decline in phenol concentration in the
pyrolysate obtained from flash pyrolysis of vitrinite (van Graas et al. 1981; Allan
and Larter 1983). Since Yarzab et al. (1979) had previously found a linear relationship
between the rate of dehydroxylation and increasing coal rank, it is not surprising
that Senftle et al. (1986) and Mrazikova et al. (1986) found the relationship between
coal rank and reduction in phenol extraction to be linear, too. According to Larter
(1989) the declining phenol yield of vitrinite pyrolysis as a function of vitrinite
reflectance can be expressed as:
Phenol concentration = (159-Romv)/0.19

r=0.949. (5.15)
Phenol concentration refers to the proportion of phenols in the pyrolysate. It is

measured in standardised units, whereby one unit corresponds approximately to
0.25% by weight of the original sample. Romv stands for mean maximum vitrinite
reflectance in oil.
Specific correlations between biological source compounds and their geochemi-
cal derivatives have been established by Cheng (1988), who found aromatic extracts
from Cretaceous to Tertiary humic source rocks from China to be rich in phenan-
threne, pimanthrene, retene, tetrahydroretene and chrysene. Conversely, sapropelic
source rocks proved to be high in alkylphenanthrene and alkylnaphthalenes.
Assuming that pimanthrene has been derived from diterpenes formed in conifer
resin, he regards the ratio of pimanthrene/total alkylphenanthrenes (Pi/LP) as a
relative measure of the contribution made by conifers to the biomass. In applying
the ratio to his humic and sapropelic source rocks, Cheng (1988) obtained
consistently higher values from the former. The same applies to retene/total
alkylphenanthrene (Re/LP). Retene, an aromatic hydrocarbon derived from
tricyclic diterpenoids via abietic acid (Simoneit 1977), is also regarded as a
derivative of higher plants thus resulting in low values for the Re/LP ratio in
sapropelites, while those obtained from humic source rocks are generally higher
but not as consistently so as the Pi/LP ratios.
Ratios of aromatic compounds have been applied to coalification studies by
Hagemann et al. (1989), who correlated C 4 -naphthalene/phenanthrene ratios with
coal rank in the Ruhr and Saar Basins of Germany and, apart from regional
difference, found a general decrease of the ratio with increasing coalification.
5.5.2.6 Amino Acids
Most coals contain one or two percent of nitrogen, which, at least partly, have
been derived from amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. They are organic
acids in which hydrogen has been replaced by one or several NH 2-groups. Amino
acids account for most of the nitrogen found in all organisms (Tissot and Welte
1978), but Casagrande and Given's (1980) investigation of the distribution of these
compounds in Recent marine influenced peat deposits in Florida, and the study
of McCarthy et al. (1989) of the downstream changes in the elemental peat
composition in the Okavango Delta revealed fungi or bacteria to be their main
sources. According to Chaffee et al. (1986), high nitrogen levels suggest extensive
microbial reworking of the peat-forming vegetation, which was also suggested by
Bajor's (1960) correlation of high concentrations of amino acids with marine
influenced portions of the Tertiary brown coals of the Lower Rhine brown coals
from near Cologne, Germany. With increasing rank the proportion of free amino
acids declines sharply due to thermal degradation.
5.6 Epiclastic Minerals and Palaeo-Environments
The minerals referred to in previous chapters as being useful indicators of particular

palaeo-environments were exclusively authigenic in origin and mostly syngenetic
in reference to peat accumulation. However, a consideration of epiclastic detrital
minerals contained in coal can likewise provide useful information about the nature
and setting of the mire.
Apart from indicating a particular depositional environment, epiclastic
minerals have been used to delineate the water catchment and drainage pattern
of former swamps. An example of this, based on the Hoskissons Seam from the
Gunnedah Basin in New South Wales, is illustrated in Fig. 5.43 and Fig. 5.44. In
Fig. 5.43A the isopachs of the Hoskissons Seam are illustrated, which indicate that
over much of the central portion of the Gunnedah Basin the seam is between 5
and 8 m thick but increases in thickness to 18 m in the north and 16 m in the south-
east. Total ash content in percent is illustrated in Fig. 5.43B, which reveals very high
ash figures in areas of reduced seam thickness. A comparison with Fig. 5.43C, which
illustrates the distribution of stone bands as percentage of their aggregate thickness
in relation to total seam thickness, suggests that a large portion of the ash is
concentrated in these bands. According to Hamilton (1985), the areas in which peat
accumulation has been repeatedly interrupted by deposition of clastic sediments,
are loci of accelerated subsidence due to differential compaction of the underlying
platform. However, the ash content remains relatively high also where fewer stone
bands occure in the seam. This is evidenced by the distribution of the disseminated
ash illustrated in Fig. 5.43D. This ash content is obtained by washing the coal at
1.60 density, which effectively removes high mineral concentrations, such as stone
bands, without any significant loss in coal. The 1.60 float fraction in Fig. 5.43D
refers therefore only to the ash which is finely disseminated in the coal, but this ash
also remains quite high.
The source of the ash in the Hoskissons Seam has been investigated in reference
to the molar Si0 2/ Al 20 3 ratio of the 1.60 float fraction (Tadros 1988b). This
Epic1astic Minerals and Palaeo-Environments 259
ir- :::-8
--~j.'
~,
""--,
-IYONIl
1"
NEW E"GlAIrIID
FOL.D BEL T
", '", 30
Fig. 5.43 A-D. Four maps illustrating coal properties of the Hoskissons Seam in the Gunnedah
Basin of New South Wales. A Seam isopachs in metres. B Total ash in percent. C Aggregate
thickness of stone bands in percent of total seam thickness. D Ash content (in percent) of the
1.60 density float fraction. (After Tadros 1988a)
SoCAU
'0 10 30 .0 ....
Fig. 5.44 A-D. Four maps illustrating coal properties of the Hoskissons Seam and its roof strata
in the Gunnedah Basin of New South Wales. A Regional variation of the molar Si0 2 /AI 2 0 3
ratio of the 1.60 density float fraction. B Isopachs of the upper Black Jack Formation. C Isolith
map of the aggregate thickness (in metres) of quartzose sandstones derived from the western
foreland. D Isolith map of the aggregate thickness (in metres) of conglomerates derived from the
eastern New England Fold Belt. (After Tadros 1988a, b)
Summary of Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 261
technique had been originally employed by Shibaoka (1972), who found propor-
tionality between the ratio and the percentages of quartz and clay in the coal. The
original variation in the silica/alumina ratio illustrated in Fig. 5.44A shows a strong
increase in the western portion of the Gunnedah Basin, while low values prevail in
the east. This distribution reflects well the changing influence of the main sediment
source areas at the time the Hoskissons Seam was formed. The Permian sediments
of the Gunnedah Basin wedge out to the west against an old foreland from which
predominantly mature quartz-rich sediments have been derived, whereas to the
east the New England Fold Belt was rising at the time shedding immature and,
to a large extent, volcaniclastic sediments into its foredeep. Figure 5.44B is an isopach
map of the upper part of the Black Jack Formation, i.e. it comprises the remainder
of the coal measures above the Hoskissons Seam. Fig. 5.44C is an isolith map (in
metres) of the western sandstones from this section, while Fig. 5.44D is an isolith
map of conglomerates from the eastern source.
There are many examples of this kind in the coal geological literature, which
reveal the close links between the composition of coal ash and the geological
setting of coalifields. The matter will be further discussed in Chap. 9.
5.7 Summary of Palaeo-Environmental Indicators
The preceding discussion has shown that there is a considerable variety of coal
properties which carry palaeo-environmental signatures. Individually, their
analytical resolution is mostly too low to lead to a specific depositional setting, but
when several such indicators are combined to form a composite response with
good internal consistency, they constitute a powerful tool in palaeo-environmental
analysis. The selection of coal properties for this purpose is usually constrained by
budgetary limitations and the practicalities of exploration, mining and coal testing,
which often disallow the application of either expensive or time consuming analysis
procedures. With few exception the short list of coal facies indices with palaeo-
environmental significance presented in Table 5.11 is therefore restricted to those
properties which are either routinely tested for or can be analysed within most
coal research establishments. Naturally, the tabulation of the influencing factors
on coal formation conveys a false image of simple relationships. It is stressed
therefore that the table is not more than an incomplete list of properties, which
are the result of a complex interaction of various agencies and hitherto not well
understood processes.
A distinction is made in Table 5.11 between five settings of bituminous humic
coal formation. Three of these refer to topogenous mires and two to ombrogenous
raised bogs. Both settings are further subdivided on the basis of moisture availability,
hydrogen ion concentration, nutrient supply and bacterial activity. In the first two
columns a continuously wet, telmatic topogenous setting is assumed due to a mostly
high groundwater table under a minerotrophic or rheotrophic regime. The main
difference is in the hydrogen ion concentration, which is low in the freshwater
environment inferred in Column 1, but near neutral or weakly alkaline under the
Table 5.11. The conditions of peat accumulation as inferred from the properties of humic bituminous coal N
0-
N
Peat Topotelmites Ombrotelmites

characteristics I 2 3 4 5
High High Variable Continu- lntermit-
watertable watertable watertable ously wet tently dry
pH 4-7 6-8 4-6 3-5 3-5
Nutrient supply: High-moderate High Moderate-low Low Low

Bacterial activity: Moderate High Moderate Low Low-moderate
Fungal activity: Moderate Low High-moderate High High
Coal characteristics:
% Coal ash (excl.
stone bands): 5-10 5-20 5-20 <3 <5
Stone bands: Common Rare Common Very rare Very rare
% Sulphur content: <2 >2 <1 <0.5 <0.5
a34 s: Moderate Low Moderate High High
% Syngenetic FeS 2 : Moderate High framb. Rare pyrite Some Rare
pyrite pyrite marcasite
VM yield: Average High Low High Low n
0
Atomic HIC Average High Low Average-high Low e:..
Vitri. reflectance: Average Low Average-high Average High "TJ
~
Vitri. fluorescence: Average High Average-low Average Average-low O.
TPI (high rate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate to low 'on"
~
of subsidence): ::s
0-
TPI (low rate Moderate to high Low Low Low Low
0
of subsidence): "0
'"0
GI: High High Mostly low High Low
f!l.
Hopanoids Moderate High Moderate Low Moderate g.
::s
e:..
m::s
::.
0"'
::s
a
a'"
Summary of Palaeo-Environmental Indicators 263
brackish to marine mire setting assumed in Column 2. The variable position of

the water table indicated in Column 3 applies again to a fresh-water environment,
for example a flood plain, which is more frequently subjected to dry periods, than
the flood basin of Column 1. Due to the proneness to flooding of these three
settings there is ample nutrient supply (eutrophy), particularly in the nearshore
environments of Column 2, but in some cases flood waters might have lost much
of their nutrient supply before reaching distal swamps (mesotrophy). Similar
mesotrophic conditions will ensue in mire settings transitional to the raised bogs
inferred in Columns 4 and 5. The first (Column 4) is probably most typical of a
tropical humid to perhumid climate, such as the raised bogs of Southeast Asia,
but any climate which prevents excessive drying of the peat surface would fit the
listed conditions. In contrast, Column 5 depicts a raised bog subjected to pro-
nounced seasonal changes, which include a dry period. Although these differences
lead to different peat and coal types, all ombrotelmites are formed under rather
acid conditions and low nutrient supply. The various mire settings have a strong
influence on bacterial activity, which increases with the pH of the peat water.
Due to the frequency of flooding of rheotrophic mires, coals formed from
topotelmites are characterised by relatively high ash contents, although the actual
percentages on washed coal (density = 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm 3 to exclude stone bands but
retain high recovery) vary over a wide range. Apart from the climatic influence the
latter depends on the size and elevation of the river catchment draining into the
swamp, as well as on the proximity of flood-prone feeder channels to the sites of
peat accumulation. The highest ash contents of 20% are recorded when the position
of the water table fluctuates, because the increase in inherent ash due to the loss
of biomass is added to adventitious minerals deposited during flooding. Higher
ash figures have been reported, but they are excluded because Table 5.11 refers only
to humic coals. The respective ash percentages for ombrotelmite-derived coals are
considerably smaller, because their main source is the inorganic matter contained
in the phytogenic progenitors of the coal. Those formed in continuously wet
raised bogs, where the loss of biomass is lowest, have the smallest ash percentages
of all coals, rarely exceeding 3% and, under a regime of nutrient recycling, may
be showing less than 1%, as demonstrated by some of the West Coast coals of New
Zealand. Slightly higher ash figures are encountered in raised bog coals which
were subjected to intermittent drying, either in a monsoonal climate or due to
lack of rain and possibly freeze-drying under cool conditions with strong seasonal
changes. The higher oxidative decay of some of the organic matter compared with
the continuously wet ombrotelmites will lead to an increase in coal ash.
The consideration of stone bands is restricted to epiclastic deposits left behind
after the peat had been flooded. Inorganic deposits, which are unrelated to the
depositional setting of the mire, such as pyroclastic sediments and their weathered
derivative claystones are not considered; As expected, the distribution of epiclastic
stone bands follows a pattern similar to the ash content, although some variations
are indicated in the table, such as their comparatively rare occurrence in the
brackish and marine influenced coals of Column 2. These coals are mostly related
to marine transgressions, which tend to push the strandline inland thus forcing
rivers to alluviate further upstream. As a result less sediments is spread over the
coastal mires when they are flooded.
The distribution of sulphur and pyrite is inversely related to the acidity of the
mire, which accounts for the high concentration, mainly of framboidal pyrite in
marine influenced coals. Conversely, the low pH found in ombrotelmites prevents
any widespread sulphur enrichment in raised bogs, although some marcasite can
be found in high volatile coals derived from continuously wet ombrotelmites.
Moderate concentrations may be found in eutrophic mires because of the dilution
and neutralisation of acids by alkalis and alkaline earths, when the mire is flooded
with nufrient laden waters. Because of the preference of sulphate reducing bacteria
for 32S, the 34SP2S isotope ratio is low in the marine or brackish influenced coals
formed from low acid to alkaline topotelmites, whereas others are characterised
by high ratios.
The coal quality parameters volatile matter yield, atomic H/C ratio, vitrinite
reflectance and vitrinite fluroescence intensity are all described in terms of average,
high or low in reference to the rank of the coal in which they have been determined.
Being interrelated rank parameters themselves, their descriptors vary little from
each other, although their sensitivities towards type variations differ quite
considerably. For example, bulk properties such as volatile matter yield are more
affected by changes in maceral group proportions in the feed coal than by the
absorption of lipids in vitrinite, which influence very strongly its fluorescene and,
to a lesser extent, reflectance. It is therefore possible for a highly sensitive parameter
(e.g. vitrinite fluorescence) to act as a palaeo-environmental type indicator in
correspondence with a less sensitive parameter (e.g. reflectance), which takes the
role of a rank indicator, as has been done in Fig. 5.27 and 5.28. The assessment of
these properties in terms of average, high, or low will gain further from a correlation
of the analysis results either with another independent rank parameter, such as
depth of burial, as in Fig. 5.29, or with results obtained from other sources. For
example, an evaluation of the atomic H/C ratio, which is also related to wetness
and lipid absorption, can be obtained by plotting the mass percentages obtained
for hydrogen and carbon into Seyler's Chart or its modified version illustrated in
Fig. 5.18. A position in the perhydrous field above the bright coal band indicates
a higher than average H/C ratio, whereas a plot in the subhydrous area below
the bright coal band relates to a lower than average H/C ratio.
The tissue preservation index appears twice in Table 5.11 depending on the rate
of subsidence in relation to the rate of peat accumulation. A relatively high rate of
basin subsidence results in better tissue preservation compared with a low rate.
Consequently, moderate amounts of residual plant tissue in the form of telovitrinite
and/or telo-inertinite are still found in coals formed either under adverse conditions
(of tissue preservation), or from herbaceous vegetation with low preservation
potential. High TPI values based on telovitrinite are typical of the coals formed
under the conditions inferred in Column 1, mainly, because trees and woody plants
in general constitute the bulk of their biogenic feedstock. Conversely, a low rate
of subsidence will even reduce the TPI of these coals, although not as much as in
the others, which are further affected by either high bacterial activity (Column 2)
or frequent oxidation (Columns 3 and 5). Since the gelification index reflects the
consistency of moisture availability, it can be lowered either by frequent or
prolonged drops in the groundwater table of topogenous mires (Column 3), or in
response to the seasonal drying of raised bogs (Column 5).
6 The Relationship Between Coal
and Interseam Sediments
Coal seams and their surrounding strata share several spatial and genetic
relationships, some of which are common to all sediments, while others are specific
to the transition from primarily inorganic to organic sedimentation and vice versa.
Although coal seams and their enclosing inorganic sediments differ in many aspects,
a mutual influence on each other's composition and structural relationships is often
observed in the vicinity of their contacts. Examples are the distribution of elements
and minerals, which may be quite uniform in a vertical seam section, but undergo
considerable changes in concentration near the sediment/coal interface (Nicholls
1968; Gluskoter et al. 1977; Pareek and Bardhan 1985). The observation of Dorsey
and Kopp (1985) of a gradual upward decrease in elemental concentration in the
Pewee Seam of the Wartburg Basin in Tennessee, U.S.A., followed by a sharp
reversal of the trend (increase in Si, AI, Ti, K, Mg) below the seam roof is probably
not an isolated occurrence. The authors regard the gradual upward element
depletion as an indication of the decreasing influx into the Pewee swamp of
terrigenous minerals, which was followed by renewed flooding and abundant
sediment supply, thus terminating peat accumulation. While this interpretation is
probably correct, an additional factor in the upward elemental depletion may be the
recycling of essential elements, when plants cannot obtain sufficient nutrients from a
deeply buried and water-logged soil, or because of the cessation of nutrient supply
by flood waters.
Systematic upward changes in coal composition are particularly striking in coal
seams which carry a marine roof (White and Thiessen 1913; Petrascheck 1952;
R. Teichmiiller 1955b; Diessel1961; M. Teichmiiller 1962; Williams and Keith 1963;
Smith and Batts 1974; Goldhaber and Kaplan 1974; Boctor et al. 1976; Casagrande
et al. 1977; Parrat and Kullerud 1979; Pearson 1979; Price and Shieh 1979; Harris
et al. 1981; Smith and Batts 1984; Shim oyama 1984; Cohen et al. 1984; Casagrande
1987). As has been referred to in Chaps. 4 and 5, the sulphur content of coal seams
increases strongly as marine roof sediments are approached. This aspect will be
further discussed in Chaps. 7 and 8.
A reverse effect of coal seams on their roof and floor rocks can likewise be
observed. The seepage of humic and other organic acids from peat into underlying
sediments has frequently resulted in the leaching of alkalis, alkaline earths and other
elements from basal soils (seat earths, underclays), while the high compactability of
peat may exert a strong influence on the structural relationship between coal seams
and their roof rocks.
266 The Relationship Between Coal and Interseam Sediments
Coal/floor couples are generally concordant or conformable with each other, i.e.
their principal surfaces of deposition (Sp-planes) have similar attitudes. In many
cases the same is true for coal/roof couples, but exceptions occur where portions of
the seam have been eroded or where rapid loading and subsequent compaction of
the seam has led to angular discordances between the coal and its roof rocks. It is
mainly these aspects that will be explored in this chapter following some general
remarks about the nature of coal measure sediments.
6.1 Some Characteristics and Properties of Interseam Sediments
The dependence of peat formation on either high rain fall or a high groundwater
table also puts constraints on the range of depositional environments for the
associated coal measure sediments. Neither desert nor deep sea deposits are
consanguinous with coal, but sediments which are formed on low-lying terrain or in
shallow water are frequently encountered between coal seams because their
respective depositional environments coexisted and were laterally contiguous.
The aim of this discussion is to present an inventory of the various lithologic
elements that constitute coal measure sequences and to summarise the essential
features by which they can be recognised. Although such a presentation will
encompass several general sedimentological aspects, it is intended to emphasise
those rock characteristics which are commonly found in coal measure sediments.
Among the latter there is a predominance of epiclastic deposits, whose sedimenta-
tion elements can be arranged in a hierarchy, as proposed by Potter and Pettijohn
(1963). Following their lead, Allen (1967) stressed that the hierarchical order found
in a sediment is not merely a convenient arrangement to classify its various
components and geometrical domains, but that it is the lithological expression of a
likewise hierarchical order of sedimentary processes and forces. For example, a body
of water moving in a river channel constitutes a force field of high magnitude. It can
be subdivided into flow vectors of lesser magnitude and high frequency which will
produce specific responses in a sediment formed within such a flow vector system.
Sedimentation elements therefore range from those with low magnitude and high
frequency (e.g. single particles) to complex and are ally extensive lithofacies
associations, of which a basin may contain a limited number only (low freqency, high
magnitude). Indeed, the sedimentary basin itself may be regarded as forming the
apex of the hierarchical pyramid to which all other sedimentation elements,
including lithosomes, sedimentary structures, depositional fabric and the like are
subordinate.
The position of a sedimentation element within the hierarchy has a strong
bearing on its analytical value in the solution of many coal geological problems. For
instance, in coal exploration and in the planning of the layout of a mine, knowledge
of the syn- and post-depositional drainage pattern is of considerable advantage, in
order to locate areas of potentially difficult mining conditions due to erosion and
seam deterioration. The necessary palaeocurrent analyses can be based on either
Some Characteristics and Properties of Interseam Sediments 267
single particles, fabric elements, primary structures or even lithosomes. Lithosomes,

being responses to whole flow vector systems, reflect more faithfully a drainage
pattern than sedimentation elements of lower magnitude which correspond to
smaller and often local vector fields within the system. Flow directions derived from
low ranking sedimentation elements may be at variance to the main trend but in
view of their high frequency and the poor preservation potential (Allen 1967) of
whole channels, most palaeocurrent analyses are based on sedimentary textures and
structures. In order to yield meaningful results, low order sedimentation elements
require a larger sample population than is necessary in domains of high magnitude.
Even then, variances about mean values are often high.
6.1.1 Single Particles
The smallest petrographic entities of a rock consist of single particles which are
characterised by very low magnitude and high frequency. They are studied by a
variety of methods and for many different reasons because both the composition and
texture of the grains composing a sediment carry a record of its origin, mode of
transportation and deposition, as well as the palaeo-environment of the depositional
site. Furthermore, single particles are the basis on which sediments are classified.
6.1.1.1 Origin and Composition of Single Particles
Most epiclastic sediments are composed of the products of weathering of pre-

existing rocks which themselves may be of sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic
origin. The weathering products occur within the sediment in several forms and
stages of degradation which can be linked to the source rock in the following way:
Source Rock ~ rock fragments

~ primary detrital or residual allogenic minerals
~ weathered derivative minerals
~ authigenic minerals.
In the above scheme the components are listed in order of decreasing influence of the
source rock on the composition ofthe components involved. It has been implied that
rock fragments are the results of incomplete physical weathering in the form of block
disintegration. Thermal stresses caused by insolation together with a low heat
capacity and conductivity of the source rock are effective means of physical
weathering. In addition there are mechanical stresses, such as frost wedging,
crystallisation pressures etc. The products of these processes can become part of an
epiclastic sediment at any stage during their development but there are considerable
differences in the potential of the various source rocks to form sedimentary clasts.
Both particle size and their resistance to weathering put constraints on the
suitability of a source rock to form rock fragments. A number of dense and resistant
source rocks are frequently encountered as detritus even in fine-grained clastic
sediments. Those of igneous origin usually consist of extrusive rocks, rich in volcanic
glass, or of aphanitic and microcrystalline texture. Many lithic wackes and sand-
stones contain such detritus, particularly those formed in an orogenic setting.
Because of their large crystal size, high grade metamorphic rocks are restricted
to coarse-grained sediments in the same way as plutonic rocks are. Only relatively
dense phyllites, slates and some contact-metamorphic rocks, like hornfels, occur in
sandstones. Sedimentary rocks themselves can be recycled but many are poorly
cemented and disintegrate during weathering and transportation. Most sedimen-
tary clasts are either rich in lime or silica or both, such as silicified limestones.
Among the most resistant of all rock fragments are the many varieties of cherts and
radiolarites.
In the course of prolonged physical weathering and frequently aided by varying
coefficients of expansion between different minerals, the grain fabric of a source rock
will eventually disintegrate, thus leaving a residual detritus which consists of
individual minerals. When incorporated in a clastic sediment, this fraction forms the
primary detrital or residual allogenic minerals.
Close to the sediment source almost any mineral may become a detrital
component, but with prolonged transportation, unstable minerals will be succes-
sively eliminated from the maturing sediment. Indeed, immature polymict sand-
stones whose components have been transported over short distances reflect
faithfully the composition of their (igneous or metamorphic) source rocks. Sedi-
ments which have been deposited some distance away from their sources contain
fewer mineral species as detritus than are found in their parent rocks. The
elimination of minerals follows a regular pattern beginning with olivine, pyroxenes
and other species which have been formed early in a cooling magma. The most
resistant primary minerals are white micas, orthoclase and, particularly, quartz.
Being of late magmatic formation, these minerals are more stable in the low
temperature hydrous environment on the earth's surface than the minerals formed
under high temperatures and pressures. Minerals can therefore be arranged in a
sequence of decreasing resistance (stability series) which is the reverse of the order in
which they crystallise from a cooling magma (Rosenbusch-Bowen series). It follows
that of the hundreds of minerals that are potentially represented as clasts in
sediments, only few are really common. These are quartz and chalcedony, acid
feldspars, white mica, calcite, and a variety of heavy minerals.
The weathered derivative minerals are still detrital in the sense that they have
been transported and deposited by physical means but they show the effects of some
chemical alteration. Chemical weathering is accelerated by the increasing fragment-
ation and decreasing particle size of the detritus resulting from prolonged physical
weathering and the wear the grains are subjected to during transportation. A
decreasing particle size leads to an increase in the total grain surface area of the
remaining sediment, and since the speed of chemical reactions between solids (e.g.
minerals) and fluids (e.g. water and air) is largely controlled by the available surface
area, a large number of small particles is more prone to chemical changes than a few
large ones. In the initial stages, chemical weathering leads to hydration, followed by
hydrolysis and leaching of some elements, mainly alkalis and alkaline earths. Such
processes are usually accompanied by structural lattice adjustments and the
formation of clay minerals which comprise the most common weathered derivative
minerals (secondary detrital) in coal measure sediments. An example is the
kaolinitisation of feldspar and mica discussed in Chap. 4.4.2.1.
The substances leached out of the original source rock and minerals form
colloids or hydrous solutions. Most of the elements dissolved during chemical
weathering ultimately accumulate in the sea, where they become part of the salt
content and also generate the wide range of chemical and biochemical sediments so
typical of marine environments. The minerals precipitated as part of the sediment
from hydrous solutions or colloids, with or without the aid of organisms, are called
chemical or authigenic minerals. They form cements in clastic rocks, concretions,
infillings in vugs, joints and the like, or build up chemical sediments. On the basis of
timing of authigenesis in relation to the deposition of the host rock, a distinction is
made between syngenetic (early) and epigenetic (late) precipitates. As discussed in
Chap. 4.4.2, the two can be distinguished by the amount of compaction that has
occurred around the authigenic formation (Fig. 4.43).
6.1.1.2 Particle Size
One of the fundamental parameters in the classification of all rocks is the size of their
constituting particles as crystals or clasts. But this is not the only reason for
considering particle size. In epiclastic sediments, with which most coal seams are
interbedded, particle size can be useful indicator of palaeocurrent directions and it is
also a relative measure of the energy level that prevailed in the depositional
environment. The principle can be illustrated by Hjulstrom's Diagram (Fig. 6.1),
which demonstrates that the energy required to erode a fine clay is as high as the one
needed to start motion in cobbles. However, once transportation has begun, a clay
requires only minimal inputs of energy to remain in suspension, which is in sharp
contrast to large particles. In this context, high energy means fast-flowing water and
turbulence. The latter is necessary to lift the particles against the gravitational pull.
:Wl
1000
100
~A1
"
G)
'"
E
10
FIELD OF
"~
TRANSPORT A TlON >-
f-
(3
o...J
Fig. 6.1. Diagram showing the kinetic UJ
relationship between particle size (in mm) >
and flow velocity. (After Hjulstrom 1939). 0-1
B'
100 10 0-1 (){)1
A - A' erosion threshold; B - B' deposition 0001
threshold PARTICLE DIAMETER

Both degree and geometry of turbulence result from flow velocity and bed forms.
Large bedload clasts in a channel present obstacles to the current flow resulting in
the formation of individual turbulences around each particle. With diminishing
grain size the turbulences decrease accordingly until the particles reach clay size
where individual turbulences cannot be generated. The clay bed then acts like a
smooth surface whose resistance to erosion is increased by the cohesive forces
between the clay particles.
In the process of deposition, particles of diminishing size will be dropped
successively as water velocity decreases. This means that a down-stream sorting
takes place in response to the decreasing competence of the flow system as river
gradients flatten away from the elevated source area. This effect is superimposed on
the reduction in grain size due to fragmentation and wear during transportation.
The down-slope decrease in particle size necessitates changes in sedimentary
nomenclature. There is no unanimity about the best classification for epiclastic
rocks, but the most widely used system is the Udden-Wentworth Scale listed in
Table 6.1. Its basic unit is a particle with a diameter of 1 mm. Successive size classes
are obtained by either multiplying or dividing by 2.
Rocks which consist of one size class only are said to be very well sorted. But few
conglomerates contain only rudaceous particles, and rarely does a sandstone consist
Table 6.1. The particle size classification of clastic sediments according to the Udden-Wentworth
scale. Also included is the Phi-scale, which gives the negative logarithms of the actual
diameters
MM PHI Particle name Principal rock
>256 <-8 Boulder

256 -8
128 -7 Cobble Rudite
64 -6 (e.g. conglomerate)
32 -5
16 -4 Pebble
8 -3
4 -2
Granule
2 -1
Very coarse
0
Coarse
1/2 Arenite
Medium (e.g. sandstone)
1/4 2
Fine
1/8 3
Very fine
1/16 4
1/32 5
1/64 6 Silt Lutite
1/128 7 (e.g. mudstone, shale)
1/256 8
< 1/265 >8 Clay
of arenaceous detritus only. Many conglomerates contain up to 50% sandy matrix

and yet they are identified as conglomerates. None of the particle size classes is free
from admixtures by either finer or coarser grains, which is expressed in such terms as
sandy conglomerate, or pebbly sandstone, sandy shale and the like. These terms
describe hybrid rocks of poor sorting in which the various particle sizes are well
mixed and evenly distributed. An alternative example of hybrid rocks is represented
by laminated sediments in which different particle sizes are concentrated in distinct
layers, too thin to be logged separately. Depending on whether the emphasis is on
either compositional or textural aspects, different sediment classifications have
evolved. For details see Pettijohn (1963), Pettijohn et al. (1972), Greensmith (1978),
Ruby et al. (1981), Selley (1982), Adams et al. (1984), and Fiichtbauer (1988) for
general aspects, and Ferm and Melton (1977), Mallett and Ward (1982), Conze
(1984), and Ward (1984) for specific classification of coal measure sediments.
6.1.1.3 Particle Shape and Roundness
Both shape and roundness of detrital particles are influenced by the rigor and
duration of transportation and the shape of the original grains, whether mineral
or rock fragment. In sediments which have been transported over short distances
only, the clasts are hardly worn and have retained much oftheir initial configuration
before the onset of erosion. With increasing distance of transportation, edges and
corners become abraded and the particles approach a spherical shape. However,
complete sphericity is rarely established in anisotropic mineral grains because
anisotropy is not only a.n optical quality but includes other physical properties such
as hardness. Quartz, for example, is slightly harder along the crystallographic C-axis
and therefore forms clasts which tend to remain somewhat oblong even after
prolonged transportation.
The shape ofa rock fragment is likewise affected by its original shape and grain
fabric. Because coarse grains suffer heavy collisions in relation to their strength, they
show signs of wear after a few kilometres of travel. However, small particles have to
be transported over larger distances before they become affected in the same way.
Often hundreds of kilometers of transportation are necessary before sand grains
become rounded. The highest degree of roundness is usually acquired in environ-
ments where the particles are in constant motion, such as on beaches and in shallow
seas. Indeed, particles of silt size and below will rarely become rounded even in high
energy environments because the collisions they suffer are small with respect to their
material strength. The threshold below which rounding stops is close to the sand/silt
boundary in water transportation, whereas air-borne particles can become rounded
down to 0.02 mm diameter because in aeolian environments the cushioning effect of
water is lacking (Pettijohn 1963).
It is necessary to make a clear distinction between shape and roundness.
Particle shape can be defined in various ways, a frequently used parameter is
sphericity which, after Wadell (1935), can be defined as:
Sphericity = d/a . (6.1)

D 0
r------------j (-------"\ (--~
L_ _ _ _ J
' :
! ! I '
~-~
1 1
L ____________ J
D
I
0
I
0-15
(-------~
~--- ...--~
01. 030
(----\
~-.-.~
030 050
(--~
~..-~
050 070
q
070 10
ANGULAR SUB ANGULAR SUBROUNDED ROUNDED WELL -ROUNDED
Fig. 6.2. Comparison of similar coefficients of roundness in particles of different shape. The
numerical values for the roundness grades are after Russel and Taylor (1937)
a = maximum particle diameter; d = nominal particle diameter, i.e. the diameter of

a sphere having the same volume as the particle.
Roundness refers to the degree of wear on edges and corners of a particle
independent of its shape as shown in Fig. 6.2, in which the roundness scale has been
defined as:
Coefficient of roundness = ~)/nR. (6.2)
The formula is designed to handle two-dimensional images, e.g. photographs or

traces of the particles, whereby R = radius of the maximum inscribed circle; r = radii
of circles fitted into edges and corners; n = number of radii measured.
6.1.2 Depositional Fabric
In this chapter, the components of a sedimentary rock are regarded not just as single
grains but as part of a depositional fabric. This fabric is primary in the sense that the
manner of aggregation of its elements, i.e. the particles, is the result of the
depositional process and not of tectonic or any other secondary overprinting. In
view of the predominance of epiclastic sediments in most coal measure sequences,
these fabrics will be emphasised.
6.1.2.1 Classification of Fabric Elements
As mentioned in the discussion of particle size (Chap. 6.1.1.2), it is rare for a sediment
to consist of one size class only. Usually, the degree of sorting varies but even in well-
sorted sandstones or conglomerates, small particles often occupy the voids between
the larger particles. The larger, more obvious particles are referred to as the
phenoclasts (i.e. the visible fragments) whereas the smaller interstitial detritus
constitutes the groundmass or matrix. In the example illustrated in Fig.6.3A, the

phenoclasts are shown to be in contact with each other, the fabric is therefore said to
be clast- or framework-supported. Conversely, in poorly sorted sediments, there is
no distinct size partitioning of phenoclasts and matrix (Fig. 6.3B). In such case, the
rock type boundaries of the Udden-Wentworth Scale are used to distinguish
between phenoclasts and matrix. A pebble conglomerate, for example, would have a
sandy matrix, and in a sandstone, silt and clay-sized particles constitute the matrix
fraction. In poorly sorted sediments the proportion of matrix is commonly so large
that it prevents the phenoclasts from touching each other. Such a rock is therefore
said to be matrix-supported. In addition to the detritus, lithified sediments also
contain a cement which consists of authigenic minerals that have been precipitated
in the voids between clasts or have partly replaced them.
The volumetric proportion between phenoclasts and matrix and their respec-
tive composition is used in classifying rudites into para- (matrix-supported) and
orthoconglomerates (framework-supported) and arenites into the lithotypes listed
in Table 6.2. There is no unanimity about sandstone classification, so the
Fig. 6.3 A, B. Cartoon comparing the dif-

ferences between phenoclasts (white) and
matrix grains (spaced stipples) in frame-
work-supported (A) and matrix-sup-
ported clastic rocks (B). Cement is densely
stippled
Table 6.2. Classification of arenites on the basis of fabric and composition
Composition of Low matrix High matrix content> 15%

phenoclasts content < 15% Leucocratic Melanocratic
> 90% Quartz + Quartz sandstone Quartz wacke

other detrital SiOz
> 25% Feldspar Arkose Feldspathic wacke Feldspathic
grey wacke
> 50% Rock Lithic sandstone Lithic wacke Lithic
fragments greywacke
organisation and terminology used in Table 6.2, is merely one of several possibilities.
However, most authors agree on 15% matrix separating high and low matrix, i.e.
between clean (ortho-) sandstones and wackes. The reason for this is that less than
15% small detritus can be accommodated in the pore space between the phenoclasts
of a reasonably well-sorted, framework-supported clastic rock. When the matrix
fraction exceeds 15% the phenoclasts begin to lose contact, sorting deteriorates and
the fabric becomes matrix-supported. The matrix-supported arenites may be further
divided into wackes wjth a light-coloured, leucocratic matrix and greywackes
having a dark, melanocratic matrix. In leucocratic arenites the matrix consists of
clay micas, kaolinite, quartz and other light-coloured debris, whereas dark ferro-
magnesian minerals and their chloritic derivatives constitute much ofthe matrix of a
melanocratic arenite, giving the rock a dull greenish grey colour.
The light-coloured wackes are common in molasse-type coal measures formed
in foredeep settings. They usually derive from the destruction of an adjacent fold
belt. Greywackes, on the other hand, are rare as interseam sediments but occur most
commonly as flysch-type deposits within the orogenic belt itself. Originally
emplaced by turbidity currents on the ocean floor, they have been derived mainly
from basic to intermediate volcanic debris produced near converging plate margins.
Because the source rocks contain very little free quartz, there is little possibility of
quartz greywacke. Further subdivisions and combinations can be made on the basis
of accessory minerals and the kind of cement.
6.1.2.2 Types of Aggregation
The spatial arrangement of particles with respect to each other results from their
sizes and shapes, as well as the orientation and sorting imposed on detrital grains by
gravitation, current direction, current strength and, occasionally, earth magnetism.
Four types of aggregation can be distinguished:
1. A homogeneous isotropic fabric (Fig. 6.4A) consists of equidimensional grains

(e.g. spheres) either all of the same size or if not, of randomly distributed sizes.
Examples are oolitic limestone (oosparite or oomicrite), some dune and beach
sands and some gravels. The rocks are homogeneous because the fabric consists
of similar elements even if only relatively small parts of the rock are considered.
The rock is also isotropic in that its mechanical and other physical properties are
equal in all directions.
2. A homogeneous statistically isotropic fabric (Fig. 6.4B) is still homogeneous in
the sense mentioned above but the particles are not equidimensional any more.
However, because oftheir random orientation, large enough portions of the rock
react like isotropic materials. Mudstones are typical examples.
3. A homogeneous anisotropic fabric (Fig. 6.4C) differs from the two examples
above by the manner in which its mechanical properties depend on the direction
from which a load is applied. A typical example is shale which, because of its
fissility, splits with greater ease parallel to stratification than normal to it.
_-~_-~_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_- c
------------
r-----------
------------
r_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_
Fig. 6.4 A-D. Four different types of epiciastic fabric.

A Homogeneous isotropic. B Homogeneous statisti-
cally isotropic. C Homogeneous anisotropic. D Hetero-
geneous anisotropic. (After Diessel and Moelle 1965) .........................................
4. A heterogeneous anisotropic fabric (Fig. 6.40) displays a distinct separation into

alternating coarse and fine laminae. There is therefore an even stronger
dependence of its properties on the direction of force application. All laminated
sediments are good examples of this fabric type.
Although mechanical properties have been emphasised in order to explain the

differences between the various kinds of depositional fabric, other features, such as
acoustic, electric and optical properties are likewise affected.
In addition to its palaeo-environmental significance, coal measure fabric is of
special interest because it affects the performance of interseam sediments as roof and
floor rocks during mining. The more homogeneous and isotropic, the more
predictable is the rock's response to an applied mechanical force field or the
disturbance of the existing stress field. The extreme heterogeneous and anisotropic
nature oflaminites makes both rock mechanics calculations and scaled-down model
tests very difficult, mainly because of the existence of numerous planes of mechanical
discontinuity between the different lithotypes along which bed separation occurs
very easily. For this reason, laminites make mechanically poor and rather
unpredictable roof rocks in coal mines.
The manner of aggregation is usually slightly modified by diagenetic processes.
These are post-depositional sensu stricto and therefore oflesser concern here, but as
Fig. 6.5. Cartoon showing different grain

contacts in framework supported clastic
rock: p point; st straight; c concave/convex;
su sutured contacts
diagenesis is part ofthe sedimentary cycle and somewhat related to the depositional
environment, these processes require some consideration. Depending on the degree
of diagenesis, compaction of the sediments increases resulting in a change of the
type of contact between particles, particularly in framework-supported fabrics.
Because of increasing pressure solution at grain contacts the following changes have
been observed by Taylor (1950) and Fiichtbauer (1967a):
Point (p) ---+ straight (st) ---+ concave/convex (c) ---+ sutured (su).
Figure. 6.5 gives an illustration of the various grain contacts, from which the degree
of compaction can be calculated as:
· d .
P a k mg P + 2st + 3c + 4su
enslty = = - - - - - - - - - (6.3)
p + st + c + su
Data acquisition for the determination of packing density is normally carried out by
counting the types of contact along traverses in a thin section.
6.1.2.3 Symmetry Relationships
Clastic particles have various shapes which can be described as disks, prisms,
pencils, cubes and spheres. The two latter may be characterised by different packing
densities but they cannot have preferred orientation. All other shapes can possess
preferred orientation to varying degrees. For example, the disk-shaped clay micas in
a shale are usually oriented parallel. to each other, thus forming a homogeneous
anisotropic fabric. The parallelism is a consequence of mainly gravitation, which
acted upon the particles as they settled out of suspension. If gravitation is
supplemented by a tangentional force, as is the case when particles are deposited by
a current (Potter and Pettijohn 1963), they form an imbrication fabric in which the
plates overlap like roof tiles. The symmetrical relationships found in the depo-
sitional fabric are a result of the kinematic and, less directly, the dynamic conditions
of transportation and deposition, which can be measured and analysed statistically
CONCENTRATION %
•
>30
30·20
§lIl
20-10
[IIJ
10-2
§
2-1
Q
< I
A D B
• •
>25 > 15
25-15 15-10
§lIl §lIl
15- 5 10- 5
[IIJ [ill
5-2 5-2
§ §
2- I 2- I
D
... 0...
< I < I
D D
Fig. 6.6 A-D. Four diagrams representing current-influenced directional fabric elements measured
in the roof sandstone of the Dudley Seam of the Newcastle Coal Measures, New South Wales.
A Rose diagram of 44 articulate stems and Glossopteris leaves at 10° interval. B Polar stereogram
(Schmidt Net) of 100 foreset beds. C Polar stereogram ofthe AB planes (maximum projection) of
100mica platelets measured in top set beds (principal surface of deposition, Sp). D Polar
stereogram of the AB planes of 100 mica platelets measured in foreset bed, but referred to Sp as
datum. (After Diessel 1966)
or by graphical methods. The results of a fabric analysis involving platy particles

are shown in Fig. 6.6C and D by means of polar stereograms of mica measured
in a fluvial sandstone above the Dudley Seam in the Newcastle Coal Measures of
New South Wales. Stereogram C, based on the orientation of mica in horizontally
bedded sandstone, shows the expected up-current dip of the mica flakes. Stereogram
D is based on measurements carried out in the plane of a foreset bed (Sf) where
the micas dip down-current when referred to the principal bedding plane (Sp) as
datum. However, normal up-current dip is established also in this case, when mica
imbrication is referred to the tilt-corrected foreset as datum.
Pencils and prismatic grains also display variations in orientation depending on
whether they have been deposited under a gravitational force field only or in one
that contained a tangentional force, such as a current as well. In the first case, the
elongated particles (minerals, rocks, fossils) will be randomly arranged on the
depositional surface, whereas in the second case they acquire a parallel orientation
with respect to each other. An example is shown in Fig. 6.7, which shows a slab of
laminite from the roof of the Bulli Seam, New South Wales. The rock contains a
large number of Glossopteris and other plant leaves, most of which are oriented
parallel to current flow (SE) indicated by the northeasterly trending crests and
troughs of current ripples. The results of a fabric analysis on such material can be
illustrated either in two-dimensional rose diagrams (Figs. 6.6A and 6.8D) or in three-
dimensional polar stereograms, as in Fig. 6.8B and C. From a two-dimensional
representation (Figs. 6.6A and 6.8 D) only a line of movement can be obtained but
no actual flow direction. For example, without the azimuths obtained from the dip
direction of the foreset beds in Fig. 6.6B, or the mica imbrication in Fig. 6.6C and D,
it could be assumed that the orientation of the plants in Fig. 6.6A corresponds either
to a northwesterly or a southeasterly current. Only when the three - dimensional
stereo grams are considered as well, do the measured parameters define a north-
westerly current.
While in Fig. 6.6A the plant fossils are oriented parallel to the other sedi-
mentation elements, in Fig. 6.8D they are arranged almost at right angles to the
other current indicators. Indeed, an orientation of elongated particles normal to
current flow is quite common in traction transportation, when particles roll along
the accretion plane. If there is a sudden drop in current velocity, for instance due to
breaching of levee banks and stream avulsion, this movement picture can be
preserved in the lower reaches ofthe channel, which have suddenly been deprived of
their water supply. An orientation parallel to current direction of elongated particles
Fig.6.7. Slab of laminite from the roof of the Bulli Seam, Illawarra Coal Measures, New South
Wales, showing plant fossils in perpendicular orientation to the crests and troughs of current
ripples
N N
w E W
CONCENTRATION
_>40%
§ 40-10%
0<10%
EW
Fig. 6.8 A-D. Four diagrams illustrating directional features measured in the roof of the Upper
Homeville Seam, Greta Coal Measures, New South Wales. A Polar stereogram (Schmidt Net) of73
foreset beds. B Stereogram (Schmidt Net) of the long axes of 600 pebbles. C Stereogram of 65 tree
trunks more than 1 m long. D Rose diagram 291 plant leaves. (After Diessel 1984)
is commonly obtained from gradually waning currents when it is still possible to

push the particles into positions where they offer least resistance to flow even though
their transportation has ceased. Additional fabric elements showing a parallel
orientation to current direction and other palaeocurrent indicators are tree trunks
whose roots are dragged along the river bed.
Bed configuration is another reason why elongated particles can be at variance
with the orientation of other directional sedimentation elements. In relatively
tranquil flow, small plant debris most commonly accumulates in the trough of ripple
marks and sand waves, where it orients itself parallel to the trough line but normal to
the current trend.
6.1.3 Coal Measure Structures
While the previously discussed sedimentation elements, the single grains and their
fabric, are classified as sedimentary textures, the term structure encompasses the
larger-scale attributes of sedimentary beds, some ofthem are listed in Table 6.3. The
primary mechanical structures are of particular interest because of their diagnostic
value in both facies and palaeocurrent analyses. This kind of geological enquiry
plays an important part in coal exploration and mining mainly for the purpose of
predicting changes in roof and floor rocks of coal seams, the trend of washouts,
erosion surfaces and other sedimentary features which might be detrimental to
mining. The primary mechanical structures will therefore be discussed in some detail
together with some of the secondary mechanical structures which may have an
adverse effect on mining conditions (e.g. clastic dykes). For a more comprehensive
treatment see Potter and Pettijohn (1963,1964), Gubler (1966), and Conybeare and
Crook (1968).
6.1.3.1 Stratification
Among the most basic primary structures of sediments are the partitions between
individual strata. These stratification planes have many different origins, but in the
predominantly clastic coal measures, changes in particle size from one stratum to the
other are the most common reason for their occurrence. Various terms are used in
order to indicate the spacing between adjacent stratification planes and the
thickness of the enclosing lithotypes. An example is given in Table 6.4 in which the
term bedding is used for stratification involving strata more than 1 cm thick,
whereas the term lamination applies when they are thinner.
In coal measure sediments all the kinds of strata listed in Table 6.4 occur.
Naturally, the thickly and very thickly bedded sediments are confined to coarse-
grained clastics, such as conglomerates, some fluvial sandstones, and some deltaic
and other nearshore deposits. Such relatively thick and coarse inter seam sediments
are commonly found close to strong sediment sources, e.g. near the orogenic
margins of molasse foredeeps (foreland basins). In such settings the coarse clastics
Table 6.3. Classification of sedimentary structures
Primary Secondary
Mechanical Stratification, bed undulations, Weather marks, load casts, ball and
cross-stratification, sand pillow structures, flame structures,
lineation, flute casts, tool marks convolute bedding, slump folds and
breccias, clastic dykes and sills, gas
heave and fluid escape structures
Chemical Oolites, sinter, stalactites and Concretions, druses, amygdules
stalagmites
Table 6.4. Classification of sedimentary strata according to their thickness. (After Ingram
1954)
Spacing of stratification planes

(cm)
Very thickly bedded >100

Thickly bedded 30-100
Medium bedded 10-30
Thinly bedded 3-10
Very thinly bedded 1-3
Thickly laminated 0.3-1
Thinly laminated <0.3
form wedge-shaped deposits which distally become finer and thinner so that
laminated sediments comprise the majority of the interseam deposits.
Among the many types of laminites which have been described only relatively
few are frequently encountered in coal measures. These are listed below:
1. Sandstone laminite is a sandstone which contains laminae of differently sized

arenites.
2. Shale-laminated sandstone is a sandstone which is composed of more than 60%
sandstone and between 40 and 10% shale laminae. The term shale is meant to
include both silt and clay fractions in approximately equal proportions.
3. Shale/sandstone laminite contains both lithotypes in approximately equal (i.e.
between 40 and 60% respectively) proportions in the form of laminae.
4. Sand-laminated shale is a lutite containing between 40 and 10% arenaceous
laminae.
5. Clay-laminated siltstone is a lutite in which 10 to 40% clay laminae alternate with
at least 60% silt laminae.
6. Silt-laminated claystone is a lutite in which 10 to 40% silt laminae alternate with at
least 60% clay laminae.
7. Coal-laminated shale or coaly shale contains 10 to 40% coal laminae inter-
stratified with lutite. Carbonaceous shale has a similar coal/shale ratio but the
two components are not segregated into separate laminae.
Most of the laminites occurring in coal measures can be accommodated within the
above system, which is based primarily on particle size differences. However,
occasionally, additional qualifiers may be applied on the basis of colour differences
or in order to account for genetic changes, such as the alternation of laminae of epi-
and pyroclastic sediments.
The origin oflaminites varies but in coal measures the bulk of this material has
been formed as overbank sediments on flood plains and in flood basins within a
fluvial setting or in interdistributary bays of delta environments.
Both laminae and beds often display vertical variations in particle size in the
form of graded bedding. In most cases, this involves a decrease in grain size in an
upward direction (fining upward) but, occasionally, particle sizes increase in an
upward direction (coarsening upward). Fining upward may be the result of a waning
current in a fluvial sediment, a seasonal change in sediment supply to a lake (e.g.
varved shales), or the change in the particle size may be related to the emplacement
pattern of a turbidite. Upward coarsening results mostly from depositional
progradation of deltas.
6.1.3.2 Bed Undulations
There are several primary sedimentary structures which occur as undulations (bed
forms) on the upper bounding surface of sedimentary strata, whereas others are
better observed at their undersides. In the following discussions emphasis is put on
such surface undulations as illustrated in Fig. 6.9, which can be divided into small-
scale ripples and megaripples (including sand waves and dunes). When formed by a
current they have a gentle upstream slope or stoss-side and a steeper downstream
slope or lee-side except for the so-called antidunes where the slope angles are
reversed.
Small-scale ripples (Fig. 6.10) are the smallest bed forms which usually develop
as periodic undulations on the surfaces of silt or sand deposits in response to wind or
water movements. Their sizes are commonly restricted to wavelengths (measured
from crest to crest or trough to trough) between 5 and 50 cm with a ripple height
from trough to crest ofless than Scm. A distinction can be made between oscillation
or wave-formed ripples, in which both slope angles and slope lengths measured from
the crest to the trough on each side of the crest are equal, and asymmetrical ripples
which have been formed in response to a current. Under conditions of low flow
velocity, the crest lines of current ripples are usually straight and normal to the flow
direction. Lee-side angles are up to 30 ° provided the clay content of the sediment is
Fig.6.9. Photograph of megaripples (emphasised by dashed lines) in sandy facies of the Munmorah
Conglomerate, south of Newcastle, New South Wales
Fig. 6.10. Ripple marks with internal cross-lamination from the roof of the Bulli Seam, Illawarra
Coal Measures, New South Wales
low. Clay tends to lower lee-side angles in water but increases them in wind-formed
ripples (Jopling 1966).
With increasing flow strength the lee-side angles decrease to below 20° and the
ripple crests become first sinuous, then catenary, linguoid and lunate. This mor-
phological response of ripples to changing flow patterns renders them suitable for
palaeo-environmental analysis. The indices most commonly used in order to
identify environments of ripple formation are (after Tanner 1967):
1. The ripple index is the ratio ripple length to ripple height. Wave-formed ripples
have ripple indices usually exceeding 15, which is similar to those formed in the
swash zone. All other ripples formed in water have ripple indices ofless than 15,
provided ripple crests have not been re-shaped by planning-off or differential
compaction.
2. The ripple symmetry index is the length of the stoss-side divided by the length of
the lee-side. In current ripples, this index usually exceed 4, whereas in wave-
formed ripples both flanks are approximately equal in length giving an index of
around 1.
3. The continuity index is the ratio of the distance between beginning and end of a
ripple measured along its crest, and the spacing of ripples (ripple length). Indices
above 15 are common for wind-formed ripples but they overlap with wave-
formed oscillation ripples. Values below 10 are common to current ripples
formed in water and values below 4 are exclusive to them.
4. The straightness index is measured by dividing the length of curvature measured
along the ripple trend by the radius of the curvature. Indices above 15 are
common to wind- or wave-formed ripples. Indices of less than 4 are typically
found in water-generated current ripples.
Apart from the above-mentioned morphological features of ripples, their environ-

ments of formation can be deduced from their association with non-rippled
sediments. An example commonly found in inter-distributary bays, estuaries, and
other depositional sites of coal measures influenced by tidal action are flaser, wavy
and lenticular bedding. These terms describe ripple bodies consisting of fine to
medium sand which have migrated across a muddy sub-strate (Blatt et al. 1980), but
differences exist in the relative proportions of sand and mud within the intertidal
sequence. In flaser bedding, sand dominates and the lutite fraction is restricted to the
ripple troughs in the form of incomplete mud laminae, usually with an upward
concave curvature. Frequently this type of bedding forms in tidal channels or the
middle portion of the intertidal flats where currents are swift and mud is swept from
the sand flats except for the discontinuous mud flakes trapped in ripple troughs.
In lenticular bedding, mud predominates such that sand occurs only in the form
of isolated, so-called starved ripples without forming continuous sheets of sand.
Such structures develop close to protected shore lines where the tidal currents are
too weak to transport much coarse material into the mud flats which dominate the
low energy environment. Wavy bedding occupies a position transitional between
flaser and lenticular bedding in both morphology and depositional site.
Finally, ripples are among the few sedimentary structures which permit a
quantitative assessment of the relative contribution made to the formation of a stra-
tum by traction transportation and fall-out from suspension, respectively. If no
material is added to a ripple body it will migrate across a substratum bystoss-side
erosion and accretion on the lee-side. Under conditions of ample sediment supply by
traction transportation, the ripple will be drawn out to a thin bed because material
Fig.6.11. Photograph ofthe downcurrent termination of a mega ripple, which has been drawn out
by'lee-side addition to form a continuous cross-stratified bed extending to the right of the central
field of view. The intervals on the scale are 10 cm. Waratah Sandstone at top of Tomago Coal
Measures, New South Wales
will be added to the lee-side without being eroded frolT' t1::te stoss-side. Previous lee-
side positions will be preserved as cross-laminations. By using a drawn-out
megaripple as an example, the result of this process is illustrated in Fig. 6.11.
Ripple trains will form successive sheets of drawn-out ripples which are sepa-
rated by stratification planes more or less parallel to the principal surface of
deposition. When traction transportation is supplemented by addition of material
from suspension, the surfaces over which the lee-sides advance, i.e. the preceding
drawn-out ripples, are constantly raised in response to the fall-out accretion. The
result is a set of climbing ripples (Fig. 6.12) in which the angle of up-current dip of
the surfaces separating the drawn-out ripples is dependent upon the proportion
between sediment addition by traction and out of suspension, respectively. The
higher the contribution of sediments carried in suspension, the steeper the climbing
angle. Climbing ripples are formed mainly at the waning stages of floods at the
tops of point bars and in overbank deposits and in turbidites.
It has been mentioned above that the change from straight-crested ripples to
sinuous, catenary and the other curved varieties is related to increasing flow
strength. This is true only as long as water depth and particle size remain constant.
Given such limitations, a further increase in flow velocity would eventually destroy
the ripples and replace them with megaripples, which would tend to repeat the
change from straight to markedly curved crests. Further increase in velocity leads to
a replacement of the bed forms by plane beds and a renewal of megaripples in the
form of antidunes. A final stage would be the development of shutes and pools.
Following the work of Simons and Richardson (1961), the various bed forms can be
arranged into a lower and upper flow regime, respectively. In the lower flow regime
bed forms have no or only minor influence on the configuration of the water surface.
If ripples or waves occur on the water, they are not in phase with the bed form at the
Fig. 6.12. Climbing ripples in 20-cm-thick layer above key (encircled) in the upper portion of a
point bar sandstone above the Yard Seam, Newcastle Coal Measures, New South Wales
bottom of the water column. The lower flow regime encompasses not only the
various ripple types, but also sand waves and dunes (megaripples). Both are larger in
scale than ripples but differ in their ripples indices. Sand waves are very wide in
comparison to their height. The latter ranges from more than 5 cm to several metres
but the ripple length may be over 100 m, resulting in ripple indices of > 50 which is
in contrast to the < 15 commonly found in water-formed current ripples. Dunes are
also large scale but their morphology is closer to that of ripples. When formed in
water, ripple length rarely exceeds 10 m (Blatt et al. 1980) which results in ripple
indices generally below 50.
The lower flow regime ends when the megaripples are planed off due to
increased flow velocities, after which transportation continues by sheet flow, i.e. by
whole layers of sand grains travelling together in more or less continuous layers. The
result is a sequence of flat beds which are transitional to the upper regime but are
conventionally included in this regime because their origin is hydrologically
different from the flat-bedded sequence formed at the beginning of the lower flow
regime, when the current is still too weak to produce any bed forms at all,
particularly in coarse sands. Typical bed form of the upper flow regimes are the
antidunes, which are in phase with the waves generated on the water surface (Fig.
6.13). Indeed, the water waves are practically an image of the underlying bed forms.
Accretion takes place on the stoss-side which often results in up-current migration of
the antidunes.
Fig. 6.13. Antidunes and standing

waves in storm water channel on a New
South Wales beach
200
AnJdunes VF'13~
/
175
Plan bed or /F.
Standing Waves
VV
/Transition
/
150
./
/
125
/'
,/ ! egaripPITs~
../'-0.40
/ v/
100
V ~LriPPles
~
V-
I/V V
75
-----
V
50 / ___ F· 0.30
Fig. 6.14. The

:I
E II; ~
r--
Small Ripples t
u
relationship between flow .5 25 ~ F·0.15
parameters and bed V
forms. F Froude Number. / V- Plane Bed
(After Simons and

Richardson 1961 and 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Reineck and Singh 1975) Depth in em
Because of the interaction between flow velocity, water depth and particle size,
no absolute flow velocities can be given for the generation of the various bed forms.
A common approach is to combine velocity and water depth into a single parameter
such as stream power (mean flow velocity times shear stress) or the Froude Number
(F). The latter is defined as:
V
Froude Number =---;-, (6.4)
-y gh
where V = flow velocity, g = gravitational constant and h = the height of the water
column above the depositional interface ( = water depth). It is obvious that identical
Froude numbers can be obtained from different flow velocities provided that the
water depth changes accordingly. This means that a particular bed form can be
maintained either in fast-flowing deep water or in shallow water of reduced flow
velocity. An illustration of the concept of flow regimes in relation to the controlling
parameters is given in Fig. 6.14.
6.1.3.3 Cross-Stratification
Most of the bed forms discussed above display an internal cross-stratification which
results from the accretion of sediments on the lee-sides in current-generated
undulations, on the stoss-side in antidunes and on one or both flanks in wave-

formed ripples. A more complex internal organisation is found in longitudinal and
interference ripples which are rare in coal measures. In bed forms which have been
drawn out to form continuous strata, as illustrated in Fig. 6.11, the kind of cross-
stratification contained in them in the form of obliquely dipping foreset beds (Sf-
planes) sandwiched between two principal surfaces of deposition (Sp-planes) is often
the only indication of their mode of origin. A study of cross-stratification is therefore
of palaeo-environmental significance and, by measuring the azimuth of the dip
direction offore-set beds, the direction offlow at the point of origin can be obtained.
The first comprehensive classification of cross-stratification was presented by
Allen (1963), which is followed here with minor modifications. The classification is
based on the following six criteria:
1. Solitary versus grouped sets of cross-strata. A solitary set consists of a cross-

bedded (or -laminated) stratum which is over- and underlain by non-cross-
stratified sediments. A grouped set consists of two or more co-sets in direct
contact with each other.
2. Magnitude is an aspect which follows closely the classification of bed undul-
ations. Cross-stratified units with a bed thickness ofless than 5 cm are referred to
as small scale, which equates to small-scale ripples in bed forms. Originally, cross-
stratified units of more than 5 cm thick were regarded as large scale, but following
suggestions by Crook (1965) and McCabe (1977), a distinction is now made
between medium scale = 5 cm to 1 m, large scale = 1 to 3 m, and giant> 3 m
between upper and lower bounding surfaces.
3. The lower bounding surface is erosive if a portion ofthe substratum was removed
before the deposition of the cross-stratified unit. Alternatively, the lower Sp-plane
is non-erosive or even gradational if the lower bounding surface is not really a
plane but consists of a narrow zone in which the Sf-planes of adjacent sets
align themselves tangentionally in a Sp-direction. This is the case in climbing
ripples.
4. The contact angle between foreset beds and lower bounding surfaces may be
concordant or discordant. The first case occurs in some trough cross-beds in
which the original hollow has been filled by suspension fall-out such that the
foresets are parallel to the scour surface. A discordant-relationship exists as a
result of traction transportation but variations occur due to flattening of dip
angles near the toes of foreset beds.
5. Shapes oflower bounding surfaces vary. Most bed forms produce either irregular
(erosive) or planar (erosive or non-erosive) surfaces. Cross-beds occurring in
erosion hollows may be either cylindrical, scoop-shaped or trough-shaped.
6. Lithologic differences occur when there are variations in the particle size of the
sediment supplied. In such instances, the cross-stratified unit is heterogeneous. In
the case of constant sediment supply homogeneous cross-strata result.
On the basis of the above criteria, Allen (1963) distinguished 15 different types of
cross-stratified units which he identified by letters of the Greek alphabet. In Fig. 6.15
the types of cross-stratification are illustrated which are of special interest in
Fig. 6.15. Types of cross-

stratification commonly
found in coal measures.
(After Allen 1963)
palaeo-environmental studies of coal measures. Closely related cross-bedding types

will be discussed together:
1. Alpha (a), Beta (f3) and Gamma (y) cross- bedding is found in solitary sets of medium
to large scale. Foreset beds are discordant with the lower bounding surface but
tangential alignment is common. In a transverse section normal to bedding and
parallel to the direction of transport (ac-plane) foreset beds are either planar or
upward is slightly concave. Lithologically, the three types are homogenous. They
differ only with respect to the lower bounding surface, which is planar and non-
erosional in alpha, planar but erosional in beta and irregular and erosional in
gamma. This suggests that all three types have resulted from the migration of
solitary megaripples (Fig. 6.11), commonly with either straight or only slightly
sinuous crests. They belong to the middle to upper portion of the lower flow
regime and are listed in the order of increasing energy. Their depositional
environments are fluvial and tidal channels, delta distributaries, proximal
crevasse splays and shallow seas.
2. Epsilon (6) cross-bedding is usually large scale and often not recognised as cross-
bedding in small outcrops because the dip angles of the foreset beds are often
quite shallow. Although Allen (1963) included this structure in his cross-bedding
types, in most cases it represents accretion surfaces on point bars, formed in
meandering channels either of fluvial or tidal origin. The lower bounding surface
is therefore commonly erosive but may be planar or irregular. Depending on the
strength of the floods during which point bar accretion occurs, this type is
lithologically heterogeneous with either straight or upward convex surfaces.
3. Theta (8) and Iota (1) cross-bedding both have a trough-shaped lower bounding
surface. They are solitary and medium to large scale. The troughs probably are
cut into the substratum by short-lived eddies which rotate around a vertical axis.
As they move down-stream they scour into the bed, then lift off and dissipate.
subsequently, the cut is filled either by traction (theta) or from suspension (iota).
Theta is common in fluvial deposits.
4. Kappa (K) and Lambda (2) cross-stratification are small scale and occur in grouped
sets. They have been formed from climbing ripples which have sinuous crests in
kappa and straight crests in lambda. Both types appear identical in a vertical
section cut in the direction oftransport (ac-plane) but are dissimilar in a section cut
parallel to the ripples (be-plane). In the latter case, kappa shows a pinch-and-swell
pattern whereas lambda displays parallel lamination. Both types belong to the
lower portion of the lower flow regime and are frequently formed in the waning
stages of a flood when suspension fall-out is added to traction transportation.
5. Mu (Ji) and Nu (v) cross-stratification are also small scale and grouped and have
been formed from migrating ripple trains. However, addition of material was by
traction only. Mu has been formed from straight and nu from sinuous or
otherwise curved ripples. Both types are frequent in overbank deposits,
interdistributary bays, intertidal sediments and on the flanks of megaripples.
6. Omikron (0) and Pi (n) cross-bedding are the medium to large scale equivalents of
the mu and nu types. They rank therefore higher in the lower flow regime and
have been formed from straight (omikron) or curved (pi) sand waves and dunes
migrating down-stream in rivers, across flood plains or the floor of shallow seas.
Being the product of grain-by-grain transportation, cross-bedding is a useful

structure in both palaeo-environmental and palaeocurrent analysis. Both aspects
will be further discussed in Chap. 7.
6.1.3.4 Surface and Sole Markings
The stratification planes of many clastic sediments are covered with markings, most
of which have been formed as indentations in a soft sediment surface after which they
have been preserved by the infilling of the moulds by the overlying sediment. Both
formation and preservation are best when the substratum is a lutite and the
overlying sediment is an arenite. In this case, moulds are filled with sand casts which
adhere to the sole ofthe covering bed when the two strata separate after lithification.
Except for the markings formed by organisms, surface and sole marks can be
divided into three groups: firstly, those formed by running water, secondly, subaerial
weather marks and, thirdly, load casts which will be discussed together with
deformational structures. Only those of the first group represent primary structures,
all of which have directional significance. A list of the following structures of this
group is given in Table 6.5:
1. Current or parting lineation is found on the surfaces of some sandstones in the

form of parallel small ribs and furrows and also as elongated patches of sandstone
Table 6.5. Surface and sole markings of primary and secondary origin found in coal measures.
(partly after Potter and Pettijohn 1964)
Process Name
Sheet flow Current lineation

Erosion Flute casts
Current crescent casts
Rill marks
Markings made by Tool marks (e.g. drag marks
moving objects or groove casts)
Saltation marks (e.g. prod,
bounce, brush and skip marks)
Precipitation Rain and hailstone imprints
Insolation Mud cracks
Frost action Ice crystal imprints
Graviation Load pockets (or casts)
Ball and pillow structures
Gravitation plus Flame structures
tangentional transport Convolute bedding
Slump folds and breccia
Fluidisation (e.g. thixotropic Clastic dykes and sills
liquefaction) plus injection Gas/ water escape structures
laminae which adhere to either surface when a sandstone is split parallel to

stratification (Fig. 6.16). The structure is caused by the orientation of sand grains
in the flow direction.
2. Flute casts are spoon-shaped protrusions usually found at the underside of
sandstones (Fig. 6.17). The up-current end is sharp and narrow, whereas down-
current they broaden and become aligned with the principal surface of
Fig. 6.16. Current lineation on the bedding plane of a fluvial sandstone above the Kimberley Seam
at Four Mile Point, Joggins, Nova Scotia. The line of movement is parallel to the pocket knife
Fig. 6.17. Sketch of flute

casts (F), current crescent
casts (c) and tree trunks (P)
at the base of the Coal
Cliff Sandstone overlying
the Bulli Seam at South
Clifton Colliery, New
South Wales. (After Diessel
et al. 1967)
deposition. In plan view flute casts have a bilateral symmetry and range in size
from a few millimetres to several decimetres. They have been formed as infillings
of small erosion scours produced by water turbulence. Internal cross-lamination
is therefore quite common.
3. Current crescent casts (Fig. 6.17) are crescent-shaped protrusions which occur at
the soles of silt- and sandstones. Their convex part points up-current whilst
down-stream they are concave. Current crescent casts form by a combination of
Fig. 6.18. Current crescent casts formed around pebble (diameter = 5 cm) in beach sand on the
New South Wales coast
water bank-up and turbulence on the up-stream side of an obstacle, such as

pebble on a beach (Fig. 6.18) or river bed. As the water flows around the object it
produces the crescent-shaped scour which is preserved when being infilled by a
covering sediment. These structures are commonly found in fluvial sediments arid
on flood plains but also along strandlines and on intertidal flats.
4. Rill marks are small branching and often anastomosing water channels, usually
only centimetres wide, which form when water trickles over a subaerially exposed
bed (Fig. 6.19). A fossil example is shown in Fig. 6.20, which was formed by water
flowing laterally into a channel above the Bulli Seam, New South Wales. The rill
marks stop abruptly approximately 30 cm above the base of the channel, thus
suggesting that the channel was only one quarter full when the rill marks were
formed.
5. Drag marks or groove casts appear on the underside of some sandstones as
straight and narrow protrusions often several metres long and between some
millimetres to several centimetres in relief (Fig. 6.21). Occasionally, they occur in
parallel sets in which case they may have been formed by the same object, such as
the roots of a tree dragged along a river bed. Other tools are pebbles, ice, bones
and shells. The tools can sometimes be found at the down-stream end of the
groove casts.
6. Saltation marks are formed by tools which have only intermittent contact with the
substratum but move for most of the time in suspension.
All the current-formed surface and sole markings mentioned above are primary
structures which can give useful information on the drainage pattern that prevailed
at the time of their formation. The following subaerial weather markings are
secondary structures because they have been imprinted on an existing sediment.
They are also listed in Table 6.5:
Fig.6.19. Recent rill marks in beach sand on the New South Wales coast
Fig. 6.20. Rill marks found on the western

side of a washout cut into roof laminite of
the Bulli Seam at Mount Kembla Colliery,
New South Wales. The channel is 2.5 m
wide. (After Diessel et al. 1967)
Fig.6.21. Groove casts occurring on the underside of a fluvial sandstone from the Joggins section
in Nova Scotia
7. Rain and hailstone imprints (Fig. 6.22) can be found as small impact craters on the
surface of some lutites and arenites. Occasionally, it is possible to determine the
wind direction at the time of their formation because the craters become tilted
into the prevailing wind direction and resemble prod marks. They have been
observed in overbank deposits.
8. Mud cracks (Fig. 5.17) have polygonal shapes and extend up to several decimetres
into the substratum. In coal measures they are found in overbank deposits where
they have been preserved by infilling with sandy sediments. Due to differential
compaction, the infillings display a zig-zag pattern in cross-section by which the
degree of compaction can be determined.
9. Ice crystal imprints develop when thin sheets of water freeze. The result is a
skeletal growth of ice crystals which can be preserved when covered by a sediment
filling the voids left after the ice has thawed. An example from the Greta Coal
Measures, New South Wales, is shown in Fig. 2.11.
Fig.6.22. Rain imprints in modern beach sand at New South Wales coast
The following group of deformational structure comprises the results of modifica-

tions to a sediment which happened after deposition but before diagenetic indu-
ration. These soft sediment deformations depend on several factors, among which
the type of sediment affected, its cohesion, particle size and shape are of some
importance. Table 6.5 gives a list of the various structures in this group, which
commonly occur in coal measures:
to. Load casts are commonly listed under sole marks because they are found at the
underside of sandstones, which are underlain by shales or other lutites. They
appear as bulbous downward convex protrusions of circular to polygonal shape
ranging in size from a few centimetres to several decimetres. They are the result
of rapid deposition of sand on a water-logged mud which, because of its plastic
properties, deforms easily, causing the sand to sink into the mud.
11. Ball and pillow structures are ball-, pillow-, and kidney- shaped bodies of sand
enclosed in a matrix of clay or silt. Usually they are slightly elongated and
convex downward and range in size from some centimetres to several
decimetres. Their origin is similar to that ofload casts except that the downward
sinking of sand into a soft mud led to a complete separation of the protrusion
from the sand layer above. In some instances, the formation of ball and pillow
structures may have been triggered by seismic shocks. Overbank deposits
formed on flood plains and in interdistributary bays have been found to contain
these structures.
12. Flame structures (Fig. 6.23) develop by the combined effects of gravitation and
tangential creep on a load casted deposit. The mud ridges between the load casts
push into the overlying sand and become drawn out by the differential
movement of sand and mud. The depositional environment is as for (10) and
(11).
Fig.6.23. Polished ac-plane of silt-laminated fine sandstone showing flame structure consisting of
carbonaceous shale. Roof of Bulli Seam, IIIawarra Coal Measures, Mount Kembla Colliery, New
South Wales
13. Convolute stratification is a form of intraformational folding which involves a

limited number of strata. This structure is common to siltstones and fine sand-
stones which, when water-logged, show hydroplastic behaviour.
14. Slump folds and intraformational breccia are both the result of gravity sliding of
one or several dislodged beds which had been deposited on an inclined surface.
Depending on the degree of deformation, the slumped sediment is folded,
sheared or brecciated.
15. Clastic dykes and sills are injections of fine to coarse-grained sediments into a
host sediment including coal. Not all clastic dykes represent true injections from
a source below the host rock but the term also covers infillings of fissures from
above. Figure 6.24 illustrates several generations of clastic dykes in the Greta
Seam of New South Wales. Frequently these structures are parallel to the
tension joints of the affected area (Courel 1987), which means that such joints
have been formed early, when the injected material was still soft and had a high
water content. There may be several possibilities for the formation of these
structures but a prerequisite for the true injections is rapid burial and enclosure
Fig. 6.24. Sketches of three

generations of clastic dykes
occurring in the Greta Seam
at Hebburn No.2 Colliery,
New South Wales. The coal
seam is 3 m thick. (Diessel
1984)
Fig. 6.25. View of the bedding plane of a slightly carbonaceous siltstone with Permian plant fossils
(upper left) and worm burrows (light-coloured circular outlines). Tomago Coal Measures, New
South Wales
of sands in impermeable muds. With a thickening overburden and increased

lithostatic load a high pore fluid pressure develops in the sand which is released
by fissuring, for example, during an earthquake and injection of the liquefied
sand.
16. Gas heave and fluid escape structures are volcano-like or dish-like structures
ranging from several centimetres to decimetres in size from which mud or sand is
extruded through a central pipe. The reason for the extrusion is either ascending
gas or water. The first case is common in coal measures as the result of rotting
vegetation which has been rapidly buried.
17. Bioturbation refers to the disturbance of stratification in sediments by plant
roots and burrowing or feeding organisms. The degree of disturbance ranges
from the occurrence of occasional worm burrows, as in Fig. 6.25, to the complete
destruction of stratification.
There are some other structures which have been formed occasionally in coal
measure sediments such as coal and cinder dykes. The first example probably of
similar origin as the clastic dykes except that hydro plastic peat was mobilised.
Cinder dykes, on the other hand, contain semicoke which was mobilised during
carbonisation of a coal seam in contact with an igneous intrusion.
6.1.4 Coal Measure Lithosomes
In accordance with the hierarchical arrangement of sedimentation elements, the

next group ranking above sedimentary structures are lithosomes, i.e. rock bodies of
relatively uniform composition. Most stratigraphic columns contain several or
many different kinds of rock bodies which have been formed in response to specific
depositional conditions, and it is the identification and recording of these lithofacies
in bore cores and outcrops which form the basis of bore logs and the various kinds of
geological maps. In areas where the targeted coal measures form outcrops, field
mapping, supplemented by air and satellite photo interpretation (Shepherd et al.
1981), lithofacies studies and palaeocurrent analysis are the first steps in developing
a depositional model. The aim of the geological mapping is not only the
identification and cartographic display of the various rock and time-rock units
occurring on the surface of the investigated area but it also entails a statement on the
likely continuation and spatial attitudes of rocks and structures below ground level.
Field mapping therefore also assists in formulating a strategy of extending the
investigations into the subsurface.
In regions where coal-bearing strata are either deeply weathered or concealed
by younger deposits, as is the case in many parts of Australia (Ward 1982),
subsurface investigations are the main source of information, although even then
some reconnaissance mapping of the surface geology should be carried out, if only
for the purpose of selecting bore locations and traverses for geophysical surveys.
Improvements made in the last two decades to survey techniques and instrument-
ation have led to an increasing application of geophysical methods to coal
exploration. Refraction seismic (Peck and Yu 1982), more importantly, high
resolution reflection seismic have become important tools, not only in the
construction of structure contour maps and cross-sections (Taylor 1965; Ringis et al.
1967; Elliott 1979; Peace 1979; King 1979; King and Greenhalgh 1981; Ziolkowski
1979; Ziolkowski and Lerwilll979; Buchanan and Jackson 1986; Palmer 1987), but
also in the delineation of washouts and other impediments to mining (Harman and
Rutter 1979; Harman 1981, 1983, 1984; Hanes et al. 1989). To date, most seismic
reflection surveys of this kind present the results as two-dimensional profiles of the
strata beneath the survey lines, but current work is aimed at developing a three-
dimensional seismic technique for the coal industry (Hatherly et al. 1989). These
surface methods may be supplemented by in-seam seismic surveys (Ruter 1979;
Hatherly and Holt 1984; Doyle 1987; Doyle and Poole 1987), ground radar (J. Cook
1975; Coon et al. 1981; Turner and Yelf 1989), and radio imaging methods (Williams
and Thomson 1989). Although the in-seam methods are primarily designed to detect
tectonic discontinuities or assess stress patterns in coal seams by tomographic
imaging of p-waves and Love channel waves (Poole and Downey 1989), they can
also be employed in the mapping of washouts and other forms of roof rolls. In
addition, surface resistivity measurements have been used to trace boundaries of
shallow oxidised coal, concealed igneous rocks and nearsurface faults (Johnson
1977). Magnetic and gravity surveys made at the surface and underground
(Henderson 1967), as well as air- and shipborne magnetic plus gravity surveys
(Chamberlain 1948; Duffin 1970) have been employed in coal exploration for the
purpose of detecting areas of coal deterioration due to igneous intrusions.
In spite of the considerable amount of information that can be gathered from
the surface about subsurface coal measure architecture, any such projections carry a
low level of confidence if not backed up by a well-planned and executed drilling
campaign (Leblang and Svenson 1977; Whitby and May 1987). Two kinds of drilling
are generally applied to coal, namely relatively cheap open-hole or non-core and
more expensive core-drilling (Price and Svenson 1977). In open-hole drilling the
only physical evidence of the penetrated lithosomes are the rock cuttings brought up
by the lubricant, which is either air or water. Considerably more insight into the
composition of the strata at depth is gained by coring the drill hole. The core
constitutes a permanent record of the subsurface at the drill site and it can be logged
in a similar manner as a continuously outcropping section on the surface, i.e.
litho somes and their textures and structures can be observed and identified and coal
lithotypes can be assessed. The order of superposition of the penetrated strata will
yield information concerning the depositional environment of the coal measures
from which a facies model can be either derived or updated, and thus may form the
basis for the positioning and spacing of subsequent bores. The information potential
can be further improved by obtaining oriented core samples which can provide
likewise oriented thin sections or polished blocks for petrofabric and other analyses.
The core-orienting device is set in non-magnetic rods attached to the inner core
barrel and can be activated at will from the surface through an impulse system and
retrieved with the core by wire-line (Price and Svenson 1977).
As has been mentioned above, coal measure sediments are classified in different
ways depending on whether the emphasis is on either compositional or textural
aspects. It is natural therefore that the same sets of parameters which are used in
classifying rocks, plus some additional features, are also employed in their identi-
fication. The basic parameters used by the field or well geologist in distinguishing
between different rock types are particle size, shape and roundness, depositional
fabric, type of stratification, composition, and the presence or absence of fossils.
While rock textures and structures are often revealed by direct observation and
require little more instrumental aids than a hand lens, the small size of many matrix
or cementing minerals makes it difficult to identify them outside the laboratory.
Field geologists overcome this problem by inferring mineral composition from such
observations as rock colour, streak, feel, weight (specific gravity), fracture pattern,
friability or coherence, hardness, smell and even taste, plus some simple chemical
tests directed to reveal the presence of carbonate. In bore-core logging some
additional observations are employed which concern the condition of the core, e.g.
loss, breakage, dilatation and others. In modern drilling operations the above-
mentioned observations are often supplemented or, in open holes, replaced by a
wide range of geophysical wireline tests. Indeed, most of the current techniques of
geophysical well logging are lithosome-oriented, i.e. they are capable of distin-
guishing between broad lithofacies categories.
The application of geophysical well logging to coal exploration became
widespread in the 1970s, when oil companies extended their activities into the search
for coal. In the application of geophysical techniques to bore logging in coal
exploration, the existing tools required little alteration as far as interseam sediments
were concerned, except that their size had to be reduced to about 5 cm (or less) outer
diameter in order to cope with the slim holes commonly used in coal exploration. To
be applicable to the specific characteristics of coal, the range of measurements had to
be geared to its physical properties. Moreover, it was necessary that the logging
equipment was light-weight and mobile and offered a cost advantage over coring
z til
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Fig. 6.26. Comparison of a geophysical wireline log and a geologist's measured section (in m)
from the German Creek Coal Measures, Bowen Basin, Queensland. (Original prepared by
McElroy Bryan Geological Services Pty. Limited)
because the latter would probably be preferred at equal costs. The relative merits
may be arguable, because it has been claimed (Lavers and Smits 1976; Ward 1982),
that geophysical logs provide a more detailed picture of coal seams and interseam
sediments than can be achieved with core descriptions by a geologist. However,
often they measure other properties than those determined in the laboratory (Till
1987). On the other hand, a bore core can yield substantially more information than
a log, apart from constituting a sample which can be analysed in the laboratory.
Most of the geophysical logging techniques which are particularly useful in
discriminating between coal measure sediments, including varying coal qualities,
make use of either natural or induced radioactivity. According to Mumme (1987)
they can therefore be divided into:
1. Passive methods which involve measurements of gross and spectral character-

istics of naturally occurring gamma-ray emission, and
2. Active methods which invoke response through the use ofinterrogating radiation
based on reactions between either gamma-rays or neutrons and formation nuclei.
The brief discussion given below includes those wire-line logging techniques which
are particularly applicable to coal exploration. For more information see Reeves
(1976, 1979), Jackson (1981), Renwick (1982), Groves and Bowen (1982), Weber
(1982), Haigh and Edwards (1982), Mumme (1987). An application of some of the
techniques to a section of Australian coal measures is illustrated in Fig. 6.26.
6.1.4.1 Natural Gamma-Ray Log
This is a passive method which measures the gamma-ray emission from the wall
rocks as the counter is lowered into the borehole. Its importance in coal exploration
is based on the extremely low radioactivity of clean coal compared with all other
rocks encountered in coal measures. Of the three natural gamma radiation
emmitters, uranium, thorium and potassium, the latter, in the form of isotope 4°K, is
commonly contained in mica and illitic clay mica. The gamma log is therefore a
measure of the clay and mica content of rocks and, since the various rocks are
characterised by varying clay fractions, gamma logs are good discriminators
between different lithosomes. Because marine shales contain a higher proportion of
illite than lutites of terrestrial or freshwater origin, they give a particularly high
response. The same is true for tuffs and many tuffaceous claystones which is
particular useful in coal measure correlation (Agnew and Bayley 1989). Conversely,
clean sandstone records almost as low gamma-ray deflections as coal (Reeves 1976,
1979), while intermediate readings are obtained from shaly coal and coaly shale, as
well as from sandstone/shale transitions. This means that a positive identification
can be made of shale, including some estimation of its depositional setting, but no
clear discrimination between either clean or impure sandstone and coal is possible
with response from the commonly used gross count gamma ray tools alone. They
record a broad energy spectrum, but it is possible to supplement them with a
gamma-ray spectrographic system which allows the measurement of the intensities
of discrete narrow bands of energy, thus permitting discrimination between different

sources of radioactivity and thereby extracting more information about the pene-
trated rocks (Mumme 1987). However, more commonly the additional information
is obtained from the active nuclear logging techniques discussed below.
6.1.4.2 Density (Gamma-Gamma) Log
Because the density of coal is considerably lower than that of most other rocks
encountered in a logging operation, positive identification and a distinction between
coal and sandstone with good boundary definition is possible with the aid of density
measurements. This applies also to shaly coals and sandstones with clay matrix,
which may record similar gamma ray readings but still differ considerably in their
respective densities. The instrument consists of a gamma radiation source at one end
of the tool and a detector, such as a Geiger-Muller counter, a small distance away.
The tool is shielded such that the only radiation from the source which reaches the
detector is that deflected back from the wall rock by Compton scattering. Its
response depends on the electron concentration in the rock which is proportional to
its density (Dobrin 1960). Depending on the spacing between radiation source and
detector, the resolution of the density tools can be varied. The three types most
commonly used yield long spacing density logs (LSD) with a spacing of 48 cm, high
resolution density logs (HRD) with a spacing of 24cm, and bed resolution density
logs (BRD) with a spacing of 15 cm (Lavers and Smits 1976). In the multifunction
probe described by Weber (1982) the respective spacings are 40,20 and 9.7 cm.
6.1.4.3 Neutron-Neutron Log
The high energy with which neutrons generated by the neutron logging tool enter
the wall rock is gradually reduced by collisions of the neutrons with formation
atoms. For the common geological materials hydrogen is the most efficient agent for
moderating the incoming neutrons, followed, to a lesser extent, by carbon (Mumme
1987). The high proportion of both hydrogen and carbon in coal gives it a fairly high
response, commonly higher than shale, in which the hydrogen of the hydration
water and the hydroxyl groups contained in clay minerals respond to the tool (Anon
1981). However, the main property revealed by the neutron log is porosity. The
higher the porosity of a rock, the higher the moisture content and the more the
neutron energy is attenuated by the pore water. The log is therefore useful in
distinguishing high porosity from low porosity rocks, e.g. sandstone from dense
limestone, which are not easily distinguished by other tool responses. As mentioned
above, some difficulty is experienced with coal, which is commonly of low porosity
but is high in hydrogen and carbon, thus indicating an anomalously high porosity.
6.1.4.4 Caliper Log

The actual diameter of boreholes varies with the nature of the strata penetrated by
the drill. Diameter measurements are carried out by the caliper tool, which consists
of either one or three equally spaced spring-loaded arms. While in the latter case the
three arms centre the probe in the hole, the purpose of a single-arm caliper is to push
the tool and its sensors against the wall of the borehole in order to assure close
contact (Weber 1982). Firm and well-lithified sediments will form a solid wall rock,
whereas soft or partially soluble strata will be more affected by the drill and tend to
break out. A caliper log may show therefore considerable detail which allows
competent and incompetent strata to be separated and measured with reasonable
accuracy. Dull coals usually remain close to the diameter of the drilling bit, the
brittleness of vitrinite causes bright coals to show some abrasion, while cavities
occur frequently at the contacts between coal and interseam sediments.
Apart from indicating lithologic variations themselves, caliper logs are needed
in conjunction with density logs. Particularly high resolution and bed resolution
logs are adversely affected by variations in borehole diameter for which corrections
ha ve to be made.
6.1.4.5 Sonic Properties
Coal is characterised by very low acoustic velocities which tend to vary somewhat
with compaction and density. Reeves (1979) quotes sonic'velocities of 160 ms/ft for
subbituminous coal and 120 ms/ft for bituminous coal. The acoustic velocities for
interseam sediments are commonly much higher, which means that sonic logs are
effective not only in identifying coal seams but, within limits, also as indicators of
coal rank. Moreover, combinations of sonic and density logs have been used in order
to show variations in rock strength.
6.1.4.6 Resistivity Log
The electrical properties of most sediments are governed by their formation water
and its salinity. On this basis most coals would be characterised by high resistivity,
whereas dirt hands composed of hydrated clays display increased conductivity. The
developments of focussed resistivity tools has improved the measurement of true
formation resistivity. This has important implications in coal seam analysis (Reeves
1976), but the diagnostic properties are not consistent and can vary locally (Anon
1981). Careful calibration of the log and frequent checking with measured sections
from the same area appear to be necessary.
6.1.4.7 Spatial Attitude
Both accurate measurement of true seam thickness and assessment of the degree of
tectonic deformation of a concealed coalfield require good knowledge of the
structural attitude of the beds penetrated by the drill. This can be measured by a
dipmeter which is based on a centralised slimline sonde with a maximum outer
diameter of 5 cm, equipped with three miniature focussed resistivity sensors. An
array of two level cells and three magnetometers in the upper section of the sonde
provides continuous hole orientation data. The resistivity sensors, mounted on a
caliper mechanism and kept in a known geometrical relation to the body of the tool,
create a continuous record of formation resistivities recorded at extremely high
resolution and changing with lithology (Anon 1981).
6.1.4.8 Combination Tools
In order to speed up the logging operations and improve their quality, various tools
have been developed which combine up to four different measurements into one
instrument. They are variously referred to as multifunction probe (Weber 1982) or
combination sonde (Anon a). The main improvement compared with single-purpose
tools is not only the considerable time saving achieved by simultaneously recording
four properties with logging speeds around 10 m/min in interseam sediments or
overburden and at 2 m/min in coal. An equally important benefit of a combination
sonde is the simultaneous recording of several variables, which overcomes problems
of lining up different logs that have been recorded separately (Reeves 1979).
Four measurements are carried out by the combination sonde (Anon a) which
are commonly arranged in three different presentations:
1. The coal lithology log is based on a combination of gamma ray, side-wall LS

density and caliper logs, usually run at scales of 100: 1 or 200: 1 to facilitate
lithologic correlation. The position of coal seams, shale and sandstones can be
accurately determined, but more complex rock combinations may require
additional data from neutron, sonic and focussed resistivity measurements.
2. The coal quality log is based on a combination of gamma ray and side-wall LS
density run slowly on an expanded scale. The density of the coal can be read
directly in gm/cm 2 thus allowing ash content evaluation while the gamma log
gives a cross-check on shale content. Very thin seams cannot be fully resolved,
because LS density is a deep penetration tool which lacks fine resolution.
3. The seam thickness log is a combination of side-wall BR density and caliper log.
Because of the high resolution of the BR density, even thin coal seams are fully
resolved. The caliper log plays an important role because BR density is a shallow
penetration tool and requires careful correction measures when the hole diameter
varies.
Other multiple tools, for example the multifunction probe described by Weber
(1982), combine different sensors including natural gamma rays, self-potential (SP),
single point resistance, neutron, and hole deviation. In summary, coal, and most
clastic sediments can be processed from LS density and gamma logs with a direct
computer print-out. The appearance of limestone or igneous rocks in succession
would make the use of additional sonic and neutron logs desirable. By establishing
the relationship between coal bulk density and ash content for a given area, ash
content values can be obtained from a combination of LS density and gamma logs.
Seam thickness and stone band distribution, provided the latter are at least several
centimetres thick, can be achieved by BR density combined with caliper logs. For
more detailed information see the BPB Coal Interpretation Manual (Anon 1981),
which lists the following (modified) steps in the interpretation of coal measure
lithosomes:
1. Search out low gamma-ray and low density responses, which indicate coal.
2. Draw a shale line through consistently high gamma-ray peaks.
3. Mark the highest gamma-ray peaks beyond the shale line. These indicate marine
(or if present, uranium) shales.
4. Draw a sand line through consistently low gamma-ray but high density (and
porosity if available) peaks.
5. The tool responses between the sand and shale lines are likely to indicate
mixtures of gradations between the two lithofacies.
6.1.4.9 Data Management
An important part oflithofacies analysis is the recording, processing and evaluation

of surface and subsurface (including bore data) information. The signals generated
by down-hole geophysical tools are electronically stored and processed by a truck-
mounted computer (Weber 1982) or at base, which enables them to be displayed as
fully calibrated logs (Haigh and Edwards 1982). The description of rock types in
outcrop sections, drill cores and cuttings is commonly recorded in log form.
Frequently the logs are compiled manually using full descriptive language but this is
time-consuming and expensive. Moreover, there is sometimes a lack of consistency
in the observations recorded in such logs, especially when more than one geologist is
engaged on a project. The shortcomings of manually transcribed logs become more
evident where a large number of measurements and observations are required to
evaluate a deposit. Computers afford an ideal means of handling and manipulating
the data, thereby avoiding the laborious and expensive method of manually
compiling the logs in full descriptive language (Goscombe et al. 1977).
The repetitive nature of the main rock and coal beds encountered in rock
sequences typical of particular coal measures has led to a structured form of
description for the main features which has enabled these features to be coded for
computer assimilation (Melton and Ferm 1978; Lehmann 1978; Pauncz and Holt
1982). As discussed by Mallett and Ward (1982), the formats range from simple
prompt lists to tabulated questionnaires with option boxes and mnemonic
descriptors. Supported by standard photographs and reference charts, it is possible
to make a concise, systematic description of a particular rock by making use of a
limited number of salient textural, structural and compositional descriptors (Ward
et al.1984). From the tabulated coding sheets the gathered information is entered
into the data bank of a computer (Mallett and Bonner 1981; Gill 1982), but it is also
possible to record field data directly by a portable and rugged microcomputer
(Ward 1986b). Following the development of appropriate software (Stoddart and
Wood 1987; Miller and Huntington 1987), the latter approach was found to have
many benefits which include:
1. Elimination of the paper coding sheets in the field and therefore once only entry
of data, i.e. elimination of errors during data transferal.
2. Storage of all valid entry codes or numerical codes in a dictionary which
automatically traps simple data input errors.
3. Prompt for simple data entry of predominantly alphabetical type (electronic log
sheet) with automatic generation of default responses, but allowing for flexibility
where an answer is not known at the time of logging, or where non-coded
comments need to be included.
4. Rapid availability of processed data to the field geologist at the time of logging
thus permitting alterations to the log if necessary.
As a result of this development, a wide range of computer-based data processing

packages have been developed (Goscombe et al. 1977; Thomson 1979; Grimstone
et al. 1982; Miller and Huntington 1987; Moule et al. 1987; Stoddart and Wood
1987), which enable borelogs, structure contour, lithofacies and coal quality maps,
as well as cross-sections and three-dimensional models of the deposit to be drafted
from an automatic plotting device, and it is further possible to programme the
computer to translate the coded input from the log into a written print-out.
6.2 Coal Seams and Their Floor Rocks
In the following discussion, the subject of coal measure lithosomes will be focussed
on the specific relationships between coal and interseam sediments beginning with
the floor rocks of coal seams. Geological interest in floor rocks dates back to the
beginning of modern coal science in the early 19th century, when the widespread
similarity in their composition and the abundance of roots in them was used by the
supporters of in-situ i.e. autochthonous coal formation to challenge the idea of a
drift origin of coal (Bennett 1964).
The floor sediments of many peat and coal deposits consist of deeply weathered
soils, particularly when they were formed in a warm tropical climate. They
constitute seat earths, which are often penetrated by numerous plant roots resulting
in the loss of much of the original stratification, although most seat earths, which
appear non-bedded when fresh, show some vague bedding when weathered, a
Carboniferous example of which is illustrated in Fig. 6.27. In contrast, coals having
developed under cool to cold conditions, such as most Gondwana coals, are
associated with poorly developed soils, although Vertebraria (roots of Glossopteris)
may be abundant and deep-reaching. Figure 6.28 shows Vertebraria penetrating a
silt-laminated sandstone with almost undisturbed stratification and few signs of
weathering and soil formation. Leaching is commonly restricted to the contact zone
with the overlying coal, which is particularly obvious when the coal seam rests on a
pyroclastic floor, which is frequently the case in the Newcastle Coal Measures of
New South Wales. An example of the compositional changes is illustrated in
Fig. 6.29 by means of two sets of differential thermal analysis (DT A) curves which
Coal Seams and Their Floor Rocks 307
Fig. 6.27. Photograph of Stigmaria appendices in seat earth of the Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin,
Germany
Fig.6.28. Vertebraria roots in bedded sandstone underneath Borehole Seam, Newcastle Coal
are described below:

1. Low temperature range (0 to 250 °C). All samples display a strong endothermic
peak due to dehydration at 100°C and above. In this range most of the absorbed
water is lost from the interlayer space of clays, particularly from montmo-
rillonite, which tends to display a double peak.
2. Medium temperature range (250 to 800 °C). The shift in the endothermic
dehydroxylation temperature from 500 and 600 °C in the zone penetrated by
. , , - - - - - - - 2.30 m Coal ------_+_

m , ,
o
-- , -
-Ri':::" .•n=::::
+~
.... ,', ..... ~ ""\ 1 e 1w
r-/
+,\
Iv ~ V- 2e 2wIV
\r.
~
+-1-/--'-'-''''--\ " "./
+,1 " f- ..r r- -'i"'-
",I .~
./ ~ -~
./
0.5 -r-----i
"" " ,
"\ \ 'h if f-
r'\ J' - fA 3e 3w r r-. l- f-"
./
"""
-./"
./
",
.., ",'h
M,i \ I
\'\
~
'" 4e4w
r.. ....... v
:
h I/' - r..- Vf-
h
--- i/
~
... "V' 5e 5w .A
M,k
+,I ' .'
,h
,,
,, ......
' - -' I'"'- 6e 6w
h ,,-- ~
........ ../ ~
.,\ \
1-----'1. '.
M,k .. ,,, 'I\,
'\
v
-- "
\
,
-
1.5 8e K - Kaolinite (dominant)
M,k ::"\11 ~
ge k -Kaolinite
+,
, \ V IV M- Montmorillonite (dominant)
1 Oe m- Montmorillonite
a; \'\V f./ i- Illite
'II V- --
0
0 Cij s - Siderite
1 1e
Fig, 6.29. The changing composition of the seat earth of the Wallarah Seam, Newcastle Coal
Measures, as analysed in two different localities by DTA techniques. For details see text
plant roots (Samples lc and w to 3c and w), to 600 and 700 °C in the underlying
samples, indicates a change from kaolinite as the dominant constituent to
montmorillonite with some associated kaolinite and illite. The low peak
temperature for the kaolinite dehydroxylation suggests poor crystallinity, which
was verified by XRD and microscopy. Small exothermic reactions in the 300 to
400 °C temperature range (mainly in Sample lc) indicate burning of coal
inclusions.
3. High temperature range (800 to 1000 0q. The main feature is an exothermic peak
between 900 and l000°C, which in some samples is preceded by a small
endothermic reaction. It indicates the rearrangement of the degraded crystal
lattice and the formation of'}' Al 2 0 3 or mullite. This peak is commonly associated
with kaolinite but is also found in other clay minerals.
While the clay minerals and the small amounts of siderite found in the above
claystone have been derived from the devitrification of volcanic glass, the seat earth
also contains dispersed grains of quartz, feldspar, biotite and accessory zircon, all of
which have been inherited from the pyroclastic history of the deposit. Both biotite
and feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) have been affected by partial kaolinitis-
ation, which is responsible for the small kaolinite signature occurring in the DT A
traces throughout the deposit. Kaolinite is dominant and has replaced mont-
morillonite and montmorillonite/illite mixed layer clays in its upper portion, where
the volcanic ash was affected by plant roots and the acid peat water laden with CO 2 ,
Coal Seams and Their Floor Rocks 309
Fig. 6.30. Photograph of the Carboni-

ferous Bottom Hutton Seam, in coastal
outcrop north of Tynemouth, U.K., dis-
playing concordance with roof and floor
rocks. Root traces in seat earth to the left
of the hammer have been emphasized with
white chalk. Roof consists of alternating
sand- and siltstone
The seat earths of Carboniferous and other coals formed under warm
conditions often consist of well-developed fossil soils (palaeosols), which have been
leached of alkalis and alkaline earths. When fine-grained, they form underclays or
fire clays, the latter term referring to their refractory properties, because of their high
kaolinite content. Their colour is usually pale grey to dark and bedding is commonly
absent, although near the coal contact a thin transitional zone consisting of
alternating coal and shale laminae (coaly shale and shaly coal) can be found in some
seams. Seat earths are frequently slickensided and may contain pyrite and/or siderite
nodules and coal inclusions in addition to the dense network of rootlets. The
frequency of slickensided surfaces increases with both clay and root content, and
the branching of the commonly vitrinitised roots may determine the position and
orientation of the slickensided surfaces. Slickensides are less frequent in sandy seat
earths, among which leaching of alkalis and alkaline earths may have caused
enrichment in silica. The resultant hard and brittle rock, known as ganister in British
coalfields consists, according to Eden et al. (1957) and Jessen (1961), of almost 100%
silica and has been used commercially as refractory material.
Although floor rocks are mostly planar and have a concordant relationship
with the overlying coal (Fig. 6.30), undulations and protrusions of floor material
into the coal are not uncommon. In English-speaking countries miners have
variously referred to them as floor-rolls, stone-rolls, roll-stones, swillies, razor backs,
hogbacks, or horsebacks. These structures consist oflong (often tens of metres) and
rather narrow (up to a few metres) ridges of floor rock which often occur in
subparallel swarms and protrude upward into the coal thus reducing the seam
thickness above them. Their mode of formation is very controversial and the
explanations offered may be summarised as follows:
1. Expansion folds due to swelling of floor shale on hydration (Woolnough 1910,

1933).
2. Small compression folds resulting from post-sedimentary tectonic deformation
(Edwards et al. 1944; Moore 1913, 1940).
3. Bulges of floor shale associated with minor syn- and possibly post-sedimentary
disturbances (Hills 1963).
4. De-watering structures resulting from the forceful injection under lateral pressure
into the seam of floor material in a quasi-liquid rheotropic state (Agrali 1987).
5. Aapamire (string-bog) structures of perm a-frost origin related to frost heave
(Conaghan 1984).
6. Ridges in the floor prior to peat deposition with drainage channels ( = swallows)
between them (Harper 1915).
7. Rather than constituting ridges between channels the stone-rolls themselves are
silted-up drainage channels, which drained the mire before and in the early stages
of peat accumulation until they became defunct and overgrown (Diessel and
Moelle 1970).
The geographic distribution of floor-rolls is very uneven. They are concentrated in

only a few coalfields scattered throughout the world, including Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
and in Australia at W onthaggi in Victoria and in the southern part of the Sydney
Basin, N.S.W.
While the organic acids percolating from the peat into the floor strata affect
their composition, a reverse influence of the seam floor on both geometry and
composition of the overlying coal is also evident. The palaeotopography of the
peat's depositional base controls the drainage pattern of the mire and thus many
aspects of peat accumulation, particularly in peatlands where a strong palaeorelief
of the seam floor predated the onset of peat accumulation. Examples of this kind
have been reported from the Maules Creek Subbasin of the Gunnedah Basin in
New South Wales (Brownlow 1981a; Butel et al. 1983; Thomson and Flood 1984;
Thomson 1986) and the Highveld Coalfield in South Africa (Winter 1986).
According to the latter author, coal is either absent on palaeo topographic highs or
very thin, and is rich in inertinite and high in ash due to considerable degradation
resulting from periodic subaerial exposure. Although more peat accumulated in
palaeotopographic lows, the latter also attracted fluvial channels, which caused
erosion and seam deterioration due to high adventitious ash. Most of these effects
are concentrated in the lower portions of coal seams, since with sustained
accumulation, palaeo relief became progressively subdued and consequently had less
effect on peat composition.
In the above mentioned Maules Creek Subbasin the Late Carboniferous/Early
Permian Boggabri Volcanics form the base of the coal measures. According to Butel
Coal Seams and Their Roof Rocks 311
et al. (1983) the volcanics exhibit a relief in excess of 200 m over very short distances.
The basement highs have resulted in localised non-deposition of lower coal
members and the abrupt convergence of lower seam portions into complex
composite horizons, followed by marked differential compaction.
6.3 Coal Seams and Their Roof Rocks
The contacts between coal and its overlying strata may be abrupt or gradual, in
common with any other boundary between adjacent sediments. In some cases the
coal and its roof sediments are in direct contact without any intervening beds, which
may be due either to a sudden change in depositional conditions, accentuated by
slow sedimentation, or to the removal by erosion of intervening strata. In this
situation probably no strong genetic link exists between the petrographic nature of
the coal and the superincumbent sediments.
Transitional contacts result from a gradual change in depositional conditions,
for example in a eutrophic mire when an increasing rate of subsidence leads to a
rise in water level and the expansion of open water (ponds, lakes) in the peatland.
Originally relatively dry portions become wetter, resulting in a change in vegetation
and the conditions of biochemical coalification. Before the peat finally drowns, it may
produce the precursors of "wet" lithotypes, such as sapropelic (boghead and cannel)
coal, and dull coals rich in hypautochthonous or allochthonous inertodetrinite,
sporinite and perhaps alginite. The increased flooding of the peat surface may raise
the mineral content of the coal and lead to intercalations of stone bands until
lacustrine or marine shale facies become dominant.
In the opposite case of a falling water level, the evidence is not always preserved
because the ensuing exposure of the peat leads to its partial destruction and possible
erosion. Nevertheless, the peat will respond to the change to drier conditions well
before peat formation ceases by undergoing more severe humification, desiccation
and possibly combustion, so that "dry" lithotypes, i.e. fusain and dull coal rich in
autochthonous inertinite, become concentrated near the seam roof. This kind of
genetic relationship involves primarily compositional aspects of coal/roof couples,
but Jones et al. (1972) also found that vitrinite reflectance in the underlying coal also
varies with the nature of the roof sediments.
Where the coal seam and its roof sediments are genetically linked, the roof/coal
contact is commonly concordant, i.e. the former depositional surfaces, as represen-
ted by the stratification planes in both coal and overlying sediments, are parallel to
each other. In many instances the same spatial relationship applies also to abrupt
contacts, but angular discordances between coal/roof couples are not rare, and some
of them are unique to coal and are not recorded in other stratiform deposits. The
following discussion is therefore divided into two sections, the first concentrates on
some palaeo-environmental implications of concordant coal/roof relationships,
while the second highlights the genetic significance of discordant coal/roof
contacts.
6.3.1 Concordant CoaljRoof Couples
The brief examples given above show that transitional contacts between coal and
its roof and floor strata reflect a gradual shift in depositional conditions from
predominantly organic to inorganic sedimentation. Even where coal seams are in
abrupt contact with their roof sediments, the depositional environments of the latter
may have affected the underlying coal. An example of this effect would be where a
marine environment transgresses rapidly across a coastal platform, in the course of
which fresh-water peat is inundated by sea water, which in turn will penetrate into
the underlying peat and, by lowering acidity, change the pattern of the subsequent
biochemical coalification in the affected portion. Although in this case marine
conditions were established after peat accumulation had ceased, the effects on coal
composition are not dissimilar to an increasing marine influence during peat
formation. This aspect will be further explored in Chap. 8.
6.3.1.1 Abrupt Contacts Between Coal and Roof Rocks
Most contacts between adjacent lithosomes are conformable, i.e. there is no angular
discordance between beds and no indication of a prolonged pause in sedimentation.
Nevertheless, conformable contacts may be quite abrupt, which occurs in regions
experiencing very slow sedimentation. The stratigraphic columns found in such
areas are so condensed that gradual transitions from one lithosome to the other
cannot be accommodated within a relatively short time frame (Krumbein and Sloss
1963). Also, in areas of low topographic relief even limited vertical base level
variations may bring about rapid and considerable lateral shifts of facies bound-
aries. These may proceed at a rate which causes different sediments to occur in close
superposition wihtout any transitional or passage beds between the contrasting
lithosomes. The sharp contacts between coal and the roof limestone found in the
North English coalfields are examples of how sensitively facies boundaries in regions
of low relief and proximity to the sea have responded to even minor vertical
fluctuations in sea level.
Abrupt contacts between coal and roof sediments often indicate rapid
palaeo-environmental changes and possibly a sudden, even catastrophic end to peat
formation. The events which change the depositional environment so severely that
peat formation cannot recover may take several forms, such as inundation by fresh
water due to river avulsion, or flooding of a coastal mire by sea water following the
collapse of beach barriers by a combination of cyclonic storm activity and high tides.
In any of these cases, subsequent sedimentation will tend to fill the erosion scours,
which have been excavated into the peat by the preceding violent events, resulting in
some of the discordant roof/coal contacts discussed in Chap. 6.3.2.2.
A catastrophic event, which is capable of terminating peat accumulation
without causing substantial erosion of the peat surface, is the emplacement of a thick
cover of volcanic ash (tephra) on the mire surface. Vulcanicity shares with some
other catastrophic events complete genetic independence from mire development,
which means it can terminate peat formation at any stage in the generation of a
peatland by choking youthful and senescent plants alike with volcanic debris. In
contrast to many epiclastic roof sediments, which were deposited on the peat after
the mire had become defunct, pyroclastic roof rocks cover former peat surfaces
which had remained active to the moment the peat-forming plants were killed by the
volcanic ash.
Examples of volcanic activity are the intra-seam tonsteins discussed in
Chap. 4.4.2.1. In addition to these relatively thin layers of pyroclastic material
contained within coal seams, some coalfields contain substantial quantities of
interseam tuffs. Striking examples of these are found in New South Wales, Australia,
where approximately 20% of the 500-m-thick Late Permian Newcastle Coal
Measures consist of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic tuff and tuff-derived material (Diessel
1980a, b, 1985c). Also the composition of many epiclastic deposits in this setting
may have been strongly influenced by penecontemporaneous vulcanicity, which
was situated outside but close to the orogenic basin margin and repeatedly caused
pyroclastic material to be shed into the Sydney Basin. These tephra layers range in
NAMED PYROCLASlliS
--------~,..,..o+- VALES POINT
COWPER TUFF - - - -
MANNERING PARK TUF~
SWANSEA CLAYSTONE
MOON ISLAND
BOORAGUL TUFF ---_.--.GREj~T BEACH
AWABA TUFF
UPPER PI LOT
REIDS MISTAKE FORM. BOOLAROO
~G}-LOWER PILOT
- HARTLEY HILL
IAN
HILLSBOROUGH TUFF - - ADAMSTOWN
---.. FERN VALLEY

Fig. 6.31. Stratigraphic
column of the Newcastle ----- VI (TOR I A TUNNEL
Coal Measures of New NOBBYS TUFF - - - -
South Wales highlighting LAMBTON
the distribution of
interseam tuffs. (Diessel
1985c)
Fig. 6.32. Photomicrograph of vitric tuff with volcanic glass shards from the Reids Mistake
Formation, Newcastle Coal Measures, New South Wales. Transmitted light. Top one polariser,
bottom crossed polarisers, actual length of the field of view = 15 mm
thickness from less than 1 mm to 25 m, of which the stratigraphic column in Fig. 6.31
indicates the position of the major pyroclastic horizons only. The tuffs range in
particle size from coarse crystal-vitric varieties, as illustrated in Fig. 6.32, with
occasionallapilli to dense ashstones, the latter often altered to bentonitic claystone.
Quartz, biotite, plagioclase, orthoclase, volcanic rock fragments and unwelded glass
shards occur in varying proportions in the tuff layers, which often display normal
grading from coarse crystal tuff at the bottom through vitric tuff to fine ashstone
within a thickness of only a few centimetres.
According to Ziolkowski (1978), many of the de vitrified fine-grained tuffs
display a microcrystalline intergrowth of authigenic chalcedony and analcime in
coal and bands
grey cherty
claystone
coal and bands
contorted crysta
and vitric tuff
c:
o
'"
E massive crystal
and lithic tuff
(;
lL
"""
as
.!!!
::.
".0;a:"'
parallel bedded
vitric and crystal
tuff
Fig. 6.33. Schematic
representation of the coal and bands
pyroclastic zonation
found in the Reids
Q. E ""'!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!l!!!!!!!!!!!!!!==!!! soft c I a y s ton e
- as 55 --- ---- coal and bands
Mistake Formation, "o "
~cJ) soft claystone
Newcastle Coalfield. ...J
coal and bands
(After Diessel 1985c)
irregular, almost cloudy concentrations, or they occur as metasomatic replacements

of glass shards. Angular quartz grains show marginal resorption and precipitation
of chalcedony around the rims. Plagioclase is often fresh or only weakly sericitised,
whereas biotite which occurs in very high concentrations in some tuffs (Fig. 4.38),
usually shows some alteration to kaolinite or montmorillonite/illite random mixed
layers (Loughnan 1966).
Montmorillonite is the earliest authigenic phase resulting from the hydrolysis of
fine-grained volcanic glass as rain water percolated through the tuff layer after it had
settled on the ground. The same process leached alkalis, silica and iron from the
glass, which increased the pH of the descending fluids. Zeolites formed as an
intermediate metastable phase, which broke down as the sodium concentration
increased and, together with montmorillonite, transformed into analcime and silica
(opal and chalcedony) near the bottom of the pyroclastic pile (Hay 1977; Hay and
Sheppard 1977). The silica formed in this manner impregnated both plants and the
uppermost peat layers, thus preserving the mire surface as it was at the time of the
volcanic event.
A common characteristic of all pyroclastic deposits in the Newcastle Coal
Measures is their considerable lateral persistence, although thickness variations
occur between inter- and intraseam tuffs. As discussed in Chap. 4.4.2.1, intraseam
tuffs have been transformed into claystones which retain their thickness over a large
area. Interseam tuffs consist of stacks of tephra, which differ from each other in
grain size (coarse pyroclasts to fine ash), colour (white, pink, green, cream), fabric
(massive, cross-bedded, laminated), different grades of secondary silicification and

other forms of authigenesis resulting in contrasting weathering patterns. These piles
of pyroclastic lithosomes, while covering many hundreds and in some cases
probably thousands of square kilometres, vary considerably in their composite
thickness. The multitude of individual beds and laminae contained in a thick
pyroclastic column can usually be grouped into a relatively small number of units
with similar features. An example of this is given in Fig. 6.33, based on the Reids
Mistake Formation of the Newcastle Coal Measures. Its stratigraphic position is
indicated in Fig. 6.31. Within its thickness of 7 m it is possible to distinguish four
major units (from Diessel 1985c):
Unit 1 in Fig. 6.33 forms the immediate roof of the Lower Pilot Seam. It is composed
of parallel bedded vitric to crystal tufTs which consist of 2- to 20-cm-thick strata.
These are cross-laminated and show surface undulations, such as ripple marks and
minor cut-and-fill structures indicating lateral movement from the northeast.
Unit 2 displays extensive dune and antidune development, which has been
accentuated in many places by the ramping-up of subsequent deposits against
Fig. 6.34. Photograph of some of

the depositional units of the Reids
Mistake Formation indicated
in Fig. 6.33. 2 Unit 2; 3 Unit 3; 4
Unit 4; 5 Upper Pilot Seam.
Movementfrom right to left
Fig. 6.35. Cartoon illustrating various modes formation of pyroclastic deposits. (After Diessel
1985c)
earlier bedforms. The bedding surfaces of this unit show a distinct hummock-like
pattern. Pinch-and-swell structures and cross-bedding are common.
Unit 3 consists of a 0.5- to 1.5-m-thick massive and coarse pyroclastic interval with
irregular lower but relatively smooth upper bounding surfaces (Fig. 6.34). The
coarsest portion including fragments of aphanitic volcanic rock occurs near the top
of this unit.
Unit 4 is similar to Unit 2 with wavy to contorted bedding, hummock-like surfaces,

dunes, antidunes, ripples, cross-bedding, pinch-and- swell structures (Fig. 6.34) and
climbing megaripples. Thin beds with pronounced grain size separation are draped
over bed forms, and accretionary lapilli occur in the upper portion of this unit.
In accordance with the work of Sparks and Walker (1973), Fisher (1979), Self
and Sparks (1980), Walker (1980), Lipman and Mullineaux (1981), Fisher and
Schmincke (1984) and others on modes of pyroclastic transportation and emplace-
ment, three mechanisms can be considered as being responsible for the origin of the
Reids Mistake and other tuff sequences in the Newcastle Coal Measures, namely
pyroclastic fall, flow and surge. They have been schematically illustrated in Fig. 6.35
and are discussed below (after Diessel 1985c):
1. Pyroclastic falls comprise ash particles which have been explosively ejected from
a vent, for example, as part of a Plinian column. They fall through the air and
settle on the ground as an ash fall deposit. A lateral component may be imposed
on the settling trajectory by wind drift, lateral expansion of the ash plume, and
initial lateral velocity resulting from the shape of the vent. An extreme case of the
latter was the directed blast which proved to be so destructive in the Mount St.
Helens explosion of 18th May 1980. Although the main feature ofa directed blast
is the formation of a pyroclastic surge, turbulence within the blast cloud lifts ash
particles high into the air, from which they will also settle as an ashfall. The same
happens when a ground surge and flow develop following the gravitational
collapse of a Plinian ash column. The resulting ash fall deposits are crystal-poor,
display mantle bedding, good to moderate sorting, almost exponential decrease
in bed thickness and particle size with distance from the vent and, when water-
flushed, accretionary lapilli may be common. Multiple falls show pronounced
parallel bedding.
2. Pyroclastic flows (ash-flow tuffs) are volcanically produced hot, gaseous,
particulate density currents (Fisher and Schmincke 1984). They can be generated
in various ways (Wright et al. 1980), among which the collapse of an explosion
column seems to be a frequent cause. Other modes of origin include dome
collapse, lateral blast and a "boiling over" the crater rim without the formation of
a vertical column (Fisher and Schmincke 1984). The flows constitute a fluidized
system in which the continuous medium is hot gas and the particle/gas ratio is
high. According to Sparks and Walker (1973), they are the pyroclastic equivalent
of mud flows in that they are concentrated particulate flows but unlike mud flows
(lahars) they are more mobile. Their high temperature is shown by the welding of
glass shards in proximal ignimbrites and by pyrolitic affects on plant remains for
tens of kilometres beyond the zone of welding. Flow deposits are poorly sorted,
non- or poorly bedded and high in crystal content. Lapilli and rock inclusions
occur throughout but mainly in the upper portion of thick proximal flow units,
which distally thin in an irregular manner due to the development of a lobe-and-
cleft configuration resulting from a vortex-like lateral expansion of the flow
(Taylor 1958; Fisher 1979). In view of their relatively high density, pyroclastic
flow deposits tend to fill depressions in their path, which results in irregular lower
but relatively even upper bounding surfaces.
3. Pyroclastic surges differ from pyroclastic flows in their lower solid/gas ratio. The
pyroclasts are carried laterally entrained in turbulent gas as a ground-hugging
dilute pariculate flow (Walker 1980). The deposits formed by pyroclastic surges
consist of relatively thin, laminated units with good separation into different
particle sizes. Stratification may be parallel, wavy, lenticular and includes low-
angle cross-lamination (Fisher and Schmincke 1984). Foresets may have
erosional basal contacts. In view of the rapid build-up and decline of high
velocities in passing pyroclastic surges, antidunes cannot only be formed but are
also preserved. Particle sizes decrease and sorting improves with distance from
the source. Three types of pyroclastic surges have been distinguished: (1) the base
surge, which follows a steam explosion, (2) the ground surge, and (3) the ash cloud
surge.
In Fig. 6.35 ground surge deposits have been attributed to two modes offormation.
To the left of the vent a directed blast situation is depicted which relates to the 18th
May eruption of Mount St. Helens. According to Lipman and Mullineaux (1981),
the resulting surge velocity reached 300 mis, which within minutes extended over 25
km and downed all trees in its path. From the blast cloud a pyroclastic surge deposit
was formed which can be divided into a thick and coarse basal unit covering an area
of 140 km 2 up to a distance of about 14 km from the vent. This ground surge deposit
is overlain by a fine upper unit which covers an area of 600 km 2 up to 30 km away
from the vent and is better sorted, more thinly bedded and consists of superimposed
tabular cross-bedding sets that resemble migrating straight-crested dunes (Moore
and Sisson 1981). This fine-grained upper unit, which probably represents an ash
cloud surge deposit, is overlain by the kind of ash fall deposits mentioned above.
As indicated in Fig. 6.35, both ground surges and ash cloud surges can also be
generated in conjunction with ash flows from collapsing eruption columns (Fisher
1979). In this case a low-density ground surge formed from the margin of the
collapsing eruption column precedes the high density flow, which originated from
the heavier inner portions ofthe column. This separation results in the deposition of
fine-grained, well-stratified and often cross-bedded tuff in front of and below the
thicker, massive and coarse-grained flow deposit.
Apart from the turbulent ash cloud surge which accompanied and extended
beyond the ground surge of the Mount St. Helens eruption, ash cloud surges have
been found to elutriate and segregate from the turbulent tops of pyroclastic flows
which they override and leave behind. In the Bandelier Tuff of New Mexico, Fisher
(1979) observed that the first ash cloud surge deposits appear on top of flow deposits
several kilometres from the vent as discontinuous lenses, approximately 2 to 5 cm
thick and about 0.5 to 1 m long. Distally the lenses thicken to 35 cm and combine to
form continuous beds with internal lamination 0.5 to 3 mm thick consisting of
alternations of crystal-rich and crystal-poor laminae. Dunes, unidirectional low-
angle internal cross-stratification, and pinch-and-swell structures unrelated to
buried topography are all characteristic structures of ash cloud surge deposits.
All the features mentioned in the above description of the various pyroclastic
deposits occur in the tuffs of the Newcastle Coal Measures. The variety in textures
and structures, as well as the composition shown by the thick interseam tuffs and
claystones, indicate successive eruptive episodes and different modes of emplace-
ment. Many parallel bedded tuffs, such as those of Unit 1 in Fig. 6.33, are ash fall
deposits but some reveal evidence of lateral transportation by their internal cross-
stratification, which could be due to wind drift or water transportation although
there is no reason to believe that the latter was involved. Judging by the large
number of downed trees contained in Unit 1, it is possible that it also comprises some
pyroclastic surge deposits.
Unit 2 appears to have been formed as a ground surge preceding the overly-
ing Unit 3, which was formed by a pyroclastic flow. However, both bed-
forms and soft sediment deformation structures suggest very violent conditions of
tephra emplacement, not unlike those illustrated and described by Fisher and
Schmincke (1984) for base surges. These result from explosions caused by sudden
steam generation, when either hot ash and gas or magma come into contact with
groundwater. In the first case the resultant violent eruption is called phreatic and in
the second case phreatomagmatic. Both come under the more general term of
hydroexplosions, which also include steam explosions caused by lava or pyroclastic

flows covering surface (vadose) water (Fisher and Schmincke 1984).
Since base surges are areally restricted to within a few kilometeres of the site
of the explosion, it is unlikely that Unit 2 originated from a phreatic or phre-
atomagmatic eruption. There are no indications of Permian volcanic activity within
the coalfield, as the uniformly low coal rank indicates an undifferentiated low heat
flow in the subsurface. Base surges generated by phreatomagmatic activity outside
the basin would not have reached the coalfield because the onshore basin margin,
which gives the minimum distance to the volcanic source, is 40 km away from the
locality of the Reids Mistake Formation, although magnetic anomalies some 15 km -
offshore from Newcastle could indicate a closer origin of the pyroclastic deposits.
Much greater distances can be bridged by pyroclastic surges and flows, which
could have originated from beyond the basin margin and caused localised steam
explosions as they travelled across the wet and often ponded mire surface. Indeed,
in some instances steam explosions may have been responsible for either the
formation or modification of lakes, now represented by so-called "wants" in coal
seams.
The term want is used by Australian miners for an enclosed area, in which a coal
seam deteriorates and is replaced by inorganic sediments. According to Warbrooke
(1981) these zones of seam deteriorations are mainly circular or oval in shape with a
maximum diameter of 1 km. The sediments filling the wants are generally fine-
grained (e.g. laminated claystones and siltstones) and, although their lateral
contacts with the surrounding coal are commonly sharp and often quite steep, some
interbedding with coal occurs around the edges while several tuffaceous clay
markers can be traced from within the coal for a few metres into the want.
Wants are irregularly distributed and, although our knowledge of this aspect
appears to be partly a function of the intensity of mining, more wants have been
found in the Victorial Tunnel Seam than in any other equally well-exposed coal. As
shown in Fig. 4.41, this up to 3 m thick coal seam contains a large number of light-
coloured tuffaceous claystone bands, some of which are up to 20 em thick and mostly
bentonitic in composition with a high siderite content. The wants, whose known
distribution is illustrated in Fig. 6.36, also contain a high proportion of tuffaceous
material, and both coal and sedimentary fill display a high intensity of soft sediment
deformation, all of which is consistent with hydroexplosive activity. Because the
Lower Pilot Seam underlying the Reids Mistake Formation is not mined, no wants
have been recorded in this coal, but the seemingly violent structures displayed by
Unit 2 could be related to steam explosions.
Unit 3 has all the hallmarks of a pyroclastic or ash flow deposit, indicated by the
massive nature ofthe rock, some inverse grading and its composition. It consists of
small amounts of very dense volcanic rocks and approximately equal proportions of
crystals (quartz, plagioclase and biotite) and glass shards. As shown in Fig. 6.32, the
latter are not welded, which suggests the distal nature of the flow. According to
Fisher and Schmincke (1984), pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrites, ash flow tuffs)
have been observed to radiate well over toO km away from their sources, but the
limit of welding does not seem to extend further than approximately 50 km (Smith
1979).
CHARLES TOWN
. ./ OUlcrop of
\...- coal me t lures
~ Wanl • observed
' ''' ) Want a projected W
.. t
~B EL MON T
MN
Fig. 6.36. Chart of the
coastal portion of the
Newcastle Coalfield of
New South Wales showing
the distribution of wants o 4km
'---'---'---'---'---"
in the Victoria Tunnel
Seam. (After Warbrooke
1981)
Unit 4 is interpreted as an ash cloud surge deposit. It is finer in particle size than
the other units, internally laminated with dune structures occurring directly on top
of the underlying flow deposit (Unit 3), and it is capped by pockets of accretionary
lapilli (Fig. 6.37). These features are consistent with the notion that fine ash has been
elutriated out of the turbulent ash flow moving below. The dunes are mantled by
finer laminated material and in several cases, megaripples have been observed with
a ripple height of up to 50 cm. Lateral changes from rippled to flat-bedded structures
are probably due to regional variations in flow regimes at the time of deposition.
A unique feature of the pyroclastic units overlying coal seams in the Newcastle
Coal Measures is the occurrence of a variety of coal inclusions, which were entrained
as peat or plant fragments and incorporated mainly into the surges and flows.
Although coal clasts have been reported from epiclastic rocks (e.g. Teichmiiller and
Teichmiiller 1950, 1952; Mackowsky and Kotter 1962; Krausse et al. 1979; Dorsey
and Kopp 1985; Nelson et al. 1985; Scheidt 1986), few investigations have been
carried out on coal inclusions in pyroclastic deposits. Apart from brief references in
the older literature to such occurrences by Geikie (1902) in Scotland and David
(1907) in eastern Australia, it seems that only Hamilton et al. (1970), Allan et al.
(1975) Raymond and Murchison (1988), and Raymond et al. (1989) have actually
carried out analyses on coal inclusions in pyroclastics. The latter authors combined
the techniques of optical and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with organic
geochemistry (mainly GS-MS) in the study of Carboniferous wood contained in a
lithic tuff from the Midland Valley, north of Edinburgh, Scotland. Apart from the
occurrence of unsubstituted polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which have been
attributed to combustion, the wood does not give any indications of thermal effects.
Indeed, its low vitrinite reflectance of 0.39% suggests a suppression of coalification,
possibly as a result of partial impregnation of the wood with mineral solutions
generated from the surrounding tuff.
The coal inclusions in the Reids Mistake Formation and other pyroclastics of
the Newcastle Coal Measures range in size from a few micro metres to several metres,
the latter consisting of tree trunks. The majority of inclusions occurs in the
millimetre to centimetre range, and unlike the upright stumps and downed logs,
which are concentrated near the contact with the underlying coal, the smaller
fragments are either scattered throughout a flow or surge unit or, more rarely, occur
in defined bands. An example of the latter from Unit 3 in the Reids Mistake
Formation is illustrated in Fig. 6.38. The inclusions in this and other pyroclastics
consist of two kinds:
1. Inclusions offormer peat clasts. As shown in Fig. 6.39, the inclusion contains all
the macerals common to a high volatile bituminous coal, except that the
specimen has been thoroughly impregnated by silica in the form of common opal,
and, to a lesser extent, some other minerals. The degree of petrification dominates
the white light image, but, as illustrated in Fig. 6.39, fluorescent mode reveals that
little replacement of organic matter has actually occurred. Most of the im-
pregnating silica either fills desiccation cracks or occupies the central cavities of
spores and pollen. In a normal coal sample cut perpendicular to bedding, as is the
1
I
Fig.6.38. Coal inclusions (black) in the

Reids Mistake Formation of the New-
em
castle Coal Measures, New South Wales
case in the illustrated coal inclusion, spore and pollen grains would appear
flattened. In Fig. 6.39 this is not the case, because silica solutions, mobilised by the
early breakdown of the surrounding volcanic glass, infiltrated the relatively
uncompacted peat clasts and precipitated in all available voids.
2. Inclusions of peat derivatives. David (1907) referred to the occurrence of shiny
black specks on fresh surfaces of Nobbys Tuff (see stratigraphic column in
Fig. 6.31) and regarded them as resin droplets. However, when viewed under the
microscope, these inclusions, examples of which are illustrated in Fig. 6.40, do not
appear to be resin. They display flow structures and are not unlike some hydro-
genation residues variously referred to as vitroplasts (Mitchell et al. 1977),
coagulants (Guyot and Diessel 1979, Diessel and Guyot 1984), hydroplasts
(Shibaoka and Russell 1981), primary vitroplast (Shibaoka 1981), or plasticoal
(Shibaoka et al. 1982). Both white light reflectance and fluorescence intensity of
the material vary. In the field of view shown in Fig. 6.40, reflectance values range
from 0.40 ("normal" coal = 0.75%) to 1.15% Ror, while the respective fluorescence
intensities measured in water immersion range from 6.5 to 1.8% at 546 nm, from
7.1 to 3.5% at 650 nm, and from 4.8 to 1.7% at 700 nm.
Fig. 6.39. Photomicrograph taken in water immersion of an almost uncompacted peat (now coal)
inclusion in ash flow tuff from the Reids Mistake Formation, Newcastle Coal Measures. Left
Incident white light, dark areas represent impregnating silica, inertodetrinite is white; right incident
fluorescence mode showing bright liptinite, including uncompacted spores; actual length of each
Fig. 6.40. Photomicrographs taken in water immersion of heat affected peat (now coal) inclusion in
ash flow tuff from the Reids Mistaken Formation, Newcastle Coal Measures, showing lateral
variations in both reflectance and fluorescence intensities. Left incident white light, dark areas
represent impregnating silica; right incident fluorescence mode; actual length of each field of view
=O.22mm
Fig. 6.41. Tree stump in growth position

extending from the coal top into over-
lying pyroclastic deposits. (Diessel
1980b)
Although the precise mode of formation of these inclusions is not known, it

can be assumed that softening and pyrolysis of vegetable matter and peat were
involved in their formation. Both white light and fluorescent mode images show
signs of heat effects in the form of an uneven distribution of reflectance and
fluorescence intensity values.
Transitions between both types of inclusions can be found in practically all ash flow
tuffs and surge deposits of the Newcastle Coal Measures. This means that volcanic
effects on the inclusions range from nil to severe, which, in conjunction with the lack
of welding of glass shards, suggests that differential heating occurred before
deposition. This notion is supported by the lack of any systematic decrease in
reflectance towards grain centres and by the fact that inclusions with weak and
strong thermal effects occur adjacent to each other. The most likely mechanism of
fragmenting peat is by steam explosion. If the fragments were subsequently
entrained in a water-rich base surge, they would not have suffered any heat effe·cts.
However, if a ground surge had caused a chain of steam explosions and the
subsequent ash flow had picked up the dislodged peat fragments, variable heat
transfer could have taken place during entrainment.
More conspicuous thatl the small coal inclusions are the many coalified and
partly silicified tree trunks, which extend from the coal seams up to 4 minto
overlying tuff deposits. Figure 6.41 is an illustration of a tree stump embedded in tuff,
while an example of the lateral distribution of the petrified forest from the base of the
Reids Mistake Formation, supplemented by measurements of David (1907) is shown
in Fig. 6.42. Also included is the position and a rose diagram of the measured
azimuths of downed trees. They were rooted in the Lower Pilot Seam and most of
them penetrate for 0.5 to 1 m into the overlying vitric tuff. At that level many of the
trunks snapped off and became embedded in the volcanic ash. The mean thickness of
-1 w+-----~~~--_+
25.
1~ .25 .25
5 ·.::;;./- A
/020
40't'
.10 30-
..t60 s
_35
10, -30
25. __ 25.
30- 15. .45
20- 40_
22_ ·10
20-
Fig. 6.42. Chart of the
-
position of tree stumps and _20
downed trees at the contact
between the Lower Pilot
Seam and the Reids Mistake 25. .10
·15
Formation at Swansea Head.
The figures next to the stumps
give their diameters in centi-
metres; A is a polar stereo-
gram (Schmidt Net) of the
intersection ofthe stump axes
with the lower hemisphere; B
is a rose diagram of the azi-
muths of downed tree trunks.
(Supplemented after Diessel
1985c) s
the trunks above the root system is 25.4 cm (s = 13.9, n = 42) and mean spacing
is 2.90 m (s = 1.40, n = 30). Most of the downed trees point in a southwesterly
direction (mean azimuth = 260°, n = 65) and some are still attached to the stumps
on the ground.
The wood ofthe fossil trees is commonly both coalified and petrified, mainly by
silica and iron carbonate. The remaining coal in the interior ofthe stems consists of
telovitrinite with a maximum reflectance of 0.75%, which is normal for this
stratigraphic level. However, close to the surface the wood is often charred and the
bark is partly torn off the trunk. Similar examples of trees felled by pyroclastic flows
have been reported by Froggatt et al. (1981) and Wilson and Walker (1981) from
New Zealand, where the Holocene Taupo eruption downed trees over an area of
15000 km 2 and up to 45 km away from the vent. More recent examples of this kind
are well known from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
Apart from the trees which broke off a short distance above their base, some
stems extend for several metres into the overlying tuff. Many of these trees are
Fig. 6.43. Photograph of Seiaginella, a herbaceous lycopsid, embedded in tuff at the contact
between the Fassifern Seam and the overlying Awaba Tuff, Newcastle Coal Measures, New South
Wales
markedly tilted upward to the southwest, which is also illustrated by the stereogram
shown in Fig. 6.42. At this locality the mean plunge angle of 11 stems is 52° in a
direction of 30° (intersection of the tree trunk axes with the lower hemisphere of
Schmidt Net), while 4 km further south mean plunge of 18 trees is 68° at an azimuth
of 54°. In addition to the tilt, several trees show signs of abrasion on their
northeastern sides in the form of flattening and missing portions of annual growth
rings (Diessel 1985c).
Of considerable palaeo-environmental significance is the observation that in all
11 instances in the Newcastle Coal Measures in which thick tuff beds overlie coal
seams, trees extend from the coal into the roof. In all cases humic coals are involved,
but their composition varies widely from the very bright, vitrinite-rich Nobbys
Seam, which is overlain by the up to 25-m-thick Nobbys Tuff (for stratigraphic
position see Fig. 6.31), to the inertinite-rich, dull coals, which occur in the upper
portion of the stratigraphic column. Both sets of coals have relatively high tissue
preservation indices (TPI), which in the bright coals is due to the dominance of
telovitrinite and in the dull coals results mainly from a high semifusinite content.
Only the Wallarah Seam (for stratigraphic position see Fig. 6.31), the last economic
Permian coal seam to form before sedimentation became exclusively coarse clastic
terrestrial, shows low TPI values due to an increase in inertodetrinite. Since trees
extend also from this seam into the overlying pyroclastics (Cowper Tuff), the decline
in tissue preservation is not due to a reduced contribution of wood to the peat but is
a function of more severe biodegradation of the wood. As thicknesses of the tuff-
covered coal seams vary from several decimetres to several metres, peat formation
must have been terminated at many different stages of mire development, yet in all
cases the peat surface was forested and carried undergrowth of herbaceous lycopsids
(Fig. 6.43), not unlike the Selaginella harrisiana which Townrow (1968) described
from the Illawarra Coal Measures of New South Wales. The only noticeable
difference is in tree size. The stems which protrude from the brighter coal seams in
the lower portion of the Newcastle Coals Measures into their overlying roof rocks
show larger average (20 to 30cm) and maximum (approximately 1 m) diameters
compared to those rooted in the stratigraphically higher dull coals (10 to 20 cm
average and approximately 50cm maximum). However, the .avaihible sample
population is small and does not allow for more than a faint suggestion that
the intertinite-rich coal s(!ams might have been affected by somewhat stunted tree
growth.
6.3.1.2 Gradational Contacts Between Coal and Roof Rocks

Gradational contacts between adjacent litho somes suggest a slow change in deposi-
tional conditions. Examples common to many coal measures are back-swamp
deposits, in which the upward change from coal to shaly coal, coaly shale and shale,
followed by flood plain laminites might indicate the encroachment of a sediment
source, e.g. in the form of a meandering river. As the channel approaches, it sheds
progressively coarser sediments over the adjacent mire surface during floods, which
increasingly interfere with peat accumulation, until it ceases. In interseam sediments
gradual contacts can be formed even in relatively short depositional episodes. In
fluvial sediments it is often difficult to distinguish between the top of a point bar and
the base ofthe levee or overbank deposits because no sharp break separates the two
kinds of deposits.
Gradual contacts may occur in the form of mixed transitions, i.e. both
litho somes are connected by a zone of mixed composition of the two end-members,
or in the form of continuous transitions, in which case the two lithologies are
connected by a zone of intermediate particle size. An example of the first case would
be a sandy shale between a sandstone and a shale, and in the second case, a siltstone
between a sandstone and a shale.
The gradual contacts commonly found in coal measures consist of the mixed
type in which the end-members of two rock types alternate with each other in a
transitional zone. Typical examples are laminites, which occur frequently between
adjacent lithosomes. In this case, the contact between laminae within the
transitional zone may be quite sharp, and it is largely a matter of scale whether one
regards the whole laminite section as one heterogeneous transitionallithosome or
whether each lamina is taken as a homogeneous lithosome in its own right. In the
latter case the succession is characterised by numerous closely spaced abrupt
contacts.
6.3.2 Discordant Coal/Roof Couples
A variety of geological events can produce angular discordances between adjacent

sediments whereby both the contacts and hiatus between them reflect in their
respective magnitudes the time spans required for their formation. Examples from
330 The Relationship Between Coal and Interseam·Sediments
either end of the spectrum would be a regional angular unconformity bracketing

a tectonic event, and the discordant contact between a set of horizontal beds and
an overlying set of inclined foresets. Neither of these two extremes is specific to
coal measures, but there are some cases of angular discordances which are either
restricted to, or particularly well documented from the contacts between coal seams
and their roof sediments.
6.3.2.1 CoaljRoof Discordance Due to Unequal Loading
Differential compaction due to unequal loading is found in peatlands subjected to

the encroachment of bedload channels of both braided and meandering types. In
braided channels the high width/depth ratio of coarse bedload streams prevents
accommodation oflarge volumes of clastic debris within the shallow channels which
leads to rapid lateral fanning of the fluvial depositional environment if down-slope
transportation cannot remove the incoming clastics. In a coal-forming environment
braid-plain deposits may then spread laterally across peat which depending on its
state of pre-compaction, will respond in a variety of ways to the loading.
The Newcastle Coal Measures in New South Wales contain several conglome-
rates which overlie coal seams showing a variety of angular relationships. In some
cases, the principal bedding planes of both lithosomes have similar attitudes
irrespective of the occurrence of irregular erosional scours at the conglomerate base.
In other couples, a marked angular discordance exists between the bedding planes
(Sp) of the two units, and there are many transitions between the two types.
An example of the discordant conglomerate type is shown in Fig. 6.44 by the
Redhead Conglomerate, named after a prominent headland on the coast south of
Newcastle, N.S.W.1t forms a clastic wedge between the two splits ofthe Fern Valley
Seam (for stratigraphic position see Fig. 6.31) and consists of interbedded conglom-
erate and sandstone lenses stretching inland from the coast in a belt approximately
Fig.6.44. View of the Lower Fern Valley seam (centre) discordantly overlain by the Redhead
Conglomerate, and concordantly underlain by flood plain deposits of the Kotara Formation.
North of Redhead, New South Wales
6 km wide and of considerable but unknown length. In spite of the relatively

restricted areal extent of the sequence the conglomerate reaches a maximum
thickness of almost 40 m at Redhead (Diessel and Moelle 1988).
The Redhead Conglomerate consists of mostly 10- to 30-cm-thick layers of
granule to pebble conglomerate alternating with up to 2-m-thick beds of coarse to
pebbly sandstone. The average phenoclast diameter of the conglomerate is 3 to 5 cm
but, in most cases, grain sizes decrease in an upward direction. These beds are
laterally persistent and often massive, although cross bedding is not rare. In the 10-
to 30-cm-thick layers the majority of the foresets is straight and planar with
relatively steep angles of repose. Markedly curved (upward concave) and tangenti-
ally aligned trough cross-beds are more common in thicker scour fills of coarse to
pebbly sandstone. Coalified plant material occurs throughout the deposit, consist-
ing offlat lenses of bright coal (vi train) which has probably been derived from wood
and bark. Most clasts are subrounded to rounded and of medium high (0.40 to 0.55)
sphericity. The coarser portions of the Redhead Conglomerate are all clast- or
framework-supported but with decreasing particle size and in conglomerate/
sandstone transitions the fabric becomes more matrix-supported.
In contrast to the often sheet-like conglomerates, the sandy intercalations are
more confined to cut-and-fill structures. Several large sand-filled channels, approxi-
mately 40 m wide and, at the centre 2 m deep, contain abundant, large-scale,
heterogeneous cross-bedding and many current scours carrying pebble lag at their
bases. Elsewhere, erosional contacts are quite frequent and trough cross-bedding is
ubiquitous. Most sets are 20 to 40 cm high. Some of them show ripple drift
lamination and contain clay ironstone nodules.
The most conspicuous feature of the Redhead Conglomerate is the strong
angular discordance of its principal bedding planes (Sp) with bedding in the
underlying coal seam. The coal follows the regional dip of 6 to the southwest
0
(azimuth = 230°), whereas the lowermost conglomerate layers and lenses rest on the
coal with northesterly dips up to 45°. In several localities, the clastics protrude into
the coal as load casts. The large angle between the coal seam and its roof strata is
presumably related to the coarse nature of the overlying sediments. Where in similar
geological situations the seam roof consists of steeply dipping shales and sandstones,
as is the case in the Wittingham Coal Measures of New South Wales, a tangential
alignment between coal and roof strata is commonly observed near the point of
contact (Britten et al. 1975; Marchioni 1982). In the Redhead Conglomerate no such
tangential alignment has been found in the coarse portion (Fig. 6.45), and even in the
more sandy fractions it is restricted to the immediate seam roof, as illustrated in
Fig. 6.46.
In an upward direction the dips of the bedding planes of the Redhead
Conglomerate decrease so that from approximately 10 m above its base the
principal surfaces of deposition flatten and approach regional dip. An illustration of
the upward change in the spatial attitude of the lithosomes is given in the measured
section of Fig. 6.47, while Fig. 6.48 is a polar stereogram of 35 principal bedding
planes measured mostly in the lower half of the Redhead Conglomerate.
At first sight, the large inclined bedding planes of the Redhead Conglomerate, as
well as of similar occurrences elsewhere in eastern Australia, appear like giant foreset
Fig.6.45. Steeply dipping (45°) coarse fraction of the Redhead Conglomerate without tangential
alignment with the coal contact. North of Redhead, New South Wales
Fig. 6.46. Weak tangential alignment

of the pebbly sand fraction of the Red-
head Conglomerate with the underlying
Lower Fern Valley Seam. Note the
cross-bedding in the granule conglo-
merate in the upper part of the frame
with an apparent dip of 45°! North of
Redhead, New South Wales
.coal
f..=-=:I Claystone
Fig. 6.47. Measured
r:: ::>·1 Sandstone
section through the
Lower Fern Valley Seam
and the overlying ~Planar }
Cross-bedding
.
Redhead Conglomerate ~ Trough
north of Redhead, New
South Wales. The scale is
in metres .... ::: : .: ...
~. ', '.'
......
'.
','
beds or like rather steep slipfaces of a prograding fan delta or Gilbert-type delta, and
they have, indeed, been interpreted as such (Parbury 1976; Conaghan 1981;
Galloway and Hobday 1983; Hunt and Hobday 1984), or as large-scale foresetsof a
crevasse splay or subdelta (Flood 1985; Flood and Brady 1985). However, a close
inspection of the Redhead Conglomerate reveals the above-mentioned abundant
internal cross-bedding with fore sets dips of up to 55 between the inclined large
0
stratification planes. There is no doubt that at the time of deposition the large planes
acted as principal surfaces of deposition (Sp) and that the fore sets (Sf) must have been
considerable flatter than they are now. A polar stereogram constructed from 60 tilt-
corrected foresets is illustrated in Fig. 6.49. The calculated vector mean is 126 0 with
a moderately low variance of almost 5000.
X -5S'
Fig. 6.48. Polar stereogram (Schmidt

Net) of 35 Sp-planes measured in the
lower portion of the Redhead Con-
glomerate, north of Redhead, New
South Wales. Interval concentration
= 50
Fig. 6.49. Polar stereogram (Schmidt

Net) of 60 tilt-corrected foreset beds (Sf).
Interval concentration = 5 o. North of
Redhead, New South Wales
Fig. 6.50. Cartoon showing the compaction pattern of the Lower Fern Valley Seam responsible for
the inclined Sp-planes in the Redhead Conglomerate. The mean azimuth of dip of Sp = 55 gives0
the direction of lateral channel migration which contrasts with the direction of channel flow
indicated by the mean azimuth of dip of Sf-planes = 126 0
It appears that the conglomerates have been deposited mainly as gravel sheets,
banks and bars in a braided river system. Sandstone channels dominate, although
the occurrence of some trough cross-bedding suggests that some channels were filled
by conglomerate. However, sandstone channels are more common. The south-
easterly flow direction is almost at right angles to the present north-
easterly dip of the Sp-planes. As illustrated in cartoon form in Fig. 6.50, this is
interpreted as a compaction feature resulting from the weight ofthe sand and gravel
loaded on the water-logged peat when the braid plain extended laterally in a
northeasterly direction across the Fern Valley swamp. As the peat responded to the
loading by progressive compaction, the concomitant subsidence created more space
near the surface, which attracted more sediments in a similar way as has been
suggested by Mallett (1983) and Mallett and Durnbavan (1984) for the tilted fluvial
channels in the German Greek and Rangal Coal Measures of the Bowen Basin
in Queensland.
The compaction of the peat underneath the accumulating load caused some
peat to become squeezed upward and to move like a bow wave in front of the
laterally migrating braid plain. The peat bulge protected the adjacent mire surface
from being covered by overbank sediments but some suspension load has been
deposited in ephemeral ponds formed behind the peat bulge from the excess water
draining from the compacting peat. Some siltstone and silt-laminated fine sandstone
lenses which occur concordant with the coal roof have probably been formed in this
manner.
The sediments deposited at the peat margin on the right hand side of Fig. 6.50
show the steepest inclination because they formed the leading edge of the laterally
spreading braid plain and therefore follow the full 3: 1 to 4: 1 compaction the peat
suffered under a 12-m overburden which is the height of the sediment column above
the seam at which bedding planes begin to flatten. Sediments deposited to the left of
the peat margin are less inclined because they do not onlap uncompacted peat but
offiap sand and gravel overlying increasingly compacted peat. As has been reported
from similar cases ofload effects of roof sediments on coal by Britten (1972), Britten
et al. (1975), Krausse et al. (1979) and Marchioni (1976, 1982), it is common in such
situations for the original depositional shape of the litho somes to become deformed
by the effects of differential compaction and gravity sliding. The finer the particle size
of the rocks involved, the stronger the compaction and deformation. Since the
Redhead Conglomerate consists mainly of competent coarse clastics, the soft
sediment deformation suffered during compactional tilting is comparatively mild
and restricted to minor slump folding near the coal contact.
The significance of the compactional features associated with the Redhead
Conglomerate is that they provide evidence for a close temporal coexistence of peat
accumulation and clastic sedimentation. McCabe (1984) has argued strongly in
favour of a temporal separation of peat accumulation and clastic deposition but,
while this may be so in many instances, the emplacement of the conglomerate on
comparatively uncompacted peat of the Lower Fern Valley Seam suggests that epi-
clastic deposition terminated peat formation in the split portion of the Fern Valley
Seam. In the unsplit Fern Valley Seam peat continued to accumulate contempora-
neously with clastic deposition of the split portion and was able to overgrow the
sands and gravels of the split without any noticeable time delay once the influx of
clastic material had either ceased to function or the conveying channels had been
deflected into other parts of the Fern Valley swamp. Since compaction features of
this and related kinds have been described from other Australian coalfields by
Britten (1972) and Britten et al. (1975) for vertically aggrading, and by Burgis (1975),
Marchioni (1976, 1982), Mallett (1983), Mallett and Durnbavan (1984) for laterally
accreting channel systems, time continuity between coal and roof sediments is
probably quite common.
From the above di'scussion it follows that conglomerates and other fluvial
sediments whose principal bedding planes do not display a steep angular dis-
cordance but are concordant with the underlying coal probably have been deposited
on an already partly compacted peat. In many cases this could be due to the effects of
loading by a previously deposited sediment which was subsequently removed by
erosion.
6.3.2.2 Coal/Roof Discordance Due to Erosion
In contrast to the laterally onlapping and largely non-erosive nature of the braid
plains discussed in the previous chapter, many coal measures have been formed
under a regime in which partial removal of previous deposits was an integral part of
the sedimentation process. A meandering river, for example, has to cut its bed into
the underlying ground, as is the case with any other channellised flow system of
reasonable stability. Since fluvial transportation and deposition play an important
part in the construction of many coal measures, erosional contacts between fluvial
and underlying sediments are a common feature of interseam deposits.
Depending on the kind of flow system (meandering, braided, anastomosing) the
fluvial sediments consist mostly of point bar or channel fill deposits which occur in
a variety of spatial relationships with associated coal seams. Illustrations and
discussions of a variety of coal/channel relationships are given by Elliott (1979).
Some have been formed much later than the coal on which they now rest (Fig. 6.51)
or which they have subsequently eroded. A spectacular example of the latter is the
Anvil Rock Sandstone in Illinois, U.S.A., which developed as a fluvial channel in the
Lawson Shale, between the Conant and Bankston Fork Limestones. In many places
Fig.6.51. Sketch of a washout above the Bulli Seam, New South Wales, which has cut through
several metres of roof sediments without eroding into the coal. (After Diessel etal. 1967)
Fig.6.52. Photograph of a cross-section (be-plane) through a fluvial channel within the Nobbys
Seam, Newcastle Coal Measures, exposed at Burwood Beach, New South Wales. The section is
continuous without break from south (upper left) to north (lower right). The encircled back-pack is
60 em high
the channel has cut down to the underlying Herrin (No. 6) Coal Member and
replaced it with sandstone (Krausse et al. 1979). Other fluvial channels were formed
penecontemporaneously with the surrounding peat which accumulated on the flood
plains and temporarily stabilised islands between a network of anastomosing river
channels. These deposits form relatively narrow but elongated belts of lithification
within coal seams which in cross-section are compacted around the more resistant
stone bulges, as illustrated by Nelson et al. (1985) from the basal Pennsylvanian coal
measures in Indiana, U.S.A. An Australian example of this type is shown in Fig. 6.52
from the Newcastle Coal Measures.
While the erosive parts of channels have usually cut into the underlying strata
such that their walls are mostly relatively smooth, co-depositional contacts between
channel fill and coal or other surrounding sediments are frequently intercalated, as
illustrated in Fig. 6.53. This relationship is best seen in channels in which vertical
aggradation exceeded lateral accretion. Such channels may show a differentiation
between a lower erosive and an upper co-depositional portion.
Another channel type is represented by the large Walshville Channel, which
extends almost diagonally through the Illinois Basin, U.S.A. It developed in and co-
existed with the Herrin (No.6) Coal with which its sandstone fill is intercalated along
the channel margin. However, it outlived peat accumulation by extending high into
the seam roof, where it is marginally interbedded for some 7 m above the seam with
Fig. 6.53. Photograph of the eastern flank of a 200-m-wide fluvial channel in the Illawarra Coal
Measures near Bylong in New South Wales. Note the intercalated margin of the channel with the
dark laminated overbank deposits. Encircled, is a person for scale
Fig.6.54. Contact between the roof of the Great Northern Seam and the overlying Teralba
Conglomerate, Newcastle Coal Measures, at Catherine Hill Bay, New South Wales
Coal Seam Splitting 339
its own overbank deposits represented by the Energy Shale of the Carbondale
Formation. The Conant and Brereton Limestones, which have been cut by the Anvil
Rock Channel referred to above, overlap the Walshville Channel with reduced
thickness, due to the effects of differential compaction within and outside the
channel influence (Krausse et al. 1979).
Since peat accumulation appears to have been frequently terminated by stream
avulsion, it is not uncommon to find the erosional bases of fluvial sandstones and
conglomerates forming the immediate roof of coal seams (Fig. 6.54). In most such
cases there is little evidence 'of significant loss of coal, but occasionally channels have
been cut into the coal which are usually referred to as washouts or rolls. The latter
term is rather non-specific, as it is also used for a variety of other elongated
protrusions of clastic sediments into the coal, including the flocr-rolls discussed in
Chap. 6.2, clay dykes and associated compaction faults (Damberger 1970, 1973), as
well as load structures, which were squeezed as soft sediment into the upper peat
layers (Krausse et al. 1979).
Considering the high frequency offluvial sediments overlying coal seams, it may
be surprising not to find more washouts in them. The reason for their comparative
scarcity is the resistance of peat to erosion. Particularly fibrous and woody forest
peats are strengthened by interlocking branches and tree trunks, which require
considerable force to overcome the tough "doormat effect". For the same reason it is
also common to find much later-formed river deposits resting on top of a seam after
they have cut through several metres of roof sediments. However, the sketch
illustrated in Fig. 6.51 shows that even without much loss of coal, mining conditions
may be difficult in the vicinity of the mechanical discontinuities along the erosional
contacts. It is therefore advantageous for the purpose of mine planning to have prior
knowledge of the occurrence and extent not only of washouts but of any erosional
contacts, which might adversely affect the seam roof conditions during coal ext-
raction. An example of a palaeocurrent analysis carried out in a portion of an
Australian coal mine is shown in Fig. 6.55.
6.4 Coal Seam Splitting
The concept of depositional base level, which will be discussed further in Chap. 8,
defines a hypothetical threshold below which a deposit is considered to have a good
chance of being preserved in the sedimentary record. Application of the concept is
intimately linked to the scale of the investigation. If this is concerned with the
formation of coal macerals or coal lithotypes, depositional base level will cor-
respond to the position of the groundwater table, and the vertical fluctuations which
may bring about changes in coal composition are in the centimetre to decimetre
range. Conversely, if the investigation encompasses a whole depositional basin or
part thereof, the base level concept assumes a much larger role and, in a paralic
setting, may be equated with sea level. Vertical variations, which bring about
, , ,
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lithological changes, increase accordingly and are measured in the metre to deca-
metre range. The extreme scales of base level changes may grade into each other
through an intermediate order of magnitude in the decimetre to metre range, which
is large enough to affect peat accumulation very severely, at least in some parts of an
extended mire system.
Under conditions of falling water table, areas of the mire will dry out and large
portions of the peat surface will be oxidised if they remain uncovered. Also a rising
water table in parts of apeatland will severely impede plant growth and peat
accumulation in the affected area. Low-lying parts of the mire will be drowned, thus
attracting deposition of clastic sediments while peat accretion continues in the non-
affected portions. The result of this development is seam splitting, which typically
occurs in rapidly subsiding rift valley and foredeep settings, but it is comparatively
rare in stable cratonic environments. Because of this link with the tectonic
environment, a correlation also exists between seam splitting and coal measure
lithology (Elliott 1979). Permian coal seams associated with coarse clastic interseam
sediments, such as those found near the orogenic margin of the Sydney Basin in New
South Wales, are more frequently subjected to splitting (Branagan and Johnson
1970; Connolly and Ferm 1971) than coals interbedded with a high proportion of
marine sediments, for example in the Lower Carboniferous Limestone Coal group
of Scotland (Elliott 1979).
From the discussion in Chap. 6.3.2.1 it follows that the different compaction
rates between coal and the various interseam sediments may result in a distortion of
the attitude of the interseam sediments such that they dip towards the split axis or
line of union between the parent and the two daughter seams. Naturally, the greater
compaction ratio of the coal compared with the clastic split wedge exerts an
influence on the subsequent sedimentation pattern and may initiate further seam
splitting at higher stratigraphic levels.
At the expense of some simplification, seam splitting can be attributed to either
differential subsidence or autosedimentational causes, but one mechanism has been
reported by Staub and Cohen (1979) from the Snuggedy Swamp of South Carolina
which does not fit any of the common causes. The authors refer to it as "fire splays"
because it is initiated during drought periods when the peat catches fire and burns
down to below the average water level of streams cut into the peat. On the return of
normal conditions, the burned-out portions of the peat will be filled with water from
which silt and clay is deposited on the fusinite-enriched residual peat. Eventually the
area affected by the fire will be reclaimed by the swamp through terrestrialisation,
leaving a small seam split of fine clastics behind.
The kind of mechanism responsible for any particular case of seam splitting can
be deduced from such factors as basin geometry, lateral and vertical changes in
Fig.6.55A-E. Palaeochannel delineated by isopachs of a carbonaceous shale between the roof of

the Bulli Seam and an overlying channel sandstone at Appin Colliery, New South Wales. The
following directional features were measured in the channel fill: A and C rose diagrams of the
orientation of 190 (A) and 265 (C) plant fossils, respectively. B, D and E Polar stereograms (Schmidt
Net) of 100 (B) and 200 (E) mica platelets, and 42 foresets (D). (After Diessel 1966)
I: : :1 POST'PERMIAN ~ MAITLAND
E:::::3
GR. : : ,="
.......... .
-= _.;,_-- - =
If=~j NEWCASTLE C. M. IZJGRETA C. M. • ••••••
F.7l
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em
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MORIS SET' • •
::::: PRE-PERMIAN • • • • • , •
•
o1...'_ _. . . . . . ._ _
10Km
-'1
Fig.6.56. Simplified geological map of the Newcastle Coalfield, New South Wales, with the
traverse of coal seam splitting illustrated in Figs. 6.57 and 6.58. The coalfield is situated in the
Macquarie Syncline, which is bordered to the west by the Lochinvar Anticline between Maitland
and Branxton
interseam sediments, and the properties of the affected coal seams. With respect to
the latter, Warbrooke (1981) and Warbrooke and Roach (1986) found contrasting
trends, depending on whether the splits were caused by tectonically induced differ-
ential subsidence or were autosedimentational. The examples discussed below are
based on the above mentioned author's work in the Newcastle Coalfield of New
South Wales, approximately along the transverse A, B in Fig. 6.56.
6.4.1 Seam Splitting Due to Differential Subsidence
The first example (Figs. 6.57, bottom and 6.58, left) results from an increase in
subsidence towards the depositional centre of the basin or any other region of
increased subsidence within a sub-basin. The axis of splitting therefore marks a
boundary between areas of different subsidence rates or different subsidence/
sedimentation ratios. In paralic settings, this kind of splitting may be genetically
connected with a cycle oftransgression-immersion- regression which was brought to
3-0 ..
2·0 ..
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1-0 ..
' - - - -1... 0 -5 m
o 1Icm
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3 -0 ..
2-5 m
2·0m
- ' -_ _ _.L 1-5m
0
, , -_ _ _ --'111m
Hori'Zonta l "cclt!
Fig. 6.57. Two examples from the Newcastle Coal Measures of New South Wales showing the
effects on seam thickness of autosedimentational (top) and tectonic (bottom) seam splitting.
Numbers beginning with N identify diamond drill holes. (After Warbrooke 1981)
m
30 m W E 12 SE NW
~.
20 Borehole Seam
West
10
Borehol
Seam
~
• Coal
D Fluvial Channels
0
0 km
__..
10 15 km
2j~---"' ~
Coal Thickness
1 .~
I
20 .~. •
\~~.~,
. ...
'"j ~----
10
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~~ ~.,~.
10~: ~
1-----. j
-------~______• '" . ~.
40 40
,: Q",rt,
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i ._._.__.__j)C=___.
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30
: ===-~:::::~..
i i i
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::1 ~ _____ ~n
............... Liptinite.
____ •
•
I
___ •
...
__
'" .
n_.:
I
. ...•
10 15 km 4 6 km
Terrestrial
Limnotelmatic
Fig. 6.58. Two coal seams from the Newcastle Coal Measures of New South Wales showing the
results of different kinds of seam splitting and their effects on compositional characteristics. Left
Splitting caused by tectonically initiated differentional subsidence; right autosedimentational
splitting. (After Warbrooke 1981; Warbrooke and Roach 1986)
.... ~
0 .... 0
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UJ 500 Erft Basin

Z ~',""'.'.'.''''.'.'.'.'.'.
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~!----~----~----~,
1000m
Fig.6.59. Longitudinal section through the Tertiary coal measures of the Niederrheinische Bucht
(Lower Rhine Embayment) from near Cologne to Holland. Marine sands are dotted. (After von der
Brelie et al. 1962)
a halt at the axis of splitting although lithotypes within the seam may still further be
affected. An example of this is the marine/estuarine seam split reported by Britten
(1987) from the Rathluba Seam in the Tomago Coal Measures of New South Wales.
Seam splitting of this kind is commonly the result of a combination of several
influencing factors, including eustatic sea-level changes, whereas differential
compaction of subsurface strata (Elliott 1969) and a variety of tectonic causes can
lead to similar results. If the basin contains a tectonic hingeline, split axes are usually
situated within its region of influence, as shown in Fig. 6.59 by a longitudinal section
through the paralic lignite deposits of the Lower Rhine Embayment (Niederrheini-
sche Bucht) extending from Germany into the Netherlands.
The Young Wallsend Seam illustrated both with daughter and with associated
coal seams in Fig. 6.57 (bottom) and 6.58 (left) is an examples of seam splitting in
response to tectonically induced differential subsidence on the flank of the
Lochinvar Anticline, which is positioned on an old basement high and forms the
western limit of the Newcastle Coalfield, as illustrated in Fig. 6.56. From the
anticlinal flank an up to 2-m-thick seam of high volatile bituminous coal, the West
Borehole Seam, splits basin ward successively into several daughter seams, and in
each case, the aggregate coal thikness in both split and conjoined portions ofthe coal
is at maximum near the split axes. Concomitantly the coal's disseminated ash, i.e. the
ash content of the cumulative floats at 1.6 density, decreases basin ward. Likewise,
there is a decrease in the silica/alumina ratio which is due to a drop in quartz and
expanding clays combined with an increase in the amount of kaolinite contained in
the coal (see Fig. 6.58).
Among the coal lithotypes the proportion of bright coal increases towards the
split at the expense of dull coal, which in Fig. 6.58 is indicated by the increase in
vitrinite and decrease in inertinite. The reason for this development is seen by
Warbrooke and Roach (1986) as reflecting the faster rate of subsidence towards the
split axis. Up-slope, in the conjoined portions of the seam, relatively dry peat-
forming conditions prevailed, leading to a higher rate of plant decay and ablation,
which resulted in a thinner seam with higher concentration of inertinite-rich dull
coal ("dry durain") and inherent ash than near the split axis. In the vicinity of the
split axis, the environment was wetter and more conducive to the preservation of
biomass, producing bright coal and, because little plant material was lost to
oxidation, the amount· of inherent ash remained more diluted. This notion is
supported by the distribution of microlithotypes which, when plotted in the coal
facies triangle modified from Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969), indicate a
transition from dry forest swamps (terrestrial zone) to wet forest swamps (telmatic
zone) in the direction of splitting (Fig. 6.58, bottom left).
Another measure of the improved preservation of biomass under the optimum
subsidence regime in the vicinity of the split axis, is the shoot/root ratio found in
fossil peats petrified by dolomite in coal balls referred to in Chap. 5.1.2. An example
is the Union Seam in the Lancashire Coalfield of the United Kingdom, which splits
into the Upper Foot and Lower Mountain Seams to the southwest, i.e. on the
down throw side of the northwest trending Deerplay Fault. According to figures
given by Phillips et al. (1985, Table 1), at Bankhall Colliery near Rowley, a distance
of 4.5 km up-slope from the line of splitting, the shoot/root ratios of two lycopod-
rich (93.0 and 93.3%) peat samples are 0.69 and 0.86, respectively, while their fusain
content is 10.3 and 10.2%. At the Hill Top Drift Mine, 1.5km northeast of the split
axis the shoot/root ratio has increased to 0.87 m (lycopod content = 95.3%), while
the fusain content has dropped to 7.7%. Right on the split axis, at Hapton Valley
Colliery (lycopod content = 91%), the shoot/root ratio has further increased to 1.16
and the fusain content is down to 7.5%. Also in this case the aggregate coal thickness
of the parent coal (Union Seam) and its two splits (Upper Foot and Lower Mountain
Seams) is at maximum near the split axis. This characteristic was already recognised
last century by Aitken (1866), and reconfirmed by Broadhurst et al. (1968), who
comment that peat-forming conditions were particularly favourable in a narrow belt
up-slope from the split axis. These authors also noted many instances of down-slope
overfolding in the roof of the downwarped Lower Mountain Seam, as well as tree
trunks, which apparently had rolled down the developing slope and are now
oriented parallel to the split axis.
6.4.2 Seam Splitting Due to Autosedimentational Causes
The most common forms of autosedimentational seam splitting seem to be related

to fluvial action either by stream avulsion, by rapidly covering a portion of the low
lying peat surface with a crevasse splay deposit, or by the slow encroachment on part
of the peatland by a migrating river channel and its associated overbank deposits
(Britten 1972; Burgis 1973; Marchioni 1976, 1982). The temporary spreading of
Fig. 6.60. Autosedimentational seam splitting caused by the encroachment of a river channel on
the Bayswater Seam in the Wittingham Coal Measures in New South Wales. B Bayswater Seam;
C channel sandstone; 0 overback deposits; R Ravensworth Seam. (Diessel 1984)
Fig. 6.61 A- B. Cartoon

illustrating the
development of an
autosedimentational seam
split. For explanation, see
text
lacustrine or lagoonal conditions across a swamp environment may likewise cause

seam splitting of this kind.
In the case of an approaching meandering river or a system of laterally
migrating braided channels, overbank sediments are often shed onto the adjacent
peat surface during successive floods. An example of a seam split caused by a thin
wedge of fine overbank deposits associated with a coarse fluvial sandstone is illus-
trated in Fig. 6.60, while a model of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 6.61. Similar
splits have been reported by Britten (1987) from the Big Ben and Donaldson Seams
of the Tomago Coal Measures in New South Wales. The weight ofthe encroaching
overbank wedge causes compaction of the underlying peat, thus attracting more
surface sediments; however, peat accumulation is slowed by the presence of less
compactable clastic sediments in the area adjacent to the river (Warbrooke and
Roach 1986). If the fluvial event affects the swamp as a whole, peat accretion will
terminate and the seam will be covered by a primary roof of laminated overbank
sediments, followed by an erosional contact overlain by drawn-out point bar or in-
channel sediments. Depending on the relationship between the rates of basin
subsidence and channel migration, the primary seam roof might be removed
altogether, whereby in high energy systems, the upper portion of the underlying coal
might also be affected. However, the presence of a seam split indicates that at some
stage, the direction of channel migration was either reversed or the channel became
defunct, after which peat accumulation recommenced (Fig. 6.61, bottom). In some
coalfields of eastern Australia renewal of peat formation above the seam split shifted
fluvial (or tidal) activity to parts ofthe mire not previously affected in this way thus
producing the en-echelon stacking of anastomosing channels between zig-zag seam
splits described by Britten (1972) and Britten et al. (1975).
Seam splits related to autosedimentational events, such as the encroachment of
a river channel on a back swamp, tend to display the features illustrated in Figs. 6.57
(top) and 6.58 (right). Because of the increasing interference of normal peat accretion
by flood deposits, less peat is formed as the river approaches, which results in a
decrease in aggregate coal thickness towards the split axis and beyond. Concomi-
tantly, the ash content of the coal increases in the form of stone bands (ash of coal
plus bands) and disseminated clay and silt (ash of cumulative floats at 1.6 density).
Whereas the increase in ash content in the parent seam away from the
subsidence-induced splitting is due mainly to a relative increase in inherent ash due
to oxidation and peat ablation, the fluvial system responsible for the au to sediment-
ational splitting is also the main source of adventitious minerals in the adjacent
coal (Warbrooke and Roach 1986). This is evidenced by the increase in the percentage
of CF (cumulative floats) 1.6 ash and of detrital quartz in the direction of the split
(Fig. 6.58). The increase in expanding clays, i.e. illite, montmorillonite and mixed-
layer clays, is probably a peculiarity of the stratigraphic setting within the Newcastle
Coal Measures. As discussed above, they contain a large proportion of inter- and
intraseam tuffs whose bentonitic and other devitrification products were often
redistributed by rivers.
7 Coal-Producing Sedimentary Environments
Genetically related litho somes constitute the integrated response of a sedimentary

environment to the depositional process. Sedimentary environments are therefore
integral parts of the hierarchy of sedimentation elements, since they consist of
combinations of lower ranking sedimentation elements by which they can be
identified. Palaeo-environmental analysis makes use of diagnostic combinations of
these in many different forms, ranging from the superposition of characteristic
deflections in geophysical logs to the regional changes observed in a fossil
assemblage. In some cases palaeo-environmental conclusions can be reached only
after the careful study of many different aspects of a vertical profile, while in others
the genetically based depositional assessment becomes part of the logging process,
whereby either outcrops, bore cores, geophysical signals or a combination of these
are used (Fisher and McGowen 1967; Weber et al. 1984; Hamilton and Beckett 1984;
Hamilton 1986).
Sedimentary environments are commonly referred to in reference to geomor-
phologic terms, such as fluvial, glacial, deltaic and the like. Such physiographical
attributes define parts of the earth's surface which are physically, chemically, and
biologically distinct from adjacent areas (Selley 1982). By extending the Sydney
Basin environments previously referred to in Table 5.3 to include the shared
subenvironments, Table 7.1 gives a list ofthe most common depositional settings for
coal seams plus some of their characteristics. In most large coal basins several such
environments would have coexisted and replaced each other laterally, as well as
vertically.
The strong influence of rivers on peatlands and coal measures is demonstrated
by the terminology used to describe coal-forming environments. Based on the
relationship between bedload (mainly sand and gravel) and suspended load (mainly
silt and clay), Schumm (1963) distinguishes between three types of channels:
1. Suspended load chamiels which carry less than 15% bedload.

2. Mixed load channels which transport 15 to 35% bedload.
3. Bedload channels which transport 35 to 70% bedload.
There exist strong relationships between the kind ofload conveyed in a river and its
configuration. Bedload channels have a high width/depth ratio, i.e. they are wide
with respect to their shallow depth, which tends to raise the Froude Number
[Eq. (6.4)] and leaves behind bedforms of the upper flow regime and the upper
portion of the lower flow regime. With decreasing bedload, the width/depth ratio
Table 7.1. The main coal-forming sedimentary environments
Environments Subenvironments Coal characteristics
Gravelly braid plain Bars, channels, overbank Mainly dull coals, medium to low TPI,
plains, swamps, raised bogs low GI, low sulphur
Sandy braid plain Bars, channels, overbank Mainly dull coals, medium to high
plains, swamps, raised bogs TPI, low to medium GI, low sulphur
Alluvial valley and Channels, point bars, flood Mainly bright coals, high TPI,
upper delta plain plains and basins, swamps medium to high GI, low sulphur.
fens, raised bogs
Lower delta plain Delta front, mouth bar, splays, Mainly bright coals, low to medium
channels, swamps, fens and TPI, high to very high GI, high sulphur.
marshes
Backbarrier strand Off-, near-, and backshore, Transgressive: Mainly bright coals,
plain tidal inlets, lagoons, fens, medium TPI, high GI, high sulphur;
swamps, and marshes regressive: Mainly dull coals, low TPI
and GI, low sulphur
Estuary Channels, tidal flats, fens and Mainly bright coal with high GI and
marshes medium TPI
decreases, i.e. the channels deepen and bedforms of the lower portion of the lower
flow regime become more common. Likewise, the sinuosity, i.e. the ratio between
thalweg and valley length (Leopold and Wolman 1957), or the sinuosity index, i.e.
the ratio channel length/length of meander belt axis (Brice 1964), increase
downstream as bedload channels grade into meandering mixed and suspended load
channels (Miall 1977). An example of the change in channel geometry down-
palaeo slope is the Lower Freeport Sandstone from the Upper Carboniferous
(Pennsylvanian) coal measures of eastern Ohio, U.S.A. Near the southern source
area it consists of coarse detritus which was deposited in low sinuosity channels and
relatively narrow alluvial plains, while to the north the channels are deeper and their
meander belts become wider (Flores 1979). This suggests increasing sinuosity, which
is also indicated by the increasing variability in cross-bedding directions.
While on subsiding ground braided channels accumulate sediment by vertical
aggradation and downslope progradation, the tendency to form deposits by lateral
accretion on point bars increases with increasing sinuosity. However, the discussion
of coal/roof discordances due to unequal loading in Chap. 6.3.2.1, as well as present-
day examples (e.g. Kosi River in India) have shown that low sinuosity braided
streams are also capable of lateral migration, and that this mechanism was
responsible for the formation of very wide braid plains in some coal measure
environments. In contrast, there are some very high sinuosity channels which show
little evidence of lateral migration. Such relatively stable systems of channels, which
bifurcate around semi-permanent and commonly vegetated islands, are referred to
as anastomosing (Schumm 1968). According to Smith and Smith (1980), anastomos-
ing channel systems grow predominantly by vertical aggradation, although lateral
accretion, i.e. incipient point bar formation, may occur on channel bends. This
feature was also observed by Rust and Legun (1983) in the Carboniferous coal
Coal-Producing Sedimentary Environments 351
measures (Clifton Formation) of New Brunswick, by Flores and Hanley (1984) in the
Tertiary Fort Union Formation of the Powder River Basin, U.S.A., and by
Cassyhap and Tewari (1984) in the Lower Permian coal measures of the Son-
Mahanadi Valley and Koel-Damodar Valley Basins in east-central India.
The islands between the channels are raised above fair-weather water level but
may be inundated during floods, when they receive new sediments, like the
remainder of the flood plain. The key to the stability of such a river system is the
reinforcing riprap effect of the vegetation growing on both flood plain islands and
channel embankments. Erosion tests carried oyt at a flow rate between 1.5 and
1.6 m/s by Smith (1976) in the Alexandra River, an anastomosing tributary of the
Saskatchewan River in Alberta, Canada, have yielded the following inverse
relationship between erosion rates and root penetration of channel embank-
ments:
y = 52.26 (0.79)X, (7.1)
whereby x = percent of vegetation roots in sediment and y = erosion rate in cm/h.

The embankment sediments tested consisted of approximately 70% silt and 30% fine
sand plus clay, while their root content ranged from 0 to 22% (by vol.).
Based on the channel sinuosity of Leopold and Wolman (1957) and the braiding
parameter (= number of braids per mean meander wavelength), Rust (1978a)
defines the following four channel types:
1. The single-channel. high-sinuosity system consists of a meandering channel with

braiding parameter < 1 and sinuosity> 1.5.
2. The multi-channel. low-sinuosity system is commonly referred to as braided with
braiding parameter > 1 and sinuosity < 1.5.
3. The single-channel. low-sinuosity system is represented by a straight channel with
braiding parameter < 1 and sinuosity < 1.5.
4. The multi-channel. high sinuosity system consists of anastomosing channels with
braiding parameters> 1 and sinuosity> 1.5.
Because of the comparatively high channel gradients often observed in braided

rivers, Rust et al. (1984) regard transitions between anastomosing and meandering
channels to be more common than anastomosing-braided transitions. However, in
both Recent and ancient fluvial successions anastomosed and braided river deposits
have been found to replace each other vertically (Rust and Legun 1983), as well as
laterally, the latter in the Coopers Creek system of Central Australia (Rust and
Nanson 1986; Nanson et al. 1986). According to Eq. (7.2), braiding can occur at very
low slope angles, provided bankfull discharge is high. Because floods are compara-
tively infrequent, it is likely that between periods of flooding low hydraulic energy
conditions prevail which, according to Smith (1983), are required for the stability
of an anastomosing flow system. The anastomosing fluvial system Rust et al. (1984)
recognised in the lower 500 m of the Upper Carboniferous Cumberland Group at
the Joggins Section of Nova Scotia in Canada, is lithologically chracterised by an
Fig. 7.1. Traces of trough cross-strati-

fication (arrowed) on ac-planes in thick
channel sandstone above Kimberley
Seam, Cumberland Group, at Four Mile
Point, Joggins Section, Nova Scotia
overbank and a channel association, in which the fluvial sandstones share a number
of characteristics with braided channels, while the overbank sediments are similar to
those of the alluvial valley and plain association. Similarly to the sandy channels of
braid plains, the up to 12.5-m-thick sandstones of the Joggins Section lack lateral
point bar accretion planes but instead have accumulated by vertical aggradation,
which commonly was halted suddenly by stream avulsion, resulting in sharp upper
bounding surfaces of the channel sandstones. They contain trough cross-bedding
(Figs. 7.1 and 7.2) and subhorizontal erosion surfaces and stepped base as their
principal primary structures. Unlike braid-plain environments the fluvial channels
at Joggins have very limited lateral extent and therefore a comparatively low
width/depth ratio, and they are bordered by thick, principally lutaceous, overbank
deposits. These contain numerous sheets of splay sandstone, mostly less than 1 m
thick. Their large number is related to the humidity and frequency of flooding at the
time, and to the multi-channel nature of anastomosing systems, which infers that no
part of the flood plain was ever far away from a chanelised sediment source (Rust
et al. 1984). Channel density is also influenced by climate and is considerably lower
in arid regions. For example, Rust (1981) found that in arid and semiarid Central
Australia only 3% of the alluvial plain of the anastomosing Coopers Creek system
are covered by channels.
Coal-Producing Sedimentary Environments 353
Fig. 7.2. View of ab-planes in transport

direction (arrowed) of trough cross-
stratification in thick channel sandstone
above Kimberley Seam, Cumberland
Group, at Four Mile Point, Joggins
Section, Nova Scotia
In spite of the controlling influence of fluvial systems on coal-forming

environments, the scope of the discussion will not be restricted ot actual river
deposits but will, in fact, concentrate more on the associated overbank deposits
which will be divided into flood basin and flood plain sediments. The former are
mainly subaqueous deposits which may contain coal formed under very wet to
allochthonous conditions including sapropelites (e.g. boghead and cannel coal), but
they may also consist of inorganic sediments formed in comparatively stable
lacustrine environments. Flood plain deposits are the products of floods which leave
behind fine-grained sediments in ephemeral lakes and water courses which dry up
when the flood waters retreat into the channels. Coals may likewise by formed in
poorly drained flood plain environments, usually with a stronger autochthonous
signature than shown by the flood basin coals and, when low in ash, ombrotrophic
elements may be included as well. In the case of well-drained flood plains, l~terally
persistent rheotrophic (topogenous) mires cannot be maintained and peat for-
mation, if it occurs at all, is restricted to isolated pockets of poor drainage. This
results in a patchy distribution of coal, as has been described by Cavaroc and Flores
(1984) from the Upper Cretaceous, river-dominated Bartlett Member in the Gallup
Coalfield of New Mexico, U.S.A.
7.1 The Braid Plain
The coarsest coal-bearing sediments are commonly found in close VICllllty to

mountainous terrains from where large quantities of clastic debris are washed down
from the uplands and are deposited in broadening alluvial valleys between
mountain ranges, which subsequently merge with proximal piedmont plains in a
foreland setting. The sediments consist of coarse, immature, molasse-type, clastic
wedge deposits, which accumulate rapidly as the waters draining the mountainous
hinterland leave the confines of the valleys and begin to fan out. Due to human
interference, free-running braided streams are becoming increasingly rare, although
some splendid examples can still be found on the Indogangetic Plain, the forelands
of the Rocky Mountains, the Canterbury Plains in New Zealand and eleswhere. A
relevant current example of gravelly braid plains in an intra- and/or intermontane
setting is the Altiplano in the South American Andes.
Each valley exit acts as a point source for an alluvial fan (Fig. 7.3) and,
depending on the number of rivers leaving the mountains, the various deposits may
merge with one another thus forming a linear belt of overlapping fans adjacent to the
mountain front. Alluvial fans which extend beyond the coastline or prograde into a
lake form fan deltas (Nemec and Steel 1988), while on land the proximal fans which
prograde by pulsations of debris flow and sheet floods ("diffuse gravel sheets" of
Hein and Walker 1977), give way to first gravelly, then sandy braid plains in which
channelised flow becomes increasingly dominant (Zaitlin and Rust 1983). Concur-
rently the azimuth of the drainage pattern changes from being initially transverse to
the mountain front to a longitudinal flow, i.e. parallel to the main axis of the foreland
basin. This pattern, which is common to modern mountain chains and their
Fig.7.3. Example of a small alluvial fan in Banff National Park, Canadian Rocky Mountains
The Braid Plain 355
"Ljubljana
Fig. 7.4. Drainage pattern of the European Alps as an example of the contrast between the
transverse tributaries and the longitudinal trunk streams (Danube and Po) collecting and removing
the outflowing water
forelands (an example is illustrated in Fig. 7.4), appears to have also been a frequent
arrangement in ancient fold belt/foredeep couplets, as, for example, shown by the
palaeodrainage patterns of the Late Permian and Early Triassic molasse sediments
of the New England Fold Belt in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales (Diessel and
Moelle 1970), and the Early Cretaceous molasse of the Rocky Mountains in western
North America (McLean 1977). Conditions of the upper flow regime are maintaint<d
only briefly when large stretches of the lowlands are inundated by flood waters. Coal
forming conditions may not seem to be ideal but considerable quantities of Recent
peat (e.g. in the Bavarian lowlands adjacent to the European Alps) and many fossil
coal deposits bear witness of the productivity of an environment in which both high
and low energy conditions coexist in close proximity to each other.
The rivers which build the braid plains of the piedmont environment are
physiographically youthful, oflow sinuosity, and characterised by high width/depth
ratios, often in excess of 300. With increasing departure from its source, the sinuosity
of a river increases when the channel enters a terrain of low slope gradients and
changes from a relatively straight to a meandering configuration. However, slope
gradient is not the only factor that determines whether a stream will be braided or
meandering. Based on wbrk by Leopold and Wolman (1957), Miall (1977) makes a
numerical distinction between braided and meandering rivers by relating the slope
angle (S) and bankfull discharge (Qb in m 3/s) according to:
S = 0.013 Qb -0.44. (7.2)
Given a certain discharge, an actual slope angle that is higher than the calculated
slope angle will result in the formation of braided channels, whereas smaller slope
angles will produce meandering streams. Some modifications of this relationship
may result from the influence of additional factors, such as the amount of sediment
transported, bed roughness, and channel size. Nevertheless, the higher the discharge
the lower is the minimum slope angle required for the formation of braided
streams.
The highest discharge occurs at flood peaks, during which the whole braid plain,
including channels and raised flood plains, is inundated. The flood waters' high
competency (the ability to shift large clasts) and high capacity (the ability to carry
large quantities) facilitate the transportation by traction of coarse sediments, mainly
sand and gravel. According to Leopold and Wolman (1957), braiding is initiated
when the flood waters start leaving behind the larger paritcle sizes and begin to
recede into their shallow and wide bedload channels. The rapid build-up of bars in
the channel causes it to bifurcate and flow around these bars with the result that
most braid plains are transsected by many individual channels, although according
to Rust (1972), one or a very limited number of these are dominant. Since they will
carry most of the coarse load, fossil braid plains can be illustrated by sand/shale
ratio maps. An example from the Newcastle Coalfield in New South Wales is shown
in Fig. 7.5. The bars are subaerially exposed at low water conditions (Fig. 7.6), they
therefore migrate only during peak floods resulting in an imbrication fabric in coarse
gravel (Fig. 7.7), and in planar cross-bedding in the more distal fine gravels and
gravelly sands (Rust 1979). Although a large number of bar types has been
established (Smith 1978), only three types are frequently referred to (Miall 1977)
which, in order of decreasing energy conditions are:
1. Mid-channel longitudinal bars consisting of crudely stratified, but often im-

bricated gravel sheets.
2. Mid-channel transverse or lingoid bars which are composed of cross-bedded
sand and gravel formed by avalanching of tracted particles on down-current slip
faces.
3. Point or side bars protruding from the margin into the channel following
coalescence of bedforms.
An additional bar type, called diagonal bar, has been defined by Smith (1974). Its
internal organisation may be a combination of the above types 1 and 2, but its
main characteristic is the diagonal orientation with respect to the channel trend. In
any of the above-mentioned bar types 1 to 3, varying rates of water discharge
during floods and their duration are reflected in particle size variations between
superimposed bar deposits and their thickness, an example of which is illustrated in
Fig. 7.8.
The Braid Plain 357
r-------.-~~~~~~-
~,
o 0.5
Fig.7.S. Sand/shale ratio map of the Tighes Hill Formation, Newcastle Coal Measures, New
South Wales. (After Warbrooke 1981)
Between floods, which are relatively short-lived events, water flow and sediment
transportation are restricted to the braided channels, although considerable
volumes of water may also be conveyed through gravels and sands below bars.
Because fair-weather discharge rates are small, many sands below bars. Because fair
weather discharge rates are small, many channels have a tendency to form meanders
and migrate laterlly across the braid plain. The bed forms generated by this
channelised flow include lingoid megaripples resulting in trough cross-bedding.
Fig. 7.6. Channels and bars in the Rakaia River, southwest of Christchurch, New Zealand
Fig.7.7. Pebble imbrication in gravel bar on a raised terrace of the Rakaia River, southwest of
Christchurch, New Zealand
These often reflect the greater variability in channelised flow directions as opposed
to the slope azimuths obtained from the imbrication of pebbles and other
components of channel bars, which only move at flood peaks. According to Rust and
Jones (1986), another source of variance between current directions obtained from
vertically stacked channel deposits is due to channel avulsion following the sudden
abandonment of an earlier channel complex and the re-establishment of a new
channel system above an erosional basal contact.
The Braid Plain 359
Fig. 7.8. Particle size variation between

stacked longitudinal gravel bars in Ter-
alba Conglomerate, Newcastle Coal
On the basis of such physical properties as particle size, lithosome geometry,

sedimentary structures and other features listed in Table 7.2, Miall (1977)
distinguishes four types of braided stream deposits (later expanded to six in Miall
1978), which he named after modern rivers typifying the depositional environments.
Two of these, the Donjek type with 10 to 90% gravel, named after the Donjek River
in the Yukon Territory and referred to as GIll lithotype by Rust (1978b), and the
South Saskatchewan type ( < 10% gravel), after the so named river in Saskatchewan
(Su lithotype of Rust 1978b), appear to be most commonly represented in the coal-
bearing braid plain deposits of eastern Australia. A third variety, called Scott type
(> 90% gravel) after the Scott Glacier outwash river in Alaska, and called G u
lithotype by Rust (1978a), is represented by two massive conglomerates (Teralba and
Bolton Point) in the northern (proximal) portion of the Newcastle Coal Measures,
although distally they grade successively into Dongjek and South Saskatchewan
types.
Table 7.2. The lithological properties of braided streams. (After Miall 1977 and Rust 1978a)
Facies Lithofacies Features Sedimentary

identifier interpretation
Gm Massive, or crudely Imbrication in gravel, Longitudinal bars, lag

bedded; some sand, silt or cross-bedding and ripples deposits
clay lenses in sand
Gp Bedded gravel Planar cross-bedding, Mainly linguoid bars
graded bedding
Gt Bedded gravel Broad, shallow trough Channel fill
cross-bedding
St Medium to very coarse, Solitary or grouped Minor channel and scour
pebbly sand trough cross-bedding fill
Sp Medium to very coarse, Solitary or grouped Linguoid bars and sand
pebbly sand planar cross-bedding waves
Sr Very fine to coarse sand Micro-cross-lamination Small-scale ripples
and all kinds of ripple
marks
Sh Very fine to coarse sand Horizontal bedding, Deposits of sheet
parting lineation (mostly) or tranquil flow
Ss Fine to very coarse, Sand overlying basal Sand-filled broad, shallow
pebbly sand erosional surfaces scours
Fl Very fine sand to silt and Parallel and micro-cross- Deposits of waning floods
clay, may include coal lamination, bioturbation, and in overbank settings
ripples
Fm Mud, silt and clay, may Massive appearance, Deposits formed in pools
include coal Rootlets, desiccation of standing water
cracks
7.1.1 The Gravelly Braid Plain
Depending on climate and elevation of the mountainous sediment source, proximal

braid plains are usually composed of gravel sheets, which distally grade into sandy
braid plains. As will be discussed more fully in Chapter 9, ancient coal-bearing
examples of this composition are found either in the lower portion of rift and pull-
apart basin, or in the upper portion of molasse foredeeps (foreland basins). In both
cases the formation of the gravel sheets is possible only because of the proximity of
the depositional sites to the elevated sediment sources, which puts them into
tectonically unstable positions, often in close vicinity to major faults. The coarsest
portions of coal measures, particularly when located near the border thrusts of
foreland basins, are therefore subject to destruction by subsequent tectonic
movements affecting proximal basin settings. It seems that this is a major reason for
the relative scarcity of gravelly braid-plain deposits among coal measures. Examples
of coal formation in association with gravelly braid plains have been reported from
the Anthracite Coal Basins in eastern Pennsylvania (Weller 1930; Pedlow 1979), the
base of the upper Carboniferous Morien Group in the Canadian Sydney Basin of
Nova Scotia (Rust and Koster 1981; Rust et al. 1987), and the Cantabrian Zone of
The Braid Plain 361
northwestern Spain (Colmenero et al. 1988). According to Fernandez et al. (1988),

the Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian D) Spanish braid-plain coals are part of a
5000-m-thick sequence of proximal coarse clastic and distal marine sediments which
have been attributed to the development of several large fan deltas in the Central
Coal Basin southeast of Oviedo. Coal seams are thought to have been formed at the
outer fringe of fan lobes and on the surface of abandoned lobes. In the first case the
seams are thin, discontinuous and are very high in ash, due to frequent flooding,
but the second group consists of generally thicker coal seams which also are low
in sulphur, although their ash content may still be high.
For the purpose of relating the composition of coals to their position within the
braid-plain complex, an example from eastern Australia will be used, where thick
and coarse conglomerates interbedded with coal seams dominate the upper portion
of the Newcastle Coal Measures in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales
(Ziolkowski 1978). A stratigraphic section of the Newcastle and (underlying)
Tomago Coal Measures is illustrated in Fig. 7.9A to D. In the conglomerates, large
and occasionally sandy trough cross-beds (Gt facies) alternate with remnants of
gravel bars and massive conglomerate sheets (Gm facies) which form compound
lithosomes up to 50m thick. They contain isolated thin lenses of either flat
bedded or massive sandstone (Sh facies, as in Fig. 7.10) or pebbly sandstone
with internal crossbedding (Fig. 7.11), but lutaceous overbank deposits (FI and
Fm facies) are rare. Williams and Rust (1969) suggest an origin on bar tops or
in abandoned channels for mudstone units in similar braided stream deposits
in Canada. Allochthonous coal lenses, probably incorporated as eroded peat,
are present in the Teralba Conglomerate (835-868 m in Fig. 7.9D) testifying to
the rapid rate of transportation and deposition. Occasional layers of bright coal
(vitrain) have been derived from the wood and bark tissues of uprooted and
transported trees (Fig. 7.12). Contacts between litho somes are abrupt and
commonly erosive with channels cutting into each other, as illustrated in
Fig. 7.13.
As Fig. 7.14 shows, the trough cross-beds occurring in conglomerates (Gt facies)
are quite large, occasionally exceeding twenty metres in width and five metres in
height with foreset angles up to 30°. Coalified tree trunks are often oriented normal
to the trough axes, indicating rolling down the slip faces of the gravel masses choking
the channels. The latter are confined to relatively narrow zones within the 5- to
20-km-wide braid plains and, in proximal setting along the northeastern margin of
the coalfield, they are separated by the quantitatively more important composite
gravel sheets of the Gm and Gp facies.
In reference to Miall's (1977, 1978) braided stream models, some of the
conglomerates of the Newcastle Coal Measures (e.g. Charlestown Conglomerate
between 652 and 690m in Fig. 7.9C) resemble the Scott type whereas others, e.g.
Teralba Conglomerate between 835 and 868 m in Fig. 7.9D and the Bolton Point
Conglomerate located outside the section line of Fig. 7.9D, are transitional to the
Donjek type.
The middle portion of the Newcastle Coal Measures, contains several examples
of interbedded conglomerates and sandstones of which the Croudace Bay For-
mation (771-807 m in Fig.7.9D) is a good example. Its conglomerates and
Ma,S h Angul ar
Shall' -~~
C'e'l'asU 240 .. .. u"eonlo,m'"
18.
·'·.· . W
Chann.' ":::.- 0'\
M inor MOulh ..... .. IV
,.dal Bar ..... ..
......§.!!. 41m (str.tlgraPhlc ) covlrttt
Fla t Fluvial ChaMel
fl as.., F IOO I by all,llChanan Tunnel
'JhnO t Mout h
., ~ Bar
-- -v Bay FloOI
'0 FI C,. ,., ,fIISUt
T,dal 70 I" Or Spll,ly s
"- Mi nor MOUlh Flood Plam
Channel v Tid a l Sh Bu
110 "I"
S' Mud F lat v~;p y Fl oOf
.E"SPI ~'1
F T ldl,ll v
Mu d Flat "
w I th Spill)&,
~~ T Floo d BaSI"
" Marsh with :.~;=- "

20 OONAI.. OSON SEAM
Splay ( lower $P'II)
Mars"
60
"
F loo(3 BUln
Pyroclastics
.,
FlOOd Pl a in
(j
Sh o
II)
w a
a: 10 -1:J
::J
II)
« 50
8P-
W", C
:::i Wz
-J ~Q s·
(JQ
o« U1-< _ _
u!!2:::i ., en
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" <.. ~.
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:::i Sh
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o De ll a
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W v nil 1 trl
(!)Z
zO ::s
....
-a: II) s' "I" " :5.
m .... Ma r Sh Bay f ro or 8
--'--, e" Pro·Oelta
A ~o; 'Y'..E.L §
"
Fig. 7.9 A-D. Example of a measured stratigraphic section of the Upper Permian Tomago and Newcastle Coal Measures in the a
Newcastle Coalfield, New South Wales (see Fig. 5.56) '"
Up~er U lnor If Offshor8
Sh}hO,.,. e. ",,,,h ao< - - If .. IIh If 0.. ,00'. V C,.,,,,. SP' .y
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and small
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FI MarSh V V I 1 Flood Plain
= r~ +
wOOOS OULL Y V (/) -
CLAYSTONE F' ~
e$h,r C haMel
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1-~ with 370 F' Lower V- <
~
Fm "p, 3," _ Pebb' . Sho,OIaco w
'90~ e,."". Sp,"y = L.O S' V =>
... ..
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Fig.7.98 O ,,~ w
v 1.J V OJ
.. . . , . , , . .
.' . ' : : : ; : : : . CHARLE STOWN
V V v GLEBE w
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vv v Volcanic 8r"ldi PI:lln v v v
VVV
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v v v
r
vol canic A Sh
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TUNNEL F' vvvv . ... . ... , '
•••
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:;) SEAM
v vv
0
a: H ILLSBOROUOH
Flood Pl ain Flood Plain vvv
Cl TUFF
, F l.!! v v V ......... F1
ttl
v v Sr .FI ... , . .....
---
:;)
1.J Y Flood Plain Flood a.sin
<IJ v v v So v V
~+ =
0 v V v .. ........
Z '" V v 590 610 110 "T" FI ,r 150
0 '" v v
t-
ttl
::;; v v V
V
G'
*630
1 '.........
· . .. . . . . .
. = 96
'::: :::.
F lOOd Basin
Fm
Crevasse Splay
lJ ". ", "
= ~FJ!'
~.:.:.: .:
..••
' : : :: .
Sh
Po l nl ear
4; ---
...J v v v
v
V ,
V ,
NOBBYS TUFF · .. .. .
J
. . ..
.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.1
WAVE Hill SEA M
flood Pl ain
v vV ';;/}l
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FI F lo o d P la in
. .·,......
·.... ....
v v
~R
vv v
"I Brai. P'.'.
. v v G o ~:''''':-:'' PoiOi B. ,
V
v
. V v 550
p','. ",' :'-'-'-' . :.IF IOOd Plain
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(j
S'O ~"" ..
"\ 660 ::.'.'::.' .. . .cc. 0····
• .·.·· ··.' A /j 7 40 0
Braid Pl ain a
' : Om ~
FIOOe! Pl a in ttl T r anSilion
' m (\..Ow EFt) · , ..... . .. F I Flood Plain
F, 0"'
'0-
.. . ....... ~
... ... , . .. Gm
il D.
Flood Basin FI Flood Plain ::&
s,~ Flood Plain Otl
Fro .. , ...... .
.. " ....... Volcanic ~
UP PER
S l ac ked
.. ..... .. . GS.I,P
~ Ash F3 11S '0-"
POint Bil r s: Floodi Plail'l FEFtN VALLEY S·
SEA M MONTROSE SEA- M ::&
'"
S' _ _ _ _ 69 0 Fl ood BaS in
530 ~. 'j $10 Ei 10 650 ----130 FI ~m .and ~glllY$
;
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'<
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Sh~ Vo lca ni c A$h tTl
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:;)
~ ;:j'
0 Braid Plam Surges 0
0..
. .. "." ...
...... , . . . ::&
~ Cl MERE WETHER . . . . .. . ., .
.-:. ·. Is~ .ri
3
f lood Pla in ~ .- CO NGI.OM. ~ Flood Pla in a'"
'"
Fig.7.9C
So
8r •. d '1.,1'1 CONGLOMERA TE
Bra id '1' 11'1
Sp .a
PEBBLY SANDSTONE ~
fr ~11 1t't ~I " ""' J S I COARSE SANDSTONE I;I.:l
eoo e<o :::::I.. I Sill ernUl' SQ'" Go I ;;l
MED IUM SANDSTONE
Flood PI.," i5.:
FINE SANDSTONE
'"'0
SILT-LAMINATED SANDSTONE
" §':
fit F lood Plilln SAND-LAMINATED SILTSTONE t:!
VolcaniC: "':11'1 fa lls SIL TSTONE
'TOUKLEY SEAM
SI L TlSAND LAMINA TEO SHALE
Va lClInlC As n
Fi lls
~ SHALE/MUDSTONE/CLAYSTONE
COALISHAL Y COAL/COALY SHALE
"" " ' .G'" BUFF POIN'T SEAPIII e, •. O Plain
. . _ .. . _ _ S s
~
790 - - - _ . C' , I 83 0 v PYROCLASTIC DEPOSIT
VOlcilft'C A Sh FillS;' . : : : : : . - : .
COMPLETELY PRESERVED PLANTS
FI F lood Pla in
or' ),'.".': .-"! ."'_ ' 5 1
+
8'.Ild Pla,n ""wAB" TUFF ¥ INCOMPLETELY PRESERVED PLANTS
s. ~
f' POORLY PRESERVED PLANTS
~J1
Vole, ",c Astl ..I... UPR IGHT TREE S TUMPS
~ Flood Ptill in
St. $; Fall!J and
ROO T HORIZON
F~ $uro u 1"'... . . ,. ': i-: JGs .m l'
s. GI .•
AZIMUTHS OF DIRE CTION
STRUCTURES (e . g . X - BEDDING)
,eo
"T"
••• 900
....
. .......
. ......
1Jlj 51 ~
~
\
ORIENTATION OF TREE TRUNKS
. , . . • .. . • ·Q1 . ! AND RIPPLE CRESTS
% WORM BURROWS
Volc.anll: AS. III $I
v
v v EROSION SURFACE
, v
Fillis Br aid Pia l"
"'F CHANNELED F LOOD PLAIN
o Gs.m [=::J
z ..p:.,.... .. ~ ' IG U D E POS ITS DEPOSITS
« 0.
...J :> REGRESS IVE SUBAQUEOUS
!2 0 DEPOS ITS DEPOSITS
0:: ~
F .... S S IFERN S E AM C>
770 .50--+· ...',., .....'.\ J Qs .m G- GRAVEL . S-SAND . F-F INES
So
• /~Z
... laminat ed
m massiv e
'll'elCoInlC A s" .ll.l~\. ~
' " -/ •• • • • • • • • ' J trouoh cross -b edded
F olliS
'$ ; "', p planar cross - bedded

SD . S ~ ~ hor izonta l bedded
z ~." scour-bedded
......
So GI- , m 50 r ipple -be dded
v.
'"
Fig.7.9D
Fig. 7.10. Thin sandstone lenses occurring within the Teralba Conglomerate at Catherine Hill Bay,
New South Wales
Fig.7.11. Part of a cross-bedded sand

lens in the Bolton Point Conglomerate
at Catherine Hill Bay, New South Wales
The Braid Plain 367
Fig. 7.12. Illustration of lenses of bright

coal (B), representing stranded drift
wood, on the sandy flank of a channel in
the Teralba Conglomerate at Catherine
Hill Bay, New South Wales
Fig. 7.13. Erosive contact between two channels in the Bolton Point Conglomerate at Catherine
Hill Bay, New South Wales
Fig.7.14. Photograph showing parts of large cross-beds (arrows) in the Bolton Point Conglom-
erate, Newcastle Coal Measures. See hammer (encircled) for scale
sandstones form the top of an upward-coarsening sequence which begins with coal
(Upper Pilot Seam from 763 to 765 m in Fig. 7.9D), followed by several metres of
redistributed volcanic ash. With increasing sand content, the latter grade first
into coarse, then medium braid-plain sandstones and conglomerates of Miall's
(1977) Donjek type (Ziolkowski 1978). There are also similarities to the "pebbly
sandstone assemblage" described by Rust et al. (1983) and Gibling and Rust (1984)
from the South Bar Formation in the Pennsylvanian Morien Group of the Sydney
Basin, Nova Scotia. The pebbly sandstone assemblage has been interpreted by Rust
et al. (1987) as a mid-braid-plain setting, in which sand was conveyed in channels by
sinuous-crested dunes migrating across a pebbly lag. While in the Canadian
example this sequence contains only allochthonous coal as intraclasts, there are
some thick autochthonous coal seams associated with this facies in the Newcastle
Coal Measures. Also the rudite content is slightly higher and more concentrated in
distinct bands representing bar deposits. As illustrated in Fig. 7.15, trough cross-
bedded pebbly sandstones (St facies) and solitary pebble conglomerate channel bars
(Gm facies) are the main lithosomes. The trough cross-beds may be up to 6 m wide
and 2 m in height. They occur either as solitary sets (theta type of Allen 1963), or as
cosets, similar to Allen's pi type. Both have upward concave foresets. In addition to
the large sets, small to medium scale cross-beds are common in small cut-and-fill
channels (Ss facies).
In cross-bedded conglomerates the foresets are commonly steep and have
discordant basal contacts, whereas in the sandstones the foreset angles are more
variable but are usually shallow and may be tangentially aligned with the lower
bounding surface. Heterogeneous cross-beds are quite common and show a
steepening of the foreset angles with increasing grain size. Coalified tree trunks are
frequent and often oriented normal to the trough axes.
369
The Braid Plain
Fig. 7.15. Trough cross-bedded pebbly

sandstone (St) alternating with gravel
bars (Gm) in the Croudace Bay Form-
ation of the Newcastle Coal Measures,
New South Wales
Fig. 7.16. View of part of the outcrops of the Merewether Conglomerate, Newcastle Coal
Measures, at Shepherds Hill, Newcastle, N.S.W.
The internal organisation of many conglomerate lithosomes is somewhat

haphazard. An example is the Merewether Conglomerate of the Newcastle Coal
Measures, which is listed in Fig. 7.9C between 558.8 and 569.3 m. The main body of
the Merewether Conglomerate displays considerable particle size variation ranging
from pebbly gravel to silt. As illustrated in Fig. 7.16, the various particle sizes are
concentrated in lenticular beds which are rarely continuous but alternate with each
other in an abrupt manner. Erosional contacts between beds are common, resulting
in the destruction of graded bedding but some bedforms, such as megaripples, are
still visible. Similarly to the other conglomerates in the Newcastle Coal Measures, it
seems that the sandy fraction has been formed in channels while the gravel fraction
consists largely of remnants of channel bars.
Some ofthe gravel-dominated lithosomes are matrix-supported, whereas others
are clast-supported. The latter are between 10 and 20 cm in thickness and may
exhibit weak pebble imbrication. This is lacking in the matrix-supported beds which
are also considerably thicker (up to 2-3 m). These also contain the largest pebbles
(up to 60 mm in diameter) in spite of the sandy matrix, whereas the clast-supported
thinner beds commonly consist of a more evenly grained finer pebble fraction. The
distribution of mean maximum particle size (mean of longest diameters of the ten
largest clasts) measured at 5-m intervals is illustrated in Fig. 7.17, which shows some
upward fining for the whole conglomerate, although the upper contact with the
lood plain sediments underneath the Fern Valley Seam is usually abrupt.
Lateral contacts between the conglomerate bodies and adjacent flood plain
sediments vary. Down-palaeoslope there is a general increase in the proportion of
sandy channel facies at the expense of gravel bars. Proximal sandstone channels
retain a high proportion of rudaceous bedload, which distally diminishes, as does
the particle size of the bars. From approximately 10 to 20 km basin ward (SW) of
their most proximal outcrops in the northeastern portion ofthe Newcastle Coalfield
the continuous conglomerate and sandstone sheets begin to break up into separate
25
22.5 •
17.5
OJ
15
]
~
12.5
10
•
~ 7.5
5
•
Mean max. particle diameter (mm)
Fig. 7.17. Distribution of mean maximum particle size measured at 5-m intervals through
the Merewether Conglomerate at Shepherds HilI, Newcastle. Based on measurements by
A. Kohlrusch, The University of Newcastle, N.S.W.
The Braid Plain 371
NORTH OF REDHEAD - S . 3 K m - LITTLE REDHEAD - - 4 K m - SHEPHERDS HILL-MEREWETHER (Section trends N20E)
COi l ...... Tree Slump,

FERN VALI.. EV SEAM
Flood Pl,ln
~ Fallen ~OO' (Lower Sp li t)
flood Basin.
Mlnof Cr.v •••• clalt,.
Sand- llIIe d Ch,nnel
/ Dlr8clion or Foreaet Dip
Grayel-Ilneel CP\.nnel
Pytocl.sllcs
./
./
./
s.
.~
~.,
- "s.
VICTORIA TUNNEL SEAM
Fig. 7.18. Three sections ofthe Kotara Formation with the Merewether Conglomerate, Newcastle
Coal Measures, measured between Newcastle (Shepherds Hill) and Redhead along the New South
Wales coast. For geographical orientation refer to Fig. 6.56
channel and overbank facies. Laterally, conglomerate sheets tend to interdigitise

with their adjacent overbank facies. An example from the southern margin of the
above-mentioned Merewether Conglomerate is illustrated in Fig. 7.18 by three
measured sections over a distance of 9.3 km from Newcastle to Redhead.
7.1.2 The Sandy Braid Plain
The lithofacies associated with this environment is transitional with the gravelly
braid plain and is similar to Miall's (1978) South Saskatchewan type of braided
stream development, as well as to the "sandstone assemblage"described from Nova
Scotia by Rust et al. (1983,1987) and Gibling and Rust (1984), except, once again, for
the better developed coal content. Many examples ofthis type are represented in the
Newcastle Coal Measures, for instance, by the Warners Bay Formation (735-749 m
in Fig. 7.9C). It consists of a basal trough cross-bedded sandstone (St facies)
commencing with a very coarse intraformational bedload and a sandstone layer (Sh
Fig.7.19. Remnant of silt-laminated

shale (above person on ladder) in the roof
of the Great Northern Seam below the
Teralba Conglomerate, Newcastle Coal
Measures, near West Wallsend, N.S.W.
Fig.7.20. Intraformational shale clasts in the roof sandstone of the Wallarah Seam, Newcastle
Coal Measures, N.S.W.
The Braid Plain 373
facies}. As indicated by the narrow ranges of foreset azimuths at 737 and 749 m in
Fig. 7.9C, channels are mostly of low sinuosity but some point bar development
suggests the beginning of meandering.
In all facies types conglomeratic channel bar deposits and sandstone lenses are
bounded by erosion surfaces. Patches of overbank shale (FI facies) above coal seams
(Fig. 7.19), show concordant seam/roof relationships and suggest substantial re-
moval of an originally more widespread primary roof shale, whereas in discordant
relationships a lack of extensive floodplain deposition before the encroachment of
braid-plain conditions is indicated. Where a primary lutaceous roof sediment was
eroded, its remnants are sometimes seen to occur as intraformational bedload clasts
(intraclasts) in the overlying braid-plain deposits (Fig. 7.20).
~ Gravelly Braidplain o 5 10
o
~ :
Sandy Braidplain Km
~ Peatiand
NEWCASTLE
~ Lake
_ CATHERINE HILL BAY
Fig. 7.21. Sketch map illustrating the regional distribution of palaeo-environments in the
Newcastle Coalfield, N.S.W., at the time the Bolton Point Conglomerate was formed. The actual
time slice represented can be located in Fig. 7.23 as a horizontal surface at -150 m. The section line
indicates sample localities for coal facies indices given in Fig. 7.25. (After Bocking et al. 1988)
Sandy braid plains are the result of the distal reduction of phenoclast size, so
that down-palaeo slope the proportion of conglomerate is reduced to thin lag
deposits overlying basal erosional contacts. An excellent example is the above-
mentioned Bolton Point Conglomerate (below the Awaba Tuff at 834 m but not
encountered in the measured section of Fig. 7.9). Bocking et al. (1988) have traced its
channel system in cored diamond drill holes for more than 40 km downstream, in
which direction the sediments grade from pebble to sand size, and the width of the
depositional area changes from several kilometres in the coarse northern portion to
an at least 20 km wide sandy braid plain with local meander belts. As shown in
Fig. 7.21, lacustrine (flood basin) shales and laminites occur in the southernmost
(i.e. distal) portion of the mapped area.
7.1.3 The Coals of the Braid Plain
The high energy release and depositional instability of the braid-plain environment
does not seem to be conducive to widespread peat formation, but the evidence for a
temporal coexistence of peat formation and coarse clastic deposition is strong. A
Holocene example are the mires of the subalpine lowlands of Bavaria. Before most
ofthem were transformed into agricultural land, they occupied areas of sedimentary
bypassing between the low-sinuosity streams draining the Bavarian Alps towards
the Danube River. In many cases peat and coarse clastics accumulated concurrently
and in close lateral proximity, whereby moisture was supplied to the mires from
both ombrotrophic and rheotrophic sources, resulting from heavy precipitation in
the Alpine foreland and by ponding of subterranean watercourses precolating
through Pleistocene gravel sheets. It appears that before the onset of human
interference peat formation used to be terminated mainly by lateral channel
migration over adjacent mires. The effectiveness oflateral migration is, for example,
demonstrated by the westward displacement of the Kosi River of 100 km in
230 years across the Indogangetic Plain (Gole and Chitale 1966). While the speed of
this lateral migration may be an extreme case, Wolman and Leopold (1957) found
figures of several tens of metres per year to be quite common.
Given suitable conditions, the passing of a braid plain across a mire would be
followed by the recolonisation of the abandoned channel system by peat-forming
plants resulting in a close superposition of deposits with rather contrasting energy
requirements. Another example of this is the splitting of the Fern Valley Seam by the
Redhead Conglomerate in the Newcastle Coal Measures discussed in Chapter
6.3.2.1. A different example of the change from high energy braided stream
conditions. to low energy mire development can be found along the coast of the
Canterbury Plains on New Zealand's South Island, where it is related to the post-
Pleistocene eustatic sea-level rise. Similar to the Bavarian lowlands, the Canterbury
Plains are transsected by a network of high energy channels. However, in contrast to
Bavaria, where the transverse channels draining the mountain chain feed into a
longitudinal trunk stream, the Danube River, the channels draining the New
The Braid Plain 375
Fig. 7.22. The colonisation of gravel sheets and bars by marsh vegetation near the mouth of the
Rakaia River, South Island, New Zealand
Zealand Alps, feed directly into the sea. In response to the Late Holocene sea-level
rise, the lower reaches of some of the New Zealand rivers have come under tidal
influence. The gravel bars close to the shore have been converted into pebbly
beaches, while inshore they are now vegetated and carry some peat (Fig. 7.22).
By using the Awaba Tuff (from 818.5 to 834 m in Fig. 7.9D), a thick and well-
correlated layer of volcanic ash in the Newcastle Coal Measures, as a datum, the
interbedding between thick coal seams and conglomerates is illustrated in Fig. 7.23.
It shows en echelon arrangement of conglomerate bodies and coal seams not unlike
the geometric distribution of sand bodies in the Allegheny rocks of West Virginia
described by Ferm and Cavaroc (1979). In the area covered by the cross-section, the
Bolton Point Conglomerate is up to 8 km wide and over 50 m thick (Bocking et al.
1988). It is completely enclosed by the Fassifern Seam (from 808.7 to 813.2 m in
Fig. 7.9D) within which it occurs as a seam split (not shown in Fig. 7.9D) and with
which it is also laterally interbedded. This suggests that the Bolton Point
Conglomerate was formed as a succession of stacked braid plains which coexisted
with the Fassifern peat. Although individual channels had some degree of freedom
to move within the braid plain, the latter must have remained confined to more or
less the same position by the surrounding peat for several tens ofthousands of years.
Apart from a narrow marginal zone of interbedded coal and clastics, the Fassifern
Seam contains only few dirt bands and has a moderate ash content. In accordance
with Eq. (7.1), the vegetation and peat surrounding the Bolton Point braid plain
must have therefore constituted an effective barrier against excessive contamination
with mud and silt carried by flood waters.
According to McCabe (1984, 1987), the above scenario is likely to occur in
places where rates of peat accumulation exceed rates of inorganic overbank
sedimentation. As at the time of peat formation, the Gondwana climate of eastern
w E
50 EEll EE235EEll0 HW5 HWl
DMD2 DMC EE31 EE108 EE65DME2
EE27
EE27 EE74 EE 103 EE9 EW9 HW4EE310 EE87EE10~
o - --------- __
--- \ /
\ /
\
-50
,,
.. .
\
-100
o WALLARAH SEAM
-150 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;;;~GREAT -
_
AWABA TUFF
NORTHERN
CHAIN VALLEY SM.S.
o • •
-200
-250
Me'res o km
Fig. 7.23. The relationship between the conglomerates and coal seams in the Moon Island
Beach Subgroup of the Newcastle Coal Measures, New South Wales. The Awaba Tuff has been
used as a datum. The section extends west of Swansea across the map illustrated in Fig. 7.21.
(After Bocking et at. 1988)
Australia was cool to cold, the analogy to the Donjek River, referred to above in
reference to the conglomerates coexisting, for example, with the Fassifern peat, may
be taken a step further. The Donjek is a tributary of the Yukon River in
northwestern Canada, where likewise cool summers and cold winters occur. In the
braid plain of the Donjek River, Williams and Rust (1969) recognised the following
four topographic levels ranging from channel bottoms to overbank islands:
1. The lowest level accommodates the channels whose bars are devoid of vegetation
and are exposed at low water conditions.
2. The second level is sparsely vegetated and inundated during floods but is
otherwise dry, except for a small number of deep channels.
3. The third level is affected only by major floods, it carries a low but continuous
vegetation cover.
4. The fourth level is densely vegetated and rarely affected by floods.
The considerable intercalation of such coals as the Fassifern, Great Northern and
Wallarah Seams and conglomerates illustrated in Fig. 7.23, indicates a collateral
relationship of peat formation and braid-plain activity. In view of the considerable
resistance of peat and plant roots to erosion, the vegetated third and fourth
topographic levels of Williams and Rust's (1969) Donjek model, modified to extend
into lowlands situated on abandoned braid plains, could be considered as a possible
peat-forming environment. Since the surface of active peat accumulation can be
The Braid Plain 377
raised above ground level only if the groundwater table can be raised as well, an
additional source of water, independent of the normal groundwater table, is
required. In view of the cool, moist climate at the time and the position of the
Newcastle Coalfield in the piedmont setting not more than 50 km away from the
then rapidly rising New England Fold Belt, summer rain and winter snow with low
evaporation seem to be the logical source of the required additional water,
supplemented by ground discharge and ponding of subterranean water which
flowed down from the northern highlands through the permeable gravel sheets.
The coals of the braid-plain environment are inertinite-rich and characterised
by dull lithotypes. As referred to in Chap. 5, such coals have been associated with
ombrotrophic peat forming conditions. For example, Esterle and Ferm (1986), relate
the lateral zonation of modern raised bogs, ranging from large trees near the bog
margin to stunted vegetation in the centre (Anderson 1964, 1976, 1983; Grosse-
Brauckmann 1969; Moore and Bellamy 1974; Dreissen et al. 1979; Gottlich 1980;
Clymo 1983, 1987), to the vertical succession of coal lithotypes in the Upper Hance
Seam of southeastern Kentucky. At its full thickness of approximately 1.5 m, ash,
sulphur and vitrinite are lowest, while the inertinite content is relatively high. From
this area, which covers only few square kilometres, the seam thins and splits away in
the manner described in Chapter 6.4.1 (seam splitting due to differential subsidence),
i.e. vitrinite content increases at the expense of inertinite, while in the split portion
both ash and sulphur contents increase. Esterle and Ferm (1986) conclude that the
inertinite-rich coal (highest value = 28%) found in the unsplit seam profile reflect the
stunted growth in the nutrient-depleted central portions of an ombrogenous raised
bog, although in a later paper, Esterle et al. (1989) cast some doubt on the validity of
the tropical raised bog model as an explanation of the lithotype succession found in
Carboniferous coals. Since only marine-influenced coals exceed 1% sulphur in
Australia, the main difference between the Upper Hance Seam and the braid-plain
coals of the Newcastle Coal Measures, apart from their greater thickness and larger
lateral extent, are their higher ash content (around 20% excluding stone bands) and
the high frequency and close spacing of both coalified and petrified tree trunks which
extend from the dull coal (e.g. Fassifern Seam) into the roof. Indeed, the discussion in
Chap. 6.3.1.1 of coal seams with tuffaceous roof rocks in eastern Australia has shown
that in all instances where peat accumulation was violently terminated by a volcanic
eruption, the peat-forming vegetation was arborescent over many hundreds of
square kilometres, irrespective of whether bright or dull lithotypes dominated the
coal. The trees extending from the Fassifern Seam into the overlying Awaba Tuff
average about 15 to 20 cm in thickness (mean spacing is approx. 1.5 m) which is not
as much as in some other coal seams of the Newcastle Coal Measures, but it does
indicate reasonable growth conditions. Similar variations in tree size have also been
found in vitrinite-rich bright coals. The relatively high tissue preservation index, due
to the large proportion ofsemifusinite found throughout the seam, also suggests a
high input from woody sources.
Based on the high ash content of the braid-plain coals of around 20~~ (excluding
stone bands), it is concluding therefore that rheotrophy, possibly in the form of
ground discharge and occasional flooding, was an important factor in the water
budget. This notion is further supported by the conclusion that the Fassifern peat
(plus other seams of similar setting and composition) was quite densely wooded.
This is an important point in view of the observation that ombrotrophic bogs of cool
temperate to cold climatic zones carry little arborescent vegetation, and strong
evidence for at least cool conditions with marked seasonal changes at the time of
Permian peat formation in the Sydney Basin. It appears therefore that the braid-
plain coals were formed from a mixed, at the most only slightly oligotrophic peat in
which the normal groundwater table was raised by a combination of both
precipitation and ground discharge. In view of the frequent occurrence of tuffs and
tuffaceous tonsteins in the Newcastle Coal Measures, it is also possible that plant
nutrition was further supplemented by airborne volcanic ash, as is the case in some
Holocene raised bogs of Sumatra and Java.
Peat growth and braid-plain aggradation, both probably seasonal in response
to the cool climate, were in balance with basin subsidence, resulting in the vertical
stacking of the gravel sheets. As the latter grew in thickness, imbalances in
compaction ratios between the Bolton Point gravel and the surrounding Fassifern
peat caused upstream avulsion and the build-up of a new braided channel system,
now represented by the Teralba Conglomerate, adjacent to and above the Bolton
Point Conglomerate. This development was repeated several times and has led to a
vertical and lateral stacking ofthe conglomerate lenses and intervening coal seams,
as illustrated in Fig. 7.23.
The coal seams formed in coexistence with gravelly braid-plain environments in
the Newcastle Coal Measures have a strong petrographic signature which, in terms
of the coal facies indices illustrated in Fig. 7.24, is expressed by a medium to low
-decreases TREE DENSITY Increases-

200.0
limno-te/matic te/mafic
100.0
50.0
'"
'"OJ
E
0
In
10.0 . '0
..,."
c:
0 0
."
5.0 ~
>
Fig. 7.24. Bivariate plot of
.
Q>
.Q
::0 '"
the tissue preservation
Q>
Q.
• • E and gelification indices of
1.0 • • "E whole coal samples from
the seams illustrated in
'""
.. • -
0.5
::;; Fig. 7.23 in"close associa-
tion with conglomerates
in the upper portion
(Moon Island Beach Sub-
terrestrial group) of the Newcastle
GI
Coal Measures. (Extended
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
TPI after Diessel 1986a)
The Braid Plain 379
tissue preservation index (TPI) and a very low gelification index (GI). Macro-
scopically they are dull, i.e. rich in autochthonous durain and clarodurain. It
seems that periodically the peat surfaces were subjected to drying and oxidation,
including freeze-drying (Taylor et al. 1989), which restricted the formation of
telovitrinite.
A gradual rise in the groundwater table would result in a shift towards telmatic,
i.e. wet forest conditions would will facilitate a gradual replacement oftelo-inertinite
by telovitrinite. This will affect the gelification index more than the tissue pre-
servation index because one group of structured macerals is replaced by another.
If, on the other hand, a drop in groundwater table leads to severe humification and
prolonged exposure of the peat, the proportion of structured macerals will be
reduced by oxidation, thus shifting both TPI and GI towards very low values before
destroying all remaining organic matter. In cases of advanced humification, the
normally dominant telo-inertinite (mainly as semifusinite) is replaced by auto-
chthonous detro-inertinite (mainly as inertodetrinite). This is coupled with an
increase in inherent ash and liptinite macerals, such as sporinite, resinite and
cutinite. Although these have been traditionally regarded as particularly resistant to
biodegradation (Thiessen and Johnson 1930; Waksman 1938; Alpern 1960; Taylor
and Liu 1989), the various liptinites appear corroded when associated with other
highly humified macerals.
In accordance with the trasitional position of the sandy braid plain, its coals
range in composition between those associated with the gravelly braid plain and the
meandering river-dominated alluvial plain. An example is illustrated in Fig. 7.25
which shows the down-slope change in coal facies indices of the above-mentioned
Fassifern Seam along the section line indicated in Fig. 7.21, as the associated
gravelly channel sediments grade distally into sand. As mentioned above, the coal
has been derived from forest peat in which woody tissue formed the main
2
25 34
1.8 35
Fig. 7.25. Diagram illustrating
the downslope change along
the section line in Fig. 7.21, 1.6
from a proximal gravelly to
a distal sandy braid-plain 1.4
environment, in the tissue 35 25
preservation and gelification 34
indices to composite whole ~ 1.2
coal samples from the
Z
Fassifern Seam. Coal samples
for facies analyses from bores
25,34 and 35 have been kindly D
made available by the State .8
Electricity Commission of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
New South Wales Distance in km
component. The resultant coals display little variation in the proportion of

structured macerals, which gives the coals a moderately high tissue preservation
index along the 35 km distance between the proximal (Z) and distal (34) sample.
However, the relative uniformity in TPI is contrasted by increase in the gelification
index, which corresponds to a shift from telo-inertinite (mainly semifusinite) to telo-
vitrinite (as both telinite and telocollinite). This shift is a function of the
establishment of a less fluctuating and more consistently high groundwater table
further into the basin, wh~re the rate of subsidence is higher and the Fassifern Seam
has been divided into several discrete splits.
7.2 The Alluvial Valley and Upper Delta Plain
The transition from alluvial valleys and plains through which mature rivers flow in
meanders of increasing sinuosity towards the river mouths located on protruding
deltas has traditionally been associated with coal formation (Moore 1958, 1959; Fisk
1960). A distinction is commonly made between an upper and lower delta plain
depending on the degree of marine influence on sedimentation. According to Saxena
and Ferm(1976), Saxena (1979), and Coleman and Prior (1980), the upper delta plain
occupies the subaerial portion of the delta and merges imperceptibly with. the
alluvial valley. The lower delta plain is defined as the zone which marks the up-
dip limits of tidal inundation. In ancient delta deposits, this zone is represented by
alternating low sinuosity channel sandstones and interdistributary bay shales which
may contain brackish to marine fossils, seat earths with rootlets and interspersed
coal (Horne et al. 1979a). An additional depositional model being transitional
between upper and lower delta plains has been distinguished by Horne et al. (1978),
but this practice is not followed here.
A delta (the term refers to the triangular shape of the deposit resembling the
respective Greek letter) is commonly formed when a river carries more sediment into
a lake or the sea than can be dispersed along the coast by tides, wave action or
longshore drift. However, the term has also been applied to other geomorphological
features, where the receiving body of water is restricted to the delta itself. An
interesting example with bearing on coal formation is the previously mentioned
(Chap. 5.1.1.1) Okavango Delta, also called Okavango Swamp, in Botswana. It
appears like a hybrid between a classical birdfoot delta and an alluvial fan. The
Okavango River and its tributaries feed seasonal floodwaters from the Lunda Ridge
in Angola into a fault-bounded depression on the northern margin of the Kalahari
Basin (McCarthy et al. 1989). The delta occupies an area of 18000km 2 , which is
divided into some 6000 km 2 of perennially and between 7000 and 12000 km 2 of
seasonally flooded ground (McCarthy et al. 1989). On account of its generally
shallow water of approximately 1.5 m (UNDP 1977), the permanently flooded
protion represents a limno-telmatic marsh environment in which a high rate of peat
accumulation of up to 5 cmja (McCarthy et al. 1986) is sustained mainly by two
dominant herbaceous plant species, Cyperus papyrus L. in the proximal portion and
The Alluvial Valley and Upper Delta Plain 381
Miscanthus junceum Stapf. in the distal portions (Smith 1976). The contribution of
biomass from trees is small and restricted to islands and higher ground within the
papyrus marsh. It should be noted that the location of the Okavango Swamp on the
fringe of the Kalahari Desert precludes any significant ombrotrophy and that the
very substantial peat accumulation is purely by rheotrophic means.
Legun and Rust (1982) regard the seasonally flooded portion of the Okavango
Swamp as. a modern analogue for parts of the Westphalian Clifton Formation in
New Brunswick, Canada. In the lower succession of Member B of this formation,
thin coals alternate with seat earths and reddish mudrocks containing pedogenic
calcareous nodules and hardpans, as well as desiccation cracks with calcareous
coatings. According to Legun and Rust (1982), this indicates periodic emergence of
the flood basin and exposure to semi-arid conditions, followed by submergence and
peat accumulation not unlike the marginal portions of the Okavango Swamp, in
which deep surface desiccation, colour mottling and incipient calcrete formation in
the subsurface are indicators of repeated droughts and periodic encroachments of
the surrounding desert.
In more conventional delta settings along the present sea shores it is sometimes
difficult to make a clear distinction between upper delta plains and their alluvial
hinterlands. The distinction between ancient upper delta and alluvial plain
association is even more difficult, because they produce similar lithofacies. For this
reason they will be treated together. Furthermore, it is not necessary for the alluvial
plain to be linked to a delta, but it may be part of a coastal plain, commonly situated
landward ofthe backbarrier strand plain, or it may have no connection to the sea at
all. The reason for linking alluvial and upper delta plains in this chapter is based on
the frequency with which alluvial valleys form the up-slope continuation of upper
delta plains, as well as the similarity in both coals and interseam sediments produced
by the two closely related associations. If a distinction between them is required, the
evidence has to come from the geological setting and the nature of the underlying
sediments. This problem will be discussed further in conjuction with the lower delta
plain setting in Chap. 7.4.
The alluvial and upper delta plain environments conform largely to the
"alternating sandstone and mudstone assemblage" of Rust et al. (1983, 1987) and
Gibling and Rust (1984), in which several subenvironments can be distinguished,
consisting of river deposits and overbank units. Examples of both are very common
in most coal measures, including the stratigraphic sections illustrated in Fig. 7.9B
(490-523 m) and 7.9C (523-538 m). The facies of meandering river deposits depends
on whether they have been formed in active or passive channels. In the first case they
consist of drawn-out point bar deposits which are the products of active channel
migration and include any surviving bedforms of in-channel deposition. The
resultant sediments are clearly distinguished from those formed within inactive
channels, i.e. abandoned meanders of oxbow lakes which are part of the overbank
association and have been filled with organic debris and lutaceous sediments that
were carried into the ponded water in suspension.
The overbank association encompasses the sediments and coals of flood basin
and flood plain environments. The lateral extent of both coal and flood plain
deposits is related to the size and sinuosity of the controlling river channel(s) which
commonly meander(s) back and forth across the width of the alluvial plain leaving
behind a blanket of point bar and related overbank deposits. Horne and Ferm (1978)
report from the Upper Carboniferous coal measures of eastern Kentucky upper
delta plain fluvial deposits which range in thickness between 15 and 25 m, and are
between 1.5 and 11 km wide. An Australian example of a meandering fossil river of
relatively low sinuosity is illustrated in Fig. 7.26 from the Upper Permian Newcastle
Coal Measures in New South Wales. The fluvial and associated overbank deposits
constitute the Dewey Point Member which forms a seam split within the Borehole
Seam, listed without the split between 477.6 and 479.8 m in Fig. 7.9B. On either side
ofthe area covered by the Dewey Point Formation in Fig. 7.26, the Borehole Seam is
complete, while within the split only the relatively small portion of the seam, which
"0
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0 0 0 0
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o KILLINGWORTH 0
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o
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Shaft or bore
Outcrop of Borehole Seam
[J "0.5 I=---j 0.'-0

,.-J Limit of seam splitting
(Dewey Point Member)
Fig. 7.26. Distribution and sand/shale ratios of the Dewey Point Member, a fossil river deposit
within the Borehole Seam at the base of the Newcastle Coal Measures of New South Wales. The
highest sand/shale values indicate the meandering thalweg within the otherwise relatively low
sinuosity fluvial environment. (After Warbrooke 1981, Diessel and Warbrooke 1987 and Diessel
et al. 1989)
was time-equivalent to the intervening clastic sediments, is missing. The relatively

youthful meanders of the river dissecting the Borehole swamp are indicated by both
the shape of the narrow alluvial plain and the distribution of sand/shale ratios, the
highest values of which delineate the controlling channel within the alluvial plain.
With increasing maturity river sinuosity will increase which, according to Leopold
and Wolman (1960), will lead to the development of meanders with a curvature ratio:
rmfW = 2 to 3 (7.3)
where rm = mean radius to centre line of channel, and W = bankfull width of

channel. According to Hey (1976) the radius (r) of curvature of a mature meander is
related to channel width as:
r=2.4 W. (7.4)
Meander wavelength (Lm) corresponds to the bankfull width of high sinuosity

channels as follows (after Leopold et al. 1964):
(7.5)
According to Carlston (1965), meander wavelength, channel width (W) and width of
the meander belt (Wm) are related to mean annual discharge (Qm) as follows:
Lm = 106 QmO. 46 (7.6)

W=7QmO. 46 (7.6)
Wm = 65.8 Qm°.47. (7.8)
Alternative methods for the calculation of channel geometry and its use in the
estimation of channel characteristics have been provided by Schumm (1972). He
makes use ofthe parameter M which relates channel morphology to the transported
load, and is defined as:
M = [(Sc) (w) + (Sb) (2h) ]/(w - 2h). (7.9)
Sc = %lutite in channel fill, which can be determined by point counts of thin sections,
Sb = %lutite in channel banks, which is obtained from point counts of channel wall
rocks, and h = bankfull depth of channel. By making use of the M-parameter, the
following relationships are obtained (after Woodward and Posey 1941; Barnes 1967;
Cotter 1971; Schumm 1968, 1972):
W/h = 225 M-l.0 8 (7.10)

P = 0.94 M-O. 25 , or = 3.5 W-o. 2 /h (7.11)
Qm O.38 = WM O.37/37 (7.12)
Lm = 1890 QmO.34/Mo.74 (7.13)
S = 60 M- 38 Qm- O. 32 (7.14)
Vm=Qm/A, (7.15)
where P = sinuosity, S = slope of channel (m/m), Vm = mean current velocity (m/s),

and A = channel profile (W * h) in m 2 . According to Leeder (1973), the width of high
sinuosity channels (> 1. 7) is approximated from channel depth by the relation-
ship:
log W = 1.54 log h + 0.83, (7.16)
where the standard deviation for h = 0.35 log units, or from:
(7.17)
Collinson (1978a) relates bankfull channel depth (h) to meander belt width (Wm)
and meander wavelength (Lm), and obtains the following correlations:
Wm = 64.6 h1.54 (7.18)
(7.19)
While it is commonly not possible to determine the width of ancient high sinuosity
river channels from their laterally accreted deposits, channel depth can frequently be
estimated from the thickness of their point bars, in particular the vertical extent of
point bar accretion planes, as is discussed below. Another problem concerns the
estimation of sinuosity of ancient channels. Lack of suitable measurements might
prevent the application of Eq. (7.11), in which case it may be possible to use the
following alternative relationship (after Miall 1976):
.. 1
Smuosity = 2 (7.20)
1 + (8/252)
The angle Theta is calculated from the 10 point moving average of weighted foreset
azimuths measured on bars in a vertical section through a channel deposit. This is
based on the assumption that the range of foreset azimuths is a reflection of changes
in channel orientation which, according to Langbein and Leopold (1966), is related
to the degree of meandering or channel sinuosity.
Naturally, the empirical nature of all the above equations, based on the study of
Recent rivers, demands caution in their application to ancient fluvial systems.
Collinson (1978b) considers these equations as approximate but probably of the
right order of magnitude, although channel abandonment, erosion, vertical stacking
of point bars and other processes may add complications to the relatively simple
relationships presented above.
7.2.1 The Point Bar
When in flood, meandering rivers shift their beds laterally by undercutting and
eroding the steep, concave meander banks and by depositing part of the eroded
material, together with extraformational upland sediments, on the convex, accr-
etionary banks, called point bars, further downstream. The lateral accretion planes
separating successive flood deposits are gently inclined in bedload streams of high
width/depth ratio, but steepen when the width/depth ratios decrease in mixed and
suspended load streams. An example is shown in Fig. 7.27, which illustrates a
compound sandstone body above the Dudley Seam in the Newcastle Coal Measures
of New South Wales. The lower portion of the sandstone has been formed by lateral
point bar accretion, which is clearly visible (dipping to the right), including the
upward fining in the middle portion. The upper half of the sandstone bedding is
predominantly horizontal, presumably as a result of vertical aggradation.
Although, according to Eqs. (7.3) and (7.4), meander curvature of mature
channels is characterised by a fixed relationship to channel width, not all channels
Fig. 7.27. The cliff section at

Susan Gilmore Beach below
Shepherds Hill, Newcastel, N.S.W.,
showing the Dudley Seam (from
512.4 to 516m in Fig.7.9B) in
centre (D), overlain by lacustrine
and flood plain laminites. Above a
distinct erosion contact (arrow)
follows a fluvial sandstone with
inclined (approx. 15°) point bar
accretion planes in lower and
horizontal bedding in middle
portion
are mature which leads to a wide range in rjW, which also affects the shape of point
bars. In reference to tidal creeks Barwis (1978) found the following relationship
between rjW and point bar shape:
1. Tight meanders (rjW < 2.5) produce small point bars with steep flanks. They are
fully attached to the channel banks and do not contain chutes.
2. Point bars of intermediate meanders (2.3 < rjW < 3) may be multilobed and
complex. Chutes are commonly present, as well as ripples, dunes and sand waves.
They may be partly detached from channel banks.
3. Point bars generated by gentle meanders (rjW > 3) are elongated and relatively
narrow. They contain bedforms as in (2) and are partly, occasionally completely,
detached from the inner bank.
4. Very gentle meanders (rjW> > 3) are linear, narrow and fully attached to the
bank.
The variable spacing of point bar accretion planes and the heterogeneous particle
size distribution of the intervening sediments is related to the changing strength of
the successive floods responsible for the growth of the point bars. Since the accreting
flood deposits cannot grow above high water level, the thickness of a single story
point bar deposit indicates the depth of a channel in flood and is equivalent to the
thickness of the removed overbank deposits. A size relationship exists also between
river depth and width of its meander belt [Eq. (7.18)J, which gives some indication of
the transverse extent of a point bar sequence in relation to its thickness. However, as
reported by Rust et a1. (1987), the ratio between point bar thickness and meander
belt width established by Collinson (1978a) does not apply to laterally amalgamated
channel sandstones. Fluvial deposits occurring in upper delta plain environments of
the Upper Carboniferous coal measures of eastern Kentucky and West Virginia
have been formed in 1.6- to 8-km-wide meander belts from laterally accreting rivers
with a depth ranging from 15 to 23 m (Horne and Ferm 1978). According to
Eq. (7.17), the width (W) of individual channels would have ranged between
440 and 850 m.
The transported sediments respond to systematic velocity gradients in the flow
system by a likewise systematic vertical particle size gradation from coarse to fine.
The upward decrease in particle size is matched by a likewise reduction in the size of
sedimentary structures (Walker and Cant 1979). Point bar deposits therefore display
a more regular shape and internal organisation than braided stream deposits, which
is illustrated in Fig. 7.28 and will be discussed below:
1. The Bedload Zone (A in Fig. 7.28) after Visher (1965a), or State A (conglomerate
facies) after Allen (1970) occurs at the base of the point bar sequence above a
mostly planar or only slightly irregular erosional contact with the underlying
sediments (Fig. 7.27). It consists of the coarsest particles moved by the current
close to the thalweg, and the mode of transportation is mainly by traction.
Intraformational conglomerate consisting of fragments eroded from the channel
bed or its walls, is often mixed with extraformational conglomerate of smaller
clast size. Crude horizontal bedding and particle imbrication are the most
Fig. 7.28. Cartoon illustrating the composition of a point bar
common features in this zone, which is rarely thicker than 1 m and many be
missing altogether.
2. The Megaripple Zone (B in Fig. 7.28) after Vis her (1965a), or State Bl (cross-
bedded-sandstone facies) of Allen (1970) is up to several metres thick. It is usually
composed of well-sorted, upward-fining sandstone which displays lithologically
heterogeneous point bar accretion planes, mostly as epsilon cross-stratification
after Allen (1963). An example oflarge-scale, planar point bar accretion planes is
illustrated in Fig. 7.27 above the basal erosion contact. Bedforms of the upper
part of the lower flow regime are also common, including solitary or grouped
planar and trough cross-bedding (alpha, beta, gamma, pi, and omikron types
after Allen 1963). Their azimuths, which are indicative of palaeoflow, are
commonly at variance with the laterally accreting point bar slopes or epsilon
crossbedding. Levey (1978) reports from the Upper Congaree River in South
Carolina, U.S.A. the occurrence of megaripples with tabular and trough
cross-beds in the middle portions of coarse sandy point bars. Their point bar
accretion surfaces are further cut by chute channels and bars, produced at rapid
flow conditions (McGowen and Garner 1970), while their down-stream margins
near the channel thalweg are modified by transverse bars, mostly with tabular
foresets. In multistory point bar sandstones successive units of this zone may be
telescoped into each other. Alternatively, a transitional interval may occur
between the bedload zone and the accretion planes, as has been reported by
Gibling and Rust (1987) from the upper portion .of the Upper Carboniferous
Morien Group in Nova Scotia, Canada. This interval consists of trough cross-
bedded, fine to coarse sheet sandstone, up to 5 m thick, which underlies the finer-
grained epsilon cross-bedded wedges of the laterally accretionary point bar.
Horne and Ferm (1978) refer to a similar fluvial sequence above the Upper
Carboniferous Hazard No.6 Coal near Hazard North, Kentucky, where a trough
cross-stratified unit is sandwiched between a pebbly bedload zone and overlying
point bar accretion beds.
3. The Laminated Zone (C in Fig. 7.28, see also Fig. 6.27) after Visher (1965a), State
B2 (flat-bedded sandstone facies) of Allen (1970) is a horizontally bedded unit of
fine sand or silt ranging from several centimetres to several metres. Parting
lineation is common, suggesting deposition from traction carpets in shallow
water near the top of the point bar, analogous to the plane-bed condition in
shallow water decribed by Harms and Fahnestock (1965). The laminated zone is
formed when shortly after flood peak, current velocities are still high but water
levels are falling sufficiently to push the Froude Number into the transitional
region between the upper and lower flow regimes.
4. The Ripple Cross-bedded Zone (D in Fig. 7.28) after Vis her (1965a), or State B3
(cross-laminated sandstone facies) of Allen (1970) is not always developed. It is
composed of fine sandstone interlaminated with shale, and results from a
combination of traction transportation and deposition from supension. This
leads to frequent occurrences of Allen's (1963) kappa and lambda type cross-
lamination, whose climbing angles are shallow upstream but steepen down-
stream in response to an increasing amount of fine sediment dropping out of
suspension in the waning stages of a flood.
As has been pointed out by Walker(1981), there are many modifications ofthe above
succession 1 to 4 by ripples forming lower and dunes and sand waves (mega-
ripples) higher in the sequence, and by parallel lamination, due to transitions to
upper flow regime conditions, occurring almost anywhere in the section. Vertical
stacking and telescoping of several point bars, as well as terracing, adds further
complications (Jackson 1978). Field observations suggest that relatively thin point
bar units adhere more closely to the above succession 1 to 4, whereas according to
Walker (1981) the vertical profile oflaterally accreted sand bodies exceeding 3-4 m is
often more complex.
7.2.2 The Flood Plain
Active channels occupy only a relatively small proportion of the area covered by
most alluvial plains. The largest part is taken up by inter-channel or overbank
environments which can be further divided into several subenvironments in
response to the proximity and influence exerted by nearby rivers on them. There is
no unanimity about the classification of overbank environments, in particular, the
terms flood plain and flood basin have been variously interpreted. As used here, the
flood plain occupies low lying stretches of terrain within the meander belt, which
may be submerged at flood peaks but are normally vegetated and not covered by
water except for abandoned meanders (oxbow lakes) and creeks feeding into the
main streams. The sediments accumulating in this environment are supplied by
flood waters and, adjacent to active channels, form deposits with distinctive
geometry and internal organisation and correspond to Elliott's (1969) lateral
developing clastic succession, which spread over the peat surface during floods.
They consist of laminated shales and siltstones which are deposited when the
channel has either overtopped or breached its levee banks. Tree stumps and fallen
trees are common and, when preserved, appear either petrified (Fig. 7.29), common-
ly by carbonate or sillica, or as flat lenses of bright coal. Ripple marks and
Fig. 7.29. View of the bedding plane of a silty flood plain deposit with small petrified tree trunk
below Lower Fern Valley Seam, Newcastle Coal Measures, north of Redhead, New South Wales
mud cracks, the latter indicating the drying-out that follows the inundation, are the
most common mechanical sedimentary structures found in the overbank deposits.
Chemical structures are commonly restricted to concretions, mainly in the form of
sideritic clay-ironstone nodules. Where overbank lutites have been subjected to a
marine influence, dolomite nodules may also occur. Close to the controlling rivers,
the natural levees and crevasse splay deposits form an important part of the
proximal flood plain.
Natural levees are elevated above all other topographic features in the alluvial
landscape (Rust et al. 1984), but they are so intimately associated with fluvial
sedimentation that sometimes they cannot be distinguished with certainty from the
ripple cross-bedded zone at the top of the point bar. Indeed, Belt et al. (1984) found
levee bank deposits to be the most difficult to recognise in their study of Tertiary coal
measures in the Williston Basin of North Dakota, U.S.A. The sediments which
constitute natural levees are formed as spill-over deposits during flood peaks when
the water volume conveyed through the river channels exceeds their holding
capacity. They appear therefore as stacked wedges of laminated shales and fine
sandstones which may have steep slopes towards the channel but pinch out laterally
over a distance of several metres or tens of metres, depending on the size of the
controlling river and the sediments conveyed in it. Horne and Ferm (1978) quote a
thickness of 4.6 to 9 m and a width of up to 3.2 km near active channels in upper delta
plain coal measures of eastern Kentucky compared with thinner (1.5 m) and more
narrow levees in lower delta plain environments. Although particle sizes are variable
in levee bank deposits and commonly decrease rapidly away from the controlling
channel, Rust et al. (1984) found upward-coarsening to be well represented in the
Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) Cumberland Group, South of Joggins, Nova
Scotia, whereas Riegel et al. (1986) found distinctly wedge-shaped levees in the
Wealden deposits of Osterwald east of Hannover, Germany, to be upward-fining
with sideritic clays near the top. Common sedimentary structures are climbing
ripples (ripple drift), mud cracks and bioturbation in soil horizons due to root
penetration. Intraformational clasts consisting of desiccated clay peels and clay
ironstones are likewise frequently found. Slump structures occur mainly on the sides
facing the channel due to instability of the steep and water-logged slopes when the
river is in flood.
Because of their setting close to the source of river-borne nutrients, levees are
commonly richly vegetated. In the Joggins section of Nova Scotia levees carry
petrified tree trunks in growth position (Rust et al. 1984), an example of which is
illustrated in Fig. 7.30. Sandstone-filled casts of trees rooted in levee banks have
been reported from the Upper Carboniferous Clifton Group in New Brunswick,
Canada (Legun and Rust 1982). Also Horne and Ferm (1978) refer to upright
Calamites stems in Upper Carboniferous levee deposits from West Virginia, while
the palaeobotanical studies of Riegel et al. (1986) in the above-mentioned Wealden
deposits have revealed marked contrast between a rather diverse flora which
occupied the leveee banks and an almost monotypic flood plain vegetation.
Fig.7.30. Upright Sigillaria stem rooted

in levee bank silt-and sandstone of the
Cumberland Group (Upper Carbonifer-
ous) at the Joggins section, Nova Scotia
Crevasse splay deposits are the result of breaches of levee banks during flood
periods, followed by the spreading of sediment-laden flood waters away from the
breach in the levee bank. As reported by Duff et al. (1982), Gibling and Rust (1984)
and Rust et al. (1987), palaeocurrent directions in splay deposits are usually more or
less normal to the directions obtained from the main fluvial sandstones. Depending
on a number of influencing factors, such as the frequency of flooding, the sediment
types carried by the trunk stream, its topographic relationship to the adjacent flood
plain and other palaeogeographical considerations, breaches in levees may either be
plugged quickly or they may remain open for a considerable time span. In the first
case the resulting overbank sediment consists of single sheets of fine sand or silt
which represent discrete depositional events of relative short duration. Many of
these blanket deposits are less than a few decimeters thick. In proximal positions
they are laminated (upper flow regime) and distally they are rippled (lower flow
regime). However, the thickness and areal extent of these flood deposits is obviously
related to the size of the trunk streams, and may reach several metres in the vicinity
of the levee breaches, in which case it may be difficult to distinguish them from
channel sands, when outcrops are limited.
A guide to the identification of thick crevasse splay and/or avulsion deposits is
the occurrence of both uprooted and upright trees. Uprooted trees and other
transported vegetation are commonly found in channelised as well as in crevasse
splay deposits, but the occurrence of tree stumps in growth position requires special
circumstances. They normally do not grow in fluvial channels and, although they do
so on flood plains, they are rarely preserved unless they are entombed in a rapidly
emplaced rock, for example, by burying the forest in volcanic ash, as was discussed in
Chap. 6.3.1.1. Epiclastic sediments can have a similar effect, when deposited by a
likewise catastrophic event, such as a flood surge close to a massive breach in the
levee bank of a large river. In its course many trees might be downed, but others will
remain upright and become partly buried in the resulting deposit. For example,
poorly bedded sandy mudstones containing upright fossil trees at Roaring Creek
Mine in Indiana, U.S.A. have been interpreted as a crevasse splay by Eggert and
Phillips (1982) and Nelson et al. (1985). An example of this kind is illustrated in
Fig. 7.31 from the Wittingham Coal Measures of the Sydney Basin in New South
Wales. The illustrated tree occurs above the Whybrow Seam at Saxonvale Mine in
the Hunter Valley. This tree and others occurring in the same horizon are rooted in
50 cm of grey, slightly laminated shale. While the inner parts of the tree trunk are
partly petrified, its bark is preserved as bright coal (vi train). Macroscopically there
does not appear to be any difference between coalified bark from the stem and the
primary root branches, although their respective microscopic images are quite
different. Both bark types consist of telovitrinite, but a sample taken from the stem is
composed of telinite, whereas the respective root sample consists mainly of
telocollinite. A slight erosion contact occurs between the top of the shale horizon
and the overlying splay sand, whose thickness of 6 m coincides with the height of the
preserved part of the tree. The conically inclined beds towards the stem shown in
Fig. 7.32 mark erosion scours within the splay deposit, probably caused by the
swirling of flood waters around the tree. The upper contact of the sandstone is
abrupt and, while coalified drift wood and other vegetable matter occur sparsely
Fig. 7.31. A stem of partly coali-

fied/petrified Dadoxylon wood en-
tombed in a 6-m-thick layer of
crevasse splay sand (light grey)
exposed on the high wall at Sax-
onvale Mine, New South Wales.
Its stratigraphic position is at
400 m in Fig. 7.70 above the Why-
brow Seam, Wittingham Coal
Measures
throughout the sandstone, they are more concentrated near the top of the deposit.
Within the opencut, i.e. over a distance of several hundred metres, the sandstone
thins by several metres, thus suggesting proximity to the levee breach.
If breaches in levee banks remain open for years, or tens of years, the resulting
overbank deposits appear like fans or satellite deltas prograding over the adjacent
flood plain, into distal flood basins and backswamps, or, on lower delta plains, into
inter-distributary bays. Close to the crevasse the channelised sandy splay deposits
contain cross-bedding and climbing ripples above an erosional base. As illustrated
in Fig. 7.33, and discussed by Rust et al. (1984), these channels are relatively narrow
and grade laterally into splay sheets. With increasing distance from the source the
splays fan out into thin (centimetres to decimetres), but laterally extensive sheets of
fine sand to silt, which constitute the largest portion of the deposit (Fig. 7.34). In the
Joggins Section of Nova Scotia, many of the splay sheets contain plant roots near the
top, while internally grouped ripples are common, which display considerable
variation in forest azimuths between co sets (Rust et al. 1984). Also climbing ripples
occur, particularly in upward-fining sand sheets. Similar characteristics have been
observed in the alluvial plain deposits of the Upper Westphalian portion of the Ruhr
Fig.7.32. Lower portion of the tree

trunk illustrated in Fig. 7.31 showing the
tilt of turbulent splay bedding towards
the stem near the centre of the ill-
ustration. See hammer for scale
Coal Measures, in which a large number of mostly less than 3-m-thick current-
rippled splay sands are set in flood plain laminites between major channel sands,
which are commonly more than 10m, and often more than 20m thick. Typical
examples are indicated in Fig. 7.35B between the Iduna 1 and Hagen 1 Seams.
The more distal flood plain deposits consist of alternating layers of fine sand and
silt, many of them laminated and grading from sand-laminated shales to shale-
laminated sandstones. Ripple marks and mud cracks are common structures and
soil horizons with roots and thin layers of coal are widespread. Occasionally, the
continuity of the sediments is interrupted by small washouts which represent creeks
that traversed the flood plain.
7.2.3 The Flood Basin
Lar~ rivers such as the Colorado, Yukon, Missouri and Mississippi average a
lateral accretion of several tens of metres per year, whereas even in substantial floods
their associated overbank deposits barely reach a few decimetres (Visher 1965b).
Fig. 7.33. Crevasse channel

arrowed associated with splay
sands in the Cumberland Group
(Upper Carboniferous) at the
Joggins section, Nova Scotia
Fig. 7.34. View of shaly overbank deposits containing numerous splay sheets mostly composed of
fine sandstone. Cumberland Group (Upper Carboniferous) at the Joggins section, Nova Scotia
Sr
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Fig. 7.35 A-G. Stratigraphic section through the Upper Carboniferous coal measures of the Ruhr
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(lower right). The legend is at the back of the section
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/
/51 CONGLOMERATE
PEBBLY SANDSTONE
COARSE SANDSTONE
MEDIUM SANDSTONE
FINE SANDSTONE
SILT-LAMINATED SANDSTONE
SAND-LAMINATED SILTSTONE
SILTSTONE/SAND LAMINATED SHALE
SHALE/MUDSTONE/CLAYSTONE
Obk SHAL Y COAL/COALY SHALE
COAL
V PYROCLASTIC DEPOSIT
"*' COMPLETELY PRESERVED PLANTS
=r' INCOMPLETELY PRESERVED PLANTS

P POORLY PRESERVED PLANTS
-v- NON-SPECIFIC WORM BURROWS
_____ PLANOLITES BURROWS
9"FI':::"'---"ji~'::'"
BIVALVES
Stratigraphic FORAMINIFERA
Gap
ARTICULATE BRACHIOPODS
LlNGULIDS
CEPHALOPODS
CONODONTS
OSTRACODS
FEEDING TRACES
UPRIGHT TREE STUMPS
ROOT HORIZON
AZIMUTHS OF DIRECTIONAL
STRUCTURES (e.g. X-BEDDING)
ORIENTATION OF TREE TRUNKS

AND RIPPLE CRESTS
SLUMP STRUCTURES
EROSION SURFACE
~CHANNELED ~ FLOOD PLAIN

~DEPOSITS '-----J DEPOSITS
u DIIIIIIJ REGRESSIVE ~-----l SUBAQUEOUS
DEPOSITS - - DEPOSITS
z
c( " ..... G-GRAVEL S-SAND F-FINES
a: I-laminated m -massive
::J t-trough cross-bedded p - planar cross-bedded
:::!:
c( h-horizontal bedded S-scour bedded
z r- ripple-bedded
scs-swaley cross-stratification
hcs-hummocky cross stratification
SOURCES
KB Specking 1 from top to Baldur Seam KB We seier Berge to Finefrau Unterbank Seam
KB WUstenhof 2 to T 1 Seam Outcrop DUnkelberg to Niveau Geitling
KB Bergbossendorf 1 to Roettgersbank 2 Seam KB Alte Fahrt 1 to Sarnsbanksgen Seam
KB Finkenberg 3 to Prasident Seam Outcrop Rauen to below Gottessegen Seam
Outcrop KampmannbrUcke to DUnnebank Seam Outcrop Hohensyburg to Grenzsandstein
KB Holtwick 1 -to Finefrau Nebenbank Seam
Fig.7.35G
Although overbank deposition is generally slow, a gradation exists in sedimentation

rates which decrease away from the trunk stream. The result is that the levee bank
and crevasse splay deposits close to the fluvial sediment source build up the
proximal flood plain faster than the more distal portions, which receive only small
amounts of sediments during major floods. The concentration of sedimentation in
the vicinity of active channels in conjunction with the constraints imposed on
meander belt width by the difficulty to erode into silted-up abandoned meanders
(clay plugs), leads to the formation of an alluvial ridge (Happ et al. 1940; Fisk 1952a;
Allen 1965; Schumm 1977), which causes the whole width of the meander belt and
flood plain to rise above the level of the sediment-starved distal flood basins
(Fig. 7.36). The instability resulting from the difference in elevation between the
raised flood plain on the alluvial ridge and the surrounding low lying parts of the
alluvial plain is periodically relieved by avulsion, i.e. by breaching the banks of the
raised channel and by shifting the meander belt to a lower position (Collinson
1987b). Flood basins are therefore preferred locations for the reconstruction of the
river system after avulsion has occurred, which is one of the main causes for the
occurrence of fluvial sandstones to occur in direct contact with underlying coal
seams.
Flood basins constitute the low lying, poorly drained areas adjacent to the
raised flood plains. Their setting is often distal with respect to channel activity, and
they are reached only by small quantities of fine outwash sediments. Flood basin
deposits are therefore often lacustrine in origin and contain much organic material
either in the form of algal deposits or as dispersed organic matter redistributed from
nearby peatlands. Ancient lakes of this kind varied in size and reached quite large
dimensions. By integrating bio- and lithostratigraphic relationships Flores and
Hanley (1984) were able to distinguish between small ( < 1 km in diameter) and large
(approx. 3 km) flood basin lakes in the Tertiary coal measures (Fort Union
Formation) ofthe northern Powder River Basin in Wyoming, U.S.A. The small, low
energy, shallow lakes were characterised by few mollusc genera which were
disseminated in marls, whereas in the larger lakes multiple mollusc habitats were
Alluv ial Ridge with Flood Plein Flood Bas in Alluvial Ridge
with Flood Plein
Not to :scele
Fig. 7.36. Cartoon of alluvial ridges separated by a flood basin

differentiated on the basis of water depth and lime content of the substrate. Flood
basin lakes of much greater dimensions have been reported from the Carboniferous
coal measures of the UK. Based on the methods of Komar (1974) and Allen (1979,
1981) of calculating wave fetch from oscillatory ripple parameters, Fielding (1984)
obtained a lateral extent of 20 km for Westphalian lakes in upper delta plain settings
of the Durham Coalfield. Thicknesses recorded for the respective lacustrine deposits
suggest a water depth of 8 m. Also the Carboniferous lakes commonly contain fresh-
water (algal) limestone and fossils, such as bivalves, gastropods, ostracods and fish,
all of which have been reported by Masson and Rust (1983, 1984) from mudstones in
the Sydney Mines Formation near Sydney, Nova Scotia. Other occurrences of
Carboniferous fresh-water faunas in flood basin deposits have been discussed by
Schwarzbach (1949), Jessen et al. (1952), Jessen (1956b; 1961), Paproth (1955,1962),
Fiebig (1960, 1972), Rabitz (1966a,b), Betekhtina (1970), Bless (1970), Guion (1984),
Eagar (1970, 1985), Vasey (1985), Fulton (1987) and others.
Peat-producing backswamps are part of both the flood plain and flood basin
associations, whereby flood plain peat may have a higher huminosity grade and may
be slightly more oxidised than peat formed in flood basins. The influx of clastic
Fig. 7.37. View of the cliff section at

Susan Gilmore Beach, N.S.W., similar to
Fig. 7.27 but giving a clearer differentia-
tion between the fine-grained and dark
lacustrine (flood basin) sediments (F)
above the Dudley Seam (D) and the
coarser and lighter coloured splay de-
posits (S) of the flood plain below the
basal erosional contact (E) of the fluvial
sandstone
detritus decreases in proportion to the distance from the nearest active channel,
which in the coal is indicated not only by a decrease in the occurrence of stone bands
but also by a decline in the disseminated ash content from proximal flood plain to
distal flood basin.
In the lower reaches of many rivers, in particular near the boundary between
upper and lower delta plains, the width of alluvial ridges and flood plains decreases
so that flood basins occupy much ofthe overbank terrain and are separated from the
controlling channels by relatively narrow levee banks only. On the basis of the
subaqueous character of Carboniferous seat earths and their frequent penetration
by Calamites roots, Teichmiiller (1955b, 1956) and Roeschmann (1962) regard such a
lim no tel rna tic flood basin setting as the most common scenario for the beginning of
coal seam formation in the Ruhr Basin.
Coal measures of the alluvial and upper delta plain associations are often
characterised by an upward gradation from coal to lacustrine flood basin sediments,
followed by flood plain sediments and, after an erosional contact, by fluvial
sandstone. As illustrated in Fig. 7.37, this order of superposition leads to a general
increase in particle size from the coal to the base ofthe fluvial sandstone, after which
grain size decreases again in accordance with the model given in Fig. 7.28. The
reason for the upward coarsening in,the overbank portion is the approaching river,
whose flood deposits bury the peat under an increasingly thick and coarse pile of
splay sediments until the river erodes into the top of the overburden and replaces it
with coarse point bar deposits.
7.2.4 The Coals of the Alluvial Valley and Upper Delta Plain
According to Weimer (1976), alluvial and upper delta plains contain three coal
producing subenvironments: (1) back-levee swamps, (2) abandoned channels, and (3)
flood basin swamps. The first two are part of the flood plain environment, in which
rivers dominate depositional patterns and thus also influence both shape and
composition of the coals associated with them (Cassyhap 1970; Galloway and
Hobday 1983). Upper Cretaceous and Eocene upper delta plain coals of Alberta,
Canada and Texas, U.S.A., respectively, are described by Nurkowski and Rahmani
(1984) and Rahmani (1984) as forming basinward dip-elongated belts between
bifuracted networks of similarly trending sandstones. Kaiser et al. (1978) find in
Eocene coal measures in Texas, U.S.A., a positive correlation between sand and
brown coal content in deltaic settings but a negative correlation in fluvial settings.
Peat is formed in backswamps on flood plains and in flood basins between
rivers, and the peatlands are separated from the river channels by levee banks, the
occasional breaching of which spreads silt and mud over the peat margins. In flood
plain coals these deposits appear as stone bands of which the Australasian Seam
displayed in the stratigraphic section of the Newcastle Coal Measures in Fig. 7.9C
(690-698 m), as well as the autosedimentational seam splitting discussed in
Chap. 6.4.2 are good examples. Lakes and ponds which interrupt the generally dense
vegetation cover are receptacles for both organic and inorganic detritus which may
lead to the formation of sapropelic coal surrounded by humic coal, or to shale
lenses and other kinds oflithification in the seam (want). Conversely, after siltation,
the above-mentioned lakes in the Durham Coalfield have often acted as platforms
for peat accumulation (Fielding 1984).
While the predominantly dull coals associated with braid-plain environments
indicate fluctuating water supply and occasional drying ofthe peat surface, the flood
plains and basins associated with meandering and/or anastomosing rivers carry
forested peatlands, which tend to be continuously wet and lack extended periods of
drying. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by the colour of the interseam
sediments, which changes from the usual grey to red or brown, as is the case in the
uppermost Pennsylvanian coal measures of Nova Scotia (Rust et al. 1983, 1984;
Gibling and Rust 1984, 1987). Because rates of subsidence in relation to sediment
supply are often high, the accumulating vegetable matter passes faster through the
oxidising zone (acrotelm) than in the braided stream environment. This results in a
better preservation of biomass, shown by the dominance of woody peat, which
converts into telovitrinite-rich coal. Its macroscopic expression is a predominance of
bright lithotypes, such as vitrain and elarain, or bright, banded bright and banded
coal, which together can reach in excess of 75% of all lithotypes (Diessel 1965a;
Marchioni 1980). Both tissue preservation and gelification indices are therefore
relatively higher than those of the braid-plain coals illustrated in Fig. 7.24. The
coals with the lowest GI values in Fig. 7.38 are probably flood plain coals which
show a slight increase in the proportion of telo-inertinite (fusinite and semifusinite)
at the expense of telovitrinite (telinite and telocollinite), i.e their coal facies indices
overlap with the coals of the sandy braid plains.
In Fig. 7.38 a distinction has been made between Permian upper delta and
alluvial plain coals from the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. (full circles), and Carboniferous
coals from the Ruhr Basin (open circles). Both groups of samples share the same
region within the diagram but a large portion of the Carboniferous coals is lower in
TPI and higher in GI values, with some affinity to the lower delta plain coals. The
reason for the higher TPI values in some of the Permian coals is their considerably
higher proportion of telo-inertinite, which together with their moderate telovitrinite
content more than balances the higher telovitrinite percentage in the Carboniferous
coals.
Although optimum biomass preservation in the upper delta/alluvial plain
environment is shown by the overall bright, i.e. telovitrinite-rich nature of their
coals, differences occur in the vertical grouping of lithotypes. As discussed in
Chap. 5.1, a characteristic order of superposition begins with shaly coal plus some
telo-inertinite near the base, followed by bright and banded bright lithotypes of the
vitrinite-fusinite facies and, near the top of the seam, by the dull and banded dull
lithotypes of the densosporinite facies. This frequently observed vertical succession
may be the product of a lateral shift in the location of a major river or river
system, or it may be the response to a larger-scale scenario involving the interaction
of basin subsidence and eustatic sea-level variations, i.e. basin-wide transgressions
and regressions. In the first case of autosedimentational processes, clastic sediment
supply to the shaly coal facies diminishes as the trunk stream migrates away, thus
-decreases TREE DENSITY increases-

200.0,-------------------
IImno-te/matic fe/mafic
100.0+-------------------
50.0-+-------------------
'"
'"OJ
E
0
III
Fig. 7.38. Plot of the tissue
10.0
.. ....
•
"0 preservation and gelifica-
."
c
5.0
.."
0
o
o
e· Q~ 0W • • •
eit-0 w• •
0
;;;
tion indices of whole coal
samples from upper delta
•
Q ••• >
co
gco • Q; to alluvial plain environ-
.."
.Q 00 • •
. • tP • "'" ments. Full circles refer to
00 • 0 •
o • 0
0 • • • Il.
the Permian Newcastle
1.0
• E
=>
E
and Wittingham Coal
><
Measures of New South
OJ
:;
Wales (extended after
0.5
DiesseI1986a), open circles
to the Upper Carbonifer-
ous coal measures of the
Ruhr Basin. (After analyses
terrestrial
GI by Littke 1985a; Strehlau
TPI 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1988; Diessel, unpubl.)
lowering the ground level until it approximately coincides with the position of the
groundwater table. The shaly coal facies will therefore be replaced by the precursors
of the vitrinite-fusinite facies of Strehlau (1988, 1990) which, given a sustained
balance between basin subsidence and peat accumulation, will form the thickest part
of the seam, although in many coals it is restricted to its lower portion (Smith 1962;
Hacquebard et al.1967; Hacquebard and Donaldson 1969; Hacquebard and Barss
1970; Smyth and Cook 1976; Cameron 1978; Marchioni 1976, 1980; Hower and
Wild 1982; and others). The vitrinite-fusinite facies is equivalent to Smith's (1962,
1968) Lycospore phase. While this facies is only seldom reached by distal crevasse
splays, maximum biomass production is possible because the swamp is still supplied
with nutrients carried in solution by flood waters which periodically inundate the
peat.
Further away from the fluvial sediment source, the supply of dissolved nutrients
diminishes and may even cease temporarily, which may result in oligotrophic
limnotelmatic conditions, a reduction in total peat production, and an increase in
the proportion of hypautochthonous peat components. Fluctuating water tables
and relocation of maceral precursors may cause oxidation and inertinite generation,
as has been observed by Corvinus and Cohen (1984) in the upper peat strata of the
Okefenokee Swamp. The alternative model given in Chap. 5.1 envisages the
termination of eutrophic conditions to be due to the raising of the bog surface above
the groundwater table and the beginning of ombrotrophic peat formation, which
has also been associated with the formation of inertinite-rich dull coal, for example
by Smith (1962, 1964), Littke (1985a, b, 1987), Esterle and Ferm (1986), and Fulton
(1987). However, as mentioned above, Esterle et al. (1989) have questioned the
suitability of the ombrotrophic model to explain the "dulling up" of many coal
seams. Based on their petrographic investigations of domed peat deposits in

Sarawak, Malaysia, they suggest that modern tropical raised bogs are more likely to
produce overall bright coals consisting of a detrovitrinite matrix which incorporates
bands of telovitrinite.
If sediment supply is small and meander belts are widely spaced, extensive flood
basins situated between relatively small alluvial ridges will provide suitable
conditions for both topogenous and ombrotrophic peat formation. In either case the
ash content of the resulting coal will be low, but a topogenous setting would be
indicated by widespread transitions into sapropelic coal, whereas ponding on raised
bog surfaces can produce relatively small pockets of sapropelic coal only.
A high rate of sediment supply and a closely spaced drainage pattern will leave
little room between broad alluvial ridges for flood basins to develop. Meander belts
are therefore connected by flood plains in which the groundwater table rises above
the ground surface only during floods and in which shaly coal and the vitrinite-
fusinite facies are dominant. In the stratigraphic column this development is
paralleled by an increase in both frequency and thickness of fluvial sandstones, as is
the case in the Westphalian Band C of the Ruhr Coal Measures illustrated in
Fig.7.3SA-C. In palaeogeographic terms this trend suggests a shift of the
depositional site away from a coastal towards a more inland setting (Strehlau 1988;
David 1989), i.e. from the marine-influenced delta plain to the more terrestrial
alluvial valley environment.
In addition to the effects on coal facies of autosedimentational mechanisms,
seam development can also be influenced by more global events such as marine
transgressions and regressions generated by eustatic sea-level variations. The
upward trend from relatively dry to relatively wet facies types would be indicative
of a marine transgression, even though the sea need not reach the swamp because
the concomitant rise of the groundwater table is sufficient to bring about the
necessary shift in peat-forming environments. A carefully controlled study of the
effects of a rising water table on coal composition has been conducted on the Lower
Kittanning and Clarion coals in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania, by Reidenouer
et al. (1979). Both coals overlie disconformably an' undulating floor topography
which affected peat formation such that basement lows contain more than twice the
coal thickness than basement highs. In the Lower Clarion coal at Krebs mine
Reidenouer et al. (1979) distinguished eight petrographic zones in the thick seam
section formed in a basement low. On approaching the adjacent topographic high
the lower six petrographic zones wedged out in upward succession, leaving only the
upper two zones to comprise the reduced seam above the basement high.
Reidenouer et al. (1979) conclude that peat accumulation began in areas now
represented by basement lows, and that with time, it was extended successively to
topographically higher parts of the terrain. Before on- and overlapping the flank of
the basement high the petrographic zones, numbered 1 to 8 from top to bottom,
changed laterally from basement low (left column) to basement high (right column)
in the following manner:
1. Clarain > no change

2. Claystone> bone coal ( = shaly coal) > durain

4. Durain > clarain
5. Claystone> durain
7. Claystone> no change
The above comparison shows that the changes which occurred in petrographic
zones (2), (4) and (5) were directed from lithotypes formed in basement lows under
relatively wet conditions to comparatively drier lithotypes near basement highs.
Reidenoutlr et al. (1979) also included inorganic coal constituents in their study,
which demonstrate that pyritic sulphur was highest in durains which laterally or
vertically grade into claystone. The latter does not possess a particularly high
sulphur content because it is the product of open, wave-agitated and oxygenated
water, in which the anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria cannot function. Near the
basement highs, where plant growth and allochthonous sedimentation of liptinitic
and detro-inertinitic components mixed with the outer clay facies protected
limnotelmatic shorelines, a low redox potential, anaerobic conditions and
sufficient iron supply favoured bacterial pyrite formation. Further shoreward, toxic
conditions due to decreasing water circulation in the peat lowered bacterial activity
again resulting in reduced pyrite (and sulphur in general) contents in the coal, but it
improved tissue preservation in the form of higher clarain contents. This and other
topics related to the effects of systematic variations in groundwater levels on coals
and coal measure sedimentation will be explored further in Chap. 8 in the context of
the interaction between basin subsidence and eustatic sea-level changes.
Vertical profiles showing a systematic trend from predominantly bright
lithotypes in the lower and middle portion of the seam section to mainly dull
lithotypes near the top of the coal are common not only to 75% of Carboniferous
coal seams in the Ruhr Basin (Hoffmann 1933), but they are frequently observed in
coals of other ages as well. Studies by Smyth 1967, 1970 and Smyth and Cook 1976)
have shown that some Australian Permian and Triassic coal seams follow a similar
pattern of vertical succession in their composition beginning with vitrinite-rich coal
at the base and grading upward into vitrinite-poor coal. Other coal seams appear to
possess a more random distribution oflithotypes. An example is the Liddell Seam in
the Foybrook Formation of the Wittingham Coal Measures in New South Wales,
which has been interpreted by several authors to have been formed in an alluvial
plain environment (Britten 1972; Herbert 1976; Marchioni 1976, 1980). By applying
Gingerich's (1969) method of Markov chain analysis to the Liddell Seam, Marchioni
(1980) found three types of significantly non-random upward (left to· right)
transitions:
1. Shale> coaly shale> shaly coal> dull coal

2. Banded bright> banded dull coal
3. Bright coal> banded dull coal.
Transition (1) is virtually identical to the landward transition from claystone into
bone coal (= shaly coal) into durain of Reidenouer et al. (1979), but Marchioni's
The Lower Delta Plain 409
(1980) preferred transitions do not combine to lead to any systematic trend in the
gross seam profile. Also Smyth's (1972) Markov chain analyses of microlithotype
successions in the Liddell and associated coal seams revealed a preference for
oscillatory transitions between vitrite- and clarite-dominated coal plies without any
significant trend.
7.3 The Lower Delta Plain
Upper and lower delta plains form the planar capping of the delta complex which
houses a wide range of subenvironments, including point bar and fluvial channel,
flood plain and basin, paludal and lacustrine on the upper delta plain; fluvial and
intertidal channel, lagoonal, bay, estuarine and paludal on the lower delta plain; and
beach, bar, subtidal channel, shoreface and others on the delta front. Because of the
hybrid nature of the active delta between fluvial and regressive marine processes
(Visher 1965a), few of the mentioned subenvironments are specific to the delta
setting but are common also to other related environments, which makes a clear
distinction between them difficult. The problem of separating delta from purely
fluvial environments has been mentioned in the discussion of the alluvial
valley/upper delta plain association, and it is obvious that such physiographic
features as lagoons, bays, bars, tidal flats etc. present problems when trying to
distinguish them from the back barrier/strand plain and estuarine settings discussed
in Chaps. 7.4 and 7.5 respectively. For example, the physical attributes of the
sediments deposited as distributary mouth and distal bars on the delta front are
quite similar to those constituting the seaward-migrating shoreface of a barrier
beach, but the larger sediment supply and thus thicker pile of detritus and the
association with fluvial sediments distinguishes the delta from the barrier beach and
adjacent lagoons or back barrier swamps. Even more diagnostic is the shape of the
shoreline and nearshore sediments. Given a reasonable number of suitable
observation points (outcrops, boreholes, electric logs etc.), it should not be too
difficult to identify the presence or absence of protruding delta lobes by the construc-
tion of isopach (Walker 1981), sand/shale and net sandstone (Hamilton 1985)
maps. Also the identification of deltaic subenvironments, for example, by the shape
of the framework sandstones of the delta complex (Kaiser et al. 1978; Galloway and
Hobday 1983) can assist in proving the presence of an ancient delta. A palaeogeo-
graphic reconstruction of the distribution of coal-bearing Tertiary (Fort Union
Formation) deltas in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana, U.S.A., has
been presented by Ayers and Kaiser (1984). Based on outcrops and approximately
1400 geophysical logs in the Tongue River Member, they produced percentage and
net thickness maps of the main coals and sandstone litho somes, which reveal the
Palaeocene delta architecture in the Powder River Basin. Because of the diagnostic
importance ofthe sediments associated with the delta complex the discussion of the
lower delta plain and its coals is preceded by a brief overview of adjacent
environments. They are illustrated in Fig. 7.39.
In contrast to the upper delta plain, whose depositional environments are
dominated by the rivers which supply the sediments that build the delta complex, the
Fig. 7.39. Cartoon illustrating the size relationship between some of the subenvironments of the
delta complex
lower delta plain may be less affected by fluvial action but owes much of its
sedimentation pattern to the physical characteristics of the basin into which it
progrades. A corollary of the waning fluvial influence is the change from high to low
sand/shale ratios in the transition from upper to lower delta plains (Horne and Ferm
1978), but the fluvial influence may still remain dominant if the delta pro grades into
a large lake or inland sea devoid of tides and strong wave action. An example is the
above-mentioned Powder River Basin, in which the distributary sandstones of the
Palaeocene Tongue River Member have retained a strongly dendritic birdfoot delta
pattern (Ayers and Kaiser 1984). According to Elliot (1978), the characteristics of the
receiving basin which affect delta development include water salinity, basin shape,
size, depth, energy regime, sea-level fluctuations, subsidence and tectonic activity.
Several of these features are interdependent, for example, tide-dominated delta
fronts and lower delta plains occur preferentially in embayments which are open to
the ocean. Such settings are affected by particularly high tidal ranges but they cause
wave diffraction and often lack longshore currents, which means that wave-
dominated deltas with beach-barrier shorelines protrude more frequently from
straight coastlines.
7.3.1 The Prodelta
Because prodelta sediments are deposited in the most distal parts of the delta
complex, they occupy the basal portion in a stratigraphic column through a
prograding delta sequence. When formed in a marine setting, the prodelta is
transitional to the shelf environment and, according to Coleman and Gagliano
(1965a, b), sediments of the two can be distinguished only when the associated delta
complex is known either in vertical section or plan view. The distinguishing feature is
the larger proportion of silt and clay the prodelta receives from the rivers feeding
sediments into the adjacent delta but this can only be established in comparison with
the sedimentation rates away from the delta influence.
Up-slope microcross-Iamination and current ripples are common, and the rock
types consist mainly of sand-laminated siltstone and shales (proximal prodelta).
Down-slope laminae become thinner and particle sizes decrease. Silt-laminated
clayshales prevail and, in many places, the lutites display only colour lamination
(distal prodelta). Shell remains and dispersed organic matter (DOM) may be
common. Bioturbation is likewise widespread but because oJ the higher sediment-
ation rate it is somewhat diluted compared with ordinary shelf sediments.
7.3.2 The Delta Front
Compared with the prodelta, both sedimentation rates and slope angles are higher
on the delta front, which begins with shale at its base and may terminate with clean
sand and gravel at the top. An example of upward-coarsening delta front sediments
in illustrated in Fig. 7.40. The delta front begins seaward with distal bar deposits
consisting of alternating sand-laminated shales and shale-laminated fine sand-
stones, often displaying flaser bedding. According to Coleman and Gagliano
(1965a, b), dilution of sea water by fresh water along with nutrient-laden currents
make this a favourable environment for burrowing organisms. Current ripples,
scour-and-fill structures and erosional truncations reflect the closer proximity to
high energy conditions and the stronger currents the delta front is subjected to, while
the increased slope angles may lead to soft sediment deformation. Periodical floods
are indicated by an increase in both particle size and the thickness of frontal splay
deposits.
Up-slope the distal bar gives way to the distributary mouth bars which are
formed where river waters leave the confines of the distributary channels and dump
most of their load as they lose velocity on entering the sea. The high sedimentation
rate leads to shoaling and subaerial exposure of the mouth bar at low tide, and the
combined effects of fluvial, tidal and longshore currents, as well as wind and wave
action, remove and redistribute many of the fine particle fractions. The result is that
the distributary mouth bar contains the coarsest and most mature sediments of the
delta front. Structures commonly associated with distributary mouth bars are
current and wave ripples, various types of cross-bedding, fluid escape and gas heave
structures, the latter resulting from gas released by rotting vegetation which has
been buried rapidly during floods. Autochthonous fossils consist of burrowers or
thick-shelled benthos situated between occasional layers of allochthonous plant
material.
While laterally distributary mouth bar sands grade into interdistributary bay
shales and laminites, their lower contacts are gradational or abrupt with the distal
bar deposits of the lower delta front. The coarse-grained upper portion of
Fig. 7.40. Upward-coarsening

delta front sediments, from dark-
coloured proximal prodelta at
bottom ofsection to light-coloured
clean distributary mouth bar
sands near right hand top in
Cretaceous coal measures at
Drumheller, Alberta, Canada
distributary mouth bars may be overlain by distributary channels and their levee
deposits or by interdistributary bay sediments and/or coal. As illustrated in
Fig. 7.39, the area covered by the different subenvironments of a prograding delta
display a systematic variation in size within the complex. This is an important
consideration in the exploration of a delta sequence because it means that the
likelihood of drilling a distal bar in a bore is considerably greater than intersecting a
distributary mouth bar, even when several distributary mouth bars have coalesced
into a delta front sheet sand (depicted in Fig. 7.39), as is typical for river-dominated,
lobate deltas (Walker 1981). Even smaller in areal distribution are individual
distributary channels.
The coarseness, thickness, and areal extent of distributary mouth bars vary over ,
a wide margin, depending upon the rate of sediment supply, tectonic setting and the
wave and current conditions of the coast (Saxena 1979). In rapidly subsiding areas,
distributary mouth bars are thick and of limited lateral range, whereas in more
stable regions the deposits are thinner and more widespread. In either case the
mouth bar sands have a flat conical shape, being widest at their base (Horne 1979).
The distributary mouth bars described by Baganz et al. (1975) from the Upper
Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) coal measures of eastern Kentucky are between 1.5

and 5 km wide and range in thickness between 15 and 25 m.
Also the sediments overlying the distributary mouth bars are affected by
tectonic controls. Where subsidence is rapid, the rate of sedimentation high, and
wave energy low, distributaries bifurcate around their own mouth bars. One of the
bypass channels becomes eventually abandoned while the preferred one forms
another mouth bar further seaward. At the same time, the old bar is starved of
sediments and becomes vegetated, or is flooded to become the floor of an
interdistributary bay. In the case of slow subsidence, the distributaries will rework
their mouth bars, which results in the formation of strong erosional contacts
between the distributary mouth bars and the overlying channel sands (Saxena 1979).
7.3.3 The Distributary Channel
The distributary channels of the lower delta plain are commonly isolated, straight,
and often filled with fine-grained material, although the composition of the channel
fill may vary in response to the proximity and strength of the sediment source. An
impression of the variety of sediments conveyed through distributary channels can
be obtained from a comparison between the silts and fine sands of the Mississippi
delta and the coarse sands and gravels of the Rhone delta. In rapidly prograding
deltas, the distributary channels of the lower delta plain are short-lived and
frequently undergo avulsion. Often they carry finer-grained sediments than the
trunk streams further up-slope, which leads to a lowering oftheir width-depth ratios,
for instance, from 1000 for the alluvial channels of the upper to around 50 for the
distributary channels of the lower Rhine and Rhone delta plains (Oomkens 1974).
Distributary channels ("Type III sandstones") mapped by Marley et al. (1979) in
lower delta plain environments of the Upper Cretaceous Blackhawk Formation of
Utah, U.S.A., average 7.3 m in thickness and 92 m in width, which gives them a
width/depth ratio of 12.6.
The shape of the distributaries varies also in relation to the sinuosity of the
channels. Under conditions of low wave action and small tidal range, distributary
channels are shallow and exhibit a branching pattern (Coleman and Wright 1975).
Such conditions are though to have existed in the coal-bearing Ecca Group of the
Karroo Basin in southern Africa (Hobday 1987), where closely spaced, bifurcating
and mutually truncating distributaries, between 8 and 60 m wide and up to 4 m deep,
overlie mouth bar sandstones and bay-fill deposits. The sandstone-filled channels
contain both solitary and grouped trough cross-beds. In the river-dominated lower
delta plain of the basal Tomago Coal Measures of New South Wales (Fig. 7.9A, B)
the mostly straight channels display lenticular outlines in transverse cross-section.
They are set in upward-coarsening interdistributary bay sediments with which they
may form gradational contacts, although more often they are separated from them
by irregular basal erosion surfaces, as illustrated in Fig. 7.41. The upper contacts
between distributary channel sands and overlying interdistributary bay deposits are
Fig.7.41. Cross-sectional photograph of the base of the distributary channel illustrated in the
Tomago Coal Measures west of Buchanan Tunnel, near Newcastle, N.S.W., between 175.5 and
181.5 m in Fig. 7.9A. Note the irregular basal erosion above alternating interdistributary bay,
marsh and crevasse splay deposits
also frequently abrupt, which results from the sudden cessation of sediment supply
when active channels are abandoned due to river avulsion. Abandoned channels
which were not filled during their active period become receptacles of fine mud and
organic detritus settling out of suspension (Saxena and Ferm 1976). Once the water
level is low enough for plants to grow, peat formation may conclude the filling
process.
Commensurate with their coarse nature, the channel sands in the Tomago Coal
Measures of New South Wales are usually not thicker than 3 to 6 m but their
proportion in the coal measures is high and, in some localities, they show en echelon
arrangement, probably due to frequent channel switching. Solitary and grouped sets
of medium to large-scale cross-bedding are common in the lower portions of the
channels, whereas near upper limits numerous tree trunks occur which are well
aligned parallel to the channel axes, as, for example, indicated in the upper portion of
a distributary channel at 171.6 m in Fig. 7.9A.
Because of the thin levee banks separating distributary channels from the
adjacent interdistributary bays, meandering of the channels draining the lower delta
plain is not widespread. If it occurs, it indicates absence of a strong proximal
sediment source and appears to be part of a tide-dominated delta complex. The
resulting point bars are generally finer-grained than those of the upper delta plain,
and their sands and silts, formed by traction transportation, are interbedded with
mud drapes deposited by suspension settling during slack periods on point bar
accretion planes, dunes (megaripples), sand waves and other bedforms. Depending
on whether the channel is set in the intertidal or subtidal zone, single or double mud
drapes (tidal bundles) occur as illustrated in Figs. 7.42 and 7.43. According to Visser
Fig. 7.42. Single and double mud drapes deposited on foreset accretion surfaces in tide-affected
fluvial sandstone during slack water at the turn of high tide. Above Gottessegen Seam (Namurian
C) at Steinbruch Rauen, southern Ruhr Valley, Germany. For stratigraphic position see Fig. 7.35G
Fig. 7.43. Tidal bundles on point bar

accretion planes in a tide dominated
channel in the Cretaceous Bear Paw
Formation near Drumheller, Alberta,
Canada
(1980) tidal bunbdles are produced in four steps:
1. A foreset or accretion surface is deposited by the dominant current which, in an

estuary often coincides with the ebb-current because of its augmentation by river
flow.
2. During the subsequent slack water stage a thin mud layer is draped over the
foreset or accretion surfaces.
3. The subordinate reverse current which in an estuary often coincides with the
flood-tidal current, covers the first mud drape with a thin layer of sediment
similar to but finer than the foreset bed formed by the dominant current. Partial
erosion of the foreset and its mud drape may form a reactivation surface.
4. During the second slack water period another mud layer is formed which covers
both the fine sand or silt and the reactivation surface, which makes it larger than
the underlying first mud drape.
Another characteristic of tidal bundles is their grouping into distinct sets. Such
segregation may be in response to neap and spring-tidal cycles which separate the
bundles into sets of 14 (diurnal) or 28 (semidiurnal), respectively (Visser 1980;
Boersma and Terwindt 1981). Other variations in spacing between sets of tidal
bundles may be related to fluctuating sediment supply.
The internal organisation of tidally influenced meandering channels is similar to
that of alluvial channels. Shell fragments can be found as part of the bedload, as has
been the case in the tidal channel indicated between 1400 and 1410 m in Fig. 7.44
above the Katharina Seam in the Ruhr Basin. Dip directions offoreset beds in tide-
affected channels are often bimodal in response to the changing directions (Oomkens
and Terwindt 1960; de Raafand Boersma 1971; Terwindt 1971, 1981; van den Berg
1981), which results in herringbone cross-bedding as illustrated in Fig. 7.45.
However, flow separation can result in some channels or parts of a channel being
preferred by the flood- and others by the ebb-tide thus giving the impression of a
seemingly unimodal flow direction in a restricted outcrop. An additional feature of
tidally influenced distributaries is the occurrence close to channel mouths of linear
sand ridges which probably are caused by alluviation as flood tides interact with
river currents (Elliott 1978).
7.3.4 The Interdistributary Bay
Bay deposits consist mainly of shales which are rich in organic matter and often
highly bioturbated. An example of bioturbation caused by burrowing worms is
shown in Fig. 7.46. A frequently observed upward increase in particle size is caused
by an increasing emplacement of splay deposits as a distributary channel progrades
into the bay, which is a mechanism not unlike the upward coarsening of fluvial
overbank deposits discussed above. In river-dominated deltas, the main source of
interdistributary bay sediments is excess discharge during flood periods when
sediment-laden water is diverted from the channels into the interdistributary bays,
Peatland on ZOLL VEREIN 6 UBK

Distal Bar ..EL
6 Flood Plain -v-
Prodelta 136o 12 St
LAURA 1
Peatland ~ r....-:-"":'-":~......~ Gs
-v- Distributary St
Inter-
Channel f"
Distributary .....,.....-.......--:"'0<,.<:..1<:;:, .QL
Bays with 137 o FI -v-
12 10 St
Splays 0
Peatland on LAURA 2 Distributary
VICT~ 1jO Mouth Bar
Flood Plain
~ jO
138o ""\I" 12 80
Sub-
0 Prodelta
Inter- FI
d jO
Distributary 0 Peatland and ZOLLVEREIN 7/8
139o FI -v-
Bay with Flood Plain 12 90 f'
"""IT"
Crevasse Stacked Spla
and Inter-
Splays 0 Distributary Sr -v-
140 /Sh I'" Peatlands 13
o~~t:" Sf -v-
Inter-Tidal
Channel
-- - :
"V"'
FI 0-
-v- Peatland
Sp,s 0
Inter- Inter-
Distributary -v- Distributary
FI
Bay 141 o FI Bay 13
~ Flood Plain cop
Fm 0 Peatland -v-
Root Horizon 0 n
Crevasse Spla y
s;- F> Distributary Sr jO
-v- Mouth Bar
FI -v-
Interdistr. Bay 0 I'"
0 Stacked
Distributary142 o Sf --u- 13 20
10
Mouth Bar --FT;r Distal Bars Fl,r -v-
jO
Stacked ./SS "I'" and Frontal
R.r jO Splays Sr -v-
Distal Bars
sr .."..
°mm
and Frontal jO
Splays 143 "V""
,.. 13 30 6
Proximal Fl,r -v-
0 Sub-
Prodelta Fm
Prodelta .::5
-.r
134 o 0 13 40
.::5
Distal 6
Prodelta Fm Distributary -v-
Mouth Bar 6
145 o 13 50 Sl,r
jO
Peat land KATHARINA-

Distal Bar SI 6
-v-
HERMAN-GUSTAV
Fig. 7.44. Part of the Ruhr section of Fig. 7.35C and D with palaeo-environmental interpretation
of the marine to tidal interval above the Katharina Seam. The scale is in IO-m intervals numbered
as measured from top (upper right) to bottom (lower left). For legend see Fig. 7.35G
Fig. 7.45. Herringbone cross-stratification in a tide-affected channel in the Cretaceous Bear Paw
Formation near Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. See hand-brush in upper right corner for scale
Fig. 7.46. Bedding plane showing bioturbation in interdistributary bay sediments of the Tomago
Coal Measures, west of Buchanan Tunnel, near Newcastle, N.S.W.
flood basins, marshes and swamps. The processes by which sediment is transferred
from the distributaries to the bay are the same as those operating on alluvial and
upper delta plains, namely, according to Dawson et al. (1989), overbank flooding,
crevassing and avulsion. In tide-dominated deltas sediments may also be supplied
by tidal currents. At high tide, they enter the distributary channels and spill over into
the interdistributary bays (Elliott 1978). Except for their setting, frequent bioturb-
ation by worm burrows, and the occurrence of calcite and siderite concretions, the
interdistributary bay sediments are not fundamentally different from the flood basin
sediments ofthe upper delta plain and like them, they may grade laterally into flood
plain deposits. Poorly sorted clay, silt and fine sand are common size fractions, and
are mostly interlaminated, although stratification is often disturbed by bioturbation.
The thickness of interdistributary bay deposits varies between decimetres and
several tens of metres. Baganz eta!. (1975) quote 15 to 55m as a usual thickness
range for these deposits in eastern Kentucky, where they extend laterally from 8 to
110 km. In common with similar deposits elsewhere, these sediments display an
upward gradation from fine to coarse which, according to Horne (1979), begins with
dark grey to black clay shales, occasionally with le nticular limestone and siderite
9
nodules, and finishes with silty or fine sandstone. In the coarser upper portion of the
bay fill oscillation and current ripples are common sedimentary structures with the
addition of medium and large scale cross-bedding in current-affected sediments.
A common feature, particularly of river-dominated deltas, is the high propor-
tion in the interdistributary bay deposits of crevasse splay sands. According to
Horne et a!. (l979a), crevasse splay deposits fan out from the breached levee banks
into the bay with the coarsest and thickest sediments being deposited close to the
channel above a basal erosional contact. More distally, both sediment thickness and
particle size decrease rapidly, the basal contact becomes non-erosive, and the shape
of the deposit changes from a proximal wedge to a distal blanket of fine sand, only a
few centimetres or decimetres thick, like the thin sandstone bands in the
interdistributary bay sediments underneath the distributary sandstone of Fig. 7.4l.
The larger area covered by distal crevasse splays results in their more frequent
intersection in bores and outcrops. For example, Marley et a!. (l979) report from
their study of the Upper Cretaceous Blackhawk Formation near Emery in Utah,
U.S.A., II occurrences of crevasse channels ("Type II sandstone") averaging 2.1 m in
thickness, in contrast to 72 tabular splay deposits ("Type I sandstone") with a mean
thickness of 0.7 m.
The frequency of crevassing increases from the upper to the lower delta plain
because of decreasing depositional stability and because the higher and wider levee
banks flanking the channels in the upper delta plain are not as easily breached as the
lower and more narrow levees separating the distributaries of the lower delta plain
from the surrounding bays and marshes. If breaching of a levee bank occurs during a
major flood on the upper delta plain or in an alluvial plain setting (e.g. alluvial
ridge), the opening is usually plugged when the waters recede. In more distal settings
breaches are kept open much longer thus giving rise to the formation of subdeltas
adjacent to the main channel (Coleman and Gagliano I965b). During their
constructive phase, subdelta lobes push into the interdistributary bays in a similar
manner as the whose delta complex pro grades into the main basin. The original
upward- coarsening pattern ofthe delta front is therefore repeated on a smaller scale
(2 to 10m according to Elliott 1974) as often as interdistributary bays are filled by
the products of prograding subdeltas. An ancient example of a large crevasse splay
which prograded into an open bay above the Middle Kittanning coal has been
described by Cavaroc and Saxena (l979) from northwestern Pennsylvania and and
northeastern Ohio. The splay deposits consist of four facies:
I. Major channels broadening downward into distributary mouth bars which in

vertical profile appear as crevasse delta/channel couplets.
2. A set of minor channels which extend from the major channels and occupy a
peripheral belt.
3. Interchannel silt cones occurring as overbank deposits on the flanks of the major
channels.
4. Chernier-barrier deposits consisting of reworked splay sediments at the distal
edge of the splay system.
E.xamples of mouth bar/crevasse channel couplets similar to those listed under (1)
are indicated in the stratigraphic column of Fig. 7.9A between 125 and 164 m, while
an outcrop of part of a subdelta from a similar stratigraphic level but situated outside
the section line of Fig. 7.9A is illustrated in Fig. 7.47. An extended vertical profile of
the interval is shown in Fig. 7.48, which has been interpreted as follows (after Diessel
et al. 1985):
Stage I. At the base of the section occurs a quartz- and feldspar-bearing sandstone
which is of medium grain size and contains both tabular and trough cross-bedding.
It has been interpreted as the upper portion of a distributary channel.
Stage I I. The delta distributary phase gives way to overbank deposits in an

interdistributary setting. Mudstone and coal horizons alternate, thus indicating a
peatland environment which produced the rather dirty and pyrite-rich Lower
Rathluba Seam. Rootlets and other plants remains, including occasional tree
stumps are common in the mud- and siltstones.
Fig. 7.47. Photograph of a minor mouth bar (A)jcrevasse channel (8) couplet between the Upper
(C) and Lower Rathluba Seam (covered by rubble at bottom of photograph) in the Wallis Creek
Formation of the Tomago Coal Measures at Thornton Brick Pit, near Newcastle. N.S.W. See
person (encircled) for scale
. . ..
80
~
6
M.tr.s
•• I
30 ••• Delta Distributary Phase IX
I
~
2130
Pea \land Phase VIII
GAP
Delta Distributary
20 VII
~
2140
Phase
Interdis trib u tary

VI
Peatland Phase
Delta Distributary
V
~ Phase
214~ 26 0
-F--,-,7,'-,---.r,'-.':".+
. .:=?' Distributary
>- Q)
, :;:; r-'"
Mouth Bar en
10
Distal Bar a.
c :e
~
Q)
IV
~ >-
Pro- en
'"
~
CD
(Crevasse Splay) Delta 0
5=~=~-!_!l=!!=!r:::::::==:::::~T~r:a~n:s~g~re:s:s:io~n::p~h~as~e~=======jlll
197 0
Rathluba
Seam Interdistributary
II
Pea !land Phase
~ Delta Distributary Phase

26~
Fig,7,48, Measured section of the minor mouth bar/crevasse channel couplet between the Upper
and Lower Rathluba Seam illustrated in Fig. 7.47. Thefigures next to the arrows to left of the section
indicate mean azimuth of cross-bedding, the encircledfigures refer to the number of readings. (After
Diessel et al. 1985)
Stage I I I. A transgressive phase begins with a thin shale band which overlies the
lower portion of the Rathlula Seam.
Stage IV. After the drowning of the Rathluba peat, subaqueous deposition
continued in a sheltered interdistributary bay environment (A in Fig. 7.47). The
lower 2 m of sediments consist of laminated shales and siltstones rich in worm
burrows and micro cross-lamination. The reference to a prodelta environment in

Fig. 7.48 is not meant to infer a setting in front of the main delta complex, but on the
frontal slope of a subdelta prograding into a larger interdistributary bay. This fine-
grained sequence is interrupted by a 0.5-0.8-m-thick medium to coarse proximal
crevasse splay sandstone with an irregular basal erosional contact. This sandstone
sheet is overlain by more bioturbated laminites, whose particle size increases
upward to form a clean, horizontally bedded sandstone representing a distributary
mouth bar. In its lower portion landward directed (mean azimuth = 26°) medium-
sized foreset beds appear to have been formed by wave-driven flat megaripples.
Stage V. The distributary mouth bar is deeply but irregularly eroded by a trough
cross-bedded splay channel sandstone up to 3 m in thickness (B in Fig. 7.47). It is
approximately 15 m wide and contains both at its base and within lower channel
walls, laminite intraclasts up to 2.5 m in length and 30 cm thick. They are the result of
bank collapse and are followed initially by very coarse, then upward-fining
sandstone. The southward directed foreset azimuths are consistent with the
northern basin margin, but they are opposite to those of the wave-driven bedforms
in the underlying mouth bar. The highly irregular and erosional basal contact,
and, in particular, the presence of the large, locally derived intraclasts suggest
that the channel is the product of a sudden high energy event, such as the rapid
emplacement of a crevasse channel following breaching of the levee bank of a trunk
stream. The intraclasts consist of sand-laminated shale and shale-laminated
sandstone, which may have been derived from the undercutting and collapse oflevee
banks in a similar manner as suggested by Gibling and Rust (1984) for the large
mudstone intraclasts occurring near the floor and margins of Upper Carboniferous
braided channels in the Morien Group near Sydney, Nova Scotia.
Stage VI. Overbank siltstone is followed by the upper split of the Rathluba Seam
illustrated in Fig. 7.47 (C) in the upper portion of the outcrop. Numerous plant roots
extend from the coal into the silty floor.
Stage VII. The upper split of the Rathluba Seam is overlain by a 6-m-thick channel
sandstone which is coarse at its base but becomes fine- grained and laminated in its
upper portion. Trough cross-bedding with basin ward directed foreset azimuths is
common.
Stage VIIl. Following a stratigraphic gap of a approximately 5 m a third split of the

Rathluba Seam occurs below another channel sandstone. In Fig. 7.48 they have
been referred to as Stages VIII and IX, respectively.
In contrast to the above examples of a mouth bar/channel couplet there are also
cases where the minor mouth bar is not capped by a crevasse channel, as, for
instance, illustrated above the Katharina-Hermann-Gustav Seam in Fig. 7.35C and
D, or at 1420m in Fig. 7.45. There may be two reasons for the absence of a crevasse
channel:
Fig.7.49. Starved ripples in tide-affected interdistributary laminite from the Tomago Coal
Measures at Buchanan Tunnel near Newcastle, N.S.W.
1. Following upstream avulsion either of the trunk stream or of the crevasse

channel, the subdelta was abandoned before channel sedimentation had started
in the reference area.
2. Similarly to the distributary mouth bars of the main delta lobes which cover a
larger area than their associated distributary channels, the crevasse channels too
are not as widely distributed as their mouth bars, with the result that bars are
more frequently encountered in bores and outcrops than channels.
As shown by the above examples, crevasse splay and subdelta deposits are overlain
by a variety of sediments depending on the rate of subsidence during their decaying
stage once the breach has been plugged or their feeding channel has been
abandoned. Their subaerial portions often become vegetated and if the growth rate
of the plants is not exceeded by the rate of subsidence, peat formation may
commence on the splay deposit.
In tide-dominated deltas the interdistributary areas are submerged at high tide.
They consist of bays, marshlands, lagoons, and intertidal flats dissected by tidal
creeks (Elliott 1978). Silt- and shale-laminated sands, as well as sand-laminated
shales often displaying flaser bedding and starved ripples (Fig. 7.49) are commonly
formed in these subenvironments, as well as mud drapes and other tidal indicators.
7.3.5 The Coals of the Lower Delta Plain
Lower delta plain marshes and swamps occupy interdistributary positions on the
delta surface. In contrast to the bare, tide-swept mud flats, their most noticeable
feature is the abundance of plant life which covers the raised levees of distributary
channels, as well as the silted-up portions of the interdistributary bays (Fisk 1960).
Coupled with the proximity of the watertable, this affords suitable conditions for the
accumulation and preservation of plant material in the form of peat, the
accumulation of which is interrupted by the introduction of fine clastics during
flooding, thus adding mineral impurities to the peat and subsequent coal. On the
other hand, flooding also disperses nutrients and spreads fresh water across the peat,
both of which provide for better growth conditions than prevail in settings away
from fluvial influence. The tidal effects on the peat leave their mark in the form of a
relatively high iron sulphide content which results from the reduction of sulphates
contained in sea water by bacteria, as discussed in Chaps. 4, 5 and 8.
The lower delta plain constitutes an environment in which the position of
depositional base level is maintained very close to mean sea level by a fine balance
between basin subsidence, sediment int1ux, subsurface compaction and eustasy.
Variations in any of these factors will bring about changes to sedimentation
patterns. The lower delta plain of an active, prograding delta is therefore not an
environment in which thick coal seams are likely to be formed, unless the influencing
factors remain stable for a long period oftime. Marley et al.'s (1979) observation in
Cretaceous coal measures from Utah U.S.A. of relatively greater coal thickness and
lateral seam persistency in lower delta plain environments compared with upper
delta plains cannot be generalised. According to Rahmani (1984), the lower delta
plain coals associated with the Upper Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone in Utah occur
as narrow belts land wards of and parallel to the delta front sandstone, whereas in the
Lower Cretaceous Falher Member of northwestern Alberta, Canada, a similar
pattern is broken up by transecting contemporaneous distributary channels. Coal
thickness, seam frequency and distribution in the coal measure profiles illustrated in
Fig. 7.9A, B, from the Australian Sydney Basin and in Fig. 7.35E, F, G from the German
Ruhr Basin, respectively, as well as reports from other areas, including the U.K.
(Fielding 1984) and South Africa (Holland et al. 1989) indicate considerably better
coal-forming conditions in upper delta plain environments than under lower delta
plain conditions. Also Horne and Ferm (1978) report that the lower delta plain coals
occurring in the eastern Kentucky portion (Pocahontas Basin) of the Appalachian
foreland basin system are widespread but thin. Modern examples of landward
gradation from thin, lower delta plain salt-marsh peat into thick, upper delta plain
fresh-water swamp peat have been described from coastal Louisiana by Frazier and
Osanik (1979), including the lateral coalescence of several splits of coastal marsh
peats into a thicker portion of inland swamp peat.
In the Permian coal measures of eastern Australia, coal seams formed in the
interdistributary areas of active lower delta plain settings, including those illustrated
in the stratigraphic column of Fig. 7.9A between 37 and 190 m, are also usually thin
and rarely exceed a thickness of 1 m. The marine influence is indicated by a high
pyrite content, whereas the wet conditions of peat formation are demonstrated by
low inertinite counts and a high gelification index, as illustrated in Fig. 7.50. This is
based on a high proportion in these coals of detrovitrinite (desmocollinite), probably
due to a high contribution to the peat by soft-tissued plants and the high rate of
biodegradation under elevated pH conditions. The tissue preservation index is
therefore also low, and there is evidence of a high contribution to the coal of cuticles.
-decreases TREE DENSITY Increases-

200.0
IImno-te/matic te/matlc
r--.
100.0
50.0
..""
10.0
..
0"
co
••
..
•
Ii • •
~
••
•
•
•
m
E
0
"0
c:
0
;0
"co...
5.0
>
."
.Q
"U)
n."
Fig. 7.50. Correlation be-
E
tween tissue preservation and 1.0 "
.."
.§
gelification indices of whole
coal samples from interdistri- 0.5 ::;:
butary lower delta plain
environments of the
Permian Tomago Coal
Measures of New South terrestrial
Wales. (Extended after GI
Diesel 1986a) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
TPI
These have been partly corroded by the brackish water so that the recorded cutinite
percentage probably does not fully represent its original input. The combination of
unstructured vitrinite, chemically corroded cutinite and the apparent paucity of
wood-derived macerals in the lower delta plain Gondwana coals of Fig. 7.50 might
point to an origin in a cold-climate marsh environment, analogous to present-day
high latitude settings.
In the course of delta progradation the tree-less marshes will be replaced by
forested peat swamps, as indicated by a reduction in sulphur content and a rise in
TPI, because more wood-derived macerals with a better preservation potential will
contribute to the coal. Because of intermittent dry conditions, the proportion of
semifusinite and fusinite will increase, thus lowering GI values which leads to the
upper delta and alluvial plain coals illustrated in Fig. 7.38. Conversely, should the
already high water table rise further, either hypautochthonous or allochthonous
conditions will be established which may result in the deposition of pyrite-rich
sapropelites. Alternatively, organic sedimentation may cease altogether.
According to Scruton (1960), the history of a delta can be divided into a
constructional phase of progradation and a destructional phase following abandon-
ment. Abandonment of an old and construction of a new delta lobe follows up-
stream avulsion ofthe feeder channnel, which is seeking a shorter and steeper route
to the coast, when its gradient has been excessively reduced by the preceding delta
progradation. Because of the termination of sediment supply, delta progradation
ceases and the destruction phase begins, during which part of the delta plain and
upper slope may be subject to marine reworking. This results in delta switching,
i.e. the construction of a new delta (marine regression), while the inactivated lobe is
gradually flooded (marine transgression). A modern example is the Cenozoic

Mississippi Delta where many such switching events have been recorded (Coleman
and Gagliano 1965b; Frazier 1967; Gould 1970), the most recent of which began late
last century with the increasing diversion of Mississippi water into the Atchafalaya
River. So far, complete avulsion has been prevented only after human intervention
(Fisk 1952b). A mature delta complex consists therefore of a stack of partially
overlapping lobes which carry a record of the repeated phases of delta construction
and abandonment. One of many ancient examples is the coal-bearing Ludlow
Member of the Fort Uriion Formation in the Williston Basin of North Dakota,
U.S.A., which, according to Belt et al. (1984) contains at the base a lower delta plain
association, consisting of stacked subdelta lobes, which originated from fused
crevasse splay deposits.
As the delta complex grows, the ratio between inactive and active delta lobes
increases and, although abandoned lobes are partially reworked and subject to
marine transgression, the area covered by abandoned delta lobes increases as well,
unless there is a strong eustatic sea-level rise. According to Frazier (1967) and
Penland et al. (1988), approximately 75% of the present delta surface of the
Mississippi River consists of abandoned lobes currently undergoing transgression.
The drowning of the seaward margin of the abandoned delta lobe (= trans-
gressive submergence of Penland et al. 1988) may be accompanied by the up-dip
formation of extensive blankets peats which cover much of the inactive delta surface
and many extend into the upper delta plain. The wide areal extent of the blanket
peats of the Mississippi delta complex differs markedly from the vertically and
laterally more restricted high ash peats formed between active delta distributaries
(Coleman and Smith 1964), and, according to Kaiser et al. (1978), Tewalt et al.
(1982), and Hamilton (1985), the contrast between a progradational "interdistribu-
tary type" and an "abandonment type" of lower delta plain peat is also reflected in
ancient coal deposits. According to Ayers and Kaiser (1984), the spreading of
interdistributary mires across abandoned delta lobes in the Powder River Basin of
Wyoming and Montana, U.S.A. has produced thick Tertiary coal seams, which are
parallel to the basin margin and also cover interdeltaic coastal plains.
The relatively thin and laterally discontinuous coals discussed above formed in
active interdistributary settings of the constructional phase. They carry the
hallmarks of depositional instability, which sets them apart from the more extensive
coals formed on defunct delta plains. Examples of delta abandonment coals from
eastern Australia are the Melvilles Seam in the Upper Permian Black Jack
Formation of the Gunnedah Basin (Hamilton 1985) and the Mid-Permian Greta
Seam in the Hunter Valley portion of the Sydney basin. The Greta Seam is part of a
deltaic molasse wedge which separates two thick marine sequences along the
northeastern margin of the Sydney Basin. The Greta Seam was formed on an
abandoned delta surface towards the end of a terrestrial interlude when the clastic
sediment supply from the nearby New England Fold Belt waned and marine
conditions began to spread again. The seam is underlain by conglomerate which
probably represents a gravelly delta plain and front. The seam averages 3 m
(maximum 7 m) in thickness and is in direct contact with the overlying marine
sediments from which, in some places, worm burrows extend into the coal. Being
The Barrier Beach/Strand Plain System 427
largely bypassed by sediments, the Greta Seam and other coals of this kind are
relatively low in ash and contain no or only few epiclastic stone bands. Because of
the enhanced microbial action due to their close contact with seawater in the course
of the marine transgression, these coals are rich in sulphur, detrovitrinite and
dispersed liptinite. This also affects other coal quality parameters, which will be
discussed in Chap. 8.
7.4 The Barrier Beach/Strand-Plain System
Shoreline morphology is largely a function ofthe ratio between sediment supply and
coastal energy. Where the ratio is high, the combined effects of wind, wave, tidal and
other current energy are insufficient to dissipate the volume of sediment supplied to
the shoreline, and a delta will be formed at the point of sediments delivery, usually a
river mouth. With decreasing sediment supply, wave and current activity will
distribute an increasing proportion of the incoming sediment over the adjacent
coast, resulting in a reduction of delta size and the number of distributaries
(Coleman 1981), until an elongated shoreline is formed in which the beach
constitutes the barrier between the land and the sea. In cases of very low ratios, a
negative delta, i.e. an estuary, will be formed.
Deltas and broad coastal plains behind barrier beaches are not mutually
exclusive (Ward 1984). Flanking barriers may be formed by the reworking and
longshore dispersal of sand from abandoned delta lobes (Penland et al. 1988), but
sand barriers may also occur on the edges of wave-dominated active deltas as
reformed distributary mouth bars and levees, and by the wind-driven accretion of
longshore bars onto the beach (Curray and Moore 1964). This results in the
formation of coast-parallel elongated sand bodies of considerable extent and
textural, as well as compositional maturity, although the latter may vary with source
material and rate of sedimentation. A maximum length of 64 km has been reported
by Englund and Windolph (1971) for an individual barrier sand body in eastern
Kentucky. Horne and Ferm (1978) quote a maximum thickness range of 11 to 26 m
and a width of up to 8 km for individual barrier systems from the same area.
Notwithstanding the preference of many coal geologists for the delta environ-
ment as a model for coal formation, indications are increasing that a high
proportion of coal has been formed on strand plains behind barrier beaches either
within delta complexes, between deltas (interdeltaic coastal plains of Englund 1974;
Vaninetti 1978; Ayers and Kaiser 1984), or completely separate from any deltaLc
influence. This new awareness is probably due to the realisation that the delta model
has often been invoked without much geological evidence. If Walker's (1981, p. 4.10)
demand that "the term delta cannot be applied to prograding beach sequences unless
one had plan view geometry in the form of isopach maps" had been rigorously
applied in the past, the delta model of coal formation would probably not have
today's prominence in the geological literature.
Foremost among the reasons for considering coastal plains outside the delta
complex as suitable coal-forming environments is the wave dominance of many of
the shoreline sediments involved, as shown by the upper Fernie and lower Kootenay
Formations in western Alberta, Canada (Hamblin and Walker 1979) and the
examples cited below, and the extremely high ratio between areal extent and
thickness of some nearshore sediments and their associated coal seams. Some strand-
plain coals (as used here, the strand plain, which is the product of shoreface
accretion, incorporates the lower or seaward portion of the coastal plain between
the shoreline and the upper coastal plain of more alluvial affinity) cover very large
areas without any obvious interruption, which is a feature they share with the delta
abandonment coals referred to above. Indeed, there appears to be little fundamental
difference in the conditions of peat accumulation between the gradual drowning of a
coastal plain or an abandoned delta lobe. However, if delta abandonment is such
that it allows peat accumulation at all, the resulting coal will usually carry a
transgressive signature and any re-activation of the abandoned lobe will lead to
renewed progradation and change from blanket peat to disconnected interdistribu-
tary peat. Because the methods of sediment supply and shoreline accretion are
different in strand-plain settings, there is no such geometric contrast between peats
formed under transgressive or regressive (shoreline progradation) conditions, and
both trends may produce laterally very extensive coals. For example, Langenberg
et al. (1989), Kalkreuth et al. (1989), and Kalkreuth and Leckie (1989) report on up to
12-m-thick Early Cretaceous strand-plain coals in Canada which rest on 15- to 35-m-
thick shoreface sands and gravels of the Gates Formation, that can be traced along
strike for up to 230 km and down depositional dip for up to 90 km (Leckie and
Walker 1982). Similar geometric relationships have been reported from eastern
Australia, where several thick, low ash coking coals of the Moranbah and German
Creek Coal Measures can be traced over a distance of 240 km along the western
flank ofthe Bowen Basin in Queensland (Godfrey 1985). Th.e coal-bearing strata are
little more than 100 m thick and are sandwiched between marine sediments.
Athough several authors have postulated a delta setting for the German Creek Coal
Measures and their lateral equivalents (Godfrey 1985; Phillips et al. 1985; Falkner
and Fielding 1990), the possibility to follow individual coal seams along strike for
over 200 km with almost constant seam thicknesses over much ofthis distance (e.g. 6
to 9m for the Goonyella Middle Seam, according to Staines and Koppe 1980 and
Johnson 1984) requires considerable uniformity of depositional conditions over a
very large coastal section. The lack of lobate delta front sands, the occurrence of
lagoonal sediments and texturally mature sandstones with beach lamination in the
floors of some coal seams, and other features, suggest that some of the stratigraphi-
cally lower coals might have been formed in a strand-plain setting which both
landward and upward graded into the kind of river-dominated alluvial plain coal
measures discussed by Johnson (1984). Another set of backbarrier strand-plain
coals has been described by Martini and Johnson (1984) from the Collinsville Coal
Measures in the northern portion of the Bowen Basin, where the authors were able
to identify shoaling-upward, prograding sandy barriers, lenticular and flaser
bedded, bioturbated tidal flats, herringbone cross-bedding, lagoonal deposits
associated with coal seams formed on wide, flat coastal plains. It is therefore
intended to discuss first some of the general aspects of barrier beach complexes,
followed by some relevant coal measure examples.
OFFSHORE
TRANSITION
I SHOREFACE
FORE-I
SHORE
BACK SHORE Vertical profile of
Mean Fairweather prograding non-

Wave Base Breaker
Line Berm Dune
Swell Zone Shoaling Zone

'"
; Runnel
~ N
o
N AEOLIAN
5
DUNES
HWL--
o FORESHORE
UPPER ,
- Ww
0:0
0",
-5 ILL
Landward directed lunate megaripples LOWER (/)
Landward directed asymmetric ripples and bioturbation ~ ' - ' OFFSHORE

-10 with HCS-sands -«' TRANSITION
Fig. 7.51. Cartoon correlating the main physiographic features of a micro- to mesotidal, wave-
dominated, non-barred shoreline with a vertical profile of sedimentary structures produced by
them under a regime of coastal progradation. (After Clifton et al. 1971; Hunter et al. 1979)
"~ OFFSHORE SHOREFACE NEAR- w BACKSHORE
~I
0: Vertical profile of
TRANSITION SHORE OI
a; BAR I (!I
::;; Mean Fairweather (/):l
Breaker (!1O
(/)
prograding barred
10 Wave Base Line zo: ~ Berm
01- oLL
...J shoreline
Runnel
AEOLIAN
5
DUNES
- HWL---
o FORESHORE
- LWL---- -~~=---~~~~~~~~~~T~R~OUGH
f""--~~.:>i LOWER
-5 landward directed lunate megaripples SHORE-
FACE
landward directed asymmetric ripples and bioturbation OFFSHORE

with HCS-sands TRANSITION
-10
Fig. 7.52. Cartoon correlating the main physiographic features of a micro- to meso tidal, wave-
dominated, barred shoreline with a vertical profile of sedimentary structures produced by them
under a regime of coastal progradation. After Clifton et al. 1971; Hunter et al. 1979)
The strand plain is a terrain of low topography that occurs landward of the
beach. In suitable climates it may be occupied by peatlands which either abut
directly on the inner portion of the barrier beach (backshore) or are separated from
the latter by coast-parallel lagoons. These may be connected to the open sea by inlets
which divide the barrier beach into elongated barrier islands. Two cartoons of
barrier beach morphology and sedimentation are illustrated in Figs. 7.51 and 7.52
together with the respective columnar section expected to form under conditions of
coastal progradation, mainly due to longshore accretion. They are based on studies
of Holocene shorelines by Clifton et al. 1971 and Hunteret al. 1979 and it is assumed
SHOREFACE I~ BARRIER l BACK BARRIER
~< ~/~~ FLOOD TIDAL DELTA
Metres
/I !f1' . ~TIDAL ~I
,,~ \ I N L E T ' : ,
10 / U EBB ""- " ---------.:: \ I / .'"
I ~r:z TIDAL ~ - "---- " ~
",
SUB-
TIDAL ----r-- / ~ DELTA SPIT LAGOON
\ ~ ""--- '\ '
5
CHANNEL
"-
/~ "\ ...-- MIGRA TlON
"-
-HWL-- - " SPIT
PLATFORM
'--./
o SHALLOW
CHANNEL
-LWL-- - - - --
DEEP
CHANNEL
-5 Mean Fairweather
Wave Base LOWER EBB TIDAL
DELTA FRONT
LOWER
SHOREFACE
-10 -v-~ OFFSHORE

landward directed ripples. HCS-sand
and bioturbation -«\\ -V- TRANSITION
Fig. 7.53. Cartoon correlating the main physiographic features of a wave-affected meso- to
macrotidal shoreline with a vertical profile of sedimentary structures produced by them under a
regime of coastal progradation. (After Clifton et al. 1971; Hunter et al. 1979)
that the shoreline is wave-dominated under a micro- to meso tidal regime. A third
model is illustrated in Fig. 7.53 in which a stronger tidal influence is envisaged.
Although there is no unanimity about the terminology describing shoreline
deposits, it is commonly agreed that the shoreface consists of the subtidal zone
extending from low water level to mean fair-weather wave base. In terms of wave
formation the shoreface comprises the shoaling, breaker, and surf zones and,
depending on whether the shoreline is barred or non-barred, a variety of bedforms
is generated, as indicated in Figs. 7.51 and 7.52. Landward from the shoreface
follows the beachface or foreshore which comprises the intertidal zone between low
and high water levels, the latter being situated close to the beach berm. The foreshore
accommodates most of the swash zone and is bordered by the supratidal backshore
and subaerial dune system (Reinson 1979).
7.4.1 The Offshore Transition Zone
The three examples illustrated in Figs. 7.51 to 7.53 are similar in the offshore region
(below mean storm wave base) and offshore transition zone which is situated
between mean storm and mean fair-weather wave base. According to Elliott (1978)
wave base, i.e. the line near the coast where approaching waves "feel" bottom, is
situated where:
Water depth = 1/2 Wavelength. (7.21)

Fair-weather wave base is accompanied on the shoreward side by a transitional

oscillatory wave zone which gives rise to wave alignment and the formation of
symmetrical ripples on the sea bed. The sediments formed in the offshore transition
zone consist of bioturbated muds and silt-laminated fine sands with occasional
small-scale current ripples which may be landward-directed. Interspersed are sheets
of up to several-decimetre-thick clean sands which have been eroded from the beach
and upper shoreface during storms and redeposited seaward. They display a sharp,
Fig. 7.54. Photograph of hummocky (HCS) and swaly (SCS) cross- stratification measured in the
Waratah Sandstone below the Borehole Seam at 465 m in Fig. 7.9B at the Waratah Pistol Club,
Newcastle, N.S.W.
Fig.7.55. Detail of hummocky cross-stratification along strike from locality illustrated in Fig. 7.54
erosional base and an undulating top, referred to as hummocky cross-stratification

(HCS), two examples of which are illustrated in Figs. 7.54 and 7.55. Up-slope, i.e.
near the fair-weather wave base, HCS is replaced by swaly cross-stratification (SCS)
due to the planing-off of the upward convex hummocks by shoaling fair-weather
waves, as has been reported by Leckie and Walker (1982). Further offshore, i.e.
beyond the reach of storm wave base these sands have a tendency to change into
thin, upward-graded turbidites. According to Hamblin and Walker (1979), both
HCS-bearing sands and turbidites have the same origin in a storm- generated surge
tide which pushes water against the coast. When the storm abates, a density current
is formed by the backwash, part of which may be deposited and moulded into HCS
above storm wave base, while another portion is transported further down-slope
and becomes a turbidite. Storm activity is an important agent of deposition in the
offshore region which receives only small volumes of sediment during fair-weather
periods. As has been stressed by Elliott (1978), the reverse is true for the upper
shoreface and foreshore, which aggrade during fair weather but are stripped of
sediments during storms.
7.4.2 The Shoreface
The shoreface is conventionally divided into a lower and upper portion. The lower
shoreface includes the wave build-up or shoaling zone between mean fair-weather
wave base and the breaker line whereas the upper shoreface extends from the latter
across the surf zone to the beginning of the swash zone (Fig. 7.51). Shoaling leads to a
progressive shoreward-directed asymmetry and eventual breaking ofthe waves. The
effects of wave energy on bottom sediments increase towards the shore, which is
indicated by a change from predominantly mud and silt to medium and coarse sand
as well as a change in wave-driven bedforms. With increasing wave build-up the
small ripples found in the offshore transition zone give way to flat but large
shoreward-directed lunate megaripples, which increase in size near the upper limit of
the lower shoreface and on nearshore bars during high tide. A recent example of
shoreward-directed megaripples from the Dutch North Sea coast is illustrated in
Fig. 7.56, while similar fossil examples from the basal portion of the Carboniferous
Ruhr Coal Measures are given in Fig. 7.57.
The seaward end of the upper shoreface is sometimes distinguished from the
other two units and referred to, e.g. by Reinson (1980), as the middle shoreface, which
is a zone of particularly strong wave action on either side of the breaker line. In
barred shorelines (Fig. 7.52) the energy pattern of this zone is complicated by the
occurrence of one or several long- or nearshore bar and trough couples (Fig. 7.58).
The latter convey considerable volumes of water and sediment parallel to the coast
before they are redirected seaward through rip channels (Fig. 7.59), as discussed by
Hunter et al. (1979). The result is an intricate set of ripples in which shore-parallel
and seaward directions prevail. Since during coastal progradation the nearshore bar
is eroded by the longshore trough (Fig. 7.52), the strongest indication for a former
Fig. 7.56. Flat shoreward,directed lunate megaripples situated on the surface of a nearshore bar,
exposed at low tide along the barred shoreline near Zandvoort, Holland
Fig.7.57. View (ac-plane) of flat (approx. 15 cm high) southward, i.e. shoreward to right, directed
lunate megaripples in lower shoreface sand below the Namurian Grenzsandstein at the
Hohensyburg, Ruhr Valley, Germany. The measured azimuths of the foresets are indicated at the
base of the section in Fig. 7.35G
Fig. 7.58. View of a longshore trough (centre) between a nearshore bar (left) and the foreshore
(right) exposed at low tide along the barred shoreline at Zandvoort, Holland
Fig. 7.59. View of a ~ip channel (middle distance) connecting a longshore trough (extreme right)
with the sea (upper left) across It nearshore bar (centre left foreground) at low tide along the barred
shoreline at Zandvoort, Holland
barred deposit in a vertical profile is the occurrence of an erosion surface be-

tween the shoreface and the foreshore. If the longshore trough responsible for the
erosion is well developed, it contains the coarsest detritus available along the
shoreline. This lag deposit will overlie the erosion surface, probably followed by
shore-parallel current ripples within a thin sequence of upward-fining trough
sediments below the foreshore deposits.
Also in the upper shoreface, variable ripple directions, as well as planar beds,
can be found. In the lower portion of this zone (surf zone) the prevailing direction is
still landward (Figs. 7.51 and 7.52) but with increasing proximity to the swash zone
the backwash from the beach produces seaward-directed ripples (transition zone in
Fig. 7.51).
7.4.3 The Foreshore
The foreshore is subjected to constant changes from wave swash to backwash runoff,
as illustrated in Fig. 7.60. Because the water is shallow but often of high velocity,
upper flow regime sheet flows are common, resulting in the formation of mature
sands with planar lamination representing seaward sloping accretion planes called
beach or (more specifically) foreshore lamination (Thompson 1937; McKee 1957;
Davies et al. 1971). Storm erosion and subsequent build-up result in the formation of
low angle discordances between successive sets of accretion surfaces. Since the
foreshore always slopes basinward, although beach cusps and coastal embayments
may cause minor modifications, beach lamination is a very useful tool in
Fig. 7.60. Illustration of a foreshore with swash zone (the wet, sloping portion to the left) at Dixon
Park Beach, Newcastle, N.S.W.
Fig.7.61. Photograph of gently southward (basin ward) inclined beach lamination (below hand) in
the upper portion of the Waratah Sandstone below the Borehole Seam at 477 m in Fig. 7.9B at the
Waratah Pistol Club, Newcastle, N.S.W.
Fig.7.62. View ofthe foreshore and spit platform portion of the Waratah Sandstone (between 474
and 477 m in Fig. 7.9B) at the Waratah Pistol Club, Newcastle, N.S.W. The outcrop shows well-
developed foreshore accretion planes (beach lamination) over a basinward distance of 10 m. For
better identification one example has been arrowed. The (weathered) Borehole Seam is covered by
the vegetation behind the person
palaeo-environmental analysis. Coal measure examples are Facies 5 of Tavener-

Smith (1982) in the Vryheid Formation of the Karroo Basin near Durban, South
Africa, or the shallow basinward-dipping foreshore lamination McHugh (1984)
found associated with heavy mineral zones and landward directed megaripples in
the Watt Sandstone at the base of the Permian Wollombi Coal Measures in the
northern Sydney Basin of New South Wales. Also the stratigraphic equivalent ofthe
Watt Sandstone, the Waratah Sandstone at the base of the Newcastle Coal
Measures, displays in its upper portion distinct foreshore lamination, which is
illustrated in Fig. 7.61 and at 477 m in Fig. 7.9B below the Borehole Seam. Its
southern basinward dip is in agreement with its palaeogeographical position near
the northeastern margin of the Sydney Basin and, by showing an opposite azimuth
to the foreset beds between 468 and 471 m in Fig. 7.9B, the dip of the foreshore
lamination is also consistent with the above-mentioned interpretation of this
cross-bedding as having been derived from wave-driven, landward-migrating
megaripples.
While in small outcrops and in bore core it may be possible to misidentify
beach lamination and mistake it for HCS or SCS, such diagnostic difficulty does not
arise when the exposure is sufficiently large. An example is illustrated in Fig. 7.62,
where the regularity and extent of the preserved foreshore slopes can only be
matched by some point bar accretion planes. However, as discussed above, point
bars possess other diagnostic features which exclude the possibility of a
misdiagnosis.
7.4.4 The Backshore
The backshore is entirely supratidal. It is separated from the foreshore by the berm
crest which forms the ridge between the seaward-sloping foreshore and the flat or
landward dipping back shore. As shown in Fig. 7.63, washover water collects in
backshore channels or runnels from where it is removed either by surface runoff,
evaporation, or subsurface percolation. The latter is mostly prevented by mud
drapes on the runnel floors, which results in the formation of elongated pools of
shallow water. Flat bedding (backshore lamination) is a common feature which is in
some contrast to the large-scale cross-bedding found in the subaerial dunes which
are often part of this environment. A variety of colonising plants and their roots can
be found among the dune sediments which have a low preservation potential and are
not commonly found in ancient stratigraphic columns.
Well-preserved berm crests or beach ridges and back shore lamination occur in
the above-mentioned Waratah Sandstone at the base of the Newcastle Coal
Measures. The relief difference between berm crests and intervening swales is
commonly less than 1 m with the result that unlike the Lower Kittanning and
Clarion coals discussed in Chap. 7.2.4, the overlying Borehole Seam shows little
variation between berm and swale positions. An example of a flat berm crest with
overlying Borehole Se~m and both fore- and backshore lamination is illustrated in
Fig.7.63. View of the berm crest (centre) with foreshore and swash zone to the left. The backshore is
to the right, followed by back shore channel (runnel), and the dune belt in extreme upper right with
houses. Dutch North Sea coast near Zandvoort at high tide
Fig. 7.64. View of the section of the Newcastle Coal Measures between 476 and 481 m in Fig. 7.9B
showing the top of the Waratah Sandstone with the overlying Borehole Seam at Alnwick Street
quarry, Waratah, N.S.W. The encircled hammer has been positioned at a berm crest, and both fore-
(to left) and backshore (to right) slopes are mirrored by preserved accretion planes (arrowed)
Fig. 7.64, although only some of the accretion planes present in the sandstone are
actually visible in the illustration. For comparison, a Recent berm crest and its
associated fore- and backshore lamination is shown in Fig. 7.65. A comparison
between ancient and modern fore- and backshore lamination suggests that the latter
is more limited in extent, less varied and frequently shows lower slope angles.
Fig. 7.65. View of a modern berm crest cut by a stormwater channel at Catherine Hill Bay near
Newcastle, N.S.W. Both fore- and backshore lamination are visible (enhanced). Note the similarity
to the Waratah Sandstone in Fig. 7.64
7.4.5 The Tidal Inlet
As illustrated in Fig. 7.53, in the vicinity of tidal inlets the shoreface and adjacent
zones are extensively modified by landward- and seaward-directed tidal currents.
Indeed, the whole barrier complex, being detached from the hinterland, is affected by
hydraulic and sedimentary conditions quite different from those operating without
a strong tidal influence. Depending on the availability of sediments and the
prevailing current conditions, ebb- and flood-tidal deltas may be constructed on
either side of the tidal inlet. In most cases sediment supply is uneven, so that the one
or the other delta becomes dominant. Where wave energy is high, tides are low and
rivers entering adjacent lagoons carry only small quantities of sediments, flood-tidal
deltas are common. Opposite conditions prevail in areas where the coastal lagoons
are supplied with large quantities of sediments from the hinterland, part of which is
picked up by tidal currents and used to construct ebb-tidal deltas. The latter build
out on the shoreface, which together with the fore- and backshore, is eroded into by
the channels connecting the lagoon to the sea. Next to sediment supply a major
controlling factor in the formation of tidal deltas is tidal energy and range. On the
basis of tidal range Davies (1964) established the following three categories of
shorelines:
1. Microtidal < 2 m tidal range.

2. Mesotidal 2-4 m tidal range.
3. Macrotidal > 4 m tidal range.
These tidal ranges have an inverse effect on wave energy which along macrotidal
shorelines is less concentrated and spread over a wider area than on microtidal
shores. Microtidal coasts are therefore mostly wave-dominated, they favour the
formation of long and narrow barriers with washover fans, widely spaced inlets
through which flood-tidal deltas extend into open lagoons. According to Hayes
(1975,1979) and Barwis and Horne (1979), more water is conveyed through barriers
lining meso tidal shores, which results in closer inlet spacing and therefore shorter
barriers. Backbarrier lagoons are often replaced by tidal mudflats, salt- and brackish
water marshes. These are commonly dissected by tidal creeks feeding into the inlets
on the seaward side of which large ebb-tidal deltas are produced. Macrotidal
shorelines occur mainly in trumpet-shaped embayments, where tidal waves are
funnelled and amplified towards the centre of the bay. This results in a constantly
changing water depth which, in conjunction with the diffracted water wave pattern
in the coastal re-entrant weakens the effects of wave action and causes the shoreline
to be tide-dominated.
Since flood- and ebb-currents use the same channel, the opposing flow
directions are mirrored by bedforms, an example of which is the herringbone cross-
stratification illustrated in Fig. 7.45. This structure consists of grouped but opposing
sets of ripple cross-lamination formed in response to the ebb-flood cycle. Herring-
bone cross-stratification is found not only in tidal channels but also on intertidal
flats, in particular the sand flats occurring between the upper and lower mud flats.
An example of this kind is indicated in Fig. 7.35F below Niveau Geitling 2 of the
Lower Westphalian A (Witten Beds) from the Ruhr Basin. Because megaripples and
sand waves usually do not react fast enough to the diurnal change in flow direction,
herringbone cross-stratification is typically found is small bedforms. Larger
bedforms show diurnal reversals only at very high tidal flow velocities, for example
Terwindt and Brouwer (1986) quote peak depth-averaged velocities in excess of
0.85 mls for the reversal of inter-tidal sand waves in the Westerschelde estuary on
the Dutch North Sea coast.
Examples of bimodal azimuths in megaripples are common in the marine-
influenced lower portion of the Ruhr coal measures, as indicated in the channel
sandstones below the Wasserbank 1 Seam in Fig. 7.35F and in Fig. 7.35G below the
Neufl6z, the Gottessegen Seam, and in the Namurian C Grenzsandstein. The latter
is conventionally taken as the base of the Ruhr coal measures. It is a compound
shoreline sandstone, which is overlain by lagoonal or interdistributary bay
sediments and grades downward into lower shoreface sediments containing frontal
splays with hummocky cross- stratification and shoreward-driven lunate megar-
ipples generated by shoaling waves. The upper portion of the Grenzsandstein shows
the westward-directed unimodal trough cross-stratification typical of many fluvial
sandstones in the coal measures. Its middle portion is horizontally bedded and
contains beach lamination, followed downward by a trough cross-bedded sand-
stone with bimodal azimuths, presumably of tidal origin. In the basal portion of the
Grenzsandstein horizontal bedding is repeated with the addition of some swaly
cross-stratification.
The absence of bimodal azimuths of foreset beds does not prove lack of tidal
influence, since in many inlets a flow separation occurs into either flood- or ebb-
Fig. 7.66. Basal portion of an inferred tidal channel in the Waratah Sandstone at the Pistol Club
quarry in Waratah, N.S. W. The hammer is positioned at the irregular basal erosional contact, which
protrudes from the rock face because of the more resistant coarse channel fill. The foreset beds in
the upper part of the illustration dip to the north
Fig.7.67. View of the tidal inlet into Lawrencetown Lake at the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada. In
the foreground is the accretionary, convex end of the spit platform, in middleground is the inlet, and
in the background is the concave embankment of the inlet followed by old beach ridges and
swales now undergoing erosion
dominated currents. This is particularly common in meandering tidal channels of

gentle meander radius. As discussed by Barwis (1978) and mentioned above, their
point bars may be partly or wholly detached from the inner channel bank, thus
dividing the channel into a commonly ebb-dominated main portion and a smaller
flood-dominated part situated between the detached point bar and the inner bank.
An ancient example of an inlet with unidirectional flow occurs in the before-
mentioned Waratah Sandstone at the base of the Newcastle Coal Measures. The
lower portion of its inlet channel is illustrated in Fig. 7.66. As indicated between 471
and 474.8 m in Fig. 7.9B, flow directions have varied widely but a northerly, i.e.
shoreward trend towards a flood tidal delta prevailed, and there is no biomodality
present in the foreset azimuths. These bedforms, which belong to the lower flow
regime, indicate that the tidal channels, when in flood, may have been several
metres deep. Shallow channels, which may be found on microtidal shores, are
indicated by flat lamination transitional to the upper flow regime (Reins on 1979).
Tidal inlets migrate along the shore by erosion and accretion in a similar
manner as meandering rivers across a flood plain. Inlet deposits therefore display
basal erosional contacts followed by channel lag consisting of shell debris, coarse
sand, pebbles and mud balls (Barwis and Hayes 1979). Lateral erosion on the
concave side of an old barrier is balanced by deposition on the convex side of a
longitudinally extending spit platform. Similarly to a point bar, the accretion planes
slope gently away from the centre of curvature and merge on the outer side with the
seaward-dipping beach lamination. Imbalances in the rate oflateral accretion across
the leading edge of the spit may cause the inlet channel to assume an oblique
position with respect to the shoreline, examples of which occur along many present
coasts. A ground view of a laterally migrating tidal inlet from Nova Scotia, Canada,
is illustrated in Fig. 7.67.
7.4.6 The Backbarrier
The back barrier area, being a low energy environment, produces sediments which
are in sharp contrast to the predominantly clean sands and gravels of the high
energy barrier beach and tidal inlet environments (Reins on 1980). Muddy facies, rich
in organic material is dominant, and only in places where washover sand, flood-tidal
deltas, or other shoreline features extend into back barrier lagoons, the prevailing
dark sediment colours give way to the lighter hues of high energy conditions. In
vertical profiles the contact between the commonly bleached strandline sand and the
overlying lagoonal and other back barrier deposits is sharp and marked by an
abrupt change from light to dark colours. Ancient examples are the contact between
the Upper Cretaceous coal-bearing Blackhawk Formation and the underlying Star
Point Sandstone in Utah, U.S.A. (Marley et al. 1979), many examples from the
Appalachian Upper Carboniferous coal measures (Horne and Ferm 1976, 1978;
Hobday and Horne 1977), the above-mentioned Grenzsandstein and its overlying
lagoonal deposits from the German Ruhr Basin (Fig. 7.35H), as well as the Permian
Borehole Seam-Waratah Sandstone boundary in the Newcastle Coalfield of New

South Wales (Diessel et al. 1989).
Lagoons are stretches of shallow water situated between the shoreline and the
hinterland. Lagoonal configuration, water depth, salinity and depositional pattern
depend largely on the tidal range. Microtidal shores, such as those of western
Holland and northwestern Denmark (Hayes 1975), or along the Gulf of Mexico
(Hayes 1979), contain few tidal inlets, which in humid climates results in low
lagoonal salinities due to the high influx offresh river water. Because the latter also
carry terrestrial sediments, river deltas will form on the landward margin of the
lagoon.
Another important source oflagoonal sediments along wave-dominated coasts
are wash over fans. They are thin sheets of sand which extend from storm breaches in
the barrier into the lagoon where they interdigitise with the laminated muds and silts
which represent the normal fair-weather sedimentation from suspension. In proximal
setting they are often flat-bedded, having been emplaced from high velocity traction
carpets, but distally they show bedforms of the lower flow regime, including
landward-dipping ripple cross-lamination (Schwartz 1982).
The influx of sediments from both landward and seaward margins of lagoons
may lead to their filling and transformation into peat-bearing strand plains. An
example of the colonisation of a partially silted-up lagoon by Spartina marsh is
shown in Fig. 7.68 from Lawrencetown Lake on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia.
Vegetated strand plains extend also over former beaches which have become defunct
by the seaward progradation of the active beach front. An example, also from
Lawrencetown, is illustrated in Fig. 7.69, which shows remnants of former beach
Fig.7.68. View of Spartina marsh colonising the silted-up portions of Lawrencetown Lake, a
coastal lagoon on the Atlantic seaboard of Nova Scotia, Canada
Fig.7.69. Beach ridge plain near Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, with wooded berm crests (beach
ridges) and intervening swales containing up to 1 m peat
ridges near the left and right margins of the illustration. A comparison with Fig. 7.67
shows opposing vegetation patterns. The berms (beach ridges) ofthe more youthful
coastal beaches illustrated in Fig. 7.67 are still so high above the groundwater level
that they are too dry to support arborescent vegetation. Trees and shrubs are
concentrated in the swales between the ridges, where the groundwater is more easily
tapped. In contrast, the older, more landward-situated beach ridges of Fig. 7.69 are
much closer to the groundwater table due to basement subsidence. In this setting the
swales, which carry up to 1 m peat (R. Boyd, pers commun.), are too wet for the trees,
which are therefore restricted to the elevated ridges.
By filling the coastal lagoons with sediment, barrier islands become connected
to the hinterland, and rivers which formerly terminated in the lagoon become
extended and issue their load directly into the sea, as is the case with barrier beaches
devoid of any lagoons. Moreover, by transforming former lagoons into strand
plains, new ground is prepared for further peat accumulation. It follows that the
floors of strand-plain coals consist of either beach and associated deposits, or of
lagoonal sediments, whereby lateral transitions from one to the other are common.
7.4.7 Marine Transgression (Barrier Retrogradation)
Although in the stratigraphic column a marine transgression is indicated by the

superposition of seaward on landward deposits, a reasonably intact sequence of this
kind is possible only when the transgression is caused by a rapid rise in sea level in
order to avoid extensive erosion and reworking of shoreline sediments (Kraft 1971).
However, very few marine transgressions proceed without any coastal erosion and
often the landward retreat of a wave-cut scarp has been accompanied by
considerable obliteration of the shoreface and beach complex (Bartberger 1976),
except when the transgression affects a delta complex, in which case part ofthe delta
may be preserved, initially, as a retrograding barrier shoreline and later as a shelf
sand (Penland et al. 1988). Conversely, transgressive straight shorelines are poorly
preserved and are often represented only by thin ravinement deposits in the form of
residual lag, whereas the m~jority of the overlying marine sediments already belong
to the subsequent regressive stage (Klein 1974). An excellent example ofthis kind is
the marine split (Archerfield-Bulga Formation of Uren 1985) between the Wynn
Metres 400 FI Sh Flood Plain with Flood Plain

~ Crevasse Splays FI Flood Basin
..I I
SI Point Bar $I Pomt Bar
390 FI Flood Plain IlL
Back-Swamp
Whybrow Seam S.
with =>
Vaux Seam L- Back-Swamp
Flood Plain c:
(No.25)
FI
Crevasse Splay
Flood Plain
0
a:
(No.17) FI
Sh
Flood Basin "
;ll
'=>" ""
380
aI Gs Stacked Point
§L Bars
SI
'"z Broonie Seam ...:?l
'"
SP,Gs FI,r Flood Plain
370 (No.f6) >
Stacked Point
..
3 Sh POlOt Bar II
1 ,.
Bars >
1
FI Flood Plain
FI Flood Plain Z
360
Stacked Point
'">a: $I
Sp Bars IlL POint Bar
Volcanic Ash Fl,r Flood Plain

350
Redbank Creek Seam Back-Swamp Crevasse Splay
FI
(No.24) Flood Plain (No.15) FI
Sl,Ss Distributary Sh Wash over Fan
340 Sp Channel 130 Back Barrier
FI Swamp
Sh Distributary Bayswater Seam ~
9
""
z (No.14) Gs Washover Gravel
!!!.... Channel
Stacked Point w",O ,,>
330
Sr.FI Bars with
Back-Swamps
ii:(!Jj::
a:~",
w=>"
SI
Stacked Barner ;~ "'"
.
Wambo Seam Beaches
0
FI Back-Swamp 5'P~ SI z
..
(No.23)
320 ~ FI.r Shoreface
Wynn Seam -==--MARINE TRANSGREsSiON
=> (No.13) FI Flood Plain
0 Ss St Stacked c: No.12 Seam S, Back-Swamp
a:
"=>
310 Sr' Channels
~ No.11 Seam glth Crevasse
plays
"" I
aI Sm
'"z POint Bar

'" 300
...:?l>
.. rut. !ij
5 -FI Back-Swamp II ;ll
'">a: 290 with

Volcanic Ash >
Z
FI Flood Basin "
Blakefield Seam
(No.22) Sp,Sh Crevasse Splays ~>
~ FI Flood Basin Sh
.
280
$I ">
r
Gh Stacked Point POint Bar Z
Ss Bars =>
270 0
a: Ss
~r Flood Plain
"=>
+
Sh aI
FI
Interdistributary
Bay with
260
Saxonvale Claystone
St,Ss POint Bar
- Volcanic Ash '"w No. fa Seam
Crevasse Splays
Glen Munro Seam
Z s;;-
(No.21)
250
Back-Swamp
Flood Plain
"'
>
No.9 Seam FI
POint Bars
PeaUand
Woodland Hill Seam FI,Sr Back-Swamp
(No.2 0) Flood Basin
with Crevasse Ss Dlstnbutary
"'f
240 Splays Sh Channels 0
Stacked
!!!.... ~
10m No outcrop
Sh Channels NO.8 Seam
No 7 Seam Interdistrlbutary "
POint Bar
FI Bay with
~>
=- =_=.: _
Peatlands and
FI Flood Plain
Back-Swamp
Sh Crevasse Splays
Unnamed coal and bands Flood Basin NO.6 Seam
FI.Sh with Crevasse Crevasse Splay
;2
Mt.Arthur Seam 210 - _ Splays Interdlstnbutary Bay >
(No.19) .... ~ Back-Swamp No 5 Seam
Sh Dlstnbutary Channel Z
POint Bar
I
Flood Plam FI Peatlands In
s;- Interdlstnbutary Bay
Piercefield Seam 200 Back-Swamp
with
(No.tS) FI Volcamc Ash
Falrford Claystone Stratigraphic Bottom of Sechon
Fig.7.70. Stratigraphic section of part of the Wittingham Coal Measures in the Upper Hunter
Valley, Sydney Basin, New South Wales. (After Diessel and Stoddart 1986)
and the Bayswater Seams in the Wittingham Coal Measures ofthe Sydney Basin, or
its stratigraphic equivalent, the Arkarula Sandstone, in the Gunnedah Basin
(Britten and Hanlon 1975; Hamilton 1985). The relevant portion ofthe stratigraphic
section is shown in Fig. 7.70 between 110 and 140 m. Before the onset ofthe marine
transgression at 110m in Fig. 7.70, the lower delta plain of the underlying Vane
Formation appears to have been replaced by an upper delta plain or alluvial valley
setting which was to continue throughout the deposition of the Jerrys Plains
17771 Area (approx.) NEW ENGLAND

LLL..:I of un split seam FOLD BELT
O · . Area of
. . . Archerfield-Bulga
Formation and
correlatives
____15 Isopachs
LACHLAN
FOLD BELT
N.T. I
I
~- __ -.i. ...., BOWEN
, ! BASIN
SA f-- __
GUNNEDAH
a 100
a 500 I I
~
km km
Fig.7.71. Sketch map of the distribution and isopachs of the regressive marine Archerfield-Bulga
Formation and its stratigraphic correlatives in the Sydney and Gunnedah Basins. Also indicated
are the regional names of the first coal seam overlying this marine horizon. A-B gives the position
of the section illustrated in Fig. 7.72. (After Hunt et al. 1986)
Formation. Within this sequence, the combined Archerfield-Bulga Formation

indicates a short-lived marine transgression of wide distribution represented by only
a few metres thick, bioturbated shoreface and foreshore deposits, in which McHugh
(1984) recorded elevated boron contents, compared with the over- and underlying
strata. The transgression occurred apparently in response to a eustatic sea-level rise
(Hamilton 1985), although Brakel (1984) also suggests a tectonic influence. It flooded
peatlands as far inland as the Gunnedah Basin 200 km to the north, and also affected
parts of the Bowen Basin in Queensland, before retreating into the more rapidly
subsiding eastern sector of the Sydney Basin as indicated by the isopach distribution
shown in Fig. 7.71.
Near the split axis illustrated in Fig. 7.72 the thin pebbly ravinement deposit
called "basal conglomerate" constitutes the whole of the transgressive portion of the
combined Archerfield-Bulga Formation. It forms a lag which comprises the
remnants of beach deposits which, in the course of the marine transgression, have
been successively destroyed and rebuild up-palaeoslope. The underlying erosional
contact with the Wynn Seam, possibly formed on an abandoned and partially
rewor·ked delta platform in a back barrier setting, rises in the direction of the split
axis, which is clearly indicated by its position relative to two bands of volcanic ash
(Wynn Tuff 2 and 6). The overlying bioturbated siltstone and laminated sandstone
UPPER BROONIE SEAM
• coal ___ erosion

FI Flood plain
o shale E2l bore No

Channels
~ siltstone v worm burrows Flood plain
D".. fine} TPI (loft)
o
0.70
0.41 GI (right) SI Channel
medium sandstone
FI Flood plain
~coarse
~ conglomerate St Channel
a FI
l
tuff
Sh
Channel
OM
Sh Channels
O.
BAYSWATER SEAM
,"M
ST. E7 E21
E" E2. E22 E3.
Fig. 7.72. Section through the northeastern terminus of the Archerfield-Bulga Formation along
the section line A (left)-B (right) in Fig. 7.71. Note the tissue preservation indices (TPI) and
gelification indices (GI) to the left and right of the coal columns, respectively. (After Uren and Diessel
1986)
of the lower shoreface (Bulga Formation) grades upward into fine- and coarse-
grained sandstone (Archerfield Sandstone) representing a drawn-out barrier beach
(Britten and Smyth 1973; McHugh 1984) and associated upper shoreface, all formed
during the retreating stage of the marine incursion (Uren 1983,1985). Towards the
top of the formation the proportion of medium and coarse sandstone increases with
the addition of bands of storm-generated pebble lag and stratiform concentrations
of iron oxide and zircon placers (Bailey 1981). The sequence is overlain by the
Bayswater Seam, which covers much of the Sydney Basin and has been correlated
with the Hoskissons Seam overlying the above-mentioned regressive marine
Arkarula Sandstone in the Gunnedah Basin (Beckett et al. 1983). Like the Wynn
Seam, the Bayswater Seam has been formed in a back barrier setting but under
conditions of a marine regression. The contrasting modes of formation of the two
splits ofthe same seam have resulted in considerable differences in coal composition,
as will be discussed below and in Chap. 8.
7.4.8 Marine Regression (Barrier Progradation)
Barrier beaches and islands prograde by the addition of sediment on the seaward
side. Wave action is often the immediate cause of the accretion but longshore drift
and tidal currents are the conveyers of sediments which have been transferred from
the hinterland to the coast by rivers. Also nearby deltas can act as sediment sources,
as has been the case in the formation ofthe Upper Cretaceous Star Point Sandstone
in Utah, U.S.A., which has been derived by longshore drift and wave action from the
reworking of adjacent distributary sands and their mouth bars (Marley et al. 1979).
The continuing supply of new sediments allows a linear beach to be expanded into a
broad blanket sand (Heward 1981). Because of the large amount of kinetic energy
released at the shoreline, coastal sediments are both compositionally and texturally
mature. Minor differences, particularly in the degree of compositional maturity, are
a reflection of the rate of shoreline progradation, suggesting that a rapid build-up of
shoreline sediments will allow the preservation of otherwise unstable components.
In the non-barred shoreline setting, progradation will lead to a simple
superposition of the co-existing subenvironments without the formation of any
major discontinuities between them. However, as indicated in the vertical profile of
Fig. 7.51, a weak erosional contact could occur near the top of the foreshore because
the seaward migration of the runnel is likely to erase part of the berm crest. Any
occurrence of other scour surfaces, particularly when combined with lag deposits,
heavy mineral zones and a large number of angular discordances between sets of
beach lamination will be an indication of the frequency and intensity of strom
activity at the time of progradation. In the stratigraphic column, the identification of
the various zones will have to be based on a consideration of particle size and the
sedimentary structures indicated in Fig. 7.51. .
As has been pointed out by Hunter et al. (1979), in a prograding barred
shoreline, the bar will be largely destroyed by the successive advances of the
longshore trough or rip channels depending on the position of the section. This
leaves little room for the preservation of the upper portion of the lower (middle)
shoreface, whereas the upper shoreface will be represented by the relatively coarse
deposits filling the longshore trough above a basal erosional contact. Careful
consideration of erosion surfaces and ripple directions will be essential for the
identification of the subenvironments. The vertical profile illustrated in Fig. 7.52
portrays the comparatively simple case of a longshore trough eroding the nearshore
bar. However, the profile is more complicated when it intersects a rip channel as well.
The relatively large volume of water conveyed through the shallow rip channels
entails that outflowing sediments are often transported by high velocity traction
crapets of the upper flow regime. This leads to the formation of flat-bedded sands
within the confines of the channels which change to the bedforms of the lower flow
regime with the seaward increase in water depth. In such cases, the order of
superposition is:
1. Basal erosional surface with lag.

2. Seaward-directed cuspate ripple cross-lamination of the lower portion of the rip
channel.
3. Flat-bedded sand of the upper portion of the rip channel.
4. Polydirectional, though mainly shore-parallel ripple cross-lamination of the
longshore trough.
Extensive erosion of the shoreface and foreshore will take place also on prograding
coastlines cut by tidal inlets because ofthe combined lateral and forward movement
oftidal channels. As indicated in Fig. 7.53, subtidal channels may cut deeply into the
shoreface, sparing only the lower portion of any ebb-tidal delta deposits that might
have been present. The basal inlet deposits consist of the coarsest lag available,
usually followed by several medium to large sets of either planar or trough cross-
beds. In addition to the erosional contact at the channel base, successive erosion
surfaces between sets of cross-beds are common in the deep channel but they are rare
in the overlying finer-grained shallow channel deposits in which conditions of upper
flow regime may lead to the deposition of flat bedded sands. Ripple and cross-
bedding directions formed under lower flow regime conditions are bi- or polymodal
but because of the above-mentioned flow segregation into either ebb- or flood-
currents unimodal cross-beds are also not uncommon. The spit platform shows
beach lamination similar to the foreshore, but slope directions may be more variable
because of the lateral component in its slope directions.
An example of a smeared-out, wave-tide-dominated barrier shoreline is the
previously quoted Waratah Sandstone at the base of the Newcastle Coal Measures
in New South Wales between 458 and 477.5 m in Fig. 7.9B. It spans the whole of the
Newcastle Coalfield but v.aries in thickness between 10 and 30 m, whereby the thick
portions appear to mark former inlet positions. Although the sandstone is texturally
mature, its polymictic composition suggests that shoreline progradation and burial
has been quite rapid so that a considerable proportion of unstable mineral species
(feldspar, mica, volcanic glass) has been preserved. The base of the unit consists of
bioturbated, shale-laminated sandstones of the offshore transition zone from 458 to
462 m in Fig. 7.9B, which grade downward into the likewise bioturbated sand-
laminated shales of the Shortland Formation (offshore) between 438 and 458 min
Fig. 7.9B. Small-scale ripples are abundant in the laminites which alternate
with storm sands containing hummocky cross-stratification, illustrated in Figs. 7.54
and 7.55.
The identification of the lower shoreface in the Waratah Sandstone of Fig. 7.9B
is based on the occurrence of up to 20 em high northward, i.e. shoreward, dipping
foresets (see azimuth arrows in Fig. 7.9B between 468 and 471 m), some of which
display an erosive lower bounding surface. As previously indicated, they represent
LEGEND
_ - Outcrop (Approx.)
• Bore/Shaft
.-/" Isopach(m)
o. 1 2 3 4 Km
"
Fig. 7.73. The distribution and isopachs of the Wakefield Formation, a lagoonal litho some below
the Borehole Seam in the basal Newcastle Coal Measures, N.S.W. (After Warbrooke 1981)
lunate megaripples formed by landward- directed shoaling waves. In the lower

portion they are interbedded with swaly cross-stratification, indicating proximity to
the fair-weather wave base.
The lower shoreface ends abruptly at 471 m in Fig. 7.9B with a strong erosional
surface cut into 1 m of gently southward i.e. seaward-dipping clean sandstone which
could represent part ofthe "outer planar facies" of Clifton et al. (1971). The erosion
scour is overlain by both intra- and extraformational pebbly lag (Fig. 7.66) above
which five to ten sets of large trough cross-beds contain relatively steeply dipping,
heterogeneous foresets, each one graded from coarse (base) to fine (top) sandstone.
The lower bounding surfaces of the sets are erosive and foreset azimuths average a
northwesterly trend. Further upward, particle size and bed thickness decrease but
the style of cross-bedding (predominantly trough) is retained although foreset dips
swings more to the north. This sequence has been interpreted as a 4- to 5-m-deep
flood-tidal inlet channel, which was oriented obliquely to the northerly Permian
shore. Although the flood-oriented current direction could be due to flow
segregation, the strong presence of wave-generated bedforms in the section suggests
that cross-bedding orientation has been influenced by the augmentation of flood-
tidal currents by wave action, as has been reported by Hubbard et al. (1979) from the
U.S. Atlantic coast. The inlet deposits are capped by the sandy spit platform whose
foreshore and backshore lamination has been illustrated in Figs. 7.61,7.62 and 7.64,
Above the Waratah Sandstone follows the Borehole Seam, an up to 3-m-thick
unit of high volatile bituminous coal which thins southward (i.e. basinward) to 50 cm
over a distance of 25 km. In many places the seam rests. directly on the sandstone
(Fig. 7.64) with roots penetrating either deeply (low water table) or at very shallow
angles (high water table) into the virtually unaltered sandstone. In other places an up
to 5-m-thick dark, bioturbated shale, referred to as the Wakefield Formation
(Fig. 7.73), is sandwiched between the base of the Borehole Seam and the top of the
Waratah Sandstone. It represents a lagoonal facies which in some portions of the
coalfield also replaces the lower portion of the coal laterally. Other depositional
changes in coal facies are brought about by the splitting of the Borehole Seam
around fluvial sandstones and conglomerates, as illustrated in Fig. 7.26. They
represent a penecontemporaneous channel trend which drained the strand plain
either directly into the sea or into more seaward-located lagoons after their
landward portions had been silted up and replaced by swamps. Towards the end of
peat formation, upward-shoaling lagoonal conditions were established again over a
wide area, which is indicated by the occurrence of dark, slightly bioturbated shales
(Tighes Hill Formation) above the Borehole Seam, as indicated between 480 and
487 m in Fig. 7.9B.
7.4.9 The Coals of the Backbarrier Strand-Plain System
Coastal marshes and swamps are low-lying tracts of land which are periodically
inundated. At present they support grasses, reeds and arborescent plants capable of
tolerating brackish conditions, as probably did their peat-producing ancestors in
the geologic past. Coastal marshes are often separated from the open sea by a sandy
barrier. Their surface coincides with the inter- to supra-tidal zones on the basis of
which lower, middle and upper marshes have been distinguished (Clarke et al. 1982).
For peat accumulation to proceed it is essential that tidal fluctuations are either low
or are channelled through established inlets, which prevents sweeping of the marsh
floor and removal of the accumulating vegetable matter. If the tidal surge is low, as,
for example in the Gulf of Mexico along the Louisiana coast (Frazier and Osanik
1979), the area of salt - and brackish water marsh development is restricted to narrow
belts close to the shoreline and tidal channels, bordered by wider fresh-water
marshes. A high tidal range and low influx of fresh water tend to push brackish
marshes inland, while a seaward extension of fresh-water marshes occurs in the
vicinity of active rivers and distributaries. As mentioned in Chap. 2.1.1.1, in present-
day tropical and subtropical climates, mangroves frequently line the tidal inlets and
muddy coastlines behind which either tree-bearing swamps or grass and reed
marshes expand (Habib et al. 1966; Spackman et al. 1966). The roots of the
mangroves form an interlocking network which is an efficient trap for sediments
carried by the tides and, at the same time, protects the accumulating vegetable
matter from being flushed out by ebb-tides or floods. However, unlike the
interdistributary lower delta plain coals, which in the Sydney Basin of New South
Wales carry a strong signature of herbaceous peat precursors, the very varied
composition of strand-plain coals provides little direct evidence for the pre-
dominance of either herbaceous or arborescent peat precursors.
In the above-mentioned example of the Archerfield Sandstone and Bulga
Formation the two enclosing coal seams (Wynn and Bayswater) consititute the
lower and upper portion of the same seam which has been split by the wedge of
marine sediments. Yet, because the Wynn Seam has been formed in front of the
advancing sea and the Bayswater Seam behind a prograding shoreline, they are
characterised by rather contrasting composition, as shown by the coal facies indices
listed on either side of the coal columns in Fig. 7.72 and plotted in Fig. 7.74.
The Wynn Seam, having been subjected to a rising water table during the
transgression stage, exhibits compositional trends which are also found in delta
abandonment coals, for example the above-mentioned Greta Seam. Like the Greta
Seam, the Wynn Seam is characterised by a high gelification index, high sulphur
content and moderate to high tissue preservation index (Uren and Diessel 1986).
Syngenetic pyrite is disseminated throughout the coal and also the overlying
bioturbated siltstone and silty sandstone of the Bulga Formation and the
Archerfield Sandstone contain numerous small pyrite concretions, particularly in
the basal section. Conversely, the Bayswater Seam having been formed during
shoreline progradation, i.e. during a regressive stage, shows a low pyrite content, low
tissue preservation index, and low gelification index (Uren and Diessel 1986). The
maceral composition shows that, to a large extent, the high inertinite content of the
Bayswater Seam is based on a high proportion of inertodetrinite, which is unusual in
reference to other high-inertinite coals of the Sydney Basin, but shows similarity to
coals formed in the intracratonic basins of Australia (Hunt et al. 1986).
In view of their contrasting composition, the close genetic relationship between
the Wynn and the Bayswater Seams is not obvious. However, as shown in Fig. 7.71
and 7.72, the Archerfield-Bulga Formation wedges out in the northern portion of the
Sydney Basin (Upper Hunter Valley) and the two seams coalesce. A third coal seam,
the Broonie Seam, which itself is split towards the basin centre, joins the other two,
thus producing a composite 24-m-thick seam of relatively clean high volatile
bituminous coal (Uren 1983, 1985).
The coal facies indices ofthe Borehole Seam, which has been formed behind the
barrier beach of the Waratah Sandstone discussed above, occupy yet another
position within the coal facies diagram illustrated in Fig. 7.74. It consists mainly of
banded bright coal and in its maceral composition it has strong affinity to the
alluvial valley and upper delta plain coals of Fig. 7.38. It follows that, in comparison
to the coals of the previously discussed depositional settings (lower and upper delta
plain, alluvial valley, sandy and gravelly braid plain), which occupy distinct areas
within their respective coal facies diagrams (Figs. 7.24, 7.38, and 7.50), the examples
given for the three back barrier strand-plain coals in Fig. 7.74 show considerable
variation. This suggests that the depositional environment is not the only geological
factor determining coal composition, but that it is also governed by the timing of
peat accumulation relative to the balance between sediment supply and sea-level
variations resulting in marine transgressions and regressions.
In spite of their compositional differences, the Bayswater, Wynn and Borehole
Seams all constitute substantial coal seams of several metres in thickness and,
including the Jewel Seam and the other example from Western Canada and eastern
Australia given above, cover a lateral extent measured in excess of 200 km. Indeed,
the uniformity of these coals and their large areal extent has been used to favour an
undifferentiated back barrier strand plain rather than a delta origin, although many
_ decreases TREE DENSITY increases-

100.0
Iimno-telmatic te/malic
50.0
MARSH
: ,.
-·I FEN
· •
10.0
Fig. 7.74. Bivariate plot of 0
•
Borehole Seam
the tissue preservation and
gelification indices of whole
coal samples from various
5.0
··
- "
~ 1:t
'N 'N),{ Wynn Seam
localities of three strand-plain
coals. The Wynn Seam (open
stars) is an example of marine-
influenced peat formation in 1.0
.lit 1f~7 REL. WET SWAMP
fron t of a transgressing sea, Bayswater Seam

and occurs underneath the 0.5
.lL.
marine interval, while both
the Bayswater (filled starts), REL. DRY SWAMP
and Borehole (filled circles)
Seams were formed on top of Gl terrestrial
regressive marine and drawn- 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

out beach deposits TPI
examples of back barrier coals cited in the literature, for example by Hobday and
Home (1977), Home and Ferm (1978), Marley et al. (1979), Home et al. (1979b),
Tavener-Smith (1982), McCubbin (1982) and others, are thin and laterally
discontinuous. Since this discrepancy affects not only the coal seams in question, but
also their underlying barrier and lagoonal sediments, it appears to be primarily a
function of differences in the respective rates of basin subsidence and shoreline
progradation. An example is the above-mentioned Wakefield Formation, illustrated
in Fig. 7.73, which is sandwiched between the base ofthe Borehole Seam and the top
of the Waratah Sandstone in the Newcastle Coal Measures of New South Wales.
It represents a lagoonal environment which developed behind a beach-barrier
(= uppermost Waratah Sandstone) and was silted up and eventually overgrown by
the Borehole peat. In some parts of the Newcastle Coalfield, the Wakefield
Formation replaces the lower portion of the coal, which indicates that peat swamp
and lagoonal environments coexisted for some time. Had the respective rates of
basin subsidence and/or eustatic sea-level rise been higher, the rate of shoreline
progradation would have been lower, lagoonal conditions would have been more
widespread and persisted longer with the result that, instead of a laterally very
extensive Borehole Seam, this stratigraphic interval might have consisted of a
number of discontinuous coal seams separated by bioturbated shales and siltstones.
A scenario of this kind has been reported by Marely et al. (1979) from Upper
Cretaceous sediments near Emery, Utah, where thin and laterally discontinuous
coal seams in the lower portion of the Blackhawk Formation interdigitise with
bioturbated, bivalve- and oyster-bearing shale, siltstone, slity sandstone and some
limestone, interpreted to be of lagoonal origin. The back barrier coals were situated
on the seaward side of the lagoonal deposits because they rest on upward-
coarsening accretion ridge barrier sands of the Star Point Sandstone and the
underlying Mancos Shale. Thicker and laterally more extensive coals occuring
above, i.e. landward of the barrier-lagoon complex, are interpreted as part of
marginal delta deposits which have prograded into the lagoons. Home and Ferm
(1978) propose a similar interpretation for the thin and laterally discontinuous coals
occuring in close contact with barrier beach sands on the seaward side of lagoonal
back barrier environments in the Lower Pennsylvanian coal measures of eastern
Kentucky and West Virginia. Once again, persistence oflagoonal conditions preven-
ted the establishment of any physical link between the thin back barrier coals below
( = seaward) the up to 24-m-thick lagoonal deposits and the more extensive and
thicker coals above (= landward) of the lagoon, which Home and Ferm (1978) also
allocate to a delta environment. Another example of a prograding back-
barrier/lagoonal association characterised by thin coals and thick lagoonal
sediments has been described by Tavener-Smith (1982) from the Early Permian
Vryheid Formation (Middle Ecca Group) at the eastern margin ofthe Karroo Basin
near Durban, South Africa. Fourteen different facies have been distinguished in
ascending order, of which the stratigraphically lower five are almost identical to the
upward-coarsening offshore to beach berm portion of the Waratah Sandstone from
the Newcastle Coal Measures in New South Wales. The subsequent facies units are
more akin to the two U.S. examples referred to above, in that the beach sand is
overlain by a thin coal seam, formed on the seaward margin of a thick sequence of
lagoonal sediments. The vertical succession of sediments suggests that on its
landward margin the lagoon has been fed by rivers draining the hinterland (Tavener-
Smith 1982).
In all the examples cited above, including those from western Canada and
eastern Australia, the offshore to beach berm successions, on which the coals rest in a
prograding vertical sequence, are very similar, but considerable differences exist in
their back barrier architecture, which is governed by an inverse proportion between
coal and lagoonal sediments. Where basin subsidence, eustasy and sedimentation
rates allow the persistence of extensive lagoons behind a coastal barrier, peat accu-
mulation is restricted to the shores of the lagoon, i.e. to a narrow belt landward of
the barrier and to a commonly wider belt landward of the lagoon, plus some peat
formation on low-lying islands and vegetated supra-tidal flats within the lagoon.
This situation applies to the above-mentioned South African and U.S. examples, as
well as to the thin and laterally discontinuous back barrier coals from northeastern
Kentucky discussed by Horne et al. (1979b). Also Carlson (1979) refers to some
elongated pod-shaped Carboniferous coals of Tennessee formed parallel to beach-
barrier sands, while Hobday and Horne (1977) find thin coals in southern West
Virginia, apparently derived from salt-marsh peat, adjacent to a beach-barrier and
extending landward for short distances over dark siltstones formed in a 10-km-wide
lagoon. The lagoons in the U.S. examples are not only wide but their sediments are
also thick, which indicates relative stability of the shoreline for a considerable time
span. This notion is further supported by the relatively narrow barrier sands (up to
8 km wide) representing a microtidal shoreline after Barwis and Horne (1979), and
their high textural and compositional maturity consisting of clean quartz sands.
The relatively stationary Carboniferous U.S. shoreline contrasts sharply with
the Australian and Canadian examples, in which the barrier sands are less mature
and much more drawn-out. This suggests more extensive and faster shoreline
accretion resulting in the formation of a wide, low lying and poorly differentiated
back barrier strand plain (lower coastal plain), on which peat accumulation
expanded with the prograding shoreline. Lithosome architecture is characterised by
high area/thickness ratios for both coals and their underlying shoreface sediments.
The suppression oflagoonal deposits eliminates the physical separation of the thin
and discontinuous coals formed from salt-marsh peat adjacent to a beach-barrier
from the thick coals formed from fresh-water peat in swamps landward of the
lagoon. Instead, the thin, impure and discontinuous marsh coals grade inland across
the strand plain into thick swamp-derived coals, which during progradation is
transformed into a vertical succession. The reduction in lagoon size and frequency
may also suggest transition from micro- to mesotidal shoreline conditions, but
bedforms such as hummocky cross-stratification, shoreward-directed wave-driven
lunate megaripples, and low number of trace fossils found in the above-mentioned
Waratah Sandstone would indicate an important contribution by wave action to the
coastal energy budget.
The occurrence of only ephemeral lagoons means that landward the strand-
plain deposits were replaced by an alluvial plain association, which also formed the
456 Coal-Producing Sedimentary Enviromnents
coal roof for as long as the progradational trend was maintained. Also this palaeo-
environmental motif contrasts with the landward margin oflagoon-dominated back-
barrier settings. According to Home and Ferm (1978) and Marley et al. (1979), the
depositional environment landward of the lagoon is deltaic, but unlike the delta
deposits discussed in Chap. 7.3, these deltas are subordinate to the back barrier/
lagoonal complex and do not prograde directly into the sea. Since there are
differences in environmental energy and depositional stability between deltas
prograding into lagoons ;:md into the sea, respectively, some variation should be
expected between the coals of the two settings. Such differences would affect the
lower delta plain more than the upper delta plain coals, since by the time upper delta
plain conditions have been established, it matters little where the distal distribu-
taries discharge their load.
The above discussion has demonstrated the existence of a considerable variety
of back barrier/strand-plain coals formed in response to a combination of basin
subsidence, eustasy, and sedimentation. rates. While thickness and lateral extent of
these coal seams appear to be related mainly to the rate of shoreline progradation,
their composition is a reflection of the hydrologic conditions and trends prevailing
in the mire at the time of peat accumulation. By using the above example from
the Sydney Basin in New South Wales this problem will be further explored in
Chap. 8.
7.5 The Estuary
Estuaries are open-ended, trumpet-shaped coastal embayments formed by the

interaction of a river and macrotidal currents in areas where coastal (i.e. tidal) eaergy
exceeds the rate of sediment supply. As mentioned above, such coastal indentations
cause tidal waves to be funnelled and amplified towards the centre of the re-entrant.
Because water wave energy is weakened by diffraction and attenuation due to the
constantly changing water depth, macrotidal shorelines are tide-dominated. Under
such regime coast-parallel barrier islands do not form, but elongated shoals and
sand flats are arranged normal to the coast. The shores of the estuary are flanked by
wide tidal flats and marshes, commonly dissected by numerous meandering tidal
channels (Hayes 1975, 1979). The thickness of tidal flat sediments varies in
accordance with rates of sedimentation and subsidence. A Holocene example is the
present St. Helena estuarine complex situated seaward of the Snuggedy Swamp on
the Atlantic coast of South Carolina. Its tidal flat sediments are up to 8 m thick and
consist of several cycles each of which grades upward from clay to silt and is capped
by either high sulphur salt-marsh peat or a rooted horizon (Staub and Cohen 1979).
Many large estuaries are prominent features of coastal geomorphology in their
own right, as, for example, the mouths of the Elbe and Weser Rivers in the German
North Sea Bight. However, in the same way as barrier beaches may be part of a
wave-dominated delta, the mouths of distributaries may be dilated into estuaries in
tide-dominated deltas, where they constitute a subenvironment.
The Estuary 457
The salinity of water in estuaries varies from mainly fresh water, where discharge
is high (e.g. Amazon), to either brackish or stratified. The latter case is quite common
because the two-layered system of light river water overlying relatively dense salt
water at the bottom is comparatively stable (Gray 1988). The volume and areal
extent of the two layers relative to each other depend on such factors as fresh-water
discharge, tidal configuration and estuary shape (e.g. width-depth ratio). For the
environmental interpretation of fossil estuarine deposits, it is important to realise
that a stratified system allows marine organisms to migrate within the salt-water
wedge for long distances upstream where they occupy an otherwise fluvial
sedimentary environment, often in close proximity to fresh-water biota (Gray 1988).
7.5.1 Present and Past Estuarine Deposits
Several cases of estuarine deposits associated with coal measures have been quoted
in the literature, for example by Horne and Ferm (1978) from Upper Carboniferous
coals measures at Bonner Branch near Baileysville in West Virginia, U.S.A.,
and by Rahmani (1983, 1984, 1986) from the Cretaceous foreland basin of
Alberta, Canada. Commonly the estuary consists of a broad channel, several
hundred metres to several kilometres in width, which has been scoured into the
coastal barrier. Above the basal erosional contact, the estuarine fill begins with
approximately 4 m of fine- to medium-grained quartz sandstone which is interbed-
ded by thin siltstone layers with a vertical spacing of 3 to 25 cm. Bioturbation is
widespread but not excessive, mainly by the burrows of Skolithos and annelids, such
as Polychaeta. A distinct feature of the quartz sandstone is its polymodal cross-
stratification in response to the interference of tidal and fluvial currents. Shoreward-
driven sand waves show internal cross-bedding with up-slope-dipping foresets. After
this high energy environment followed a period of inactivity which is indicated by
black shale. This is overlain by another set of mature quartz sandstones, indicating
temporary re-occupation of the channel, after which the estuarine sequence was
capped by a fossiliferous bayfill.
Another example of coal-bearing sediments with an estuarine signature is the
Cretaceous molasse of the Rocky Mountains which was deposited by easterly
prograding deltas (Shepheard and Hills 1970) along the western shoreline of the
epicontinental sea of the Western Interior of Canada and the United States. Based
on his work in the Drumheller region, northeast of Calgary in Alberta, Rahmani
(1983) has suggested that the east-northeasterly trend ofthe coastline was modified
by deep embayments and estuaries in which fluvial and tidal energy were the
dominant forces shaping the Cretaceous coast. In vertical profile it shows several up
to 2-km-wide and 40-m-deep channels in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, which
are filled with shale and siltstone, although a systematic lateral variation in channel
fill has been recorded, on the basis of which Rahmani (1986) distinguishes between a
downstream sand-filled stretch of marine source, a mud-filled middle section and an
upstream sand-filled stretch of fluvial dominance. Lateral accretion bedding of point
or side bar origin consists of interbedded sandstone and shale with mud drapes and
tidal bundles, as well as bioturbation. Marine fauna coexists with terrestrial flora in
these estuarine channels, which according to Rahmani (1986) may be due to the
upstream extension of a salt-water wedge in the manner discussed above.
The Cretaceous palaeogeography in the Drumheller region, northeast of
Calgary, Alberta, shows similarity to the Recent Ossabow Sound (Greer 1975),
which is situated on the coast of Georgia, U.S.A. Progradation of an ebb-tidal delta
has produced an upward-coarsening sequence in which bioturbated muddy shelf
sands grade into a wave- arid tide-dominated shoal composed of mature sands. They
are truncated by an estuarine channel whose sediments are quite variable and show
considerable lateral variation in sedimentary structures (Howard et al. 1975).
The main criteria used by Rahmani (1983, 1984, 1986) in the recognition of the
estuarine channels in the Drumheller sequences are their upstream and downstream
lithologic variation, which is a common feature of modern estuaries such as the
above-mentioned Ossabaw Sound and the mouth of the Rhine River (Oomkens and
Terwindt 1960), the bimodal palaeocurrent distribution, the abundance of tidal
bundles (Fig. 7.43), and the herringbone cross-stratification illustrated in Fig. 7.45).
As mentioned above, mud drapes and tidal bundles are commonly found on the
foresets of large tide-influenced bedforms or on point bar accretion surfaces of
subtidal channels (van Straaten 1954; Reineck and Wunderlich 1968; Reineck and
Singh 1975). Although these are not restricted to estuaries but can be found in other
tidally influenced environments, the usually macrotidal nature of wide estuaries
offers particularly suitable conditions for their preservation. Associated with tidal
channels are tidal flats which, in relation to water level and under conditions of low
wave action, can be divided into three groups (after Elliott 1978):
1. Supratidal flats are situated above mean high water level and are therefore
inundated in exceptional circumstances. In suitable climates they may support
abundant halophytic vegetation, either as salt marshes or mangrove swamps,
either of which may produce some impure peat.
2. Intertidal flats are situated between mean high and low water levels. Because of
their intermediate position they are washed by both ebb and flood currents,
particularly in their central portion which, for this reason, is made up of sand flats
displaying intensive and often bimodal ripple cross-lamination. On their
shoreward side the rising water loses its transporting capacity as it approaches
high tide, while the seaward-increasing water depth will do the same, thus causing
the sand flats to be fringed by the upper and lower mud flats, respectively. The
transitional zones between the sand and mud flats are characterised by flaser and
linsen bedding, straved ripples and bioturbation.
3. Subtidal flats are commonly composed of bioturbated but otherwise featureless
mud under micro- to meso tidal conditions but in macrotidal coastal embay-
ments, e.g. King Georges Sound in northwestern Australia, or the German Bight
in the North Sea, considerable concentrations of rippled sand together with
subtidal channels may occur.
The Estuary 459
7.5.2 The Coals of the Estuarine System
Similarly to the fringing peat deposits of modern estuaries, coals formed in ancient
estuarine environments appear to be mostly thin and discontinuous. The four to five
coal seams associated with estuarine deposits in the above-mentioned Drumheller
area, for example, are of limited lateral extent and only Coal 0 at the top of
Rahmani's (1983) Unit 1 has a wide horizontal distribution. It has an average
thickness of 0.5 m (maximum = 0.9 m) and occurs as a cap on a several-met res-thick
tidal flat deposits consisting of alternating laminated and rippled fine grained sand
and silt. Although some mineable coal occurs in the Drumheller area, usually by the
coalescence of several seams, both thickness and lateral persistence of coal, as well as
the total number of coal seams increase to the northeast in the Battle River Coalfield.
According to Dawson et al. (1989), the coals are characterised by very high
gelification and moderate tissue preservation indices, similarly to the coal facies
indices of the interdistributary lower delta plain coals illustrated in Fig. 7.50,
although their sulphur contents are generally low (generally < 1%db) for marine or
brackish influenced coals. Their depositional environment is similar to that of
Drumheller, i.e. the coals occur commonly above coarsening-upward sequences, but
without the strong bimodal palaeocurrent signature. The unimodal current
directions, the greater thickness and laterally more persistent nature of coal seams,
and their low sulphur contents suggest that the estuarine environments of
Drumheller did not extend to the Battle River coals, but that these coals were formed
in a more fresh-water-dominated hinterland.
8 Coal Formation and Sequence Stratigraphy
The preceding chapter has shown that in the course of undisturbed sedimentation
the various depositional environments produce specific orders of superposition of
lithofacies which are recognisable in the stratigraphic column as either rhythmic or
cyclic patterns. The strongest cyclicity results from coastal settings, where on either
side of the shoreline several contrasting depositional environments coexist which
can be shifted readily by relative sea level variations. Coal measures interbedded
with marine sediments therefore provide particularly good examples of cyclic sedi-
mentation and were used by Weller (1930) to formulate the concept of cyclothems,
which for many decades strongly influenced research into coal measure sediment-
ation (Fiege 1937, 1952; van Leckwijck 1948; Wanless 1931, 1950; Wanless and
Weller 1932; Wanless and Shephard 1936; Weller 1956, 1958; Moore 1950; Moore
1959; Jessen 1956a-c, 1961; Jessen et al. 1952, and others). A comprehensive
summary of the early work is given by Duff et al. (1967).
In Weller's (1930) original concept, the "ideal cyclothem" was based on the
actual and inferred order of superposition of an optimum number of ten rock units
formed during a single depositional cycle. Subsequently, numerous variations were
proposed which reflected regional differences in tectonic setting and sedimentary
environment. For example, the neritic and deltaic cyclothem models established by
Wanless and Shephard (1936) for the midcontinental and eastern interior States of
the U.S.A. contain more marine limestone and shale intercalations than the
piedmont type of the southern Appalachians. The piedmont type contains more
coarse clastics, similar to Goodell's (in Krumbein and Sloss, 1963) foreland basin
type from Central Wyoming, or van Leckwijk's (1964) "complete cycle" from the
Namurian coal measures of Belgium, or the "Regel-Cyclothem" Jessen (1956a, 1961)
proposed for the Westfalian Ruhr Basin. As shown by the example in Table 8.1, the
change from coarse to fine clastic sediments including coal is called the progressive
hemicyclothem formed during a marine transgression, whereas the subsequent
regression is expressed by a reversal in particle size distribution in the recessive
hemicyclothem. The change from progressive to recessive is placed in the roof shale
ofthe coal seam where, ideally, fossils demonstrate a faunal cycle ranging from fresh
water through brackish to marine and back to fresh-water forms.
Almost all authors of cyclothem models have referred to the existence of many
exceptions from the idealised number oflithofacies and their order of superposition,
which were regarded as local variations of the essential paradigm. The development
of Markov chain analysis and other statistical methods by which the probability of a
certain order of superposition could be quantified (Duff and Walton 1962; Preston
Table 8.1. Example of the order of superposition and classification of lithofacies in an idealised
cyclothem from the Upper Carboniferous coal measures of the Ruhr Basin, Germany. (After
Jessen 1956a and 1961)
Upper Cyclothem Limit
14. Conglomeratic sandstone with extraformational clasts

13. Coarse sandstone, partly with intraformational clasts
12. Fine sandstone 8b-14: Recessive
11. Sand-laminated shale or shale-laminated sandstone
10. Sandy shale Hemicyclothem
9. Silty shale
8b. Shale
8a. Shale
7. Coal
6. Shale (seat earth) 1-8a: Progressive
5. Silty shale
4. Sandy shale Hemicyclothem
3. Sand-laminated shale or shale-laminated sandstone
2. Fine sandstone
1. Coarse sandstone
Lower Cyclothem Limit
and Henderson 1964; Pearn 1964; Potter and Blakely 1968; Harbaugh and Merriam
1968; Selley 1969; Duff 1974; Cassyhap 1975) introduced a higherlevel of objectivity
to cyclothem research (Ferm 1975). However, it also reinforced the concept of a
"normal" order of superposition with a high probability of occurrence, thereby
relegating less significant lithofacies transitions to a status of aberrations independ-
ent of their geological significance. The basic assumption that the position of the
individual sedimentation elements within a cyclothem was determined by the pre-
vailing state of marine transgression or regression remained with little regard for
the signatures left by contrasting depositional environments. This rather rigid
framework can lead to gross misinterpretations, which is demonstrated by the
following example of the status of sandstones within the cyclothem concept:
The change from a recessive to a progressive hemicyclothem (i.e. the cyclothem

boundary in Table 8.1) is situated above the coarsest fraction of the cyclothem,
which may constitute a sharp break or an upward gradation from pebbly to coarse,
medium and fine sandstone as, for instance, within a laterally accreted point bar
unit. Indeed, the coarsest clastics have commonly been regarded as end-members of
the recessive hemicyclothem, i.e. as indicators of emersion, irrespective of whether
they represent the bed load zone of a fluvial or tidal channel, the basal portion of a
proximal crevasse splay, a marine storm lag, a barrier beach, a washover fan, or a
distributary mouth bar. The development in the last 30 years of methods and
sedimentological techniques which facilitated better recognition of such depo-
sitional environments (see Chap. 7) has provided a highly flexible antithesis to the
rigidity ofthe cyclothem concept (Moore 1959; Goodlet 1959; Ferm 1979). Channel
avulsion, distributary switching, delta abandonment, bar migration, and other
Basic Concepts of Sequence Stratigraphy 463
episodic and/or periodic processes might well explain many of the local variations
and so-called exceptions from the ideal cyclothem but these autosedimentational
events or autocyclic mechanisms of Beerbower (1964) cannot explain the basin-wide
depositional features which respond to basin dynamics and other allocyclic
mechanisms (Beerbower 1964). In reference to his model of Pennsylvanian deltaic
coal measure formation, Ferm (1979, p. 146) states therefore: "The problem is, thus,
not one of alternatives between delta building and sea level control as an
explanation for alternating marine and nonmarine Carboniferous rocks, but one of
determining the degree to which the delta process has been affected by eustatic or
isostatic changes."
The concept of sequence stratigraphy, introduced by Vail et al. (1977), and further
developed by van Wagoner (1988), van Wagoner et al. (1987, 1990) and others,
combines the global aspect of cyclothems with the flexibility of regional and auto-
cyclic variations. Sequence stratigraphy has established new methods of subdivi-
ding, correlating and mapping sedimentary rocks. In doing so, it has provided
further insight into the balance between sea level and sedimentation, which is of
considerable importance to the understanding of coal formation. As the following
discussion will show, sequence stratigraphy does not replace the palaeo-environ-
mental considerations of the previous chapter but transcends its compartmental
structure, thus adding another dimension to the relationship between coal com-
position and depositional environment.
8.1 Basic Concepts of Sequence Stratigraphy
The four cornerstones of sequence stratigraphy, a concise summary of which has

been given by Wilson (1991), are eustatic sea level changes, basin subsidence,
sediment supply and climate (Vail et al. 1977; Vail 1987), whereby climate and sea
level changes are often closely related. Although the concept is simple, its techniques
and application to sedimentary basin analysis are complex and extend beyond the
requirements for the understanding of coal formation. Therefore, this chapter is
restricted to a brief overview of the theory as far as coal formation is concerned. In
the following discussion, which is based on van Wagoner et al. (1987,1990) and Vail
(1987), the specific terms used in sequence stratigraphy are emphasised. They are
included in Fig. 8.1, which displays two· sequences listed as "older" and "younger" on
the right margin of the diagram. The older sequence shows only the traces of stratal
surfaces and some of the relevant terms, whereas in the younger one gross deposi-
tional environments have been indicated.
The basic sequence-stratigraphic units distinguished by Vail et al. (1977) and
van Wagoner et al. (1987) are the parasequences, which are equivalent to the fourth
order cycles of Ryer (1984). They ~onsist of genetically related lithologic successions,
such as offshore mud, shoreline sand, strand-plain coal, fluvial gravel and other
lithofacies that coexisted within the time frame given by the enclosing stratal
~ .... 0:
W
I Ow
Zo
I ::lz
Ow
I >::l
I o
o:w
I wrn
o
: INCISED VALLEY I ~::;;:~itf~~~~~~= SBl --'
LEROSIONAL SURFACE APPARENT TRUNCATION OFFLAP DOWNLAP °

~Alluvial
~ Coastal Plain
~
~ Shorelme
. [.::-::.:::1
- -- --
Shelf, Slope,
Basin Floor
~ Fan/Plain
Fig. 8.1. Cartoon illustrating the concept of sequence stratigraphy and its terminology. For further
explanations see text. (After Vail 1987 and van Wagoner et al. 1987)
surfaces. These are marine flooding surfaces along which a landward shift of facies has
occurred. Depending on its magnitude, the relative rise in sea level is most
obvious near the shoreline. Its landward expressions may be paludification and
transgressive coal formation due to a rise in groundwater while basinward the
change in water depth may be indicated by a change in bedforms, suggesting a rise
in wave base (both fair-weather and storm) conditions. Although parasequences
are largely progradational, i.e. they are the product of repeated rises of the water
table followed by periods of relaxation and in-filling, a question arises about
the sequence stratigraphic status of the coal seams formed landwards of the
advancing sea. In the discussion of the relationship between coal formation and
sequence stratigraphy presented in this chapter, it is assumed that the events which
form the marine flooding surfaces also initiate the formation of the parasequences.
Transgressive coals are therefore considered to occur in the basal portions of para-
sequences. Evidence for the episodic nature of the post-glacial transgression in
preference to a continuous sea-level rise has been provided by Carter et al. (1985)
from the terrigenoclastic shoreline of Otago in New Zealand and by Carter and
Johnson (1986) from the Great Barrier Reef in Australia. In the latter case, ten
transgressive episodes were recognised for the past 18 ka. It is assumed that during
the transgression phase clastic sedimentation is not only negligible but that coastal
erosion may even remove previously formed deposits leaving ravinement surfaces
with thin lag (e.g. basal conglomerate). However, the example from the preceding
chapter of the Wynn Seam (Fig. 7.72), which has been formed in response to a
transgression and has subsequently been overrolled by it, shows that the inferred
upward shoaling of parasequences is a gross feature that can be modified in detail.
Basic Concepts of Sequence Stratigraphy 465
EUSTATIC
""""~:::::<'1'5f~~~=:::;;:19T~G7~t>'- OSC I LLA TI ON S
BASIN SUBSIDENCE
RELA TIVE CHANGE

OF SEA LEVEL
l-
I- I- I- I- I- I- en I-
en en en en en en::2;en
..J I-:I:..J I- :I: en I-
Fig. S.2. Time-trend diagram showing the relationship between eustatic sea-level variations, basin
subsidence and time, after Vail (1987). In the upper portion of the diagram large and small scale
oscillations (wavy band with enclosed secondary cycles) and subsidence line are referred to mean sea
level, whereas in the lower portion relative changes in sea level are referred to basin and time axes.
SB 1 and 2 mark type 1 and 2 sequence boundaries, respectively. For further explanations see text
Genetically related parasequences and their associated depositional systems are

combined into systems tracts of which there are four different kinds readily
identifiable in outcrops, on well logs, and on seismic traces (Vail 1987}. They form in
response to the proportional magnitudes of sediment supply and relative move-
ments of sea level. As illustrated in Fig. 8.2 (assuming steady influx of sediments),
relative sea level fluctuations result from the interaction between basin subsidence
and eustatic sea level changes, whereby it has been assumed that basin subsidence
remains relatively constant in comparison to the high amplitude and periodicity of
eustatic sea level variations. The interference between the two components in terms
of addition and subtraction produces the relative changes in sea level which create
space for the accommodation of sediments (Vail 1987). As inferred in the diagram of
Fig. 8.2, the total thickness of the deposited sediments is primarily a function of
tectonic subsidence and would not alter much if the oscillations were removed from
the wavy line representing eustatic changes. However, the importance of the eustatic
cycles is their influence on shoreline migration and (in conjunction with climate) on
lithofacies in relation to geological time. For this reason, the diagram of Fig. 8.2 has
been subdivided into time intervals which correspond to upward, downward or
stillstand trends in the relative sea level curve. The boundaries between the time-
trend intervals intersect the relative sea level curve in the centres of crests and
troughs as well as at the inflection points on the falling limbs between them. The
time-trend intervals correspond to the systems tracts, and their boundaries (the
vertical lines in Fig. 8.2) represent major depositional discontinuities. The systems
tract boundaries intersecting the inflection points on the falling limbs of the sea level
curve define a sequence which is interpreted as the depositional response to one

period of eustatic oscillation (Vail 1987).
The two complete sequences depicted in Fig. 8.1 are type 1 sequences and their
lower bounding surfaces are type 1 sequence boundaries indicated as SB 1 in Figs. 8.1
and 8.2. As illustrated in the time-trend diagram of Fig. 8.2, this boundary is formed
as a sequence bounding unconformity (Mitchum et al. 1977) when the eustatic drop
in sea level exceeds the rate of basin subsidence causing the sea to recede to or below
the shelf break. The result is erosion on the exposed shelf platform and adjacent land
surface coupled with deposition on the deep sea floor in the form of a basin floor fan
(bf in Fig. 8.1) and a slope fan (sf in Fig. 8.1). These are two kinds of deep water
sedimentary sequences (additional possibilities are discussed by Vail 1987 and van
Wagoner 1987) which may constitute the basal portions of a lowstand systems tract
(LST in Figs. 8.1 and 8.2). Its main part often consists of a prograding composite
wedge (pw in Fig. 8.1) of shelf-margin deltas and downlapping stratal boundaries
Because of the strong erosion in the hinterland and the increase of stream gradients
due to the lowering of depositional base level, the deltas are river-dominated with
high rates of progradation (Frazier 1974) incorporating immature and coarse
sediments. Due to the position of the LST deltas near the shelf break, offshore
transport is by mass movement down the continental slope. An example quoted by
Boyd et al. (1989) is the Mississippi Delta, which extends down-dip into a submarine
fan consisting of several lobes. According to Coleman et al. (1983) and Bouma et al.
(1986), these lobes were formed during Quaternary sea level lowstands from
sediments supplied by the ancient Mississippi River and then conveyed through a
submarine canyon to the fan.
A subsequent relative elevation in sea level, being the net result of a strong
eustatic rise plus the effects of basin subsidence (and compaction), results in the
formation of the transgressive systems tract (TST in Figs. 8.1 and 8.2) in which
back stepping transgressive parasequences push the depocentre inland. The base of
the transgressive systems tract consists of a transgressive surface (TS in Figs. 8.1 and
8.2), which covers the delta plain sediments, and the incised valley fill (ivf in Figs. 8.1
and 8.2) ofthe lowstand systems tract. Landward it merges with the type 1 sequence
boundary across the denuded and eroded land surface. As successive parasequences
push further inland, they onlap landward but thin basin ward, forming a distal
condensed section with the maximum flooding surface (mfs in Figs. 8.1 and 8.2). This
forms the upward termination of the transgressive systems tract. In assessing its
lithofacies distribution, it should be remembered that the shoreline retrogrades by
repeated episodes of flooding followed by filling-in periods during which the
shoreline actually progrades. This saw-tooth pattern is related to the low amplitude
and short period modulation of the eustatic oscillations indicated in Fig. 8.2 which
accelerate sea level rise during the time interval given by the rising limb of the
modulation but retard it during its falling phase. Alternatively, repeated episodes of
delta build-up and abandonment in the course of a marine transgression will yield a
similar result. In any case, most of the sedimentation occurs during shoreline
progradation in the form of deltas or barrier beaches and, because excellent
prospects for coal formation exist under conditions of both pro- and retrogradation,
Sequence-Stratigraphic Time and Space Constraints on Coal Formation 467
many of the large coal deposits of the world would satisfy the conditions of
transgressive systems tracts.
The highstand systems tract (HST in Figs. 8.1 and 8.2) begins when the eustatic
rise reverses and becomes balanced by basin subsidence. The previously inundated
shelf becomes filled with sediments due to coastline progradation in the course of
which the sea retreats, and the sediment depocentre shifts seaward. Landward
onlapping may continue but the lower bounding surface ofthis tract is the maximum
flooding surface onto which the parasequences downlap. In spite of the overall
regressive nature of the highstand systems tract, variations in sediment supply and
eustatic modulations may cause brief reversals in the basin ward build-up of large
deltas behind which wide coastal and alluvial plains may give rise to extensive coal
formation under increasingly terrestrial conditions. Following Vail (1987), the
development of a highstand system tract is divided into the early highstand, during
which upward and outward sigmoidal parasequences are formed, and the late
highstand prograding complex consisting of mainly outward building, oblique
prograding parasequences. The late highstand prograding complex is contempora-
neous with the thin terrestrial cover of the late highstand subaerial complex, and
together they may be bounded by a type 2 sequence boundary (SB 2 in Figs. 8.1 and
8.2) which is a surface of non-deposition and non-erosion.
A type 2 sequence boundary is formed when the rate offall in sea level is equal to
or slightly smaller than the rate of basin subsidence, resulting in a relative stillstand
but no erosion as in the type 1 sequence boundary. Sedimentation above this
boundary is restricted to aggradation of shoreline and shelf sediments which belong
to the shelf margin systems' tract (SMST in Figs. 8.1 and 8.2) and form the basal
portion of a ·type 2 sequences. This development has been expressed in the time-trend
diagram of Fig. 8.2 by the reduction of the amplitude in the third oscillation such
that it would not infer an actual drop in relative sea level. Since type 1 sequences are
more common than type 2 sequences (van Wagoner 1988), it is not unusual to find
several type 1 sequence boundaries in vertical succession. Examples are the Late
Eocene to Late Oligocene Kugmallit Formation in the Beaufort-Mackenzie Basin
of northwestern Canada, where James and Baxter (1988) distinguished six type 1
sequences separated by seven such subaerial unconformities in a 1400m thick
section, and the Late Cretaceous Cardium Formation in Alberta, where Walker
(1988), Eyles and Walker (1988), and Plint et al. (1988) identified six sandier- upward
sequences bounded also by seven widespread erosion surfaces.
8.2 Sequence-Stratigraphic Time and Space Constraints

on Coal Formation
The driving force behind many eustatic sea level variations is climatic cyclicity, i.e.
glacial periods produce lowstands whereas interglacial periods are characterised by
highstands which follow each other and produce punctuated cycles of stratigraphic
aggradation (Goodwin and Anderson 1985), e.g. the kinds of broad sedimentary
cycles Exon and Burger (1981) described from the Surat Basin in Australia.
However, the glacio- eustatic cycles are not the only causes of relative sea level
variations. According to Hubbard (1988), global sea level positions are controlled by
the aggregate volume of ocean basins and by the volume of water contained in the
world's oceans. The first aspect (volume of ocean basins) is a function of the rate of
sea floor spreading. A high rate produces broad areas ofthermal tumescence around
raised spreading centres, which reduces the volume of ocean basins and thus causes
the sea level to rise. When the rate of spreading decreases and the ageing oceanic
crust floats deeper on the mantle, the volume of ocean basins increases and the
global sea level drops. The result is a long-term periodicity of tectono-eustatic
oscillation (first order cycle of Vail et al. 1977) in response to the 200-400 Ma time-
span of opening and closing ocean basins that appears to have operated over the last
2000 Ma (Worsley et al. 1984). Actual rates of such sea level,variations have been
estimated to be in the order of 1 cml1 ka (Pitman and Golovchenko 1983).
In contrast to the long-term tectono-eustatic sea level changes which result from
changes in the size of ocean basins, the climate-controlled glacio-eustatic oscill-
ations are fast and result from changes in the volume of available water (Hubbard
1988). An example is the lOO-m post-glacial sea level rise which over the past 18000
years has proceeded at an average rate of 0.55 cmla with occasional accelerations
between 1.0 and 3.5 cmla (Jelgersma 1979; Cronin 1983; Carter and Johnson 1986).
The glacio-eustatic sea level variations are the third order cycles of Vail et al. (1977)
with a wavelength of 1 to lO Ma, each of which Vail (1987) considers to represent one
period of eustatic oscillation resulting in the formation of a sedimentary sequence
between global unconformities.
In addition to the long-term tectono-eustatic (first order cycle) and the short-
term (third order cycle) glacio-eustatic sea level oscillations Vail et al. (1977)
distinguish intermediate-term second order cycles with a period between 10 and
80 Ma. According to Summerhayes (1986), the second order cycles relate to crustal
movements, a view which is shared by Hubbard (1988), who studied them between
sequence boundaries at rifted continental margins. Since he has not found any
evidence of synchroneity between rift basins and, in some cases, not even between
the opposite margins of the same basin, he concludes that the second order cycles are
tectonically controlled and related to the specific subsidence history of the respective
rift basins. In his assessment, he draws support from the calculations of subsidence
rates by Pitman and Golovchenko (1983) which range from 7 cmll ka during rifting
to I cml1 ka at 200 Ma after rifting. The transverse asymmetry of foreland basins is
also proof of the simultaneous occurrence of uneven subsidence rates whereby
loading by thrust sheets causes deep downwarp of the basement near the orogenic
basin margin resulting in the accumulation of thick clastic deposits while the
cratonic margin experiences little subsidence and receives only small quantities of
sediment.
The accumulation rates of peat referred to in Chap. 2.4 are such that, if acting
independently, the global long-term tectono-eustatic sea level variations would be
too slow and the glacio-eustatic sea level changes probably too fast to sustain peat
accretion. Basin-specific intermediate-term tectonic events, such as subsidence
Sequence-Stratigraphic Time and Space Constraints on Coal Formation 469
caused by rifting (Hubbard 1988) or by the loading of supracrustal thrust wedges

(Schedl and Wiltschko (1984), might also be too slow on their own but would be
most effective in combination with global eustasy. If synchronised with a tectono-
eustatic sea level rise, the rate of subsidence would probably be sufficient to sustain
peat formation over a very long period of time, thus resulting in perhaps a limited
number of thick seams. In combination with glacio-eustatic variations, changes in
peat-forming conditions would be more rapid, resulting in a larger number of
thinner seams.
The attraction of relating coal seam formation to glacio-eustatic oscillations is
enhanced by the fact that at least two periods oflarge-scale coal formation, the Late
Carboniferous Period in the palaeo-equatorial belt and the Permian Period in
Gondwana, were also times of widespread glaciation, although at other times coal
formation does not appear .to coincide with periods of glaciation. In this context it
should be realised that the sea level may drop either because of a world-wide climatic
change or because of a change from sea ice to land ice. For example, a variation in
the size of the present ice cap around the North Pole does not contribute anything to
the relative sea level because the ice floats on water and no sea level change would
occur if it melted or increased. Conversely, if a landmass drifted into a polar position,
as happened with Permo-Carboniferous Gondwana in the south or is currently the
case with Antarctica, the same volume of ice on land would cause a noticeable fall in
the sea level, even though the astronomical constraints on world climate would not
change.
Current orbital characteristics of Earth suggest a period of climatic oscillation
of approximately 100 ka, but the five Quaternary glacial and interglacial cycles listed
in Table 8.2 indicate variable periodicity ranging from 100-720 ka. These figures are
based on the begining of each successive glacial stadium, because it would
correspond closely to the inflection points on the falling limbs of sea level high- and
lowstands used by Vail (1987) to mark sequence boundaries. Considerably longer
periodicities have been quoted for pre-Quaternary climatic oscillations. For
example, Embry (1988) regards 3-8 Ma as a usual timespan for the formation of a
Table 8.2. Periodicity of Quaternary climatic oscillations after Haq and van Eysinga (1987)
Stadia Beginning of Length of

N Europe European Alps stadia (ka) period (ka)
Holocene -10
Weichselian Wiirm Glacial -70 ]
Eemian RissjWiirm Interglacial -120 ] 100
Saalian Riss Glacial -170 ]
Holsteinian MindeljRiss Interglacial -320 290
Elsterian Mindel Glacial -460 ]
Cromerian GiinzjMindel Interglacial -820 ] 720
Menapian Giinz Glacial -1180 ]
Waalian DonaujGiinz Interglacial -1380 520
Eburonian Donau Glacial -1700
tens of hundreds of metres thick sequence, and global cycle charts (e.g. Haq and
van Eysinga 1987; Haq et aI. 1987) infer an average periodicity of up to 3 Ma for some
Tertiary, Mesozoic, and older climatic cycles. However, recent application of the
principles of sequence stratigraphy to the Mississippi Delta by Boyd et al. (1988,
1989) suggests that shorter periodicities and thinner sequences may be possible, too.
According to these authors, a type 1 sequence boundary was formed during the Late
Wisconsinan (= Weichselian in Europe) lowstand at - 25 ka, when sea level fell by
130 m, which formed an erosional unconformity on the exposed shelf and produced
a lowstand systems tract (LST) incorporating a 600 m thick basin floor fan and a set
of shelf-margin deltas. By - 9 ka the sea had risen to within 20 m of its present level,
causing retrogradation ofthe shoreline. This marine transgression culminated in the
formation of three backstepping deltas between - 9 and - 3.5 ka, each of which was
formed by progradation during periods of relaxation after which the sea trans-
gressed again. The oldest, most seaward delta is the Outer Shoal, which landward is
followed first by the Maringouin and then by the Teche Delta. Each of these deltas
therefore belongs to a separate paraseq uence and, together with the underlying 20 to
30 m of reworked retrogradational deposits, they constitute a transgressive systems
tract of some 50 m thickness. A temporal and spatial overlap exists between the
phasing-out of the transgressive systems tract and the beginning of the prograd-
ational highstand systems tract consisting of the St. Bernard ( - 4.6 to - 1.8 ka),
Lafourche ( - 3.5 to - 0.4 ka), and modern Mississippi deltas ( - 1 ka to present). Also
these deltas consitute parasequences of similar thickness to those belonging to the
underlying transgressive systems tract, i.e. between 10 and 50m on the shelf and up
to 400 m at depth, while laterally they measure up to 200 km down dip and 400 km
along strike.
Although the above example from the Mississippi Delta does not yet represent a
complete sequence and may not conform to average temporal and areal constraints,
it affords valuable information with respect to the scale of coal formation within a
sequence-stratigraphic framework. Considering the high rate of sediment supply by
the Mississippi River, the thickness of parasequences produced appear small, but
they would be sufficient to accommodate one or two substantial coal seams. Also the
area covered by the parasequences is such that even the most extensive seams could
be accommodated within their confines. However, the timing is more restrictive. A
total of 5.5 ka for the three last parasequences of the transgressive systems tract and
2.8, 3.1 and 1.0 ka, respectively, for each ofthe three parasequences of the current
highstand systems tract do not offer much opportunity for any sizable peat
accumulation within a parasequence. Indeed, this may explain why, given otherwise
suitable conditions, the Mississippi Delta complex has not produced more
substantial peat deposits. As mentioned in Chap. 2.4 1 m of bituminous coal
required a time span of 5 to 10 ka to form, which means that it would have taken at
least 120 and up to 240ka to produce the 24-m-thick composite. Wynn/
Bayswater/Broonie Seam illustrated in Fig. 7.72. In reference to the Quaternary
climatic cycles listed in Table 8.1, such a time span could be equivalent to a whole
type 1 sequence, which is not likely, but the considerable time required for the
formation of thick coal seams and the apparent diachronous nature of some coals
(see below) suggest that coal seams may transgress parasequence boundaries.
The Influence of Sequence-Stratigraphic Settings on Coal Formation 471
8.3 The Influence of Sequence-Stratigraphic Settings

on Coal Formation
Marine transgressions and regressions are the two controlling mechanisms of
paralic coal seam formation from which many variations in coal compositions can
be derived. When dealing with the in-filling of a large sedimentary basin, the
depositional base level below which a sediment can be preserved may be assumed to
approximate sea level or, more precisely, fair-weather wave base. In the special case
of coal formation, depositional base level may be regarded as coinciding with the
groundwater table, but, because paralic environments are hydrologically connected
with the sea, the position ofthe groundwater table does not differ much from that of
the sea level in most coastal plains. Further inland, the groundwater table rises in
accordance with prevailing surface slope angles. In many peat-forming environ-
ments the topographic surface conforms closely to the optiqmm profile of a mature
stream, which is established when erosion and aggradation are in equilibrium. As
shown in Fig. 8.3, the optimum stream profile becomes tangentionally aligned with
the sea level but rises towards its source. A rise in sea level, for example from TO to
T1A in Fig. 8.3, will not only create additional space to accommodate sediments on
the inundated former coastal plain but the raising of the depositional base level will
also shorten the stream profile by eliminating most of its flat portion. This results in
head ward erosion in order to re-establish the disturbed stream profile further
inland. Alternatively, a lowering of the sea level from TO to TlB will rejuvenate
erosion on the lower coastal plain, but the lengthening of river courses may lead to
upstream alluviation.
Since rivers are important in groundwater control and relative sea level
variations influence river gradients, the hydrological link between the marine regime
and coal formation extends far beyond the actual contact between peat and sea
water. In topogenous coal seams, former base level positions are shown as lithotype
boundaries, and many stratification planes coincide with former base level positions
in the interseam sediments as well. By making use of the base level concept, Sloss
(1962) defined the shape of a clastic lithosome as a function of:
1. Q - the quantity of detritus delivered to the depositional site per unit time;
2. R - the receptor value expressed as the rate of subsidence, or the space made
TIA
'tt~~~!t~T~O~~~~~'e~",","~"""","" TIB
TIA
~-----3 To deposition ~-"'-'"<:;:'rn"i-Tn-r"'f'¢,.~~'='-" To
~"'-W..L.1..LL.J..lI:r::s. T 1B
fft§ To to T1A erosion [0] To to T1B erosion
1:<:::::1 To to T1A deposition § To to T1B deposition
Fig. 8.3. Cartoon illustrating the lateral shift of the optimum stream profile (vertical exaggeration)
under conditions of rising and falling sea level
available per unit time below the depositional base level [equivalent to Vail's
(1987) "accommodation"];
3. M - the material, its texture and composition, supplied to the depositional site;
and
4. D - the dispersal factor being a measure of the rate at which sediments, which
cannot be accommodated below the depositional base level are removed from the
depositional site.
In the original application of the concept to various transgression-regression

models, Sloss (1962) regarded M as constant because, statistically, both texture and
composition ofthe sediment supplied to a large basin over a long period of time do
not vary much. However, in the study of coal formation involving changes from
inorganic to organic material and vice versa, coal and interseam sediments should
be considered separately. With regard to the clastic nature of most interseam
sediments, the material factor can be attached as a subscript to Q, which leads to a
distinction between Qclastics and Qpeat" Supposing that climatic and other factors
affecting the phytogenic source permit a high production rate of vegetable matter,
both the beginning and end of peat accumulation depend largely on variations in the
receptor value (R) and the quantity of clastic detritus (Qclastics) supplied to and
Qclastics - D ~ R
-D=Q E
S.l.
S.L.
A Fig. 8.4 A-E. Cartoon

depicting various stages in
coal formation under condi-
tions of marine transgression
and regression
removed (D) from the depositional site. During peat accumulation, it is assumed that
the water table rises at a rate similar to that at which plant debris accumulates in
order to create the necessary space (R) in which peat can form without being
removed by oxidation (also a form of D) or by drowning the source plants. Relative
rises, falls or stillstands in the sea level will result in peat accumulation under
conditions of marine transgressions and regressions as shown in Fig. 8.4. The
diagram is modelled on the previously discussed BayswaterjWynn Seam couple
where the erosion of the two tuff bands in the Wynn Seam (Fig. 7.72) suggests that
the transgression proceeded by shoreface retreat, i.e. by the successive build-up and
erosive destruction of a landward-migrating barrier beach and shoreface. The
mechanism is shown in Fig. 8.5 in which it is assumed that, as the sea level rose,
back barrier lagoons and peatlands spread across the coastal plain. Storm-generated
shoreface erosion and the emplacement of washover fans on the seaward side of the
lagoon caused it to migrate landward (Tl) followed by the constantly reworked
barrier beach situated on a thin veneer of offshore deposits. The rise in sea level was
aided by the considerable compactability of peat even under moderate load. In
Fig. 8.5 it is assumed that the combined weight oflagoonal mud and the barrier sand
would halve the original peat thickness of approximately 10m. The actual marine
erosion ofthe Wynn Seam demonstrates that even after compaction the peat surface
must have still extended above the fair-weather wave base below which only
sporadic erosion would have occurred. The fair-weather wave base has been
Backbarrier Swamp lagoon Beach To
1~~I~IIIIllliIllmll~lllfIllm~(\\:::
fl~o~'d~er~d~e~po~s'~IS~
15
. . . ~::B
~====:~::~~~~
____________________
rTTTTTTl Peat CI-I== a goo n aT :--:::::::: ::1 Barrier I::.·:.' :.: :,.1
=====1 Lmud
UlilllJ o::t:HE3compa
~ed peat =_=_=_: :-:.:-:-:-:< sand :::::::;~::-:
Shorefa ce
sand+silt
\ . SeE Storm current erosion with ~ MSL - Mean sea level

~ ravinement surface and lag ___ FWW8- Fair weather wave base
Fig. 8.5. Conceptual model of the formation of the Wynn Seam and its correlatives in the Sydney
Basin, N.S.W.
474 Coal Formation and Sequence Stratigraphy"
positioned at 10m below the mean sea level, which is in agreement with the depth of
the first occurrence of hummocky cross stratification in several Sydney Basin
deposits (e.g. Waratah Sandstone). The peat thickness was therefore further reduced,
as indicated in T1 of Fig. 8.5, followed by the emplacement of a gravelly lag on the
eroded peat surface. The result ofthis development is a thin but very widespread coal
seam with a distinct marine signature.
Before the onset of peat accumulation (Fig. 8.4A), terrestrial sedimentation
prevails, usually in the form of fluvial or overbank deposits, often formed above the
depositional base level so that some further dispersal may take place. Arborescent
and other vegetation, as well as rootlet beds, may develop, but peat formation is
inhibited because the low groundwater table does not protect the plant debris from
. decay by oxidation or removal by erosion (Qpeat - D = 0). A rising sea level will push
the coastal wetlands inland so that the peat-forming conditions indicated in
Fig. 8.4B can be established. Peat will continue to form, as long as the rate of plant
growth is in equilibrium with the rise in water level but, as the transgression moves
further inland, the production of vegetable matter will not be able to fill the
increasing gap between the expanding receptor value (R) and the quantity of
material (Qpeat or Qclastics) supplied to the depositional site. Peat accumulation
ceases in the reference area by drowning of the seam, as indicated in Fig. 8.4C. The
actual width of the central reference area in Fig. 8.4 depends on the slope angle of the
affected terrain. Piedmont environments and coastal plains with relatively high
slope angles may produce narrow belts of strongly diachronous seams whereas on
broad flat surfaces (e.g. delta plains according to Jankowski 1991) the diachrony is so
weak that seam formation appears to be synchronous over a large area. Transgres-
sive coal formation is indicated by the occurrence of terrestrial sediments with rootlet
beds in the floors of coal seams and oflacustrine or lagoonal sediments in their roofs,
which later may be either covered or erosively replaced by marine deposits.
Coal formation under conditions of marine regression requires that basin
subsidence does not stop but continues over the whole peat-producing area and
may even increase basin ward. This scenario will lead to the development of a
coastal belt of lowlands in which the receptor value (R) will be in balance with
the rate at which vegetable matter (Qpeat) accumulates. Incoming clastic sediments
are either diverted around raised peat surfaces or are channeled through the peat-
lands and dumped on the shore in order to prepare new ground for the basinward
migration of the peatlands behinds the prograding delta front or barrier system
(T2 in Fig. 8.5). Apart from occasional flooding, which leads to a high ash content
in the coal and results in the formation of shale bands and other terrigenous clastic
partings within the seam, peat accumulation may continue uninterrupted during
regression until it is terminated, usually because of an increased energy level due
to the onset of fluvial activity.
The conditions before, during and after regressive coal formation are outlined
in Fig. 8.4D and E, by the reversal of the preceding transgression. The result is
a split coal seam analogous to the subsidence-induced seam split discussed in
Chap. 6.3.1. Before the onset of regressive peat accretion (Fig. 8.4C), the central
reference area is water-covered. Organic sedimentation is negligible during this
phase, but clastic deposits are formed in estuaries, on the delta front or in back-
barrier coastal settings. As the shoreline pro grades, peat accumulation commences
in interdistributary mires (Fig. 8.40). While slow subsidence of the basin continues
and may be enhanced by compaction, a balance between supply of plant debris
and its removal by aerobic decay is reached, until the advancing front of terrestrial
sediments buries the peat. This situation is indicated in Fig. 8.4E, which re-
establishes the conditions as at the beginning of the cycle in Fig. 8.4A. See also
T2 in Fig. 8.5.
8.3.1 Properties of Transgressive Coal Seams with a Marine Roof
The model illustrated in Fig.8.4C shows an important difference between two

settings of transgressive coals. In the central reference area marine conditions are
depicted in the roof of the drowned seam, whereas the peat in the area to the far left is
not reached by the sea although it, too, has been formed during the transgression
and has experienced the same change from relatively dry to increasingly wet
conditions as the groundwater table rose in response to the rising sea level. This
means that some coal seams or their landward extensions have been formed under
conditions of marine transgression without actually having been in contact with sea
water. Theoretically, therefore, a distinction can be made between transgressive
coals with and without a marine roof.
Although in the following discussion transgressive coal seams with a marine
roof will be treated separately from those without a marine roof, it should be realised
that coastal swamp environments are often connected with the sea by way of
transitional lagoons, bays and estuaries. Rabitz (1966a), Knauff and Pieper (1985),
and Fulton and Williams (1988) have used faunal assemblages in order to identify
gradations of palaeosalinity in the roof sediments of the Katharina (Ruhr), Albert 4
(Ruhr), and Aegir (Warwickshire, u.K.) Seams, respectively, while Ernst et al. (1960)
distinguished between marine, brackish, and freshwater sediments on the basis of
their boron contents.
The effects of a marine transgression inundating a coastal peatland are not
restricted to the sediments above the coal seam but are also shown by the coal itself,
commonly by an increase in pyritic sulphur content in the upper portion ofthe seam,
as well as by other features which distinguish the affected seams from the other coals.
The number of coal seams with marine influence in a coal measure sequence depends
on the frequency and duration of marine transgressions recorded in the stratigraphic
column. An example is given in Fig. 8.6 which displays on three diagrams the
percentage distribution of five major palaeo-environments in the Upper Carbonifer-
ous Ruhr coal measures of Germany. The lower diagram gives the distribution
of subaqueous and delta front sediments, the largest proportion of which coincides
with well-known marine horizons. In accordance with established practice, they
have been labelled by the name of the coal seam they overlie. They can also be
identified in the sections illustrated in Fig. 7.35, where additional litho- and
biostratigraphic information is given.
.,;
1:~~,rNA
;!. 500 1000 ' 5 00 2000 2S00
.,;
.
'g
Ul
-;;
:>
100
iiic:
'
Ii:
. 50
"u:oo
0'- 500 , 000 lS00 2000 2500
.,;
~ 100
i);
C
o
u:
!!!
-.;
~ 50
:>
o
'"
:>
e-
m
.c
:>
Ul
;!. 0 500 1000 '500 2000 2500
Relative Depth (in Metres) below Xanten Seam
Fig. 8.6. Three diagrams showing the distribution (in percent) of the five main palaeo-environments
distinguished by Diessel (1988) in the Upper Carboniferous coal measures of the Ruhr Basin, West
Germany_ Major marine transgressions are indentified in the bottom diagram
The marine beds represent incursions of the Late Carboniferous sea into the
Variscan ( = Hercynian) foreland basin (foredeep) which formed in Western and
Central Europe between the developing Variscan orogen to the south and the
Caledonian foreland to the north. The apex of this trumpet-shaped molasse basin
was situated east of Warsaw in Poland, from where it widened and extended across
Germany, Holland, Belgium, northern France, the United Kingdom and Ireland,
before opening into a receiving basin to the west (Ziegler 1981). Throughout the
Lower Carboniferous and up to the Namurian Epoch, a seaway from Poland to the
Tethys appears to have generated an east to west flow pattern which facilitated
unimpeded faunal exchanges between the Tethys and the sea north of the Variscan
foreland basin (Ramsbottom 1971; Johnson 1981). Closure of the seaway at the end
of the Namurian Epoch is indicated by a sharp reduction in faunal variety and the
replacement of marine conditions by coal measure sedimentation from a northerly
flowing transverse and a westerly flowing longitudinal drainage system. This was
occasionally interrupted by eastward-directed marine transgressions originating
from the ocean to the west. The intensity of the transgressions weakened eastwards
(Calver 1968) and decreased in extent and frequency during the Westphalian Epoch.
Even at the height of each ofthe brief marine incursions, water circulation was rather
restricted, which is shown by the dark colour, the occurrence of syngenetic pyrite,
and the bituminous nature of the marine sediments. These were deposited below the
aerated surface waters in an anoxic zone rich in H 2 S due to the activities of sulphate-
reducing bacteria (Love et al. 1983). The marine strata above the Katharina Seam at
the boundary between Westphalian A and B (see Figs. 7.35D, 7.44 and 8.6) contain a
variety of marine fossils and represent one of the last major Late Carboniferous
transgressions, which affected large portions of Central Europe and may even have
had worldwide significance. It coincided with the last phase of a relatively wet period
in the United States before the beginning of the "first drier interval" of Phillips et al.
(1985), which probably was a time of marked monsoonal fluctuations in wetness
indicated by the onset of a vegetational change in both Europe and North America
(Peppers 1979).
The coals whose properties are discussed below are considered to have been
formed in the course of a marine transgression and were subsequently covered by
marine sediments. It is assumed that peat accumulation was the landward response
of the depositional process to the transgression, for example as part of a trans-
gressive systems tract (TST). It is natural therefore that coal properties should reflect
the causal links between seam formation and the marine transgression.
8.3.1.1 Chemical Signatures of Transgressive Coals with a Marine Roof
An expedient way of assessing the chemical composition of coal is to plot the mass
percentages of its elementary carbon and hydrogen content (preferably dmmf = dry
mineral matter-free basis) on Seyler's Chart. Like Callcott's extended version
illustrated in Fig. 3.30, Seyler's Chart is a bivariate diagram in which several x-y
plots of chemical (e.g. C, 0, H) and fuel technological parameters (e.g. volatile
matter, specific energy, crucible swelling indices) have been combined. As shown in
Fig. 8.7, a curved band protrudes nearly horizontally from the right margin to the
centre of the chart, after which it curves sharply downward towards zero percent
hydrogen and 100 percent carbon. This band is called the normal or bright coal
band because a very large number of analyses has shown that the majority of coals
plot within its confines. Coals which plot above the band fall into the perhydrous
field because they contain more hydrogen than would normally be expected on
account of their rank (expressed as carbon). Coals with less than normal hydrogen
contents are subhydrous, they plot in the lower portion.
The chemical properties plotted for several rank-different samples of the
Katharina Seam in Fig. 8.7 stay within the bright coal band but are situated close to
its upper (perhydrous) margin. The reason for this position is higher than normal
hydrogen content, which, together with the likewise elevated nitrogen and sulphur
values, is responsible for a volatile matter yield too high for the degree of
coalification of the coal (Teichmiiller 1955, 1962). Additional samples included in
Fig. 8.7 come from the Greta Seam of New South Wales referred to in Chap. 7.3.5 as
an example of a transgressive coal seam formed after delta abandonment. Like the
Katharina Seam, this coal seam is well known for its unusual properties of high gas
yield, high swelling, extremely high Gieseler fluidity and dilatation. As shown in
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
k
/f
7
/;
If;
7
E:
6 /.~ "s
/ ~
6
/ ~ "0
I <?s -1-
5
I
<'0 -/- 5
's
/
~o
4 1 4
SUB-HYDROUS
/
/
3
I 3
I
......
E2 I 2
E
....,
"0 I
c:
Q)
011
0
....
"0
»
J:
*- 100 95 90 85 80 75 70
% Carbon (dmmf)
Fig.8.7. Seyler's Chart plot of two marine influenced coals. Dots Katharina Seam, Ruhr Basin
(dot S sapropeJic coal); crosses Greta Seam, Hunter Valley, New South Wales
Fig. 8.7, the Greta samples, which represent full seam sections, plot well within the
perhydrous field of the diagram.
Another chemical signature of marine influence is the high sulphur content and
the low sulphur isotope ratio. In Chap. 5, reference was made to the findings of
Kaplan et al. (1963) and Kaplan and Rittenberg (1964) that hydrogen sulphide
formed by the bacterial reduction of sulphates is enriched in the 32S isotope. The
a34s values of bacterially concentrated sulphides are therefore lower than the
isotope ratio of sea-water sulphate, currently at ± 20 permil. A high rate of
bacterial activity will therefore be indicated by low a34 s values. Since bacteria have
generally a low tolerance to the high acidity of most fresh-water peats, they function
better under the slightly elevated pH conditions resulting from the mixing of
peat- and sea water. This explains the contrast between Casagrande's (1987) rela-
tively high (a 34 S = + 9 to + 13 permil) sulphur isotope ratios obtained from low
sulphur fresh-water peats of the Okefenokee Swamp and the marine-influenced

high sulphur Florida peats, which yielded only negative values ranging from - 8
to - 30 permil.
Coals and their enclosing sediments exhibit a relationship between sulphur
isotope ratios and depositional environments which is very similar to that of modern
peat. An example is the Alton Marine Band (Gastrioceras listeri) and the underlying
Halifax Hard Bed Coal. Love et al. (1983) analysed the following sulphur isotope
distribution in pyrite:
1. Seam roof: Alton Marine Band (shale) - 034 S = - 8.00 to + 5.50 permil
2. Halifax Hard Bed Coal (upper portion) - 034 S= -6.49 to + 10.64 permil
3. Halifax Hard Bed Coal (middle portion) - 034 S = - 1.89 to + 15.00 permil
4. Halifax Hard Bed Coal (lower portion) - 034 S= -1.85 to + 15.63 permil
5. Seam floor: Gannister - 034 S = + 5.07 to + 20.39 permil
The results demonstrate significant isotope fractionation and suggest a downward
decrease in the marine influence, which is shown by the trend to higher 034 S ratios.
The main reason for this is probably the restricted water circulation in the deeper
layers of the peat, such that the rate of sulphate reduction outstrips the rate of
sulphate replenishment by downward-percolating sea water (Coleman and Raiswell
1981).
The effect of marine influence on total sulphur distribution has been commented
on in Chaps. 4 and 5. Most investigators into the distribution of sulphur in coals
carrying a marine roof(e.g. White and Thiessen 1913; Thiessen 1920b; Ashley 1920;
Stutzer and Noe 1940; Wellman 1952; Teichmiiller 1955, 1962; Suggate 1959;
Williams and Keith 1963; Goldhaber and Kaplan 1974; Casagrande et al. 1977;
Harris et al. 1981; Smith and Batts 1974; Shimoyama 1984; Cohen et al. 1984;
Casagrande 1987; and others) conclude that the high sulphur content of marine-
influenced coals has been inherited from the peat stage. A close interdependence has
been found to exist between the sulphur content ofthe coal and the distance between
the seam roof and the base of the closest overlying marine strata. An example
described by Gluskoter and Hopkins (1970), and Krausse et al. (1979) is the increase
in total sulphur content of the Herrin (No.6) Coal in the so-called "quality circle" of
the southern Illinois Basin, U.S.A., away from the Walshville Channel. As
mentioned in Chap. 6.3.2.2, the channel extends from the Herrin (No.6) Coal into
the seam roof, where it is flanked by its overbank deposits represented by the non-
marine, grey Energy Shale of the Carbondale Formation. Laterally and upward the
Energy Shale gives way to marine strata in the form of the black Anna Shale,
followed by the Conant and Brereton Limestones, which form the immediate seam
roof outside the range of fluvial influence. In the vicinity of the Walshville Channel,
where the fresh-water-derived Energy Shale is thickest, the sulphur content of the
underlying coal is consistently low. Conversely, it is consistently high under marine
cover, with the transition occurring as the thickness of the Energy Shale begins to
drop below 6m. Similar observations were made by Shimoyama (1984) in marine
influenced coals in the Miike Coalfield of northwest Kyushu. He found the following
hyperbolic decrease in total sulphur in coal with increasing vertical distance (x)
between the top ofthe seam and the base of the closest overlying marine or brackish
horizon:
2.271
Max. sulphur content of coal = 0.437 + I ( ) (8.1)
og x-I
1.401
Mean sulphur content of coal = 0.333 + log (x _ 1) (8.2)
However, the above relationship cannot be generally applied, for example, sulphur
contents in Australian Gondwana coals with marine roof sediments tend to be lower
than those calculated according to Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2).
As discussed in Chaps. 4 and 5, next to sulphur, the element most commonly
used as a palaeosalinity indicator has been boron (Goldschmidt and Peters 1932;
Degens et al. 1957; Ernst et al. 1958, 1960; Keith and Degens 1959; Harder 1961;
Potter et al. 1963; Swaine 1962, 1970, 1975; Walker and Price 1963; Degens 1965;
Eagar and Spears 1966; Spears 1971; Couch 1971; Bohor and Gluskoter 1973;
Warbrooke 1981; Lyons et al. 1989c; and others). Although some of these authors
used differences in boron content to distinguish between marine, brackish and
freshwater sediments, the published boron figures for identical palaeo-environments
from different areas often vary more than the figures quoted for different
environments in one locality. For example, the boron content quoted for
unequivocally marine environments range from 450 ppm in Carboniferous coals of
the Illinois Basin (Lyons et al. 1989c) to 84 ppm in the Permian Branxton Formation
of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. (McHugh 1984). Apart from differences in boron
fixation and the other reasons mentioned in Chap. 5.5.1.2, to account for such
variations, the low Australian values are mirrored by the likewise lower sulphur
contents of marine influenced Permian coals in Australia, compared with their
Carboniferous counterparts elsewhere. In reference to the suppressed boron
contents, McHugh (1984) suggests that the cool Gondwanian climate at the time
might have retarded sorption rates.
8.3.1.2 Mineralogical Signatures of Transgressive Coals with a Marine Roof
As discussed in Chap. 5, the H 2 S formed by the bacterial reduction of the sulphates

contained in sea-water reacts either with organic matter to produce organic sulphur
or with ferrous iron, which results in the syngenetic precipitation of Fe-sulphides
either directly as pyrite or as some FeS 2 modifications which are unstable and
corivert into pyrite (Berner 1985; Casagrande 1987). A high pyrite content has been
recognised by many authors to be one of the most common characteristics of marine
influenced coals (White and Thiessen 1913; Petras check 1952; Teichmiiller 1962;
Love 1957; Williams and Keith 1963; Rickard 1970, 1975; Smith and Batts 1974;
Boctor et al. 1976; Javor and Mountjoy 1976; Parrat and Kullerud 1979; Pearson
1979; Price and Shieh 1979) and has also been observed in Recent peat deposits
(Cohen et al. 1984; Casagrande 1987). Casagrande et al. (1980) compare the marine
peats of the Everglades in Florida which contain up to 10% sulphur with the
fresh-water peats of the Okefenokee Swamp with a sulphur content of only 0.2%.
The difference is related not only to the large proportion of dissolved sulphates
in sea-water but also to its alkaline reaction which provides favourable conditions
for sulphate-reducing bacteria by suppressing the acidity of marine-influenced peats
(Baas-Becking et al. 1960; Casagrande 1985).
Studies by Cohen et al. (1984) in the Holocene peats of southern Florida which
grade from fresh-water to marine, have shown that the highest proportion of pyrite
was actually found in brackish peats followed by moderate and low amounts in
marine and fresh-water peats, respectively. It was also demonstrated that fresh-
water peat was enriched in pyrite when overlain by high-sulphur peat but the latter
HANNOVER
•
GRillO 1/2
T.
Kamen
20km
•
STUTTGART
MVNCHEN.
Fig.8.8. Locality map of part of the Ruhr Basin in Germany, showing the origin of three
samples of the Katharina Seam discussed in the text
Table 8.3. The mineral composition in percent by weight of four samples (identified by colliery
names) of the Katharina Seam (Ruhr Basin) and its roof shale. (After Diessel 1961)
Friedrich Heinrich Prosper II Grillo 1/2
Humic Roof Humic Roof Humic Saprop. Roof

coal shale coal shale coal coal shale
Total mineral extract 15.0 85.0 23.5 93.4 9.4 22.7 82.5
Clay mica 0.6 . 57.1 21.9 66.0 16.1 39.0 59.0

Kaolinite 21.6 16.7 14.3 17.0 7.3 1.0 14.3
Chlorite Trace 1.0 Trace 0.5 0 0 2.0
Quartz-chalcedony 2.5 14.1 7.3 11.7 6.7 3.8 14.5
Calcite-dolomite 19.4 4.9 1.0 Trace 3.2 0 0
Ankerite-siderite 1.9 0.1 Trace Trace 4.0 9.3 0
Phosphorite-apatite 0.4 0.4 Trace 0 2.6 4.3 0.3
Pyrite 48.7 5.1 52.5 3.7 55.7 40.5 7.3
Remainder 4.3 0.4 3.0 1.1 3.4 2.0 2.6
did not have any effect when it occurred underneath fresh-water peat. Additional
minerals which either are exclusive to or concentrated in coals whose peat was
soaked with sea water either during accretion or by inundation in the course of a
marine transgression include dolomite, calcite and phosphorite/apatite.
By using three Katharina Seam samples spaced along strike over a total dis-
tance of 70 km (Fig. 8.8), examples of minerals found in a typical marine influenced
coal and its associated roof shale are given in Table 8.3. Whole seam samples of raw
coal have been used except in the sample from Grillo 1/2 Colliery where the upper
20 cm of the Katharina Seam consist of a shaly cannel/boghead coal. Because of its
unusual composition this sapropelite has been analysed separately from the
underlying humus coal. The pyrite content is generally high in the coal, but among
the clay minerals extracted from the coal samples, an inverse relationship exists
between the proportions of kaolinite and clay mica (i.e. sericite-illite), the extremes
being the whole coal sample from Friedrich Heinrich Colliery and the sapropelite
from Grillo 1/2 Colliery. Clay micas are known to have a preference for-marine
environments, which is the reason for their dominance in the marine roof shales of
the Katharina Seam. They constitute the fine groundmass of the shale, whereas the
comparatively low proportion of kaolinite occurs as relatively large crystal
aggregates and replacements of detrital silicates which appear to have been partially
or wholly kaolinitised before deposition.
The concentration of pyrite and clay mica in the sapropelite is supplemented by
a considerable amount of carbonate and phosphorite. The latter occurs mainly as up
to 30 mm long, lenticular nodules of collophane-containing pockets of fine radio-
fibroblastic apatite needles (Fig. 4.45). Other forms of apatite include overgrowth on
conodonts and other phosphatic fossil fragments with which the phosphorite is
associated in the sapropelite (Diessel 1961).
When analysing whole-coal samples, no distinction can be made between
syngenetic and epigenetic minerals. This is a considerable disadvantage for the
palaeo-environmental interpretation of the mineral assemblage, since only the

syngenetic minerals reflect the environment of peat accumulation (see Chap. 4.1.4),
although a high proportion of a particular mineral in its syngenetic form is often
accompanied by a likewise increased epigenetic content of that mineral due to
diagenetic mobilisation and recrystallisation. The distinction between syngenetic
and epigenetic minerals can only be made under the microscope, which in the
reflected light conditions commonly applied to the study of coal has poor resolution
em
110 - - - - - ______ _
100
--=fl·
-'-.9>- - -
--------
---=--
90
80
10 lillTII1 Pyrite
Delay
~ Sider Ita
80
~ Phosphorite
50
40
30
20
40 60 Vol.~"
10
20 40
20 40 60
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH PROSPER IT GRillO 1/2
Fig. 8.9. The distribution of syngenetic minerals in three sections of the Katharina Seam, Ruhr
Basin, Germany. (After Diessel 1961)
for translucent minerals. The illustration of the distribution of the syngenetic

minerals in the three Katharina Seam sections shown in Fig. 8.9 is therefore
restricted to the main mineral groups. A striking feature of the sections is the
concentration of pyrite in the upper portion of the seam, which is common to all
transgressive coals with a marine roof.
8.3.1.3 Petrographic Signatures of Transgressive Coals with a Marine Roof
The coal petrographic entities formed in coal seams carrying a marine roof are not
fundamentally different from those of other coals but they occur in different con-
centrations, particularly in the upper seam sections, where dull lithotypes rich in
detrital macerals are common. The rising groundwater table is indicated by an
increasing proportion of hypautochthonous and allochthonous inertodetrinite and
occasional gradations into sapropelic coal, while the generally high degree of tissue
destruction is related to the raised pH of the marine-influenced peat which favours
greater bacterial activity than acid peats (Stach et al. 1982; Littke 1985a). Evidence
of this trend is shown by the very low tissue preservation of marine-influenced
coals, which results from an increased proportion in detrovitrinite and a reduced
telovitrinite content.
Fig.8.10. Concentration of cutinite

(dark. elongated strands) in the Pelton
Seam, Greta Coal Measures, New South
Wales. Incident white light, oil immer-
sion; actual length of field of view = 0.22
mm
A corollary of the loss of biomass due to the increased bacterial destruction of

plant tissue under near-neutral conditions is a relative enrichment in liptinite
macerals with detrovitrinite acting as a matrix. In the lower delta plain and other
marine-influenced coals of Australia, sporinite and cutinite contents are commonly
higher than in other coals. A typical appearance of cutinite in such a situation is
illustrated in Fig. 8.1 o. According to Littke (1985a), the rather resistant lipid-rich
liptinite macerals are less affected by microbal activity than soft cell tissues, although
they also become degraded, which accounts for the likewise elevated liptodetrinite
content of marine-influenced coals.
As discussed in Chap. 5, vitrinites and inertinites associated with algal matter
are characterised by reduced reflectance and increased fluorescence intensity,
irrespective of whether they are of fresh-water or marine origin. This is related partly
to the occurrence of degraded alginite in detrovitrinite and inertinite, and partly to
lipids generated by bacteria (Taylor et al. 1989). Lipid formation appears to be
enhanced in the presence of algae, many of which are photoautotrophic organisms.
These constitute the primary members in a variety of nutritional chains (Oes-
tereicher 1988) and promote bacterial growth in their mucous sheaths. Some of the
finely dispersed lipids and algal decomposition products become absorbed by
telovitrinite as well, but, as discussed in Chap. 5.4.1, its fluorescence intensity is not
raised to the level of detrovitrinite.
The high fluorescence and lowered reflectance intensities in transgf6.ssive coals
carrying a marine roof are not evenly distributed throughout the seam profile but
are concentrated closest to the source of the marine influence, i.e. in the upper seam
section. An example of these and some other relevant coal properties are shown in
Fig. 8.11 by the Greta Seam and its upper split, the Pelton Seam, from the Sydney
Basin in New South Wales. The illustrated lagoonal and/or lacustrine Bellbird Lens,
i.e. the split between the Greta and Pelton Seams, is over 6 m thick, which together
with the overlying Pelton Seam would have absorbed most ofthe marine influence
of the Branxton Formation. Nevertheless, in all properties indicated in Fig. 8.11
both coal seams show a distinct transgressive signature. In the Pelton Seam, being
directly overlain by marine sediments of the Branxton Formation, the upward
decrease in vitrinite reflectance (A) and increase in telovitrinite fluorescence (C) are
particularly marked. These changes indicate an upward increase in anaerobic
bacterial activity, as does the upward decline in telovitrinite (E) and TPI (G). Other
features include the generally high pyrite (G) and vitrinite contents (E), the latter also
being a feature of transgressive coals. Pyrite occurs mainly as small syngenetic
concretions the early precipitation of which is indicated by the compaction of
the surrounding coal and the enclosed uncompacted miospores (Fig. 8.12). The
concretions are mostly set in a matrix of detrovitrinite which, in many instances,
displays higher fluorescence levels close to the contact with the pyrite, as illustrated
in Fig. 8.13. It is assumed that the increased vitrinite fluorescence results from the
absorption of lipids produced by the sulphate-reducing bacteria near the loci of
pyrite precipitation. The Greta Seam shows identical but generally weaker trends,
which is in accordance with its transgressive nature and its largely non-marine to
brackish roof sediments. In areas where the Greta Seam is combined with the Pelton
Seam, the respective properties of the two coals are added.
Pelton Seam
,65 ,7 o 10 20
'0 Vitrinite Reflectance '0 Telovitrinite Fluorescence
Lacustrine and brackish sediments of the Bellbird Lens
o
<> Rort ol546w
oRord .1650w
+ Rorv ol700w
,4 ,45 ,5 ,55 ,6 ,65 ,7 o 10 20 30 40 50 60
'0 Telovitrinite Fluorescence
, • • Pyrite and 0 TPI x10
Lacustrine and brackish sediments of the Bellbird Lens
H
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ,1 10
•'0 Telovitrinite; + '0 Vitrinite '0 •Pyrite and 0 TPI x10
Fig. 8.11. The distribution of several petrographic properties in vertical profiles of the marine
influenced Greta and Pelton Seams of the Greta Coal Measures, New South Wales. The samples
were kindly supplied by R. Rigby, Newcastle Wallsend Coal Company Pty, Limited
Although many marine-influenced coals show an increase in liptinite contents,

there are others in which the proportion of liptinite has been lowered due to
chemical corrosion (Stach and Michels 1955/56; Teichmiiller 1962), which is thought
to occur when the pH of the peat water is raised above neutral point, for example
during prolonged contact with the alkaline sea water. This notion is supported by
Pfaffenberg's (1953/54) observation of the preservation potential of pollen exines in
Recent limnic peats. Well-preserved pollen grains and cuticles were always found in
strongly acid peats, but their state of preservation deteriorated sharply with
increasing alkalinity. Similar effects are common in some Carboniferous coals,
Fig.8.12. Photomicrograph showing uncompacted miospores in pyrite concretions (P) from the
Pelton Seam, Greta Coal Measures, New South Wales. Incident light in fluorescent mode, dry
objective; actual length of field of view = 0.22 mm
Fig. 8.13. Photomicrograph illustrating

a halo of higher fluorescing detrovitri-
nite near the pyrite concretions (P) from
the Pelton Seam, Greta Coal Measures,
New South Wales. Also note the bending
of the coal layers around the pyrite
indicating its syngenetic origin. Incident
light in fluorescent mode, dry objective;
Table 8.4. Microlithotype and maceral group composition (in percent by volume) offour samples
of the Katharina Seam from three collieries in the Ruhr Basin, Germany. (After Diessel 1961)
Friedrich
Heinrich Prosper II Grillo 1/2
Humic Humic Humic Sapropelic

coal coal coal coal
Vitrite 36 43 47 17
Clarite 18 1 44 65
Trimacerite + vitrinertite 21 38 5 8
Durite 10 1
Inertite 14 10 3
Carbominerite 1 7 1 10
Total 100 100 100 100
Vitrinite 56 65 85 50
Liptinite 14 1 10 31
Inertinite 26 27 4 1
Minerals 4 7 1 18
Total 100 100 100 100
particularly in the above-mentioned Katharina Seam of the Ruhr Basin, in which

bleaching and corrosion of sporinite and cutinite are widespread.
In Table 8.4 aggregate microlithotype and maceral group compositions are
given for the same Katharina samples used in the previous discussion. The analysis
results vary considerably between localities, but even when the Prosper II sample
is disregarded due to its relatively high rank which does not permit a reliable
identification of liptinite, the concentration of the latter is low when compared
with the large proportion of liptinite-bearing microlithotypes in the coal. This is
particularly obvious in the humic coal of Grillo 1/2, which contains 44% clarite
but only 10% liptinite. Although the liptinite content in the sample from Friedrich
Heinrich Colliery is slightly higher, its clarite is low in liptinite, which is also spread
over the large proportion of trimacerite and durite. In the sapropelite of Grillo
1/2 the 65% clarite is matched by a high 31 % liptinite but only 7% of this consists
of sporinite, cutinite or resinite, the remainder being liptodetrinite, much of it
presumably of algal origin.
As observed by Teichmiiller (1962), the low spore content of the Katharina
Seam is accompanied by a high proportion of micrinite which also tends to increase
in quantity towards the marine roof. This trend is paralleled by a shift in vitrinite
composition. Except for thin layers of bright coal (vi train) in which telovitrinite
predominates, the three seam sections illustrated in Fig. 8.14 contain between 40
and 50% detrovitrinite plus some subordinate gelovitrinite. Near the top of the
sections the amount of detrovitrinite increases sharply to nearly 100%, although the
total vitrinite content actually decreases. A comparison with Fig. 8.9 shows that the
110 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 _.:::- ~-_ - -C§J- -- ;s:=~-~-_r="-==-='--==--=-~~'___i
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
20 40 60 80 100 Vol.-%
10
20 40 60 80 100
20 40 60 80
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH PROSPER II GRILLO 1/2
Fig. 8.14. The distribution of detrovitrinite (mainly as desmocollinite) in three sections of the
Katharina Seam in the Ruhr Basin, Germany. Total vitrinite content normalised to 100%.
(After Diessel 1961)
high relative proportion of unstructured vitrinite coincides with a likewise sharp

increase in the content of syngenetic pyrite.
Taking into account the distribution of macerals and minerals in the Katharina
Seam and putting the latter into the context of the vertical profiles illustrated in
Figs. 7.35D and 7.44, it can be concluded that the Katharina Seam was formed at the
base of an eastward-retrograding parasequence within a transgressive systems tract
in front of a major marine transgression across the Variscan (Hercynian) foreland
basin. Within the area investigated by Diessel (1961) peat accretion began in the west
and successively spread to the east where peat formation started after a time lag
commensurate with the distance from Friedrich Heinrich Colliery shown in Fig. 8.8.
Such inference can be drawn from the correlation of the subaqueous and
hypautochthonous pyrite- and detrovitrinite-rich units in the upper portions of the
seam profiles of Figs. 8.9 and 8.14. Although this horizon signals the beginning of
peat submergence prior to the marine transgression and is, like the transgression
itself, diachronous, its usage as a datum highlights not only the above-mentioned
eastward delay in the beginning of peat formation but also its termination. While at
Friedrich Heinrich and Prosper II marine conditions were already established
above the drowned peat, organic sedimentation continued at Grillo 1/2 with the
formation of sapropelites in brackish lagoons, until they too, were flooded by sea
water, thus extending the marine cover into the eastern region.
The vertical changes in coal composition discussed above have been found in
other coals with marine roof sediments. Excellent examples are the Eocene Brunner
Coal Measures on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand. As will be
discussed further in Chap. 9, the Brunner coals were formed in a satellite rift
associated with the opening of the Tasman Sea at a time when the sea began to
invade the widening rift zone from the south. Coal formation took place under
transgressive conditions such that peat accumulated in a marginally marine
environment and was eventually covered by marine sediments. Based on a variety of
analyses carried out on seam subsections, Newman and Newman (1982), Newman
(1985a, b) could demonstrate a decline in vitrinite reflectance, which is associated
with an increase in volatile matter yield and atomic HIC ratio, in spite of a
simultaneous rise in inertinite content. Other changes include a marked increase in
sulphur underneath the marine roof. Since Newman (1985a) attributes these vertical
changes to a gradually rising water table, the inertinite is interpreted as allochthon-
ous material, which floated into the mire from peripheral areas during periods of
flooding. This is supported by the association of the inertinite with an upward
increase in clastic-derived ash, which is the percentage of ash minus ash from
authigenic minerals (Newman 1986).
8.3.2 Properties of Transgressive Coal Seams Without a Marine Roof
The low relief of a coastal plain with topogenous peatlands enables the relative rise
in sea level during a marine transgression to be transmitted landward by a general
rise in groundwater level. If the shoreline consists of a barrier beach, lagoons may
spread in the low back barrier strand plain, while further inland peat formation will
be initiated over as much of the hinterland as is affected by the rising water table.
Rate and duration of the relative rise in sea level in conjunction with sediment
supply and the slope angle of the transgressed terrain will determine both seam
thickness and the extent of the transgression. Given suitable conditions, the distal
portions of the coastal plain or interior flood basins not reached by the sea will
continue to produce peat although lagoonal or lacustrine conditions might spread
during the stage of maximum flooding. Depending on the palaeo-environmental
setting of the observation point, maximum flooding may be indicated by many
different features, for example by the concentration of transported macerals (e.g.
inertodetrinite and liptodetrinite) in a particular coal ply, the formation of a
lacustrine dirt band, such as Fulton's (1987) bivalve-bearing interleaf sediments in
the Warwickshire Thick Coal (see Chap. 5), or by the deposition of fresh-water
limestones in the Carboniferous coal measures of North America (Weller 1930, 1956,
1958; Wanless 1964; and others). In reference to Masson and Rust (1983) and to the
work of Wanless (1964) on the effects of marine transgressions on coal measure
sedimentation, Rust et al. (1987, p.1877) make the point that in the Pennsylvanian
Morien Group of Nova Scotia "lacustrine limestones in the Sydney Mines
Formation have a stratigraphic position and transgressive role similar to those of
marine bands within classic paralic coal-bearing successions, although they are less
extensive".
Drowning of the peat has been a common mechanism by which peat
accumulation was terminated in transgressive coal seams. This notion is supported
by the frequency of transitional contacts between coal and lacustrine roof shales,
and the observation that intercalations of sapropelic (both cannel and boghead)
coals are considerably more frequent near the roofs of humic coal seams (Kremp
1952; Stach 1954; Littke 1985a; Strehlau 1988) than in any other location. As
mentioned in Chap. 2.1.2.1, a modern example of the termination of peat formation
because ofthe spreading oflacustrine conditions is the sapropelic mud which caps a
10-m-thick seam of peat in Mud Lake near Ocala in Central Florida (Spackman
et al. 1966), probably as a consequence of the post-glacial transgression.
Many transgressive coal seams without (and some with) marine roof sediments
adhere closely to the vertical succession of coal facies discussed in Chap. 7.3.4.5,
whereby the upward shift towards subaqueous conditions is shown in the coal by an
increase in hypautochthonous and allochthonous components and a reduction in
tissue preservation to a level which is only marginally higher than the TPI values for
marine-influenced coals. The same applies to the vertical distribution of vitrinite
fluorescence and reflectance, i.e. a rise in intensity values is recorded in the upper
seam section, but it is not as strong as in marine-influenced coals. An example ofthis
would be the Greta Seam underneath the Bellbird Lens in Fig. 8.11, although thick
marine sediments begin only 7 m above the seam, and the coal might also have been
affected by brackish conditions during the peat stage. However, even when a marine
influence is excluded and a coal seam has been covered by lacustrine sediments only,
vitrinite fluorescence continues to increase towards the seam roof. The reasons for
this trend are basically the same as for the transgressive coals with a marine roof,
namely, increased bacterial activity and lipid production due to the dilution of acid
peat water, although the influx of fresh-water does not suppress the acidity in the
peat to the same degree as is done by sea water. The upward increase in fluorescence
intensity is therefore not as marked as in the marine- and brackish-influenced coals.
As an example of this trend, telovitrinite fluorescence intensities of the Hoskissons
Seam from the Black Jack Formation in New South Wales are illustrated in
Fig. 8.15 together with some petrographic characteristics. This unusual coal seam,
which has been referred to in Chap. 5.6, covers a large portion of the Gunnedah
Basin, and has been correlated with the Bayswater Seam in the Sydney Basin by
Beckett et al. (1983). Vitrinite fluorescence, plotted for three wavelengths in
Fig. 8.15A, follows a general pattern not unlike that ofthe transgressive Greta Seam
in Fig.8.11D. However, .the measured intensities are significantly lower, even
though the Hoskissons Seam is situated closer to the rank-dependent maximum for
vitrinite fluorescence (see Figs. 5.26 and 5.27) and should therefore have a higher
fluorescence intensity than the Greta Seam. The trend in vitrinite reflectance
(Fig. 8.15B) is likewise similar to that of the Greta Seam in Fig. 8.11 B, although the
high values at the 6-m level are more extreme than the inflections recorded in an
equivalent position in the Greta Seam.
The maceral composition of the Hoskissons Seam is unusual for a coal seam
that contains epiclastic dirt bands and other indications of flooding. All three
7 A B
6.5
L-
a
a
L;:
.,E 5.5
'"
(f)
5
'">a
.,
.0 4.5 .I546wt oRort
en oI6S0wt + Rere!
;,'" + I 700 wt oRerv
'"
I: 3.S
3 4 S 6 7· 8 9.6 .62 .M .66 .68 .7 .72 .74
%TeloYitrlnite Fluorescence Intensity % Vitrinite Reflectance
6.S
L-
a
a
L;:
.,E 5.S
'"
(f)
S
'">a
.,
.0 4.S o Vitrinite
en + L\ptinite 0 TPI
;,'" • Inertinite • GI
'"
I:
Maceral Groups in % Coal Facies Indices
Fig.8.1SA-D. Four diagrams illustrating the vertical distribution of various coal properties in
five subsections (reference is their upper contact) in the Hoskissons Seam, Black Jack Coal
Measures, New South Wales. A Mean fluorescence intensities (50 to 100 readings) measured in
water immersion at the indicated wavelength. B Mean random reflectance (50 readings) in oil
immersion for telovitrinite (Rort), detrovitrinite (Rord) and weighted mean for total vitrinite (Rorv).
C Maceral group composition of organic matter. D Coal facies. The analysed coal samples have
been kindly supplied by N.Z. Tadros of the N.S.W. Department of Mineral Resources from DME
Narrabri DDH 39
maceral groups illustrated in Fig. 8.l5C are characterised by extreme values with
only a minor upward decrease in the excessively high inertinite values and
concomitant slight increases in vitrinite and liptinite. The proportion of the latter is
high for Gondwana coals; it is dominated by sporinite, but other liptinite macerals,
including alginite, are widespread. Considering the enhancing influence of the
presence of algal remains on vitrinite fluorescence discussed in Chap. 5.4.1, the
intensities indicated in Fig. 8.l5A are very low, presumably because of particularly
low anaerobic bacterial activity. This may have been due to excessive acidity or
partial oxidation, or both, which could have resulted from strong seasonal
fluctuations in temperature and water availability. Indeed, when the top values
above the 6-m level in Fig. 8.15 are excluded, both the decreasing telovitrinite
fluorescence and increasing vitrinite reflectance (Fig.8.l5A and B) would be
consistent with an upward trend that permitted the peat to be subjected to
intermittent desiccation and drying. The state of the peat affected in this manner can
be gauged from the tissue preservation indices shown in Fig. 8.l5D. Although an
acid environment would favour preservation of plant tissues, intermittent desicc-
ation and partial oxidation of the peat surface (acrotelm), as indicated by the high
The Influence of Sequence-Straitgraphic Settings on Coal Formation 493
content of inertinite, would counteract this trend, resulting in advanced humific-

ation and generally a low level of tissue preservation. In view of the low vitrinite
content, the low TPI values indicate that a very high percentage of the inertinite
consists ofinertodetrinite. This means that the Hoskissons peat and its constituting
plants had suffered considerable humification before final burial, probably equiva-
lent to a huminosity grade between H6 and H8 (Table 3.3) or, if wood was involved, a
necrotisation stage in excess of 5 according to the scale given in Chap. 3.1.1. The
sharp upward increase in TPI and reflectance values, combined with the drop in
fluorescence intensity up to the 6-m level is probably related to an upward increase
in acidity, which might indicate a change of the mire to raised blanket bog
conditions. However, this trend is reversed in the uppermost portion of the
Hoskissons Seam profile by the beginning of the lacustrine transgression and
eventual burial of the coal under a sequence of fresh-water shales and sandstones.
The flooding of the peat brings about anoxic conditions and raises the pH to a level
that lipid-producing anaerobic bacteria can function normally, which results in the
changes of the optical and compositional properties indicated in Fig. 8.15. The
above conclusions, which have been obtained from the study of bore core samples
from one locality only, are consistent with regional trends in seam composition, as
elucidated in a comprehensive petrographic study of the Hoskissons Seam by
Tadros (1988a).
Another example of a transgressive coal seam without a marine roof is the
Borehole Seam illustrated in Fig. 7.9B (478-480 m) and Fig. 7.64 as a cap on the
Waratah Sandstone. The latter has been interpreted as a prograding barrier beach
in Chap. 7.4.8. but the composition of the coal, as indicated in Fig. 7.74 by its facies
indices, suggests a swamp environment common to the coals of the alluvial and
upper delta plains illustrated in Fig. 7.38. The composition of the coal does not
suggest any desiccation of the peat as might be expected if the seam had been part of
the marine regression that was responsible for the formation of the Waratah
Sandstone. I t is further recalled that in some areas a lagoonal interval, the Wakefield
Formation (Fig.7.73) occurs in the floor of the seam and, probably more
importantly, peat formation was terminated by drowning of the seam, as indicated
by the occurrence of a canneloid carbonaceous shale in the coal roof followed by a
several metres thick upward shoaling sequence, as shown between 480 and 490 min
Fig. 7.9B. The combined evidence suggests that the contact of the Waratah
Sandstone with the Wakefield Formation and the Borehole Seam, respectively,
marks a reversal from the regressive conditions of the Waratah Sandstone to the
transgressive conditions of the Borehole Seam. Its subaqueous roof shale shows
weak bioturbation, which suggests brackish influence, but genuine marine con-
ditions did not reach the coalfield during this transgression. According to
Warbrooke (1981), this conclusion is also supported by the upwardly decreasing
boron content above the Borehole Seam.
The brackish conditions inferred to have coexisted with the Borehole Seam at
the beginning and end of peat accumulation have also influenced the distribution of
total sulphur in the Borehole Seam. An illustration of this is given in Fig. 8.16 from
two localities in the Newcastle Coalfield. Both vertical seam profiles show higher
sulphur values in their upper and lower portions compared with their middle
BOREHOLE SEAM DUDLEY SEAM

BELMONT AREA REDHEAD AREA REDHEAD AREA
2.4 2..4
1.8
2.2 2.2
2 2 1.6
E
~1.8 1.8
::;; 1.4
~ 1.6 1.6
z 1.2
-1.4 1.4
z
0
E 1.2 1.2
(Jl
0
rl. 1 0.8
w
> 0.8
~ 0.8
~ 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0+-r..,-r-r-r1
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
SULPHUR % (dof)
Fig. 8.16. Simplified seam sections of the Borehole and Dudley Seams in the Newcastle Coal
Measures, N.S.W., combined with the vertical distribution of total sulphur showing the brackish
influence on the upper and lower portions of the Borehole Seam (2 localities) and the fresh-water
transgressive influence on the Dudley Seam. (After Diessel et al. 1989)
section. A similar sulphur distribution has been reported by Langenberg et al. (1989)
from the Lower Cretaceous Jewel Seam in the Cadomin-Luscar-Grande Cache
coalfields in west-central Alberta, Canada. Like the Borehole Seam, the Jewel Seam
caps progradational shoreline deposits (MacDonald et al. 1988) and is overlain by
brackish-lagoonal sediments resulting in elevated sulphur values to occur at the
bottom and top of the seam and dropping to less than 0.2% in its middle portion. A
modern parallel to this situation can be found in the Snuggedy Swamp, which has a
back barrier setting on the Atlantic coast of South Carolina, and has been formed
during the post-Pleistocene sea level rise (Staub and Cohen 1979). Above a basement
consisting of Pleistocene barrier sands follows a lagoon and salt marsh deposit of
variable thickness. This is overlain by up to 4.6 m of fresh-water peat formed when
the respective rates of peat accumulation and sea level rise were in equilibrium.
Recent sea level rises have been faster than the formation of new peat, resulting in an
incipient transgression and marginal encroachment of the fresh-water peat by
lagoon- and salt-marsh deposit. According to Staub and Cohen (1979), both top
(where overlain by salt marsh) and bottom of the main peat zone possess a strong
H 2 S odour.
By way of contrast the sulphur distribution in the Dudley Seam has been
included in Fig. 8.16. There is no discernable brackish influence in this coal, which is
overlain by lacustrine deposits. The drowning of the Dudley peat and its
concomitant mixing with fresh water raised the pH sufficiently to stimulate bacterial
activity which resulted in the slight upward rise in sulphur in the seam section.
However, the increase in sulphur is considerably smaller than that found in either
brackish- or marine-influenced coals.
TST
SB
HST
mls
TST
SB
HST
mls
T - - - - - - - ------------ --- ------4-
S
T .~ ~ ----.:.---- ----.:: ==== -:3~
~_~-_-_-_""_""_""_-_-_-_-C:-----(
TYPE 1 SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
~ Backbarrier
~ coastal plain
Fig.8.17. Diagrammatic interpretation of the sequence stratigraphic setting of the Borehole Seam
in the Newcastle Coalfield, New South Wales
A sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the setting of the Borehole Seam and

its enclosing strata is provided in Fig. 8.17. The seam is part of a transgressive
systems tract which begins with the marine Dempsey Formation above a
tectonically induced angular unconformity on the western flank of the Newcastle
Coalfield. The stratigraphic interval covered by Fig. 8.17 extends from 373 m to
495 m in the vertical profile Fig. 7.9B, where the unconformity is indicated by a wavy
line. Within the area accessible by outcrop (either side of the central column in
Fig. 8.17) the lowermost parasequence (No.1 in Fig. 8.17) is interpreted to represent
the landward extension of an incipient marine transgression. It consists of a 20-c!Jl-
thick basal granule to pebble conglomerate followed by a fossil soil horizon and
several metres offluvial sandstone plus some thin coal. Alternatively, this unit can be
regarded as part of the lowstand systems tract followed by the transgressive systems
tract in the form of the three back stepping parasequences 2 to 4.
They constitute shoaling-upward marine sections, each beginning with bio-
turbated carbonaceous shale, which contain silty intercalations and ice-rafted
pebbles not unlike the subtidal Zostera marina zone described by Clarke et al. (1982)
from James Bay, Ontario, Canada. Each of the three parasequences grades upward
into ripple-marked sandy siltstones and ends with well-sorted upper shoreface to
foreshore sandstone. As an example, parasequence 3 is illustrated in Fig. 8.18. It is
significant that the fourth parasequence of the Dempsey Formation is the upper-
most Permian unit in the Newcastle Coalfield, in which dropstones are still wide-
spread. The subsequent removal of the last remnants of glaciation results initially in
a larger influx of clastics causing a temporary progradation of the shoreline. The fifth
parasequence, the Sandgate Formation, is therefore a mixture ofthin coal seams and
shale, some presumably of lagoonal origin. However, as more water becomes
available it is followed by the marine Shortland Formation which contains the
stage of maximum flooding and the last marine incursion into the Permian coal
measures. It is followed by the Waratah Sandstone which, as discussed previously,
represents a wave- and tide-influenced barrier beach complex. The overlying
Fig.8.18. Photograph showing the third parasequence listed in Fig. 8.17
N
S
.,"
~
"
:
- --
~
LagOOn Coa l
~ Barrier be acl'l
(Wake fie l d (Borehole S.l
o SKm ~ (Wa r 8tal"l SandS'-) +Tlghe. Hill F.l
' ~~~~....II
L-
D Tu ff aceo us
c I a ys lone
N 13 97 - 60,e numbe r
Fig.8.19. Diagram showing a combined series of columnar sections of the Borehole Seam and
enclosed tuff bands in the Newcastle Coalfield, New South Wales. Datum is the so-called Middle
Band, a crystal tonstein of wide distribution. At the northern end of the section the Borehole Seam
is 3 m thick. (After DiesseI et al. 1989)
Wakefield Formation is lagoonal in origin and, together with the Borehole Seam,
forms the transgressive base of the eighth para sequence, situated landward of the
barrier shoreline: The latter has been indiCated near the right hand margin of
Fig. 8.17 as a time-transgressive lithofacies continuation of the Waratah Sandstone
with a parasequence boundary between the two portions. This is conjectural and has
been included in the diagram in order to illustrate such an example. Indeed, the
persistence of the main tufT bands of the Borehole Seam illustrated in Fig. 8.19
proves its synchronous nature within the accessible area. In the right portion (i.e.
up-palaeoslope) of Fig. 8.19 the coal thickens and it splits around a fluvial sandstone
and conglomerate which is contemporaneous with the seam and was formed by the
river whose sand/shale ratios are illustrated in Fig. 7.26. As mentioned above, seam
formation was terminated by drowning of the peat under a spreading lagoon system
which towards the top of the parasequence gives way to flood plain laminites.
The filling of any large sedimentary basin is possible only in the context of an
overall marine regression which leads to a gradual withdrawal of the sea from the
shrinking sites of sedimentation. Indeed, most coal measures show a preponderance
of sediments formed during regressions, yet, as in the case of the Borehole Seam or
the previously discussed Wynn Seam, not many coals which are associated with a
regressive sequence have a composition that would support such an interpretation.
Also the coals represented by the alluvial and upper delta plain types with high
degrees oftissue preservation and gelification, as shown in Fig. 7.38, are interbedded
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
I~
If
7
I; 7
I~
E:
6 I~ as 6
I.!Yo .?o
j:::'
i <'s -1-
5
I
<'0 -1- 5
1
~o
's
4 I 4
SUB-HYDROUS
I
I
3 I 3
I
,...
E2 I 2
E
.....
"C
I
c:
Q)
0>1
-c>-
0
I
r;e.
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
% Carbon (dmmf)
Fig. 8.20. Seyler's Chart plot of transgressive coals without marine roofs (dots) and of regressive
coals (squares), all from the northern Sydney Basin, New South Wales
with progradational, i.e. regressive, sediments. Yet, the chemical composition of the
respective coals plots mostly within the "average" bright coal band in Seyler's Chart
(Figs. 8.20 and 8.22), as does the Borehole Seam and many other coal seams formed
under HST conditions. Since such coals are petrographically indistinguishable from
those formed in alluvial and upper delta plain environments, it is assumed that they
share a common origin by having been formed in response to distal marine
transgressions which did not reach the peatlands.
In the preceding discussion, a paralic setting, i.e. a hydrological connection
of the peatland to the sea, has been implied. However, transgressive coal seams
with non-marine roof rocks can also be formed in the continental interior or at
elevations that are either too remote from the sea or are too high to sustain any links
with the marine realm. Alpern et al. (1964) describe densosporinite assemblages
from the intra-montane Saar-Lorraine Basin and Hagemann and Wolf (1988) use
the widespread occurrence of alginite in the coals of the same basin as evidence for
the wet conditions their peats have been subjected to. Similarly to those seams with
marine roof sediments, vitrinite fluorescence intensities of these coals are compara-
tively high (Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984), which also indicates shallow water
conditions and considerable algal and microbial activity due to low acidity. Similar
conditions have been described from the Carboniferous intracratonic coal basins of
Brazil (Correa da Silva et al. 1985). Another example is the transgression of the
Goldlight Lake over the coal seams of the Rewanui Member in the limnic Paparoa
Coal Measures of New Zealand (Newman 1984). A discussion of this occurrence
is given in Chap. 9.4.2.
8.3.3 Properties of Coal Seams Formed During Marine Regression
The many coals assumed to have been formed during a transgressive phase are
contrasted by some inertinite-rich seams whose peat was affected by occasional
exposure and oxidation, although it formed in close proximity to the sea. Such coals
may be part of a delta system, but it is significant that the underlying nearshore and
shoreline deposits are usually only a few metres thick. Marine offshore sediments of
the transgression or immersion phase are either absent or rest as a thin veneer on the
underlying coal measures. This suggests that the overlying coal has been formed
during the regression phase of a marine incursion into a coastal peatland. Coals of
this kind commonly occupy a back barrier setting behind a barrier beach which,
together with the coal seam, became drawn out to form a blanket deposit as the
shoreline prograded seaward. An example of such a strand-plain coal is the
Bayswater Seam shown in Fig. 8.21 which is an enlarged portion of Fig. 7.72 along
part of section line A to B shown in Fig. 7.71, i.e. away from the juncture with the
underlying Wynn Seam. Like the Wynn Seam the Bayswater Seam contains two tuff
bands and a tuffaceous shale in the lower portion ofthe coal in E 7, E 21 and E 19, in
the locations indicated in Fig. 8.21. Over the distance of 4.5 km shown in the line of
sections, these bands converge strongly with the seam floor. Since the downlapping
N s
E7
E19
E21 E36
E22
m
4
Archerfleld Sandstone
2km
~------~------~,
Fig.8.21. Columnar sections of the Bayswater Seam, northern Sydney Basin, New South Wales,
oriented along part of the section line A to B of Fig. 7.71. Datum is second Tuff marker
tuff bands are time markers, the coal seam must be time-transgressive, i.e. its peat has
followed the prograding barrier beach (= Archerfield Sandstone) by occupying
remnant lagoons, wash over fans, and other emergent features of the back barrier.
Not unlike the nascent peat accumulation in swales between the beach ridges
illustrated in Fig. 7.69 from Nova Scotia, peat formation started first in the
depressions of the back barrier, evidence of which is the thin seam section and
absence of the tuff markers above the elevated sandstone in E 22.
The available evidence suggests that, following a rise in sea level during and after
the formation of the underlying Wynn Seam, the combined BulgaFormation,
Archerfield Sandstone and Bayswater Seam have been formed during eustatic
stillstand by shoreline progradation, i.e. the clastics by filling the space created by
the transgression between sea level and depositional interface, and the Bayswater
Seam by responding to ongoing basin subsidence. The relatively slow rate of the
latter resulted in frequent exposure of the peat and its eventual burial underneath
alluvial (fluvial and flood plain) deposits. Evidence for this is found in the occurrence
of washouts in the roof of the Bayswater Seam and, in particular, in its composition.
The Bayswater Seam shows a low HIC ratio and low pyrite content when compared
with the transgressive Wynn Seam. Their contrasting hydrogen and carbon contents
are shown in Seyler's Chart of Fig. 8.22, where the Bayswater Seam plots well within
the sub-hydrous portion. Conversely, the Wynn Seam either plots within the per-
hydrous field or within the bright coal band. The wide range in chemical
composition of the Wynn Seam is related to the varying intensity of marine
influence, as is detailed in Figs. 8.23 and 8.24 by means of HIC ratios and sulphur
distribution, respectively. In both parameters the differences between the two seams
are small where they are conjoined and up to 1 km away from the split axis (Ellis
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
7 7
6 6
-1-
5 -1- 5
~o I
4
1 4
SUB-HYDROUS
I
I
3 I 3
1
......
E2 I 2
E
"C
'-'
I
c
OJ
0)1
o
....
"C
;.,
::r:
?fi
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
% Carbon (dmmf)
Fig.8.22. Seyler's Chart plot of hydrogen and carbon contents (whole coal analyses) of the
Borehole (triangles), Wynn (dots) and Bayswater (squares) Seams from the northern Sydney Basin,
New South Wales
DDH 18). After a distance of 2 km (Ellis DDH 21) a gap of 2.24 m has been
established between them. Here the two seams show good differentiation in H/C
ratios but it takes another kilometre to Ellis DDH 19 before the contrast in sulpliur
content becomes marked. The reason for this difference between the two properties
is that the high H/C ratio is primarily a function of the anoxic conditions brought to
the Wynn peat by the transgression, irrespective of the extent of dilution of the sea
water in the nearshore area to which the sulphur content responds.
In contrast to the similarity of the above chemical properties in the combined
seam, the coal facies indices included in Fig. 7.72 show better resolution and suggest
that petrographically the two seams retain their separate entities, even where they
are combined, by adhering to their quite contrasting tissue perservation (TPI) and
gelification (GI) indices. Within the generally high inertinite content of the
El1isDDtt',
4A7m~
.sA
.sO
.so
~
iiir:= .
I
",m:o.'.'..::j .. mo.:
I '."mO.p
_ 88 8
~I ______________ ~
Fig. 8.23. The distribution ofHjC ratios in coal plies ofthe Bayswater and Wynn seams (above and
below the indicated gap, respectively) along the section line A to B of Fig. 7.71 Analysis results
courtesy of N.S.W. Department of Mineral Resources
Bayswater Seam inertodetrinite is particularly common. There is no botanical

reason for this unusual composition, since both its vitrinite-rich and inertinite-rich
portions contain similar average proportions of the main palynomorphs, which
consist' of 30% pteridophytes, 30% glossopterids, and 20% other gymnosperms
(Barto, 1978). The high concentration ofinertodetrinite must therefore be related to
unique circumstances in the despositional environment in which the peat, formed
from a largely arborescent vegetation, was frequently exposed to oxidative decay
and possibly freeze-drying during the cold Gondwana winters (Taylor et al. 1889).
The occurrence of microcross-Iamination and graded bedding in inertodetrinite
concentrations (DiesseI1982) illustrated from the Bayswater Seam in Figs. 5.10 and
5.11 is probably related to seasonal flooding by melt waters and the dispersal either
of strongly humified plant litter, or of the exposed and degraded portions of the peat,
as has been suggested by Snyman (1986) for some hypautochthonous South African
coals.
In comparison to the Borehole Seam which, as discussed above, occupies a
similar position above a regressive blanket barrier sand, the Bayswater Seam has a
ClilnrlCilrdODH12
Fig. 8.24. The distribution of total sulphur in coal plies of the Bayswater and Wynn seams (above
and below the indicated gap, respectively) along the section line A to B of Fig. 7.71. Analysis results
courtesy of N.S.W. Department of Mineral Resources
totally different composition. The contrasting properties of the two seams suggest
that, in spite of the similarity of their respective palaeo-environmental settings, the
two seams occupy different positions within the sequence-stratigraphic model. The
Borehole Seam u~hers in a new transgressive systems tract, whereas the Bayswater
Seam follows the prograding strandline as an integral part of the highstand systems
tract which begins with the underlying barrier beach complex of the Archerfield
Sandstone. Figure 8.25 is a sequence-stratigraphic interpretation ofthe setting ofthe
Bayswater Seam and its junction with the Wynn and Broonie seams as illustrated in
Fig. 7.72 plus the underlying strata shown in the stratigraphic column of Fig. 7.70.
In Fig. 8.25 the lower parasequences 1 to 3 have been interpreted as part of an older
highstand systems tract capped by the Wynn Seam which, together with the Bulga
Formation and the Archerfield Sandstone, constitutes the youngest and most
landward onlapping parasequence of the transgressive systems tract and also
contains the maximum flooding surface. Indeed, most internal portions of the
Sydney Basin and beyond were reached only by this one parasequence, while the
N S
VAUX SEAM
S8--- ~_~_"!""'''''"!!!'_~-:_~-;- u. BROONIE S.
T
mfs----'-
S8---
~-----
~ River chan- ~ Backbarrier. ~ Barrier, delta front

~coal ~ nels, plajns ~ delta plain ~ Marine 10re-, offshore
Fig. 8.25. Diagrammatic interpretation of the sequence-stratigraphic setting of the Bayswater

Seam and its associated sediments
older parasequences of the same transgressive systems tract became stacked in the
deeper southeastern part of the basin, where the isopachs of Fig. 7.71 show the
expansion of the marine interval. As indicated in Fig. 8.25, the maximum flooding
surface is located at the top of the Bulga Formation and, where it wedges out to the
north, the surfaces merges with the top of the Wynn Seam. Even within the
combined Wynn and Bayswater Seams the maximum flooding surface remains
recognisable by the contrasting composition of the two seam components. This
interpretation is also supported by the downlap of the two tuff markers in the
Bayswater Seam of Fig. 8.21, which identifies it as being part ofa highstand systems
tract. The latter has been extended to the base of the Upper Broonie Seam whose
coal facies indices carry a signature which is common to transgressive coals but
which were not affected by the marine conditions because they remained landward
of the shoreline.
The vertical distribution of optical and other coal properties in the Bayswater
Seam is likewise consistent with the above conclusion. Contrary to the upward
increase in telovitrinite fluorescence, which is typical of transgressive cbals, the
fluorescence intensities measured at the three wavelengths indicated in Fig. 8.26A,
actually decline towards the seam roof, after having increased from a low value near
the seam floor to its middle portion. This pattern is mirrored by vitrinite reflectance
intensities, whose vertical change has been illustrated in Fig. 8.26B together with
reflectance trends determined on telo- and detrovitrinite, respectively. The maceral
composition does not show these trends quite as clearly, except for the upper coal
ply, which represents the top 96 cm of the seam. Its inertinite content, which is
generally high in the coal, increases to almost 70% (Fig. 8.26C) while vitrinite drops
to 21%. As illustrated in Fig. 8.26D, tissue preservation is generally low and shows
no definite trends. Since the proportion between the structured and non-structured
inertinite macerals is almost constant in the four subsections of the seam, the
comparatively low vitrinite content largely determines the gelification index. The GI
values therefore mirror variations in vitrinite distribution.
4
L
0
3.5
0
w::
~
(f)
2.5
ID
>
0
.c
1.5 • Rort
"<nID • I 546 V;t
• I 650 V;t o Rord
L
~
ID A ,,1700 V;t B " RolY
I: .5 ~------------~--~~
7 10 11 12 13.8 .82 .84 .86 .88 .9 .92
% Telovitrinite Fluorescence Intensity % Vitrinite Reflectance
L
o
o
w::
~
(f)
ID
>
o .Vilrinite
.g o Liptinite
<n
" Inertinite
~
I: c
.5~~~~--~------~~~~
• Minerals 0
~-- ____ ~ __________ ~~~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70.2 .4 .6 .8 1.2 1.4

Maceral Groups in % Coal Facies Indices
Fig. S.26 A-D. The vertical distribution of various coal properties in four subsections (reference is
their upper contact) in the Bayswater Seam, Wittingham Coal Measures, New South Wales.
A Mean fluorescence intensities (50 to 100 readings) measured in water immersion at the indicated
wavelength. B Mean random reflectance (50 readings) in oil for telovitrinite (Rort), detrovitrinite
(Rord) and weighted mean for total vitrinite (Rorv). C Maceral group composition including
minerals. D Coal facies
The patterns in the distribution of coal properties illustrated in Fig. 8.26 suggest
influences of desiccation and oxidation on peat accumulation in a low pH
environment at the beginning and end of Bayswater Seam formation with a period of
more favourable conditions in the middle. In the above discussion of the Hoskissons
Seam, with which the Bayswater Seam has been correlated over a distance of
approximately 250 km (Beckett et al. 1983), the decline in vitrinite fluorescence
intensities and increase in reflectance has been referred to high acidity and access of
oxygen resulting in low activity of lipid-generating anaerobic bacteria. The same
parametres appear to govern the distribution of coal property trends in the
Bayswater Seam. Although it contains more vitrinite and autochthonous inertinite
than the Hoskissons Seam, the two coals show a consanguineous relationship,
except for the strong transgressive trend in the uppermost portion of the Hoskissons
Seam, which has not been recorded in the Bayswater Seam.
A comparison between the Borehole and Bayswater Seams shows that the
barrier beach/strand plain system can produce coals with very different composition
depending on whether peat accumulation was causally linked to the shoreline
progradation that created the strand plain, or whether peat formation was a
separate event, initiated by renewed transgression. In Fig. 8.27 these two processes
have been referred to as the Bayswater Seam and Borehole Seam Models,
Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation of Coal Seam Settings 505
Seaward
A. The Bayswater Seam Model
B. The Borehole Seam Model

Fig. 8.27 A-B. Cartoon illustrating the time/space relationships for regressive (A) and transgres-
sive (B) coal formation in a barrier beach/strand-plain setting. The open gaps represent time markers
respectively. In either case the equal-time horizons are downlapping surfaces within
the prograding shoreline sediments. They continue to be downlapping in the
Bayswater Seam (as shown in Fig. 8.21), but a different time/space relationship
applies to the Borehole Seam. Its formation under a transgressive regime is indicated
not only by its composition but also by the position of its tuff bands within the seam,
as illustrated in Fig. 8.19. Because of the configuration of the Newcastle Coalfield
near the northern margin ofthe Sydney Basin, marine transgressions came from the
south or southeast, which is also supported by palaeocurrents and lithofacies
distribution. In reference to the basin margin, the N- S section line in Fig. 8.19
indicates contemporaneous proximal peat accumulation and distal subaqueous,
lagoonal sedimentation near the beginning and end of seam formation. This
suggests paludification of the strand plain in response to a distal sea-level rise and
eventual drowning of the Borehole Seam by inundation from the south.
8.4 Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation of Coal Seam Settings
There have been several attempts to explain the depositional patterns of coal
measures in sequence stratigraphic terms. In the United States, Ryer (1984) applied
the basic concepts (but not the terminology) to the Upper Cretaceous coal measures
of Utah, while in Canada, Carmichael (1988) investigated parts of the Lower

Cretaceous coal-bearing Gates Formation and Bhattacharaya (1988) the Upper
Cretaceous Dunvegan Formation by using sequence stratigraphic principles. In
Australia, Arditto (1987, 1991) gave a brief sequence stratigraphic interpretation
of the Upper Permian coal measures in the southern Sydney Basin of New
South Wales, and Tadros and Hamilton (1991) discussed the potential of wide-
spread coal seams to form sequence boundaries in the Gunnedah Basin, while Elliott
(1985) and Briggs (1989) correlated more general Permian depositional events with
palaeontological and sequence-stratigraphic boundaries in the Bowen Basin of
Queensland. In none of these cases was much consideration given to the com-
position of coal seams in relation to their inferred sequence stratigraphic status.
However, the previous discussion has shown that, in order to place a coal seam into
a sequence-stratigraphic model, it is important to consider the nature and origin of
its enclosing sediments, coal composition and compositional trends, including
optical properties, and whether the seam is laterally synchronous or diachronous.
Failure to account for these properties not only deprives the investigator of a source
of important information, but it can also lead to gross misinterpretation.
A summary of frequently encountered sequence stratigraphic settings of coal
seams is given in cartoon form in Fig. 8.28. Although the illustrated examples have
been adopted from actual occurrences in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales,
their order of superposition in the model is hypothetical, but not unrealistic. While
current sequence stratigraphic models appear to favour lowstand systems tracts as
the main coal-producing settings (van Wagoner et al. 1990), emphasis has been put
on the transgressive and highstand systems tracts, but this is not meant to exclude
the possibility of coal formation in the lowstand or shelf margin systems tracts.
According to Ryer (1984), the thickest and most extensive coal seams in the Upper
Cretaceous coal measures of Utah, U.S.A., occur in thick stacks of fourth order
Coel Alluvial fans Delta or strand Della front or Marine fore-

end pleins plelns berrier beBch Bnd offshore
Fig.8.28. Diagrammatic model of a number of sequence-stratigraphic settings of coal seams

cycles (= parasequences) at the transgressive and regressive maxima of third order

cycles ( = sequences). Translated into the terms of sequence stratigraphy, this means
that in Utah one group of economic coals is found in the vicinity of the maximum
flooding surface at the boundary between highstand and transgressive system tracts
(HST/TST), whereas the other group may occur in a shelf margin systems tract
(SMST) at the base of a type 2 sequence. Given otherwise favourable conditions for
peat formation, the paucity of economic coals in the middle of either the
transgressive or highstand systems tracts indicates that the Cretaceous shoreline in
Utah shifted too fast to generate and sustain peat accumulation. Only at the points
of change-over from transgression to regression and vice versa had shoreline move-
ments slowed sufficiently for the production of thick seams.
Coal formation under lowstand systems tract (LST) conditions could occur
either in shelf margin deltas or as part of the incised valley fill (ivfin Figs. 8.1 and 8.2),
i.e. in mires of variable peat thickness and lateral extent adjacent to eroding streams.
Because of high energy and unstable depositional environments in the shelf-margin
deltas and their hinterlands, peat forming conditions are not ideal although
sedimentary by-pass pockets have lead to localised coal occurrences. Peat
accumulation appears to be a late stage feature in the lowstand systems tract, when
the topographic difference between uplands and incised valleys begins to lessen by a
combination of relief stripping in the uplands and channel aggradation in the
valleys. It is quite common for the irregular and discontinuous coals generated at
this terminal stage of the lowstand systems tracts to underlie the much thicker and
widespread coals and interseam sediments formed during the subsequent trans-
gressive systems tract. Examples of LST coals are the Homeville Seam in the Greta
Coal Measures of the Sydney Basin and the Laird Formation underneath the
Maules Creek Formation in the Gunnedah Basin of eastern Australia, some of the
basal coal seams in the Karroo Basin of South Africa, and the basal Pennsylvanian
coals at Roaring Creek in Indiana, U.S.A. (Nelson et al. 1985).
The zig-zag pattern shown in Fig. 8.28 within parasequences is inferred to
correspond to small-scale relative sea-level changes which may have a variety of
allocyclic and autocyclic causes. Such infra-parasequential accelerations and
retardations of relative water level may initiate the formation of thin coal seams or
their splitting away from larger seams within a parasequence.
The coal seams indicated in Fig. 8.28 have been marked with a "T" or "R"
depending on whether they were formed in the course of a marine transgression or
regression. Seam T1 occurs on the landward margin of the shoreline in the first
para sequence of the transgressive systems tract (TST 1) at the bottom of the
diagram. It has been formed as the landward response to a rising sea level but it was
not in contact with the sea. In a nearshore setting the respective depositional
environments correspond closely to the back barrier strand-plain position of the
Borehole Seam but in a more landward setting the principles of the T1 model apply
also to the alluvial and upper delta plains discussed in Chap. 7.3. Coal composition
is therefore in accordance with the properties of the transgressive coal seams without
a marine roof discussed in Chap. 8.3.2. Their main features are high GI and TPI
indices (Fig. 7.38 and a position on the hydrogen-rich portion of Seyler's bright coal
band (Fig. 8.20). Inland seam profiles may be dominated by bright and banded
bright coal throughtout but closer to the strandline where the spreading oflakes and
lagoons terminated peat accumulation at the height of the transgression,
hypautochthonous "wet" durains might occur near the top of the seam. Coal seams
of this kind are characterised by upward-increasing vitrinite fluorescence and
decreasing vitrinite reflectance, respectively.
Although the above examples refer specifically to the lower and middle por-
tion of the Newcastle (Fig. 7.9B, C) and upper part of the Ruhr Coal Measures
(Fig. 7.35A, B), similar c~nditions of transgressive coal formation without direct
marine influence prevailed in many parts of the world. A large concentration of
Carboniferous coals of this kind occurs in the eastern Canadian Maritimes Basin.
According to Gibling (1989), the Westphalian to Early Permian basin fill consists of
4-km-thick alluvial plain sediments in which coal seams and fluvial sandstones
alternate at regular intervals, similarly to the upper Westphalian Ruhr Coal
Measures shown in Fig. 7.35B and C. Examples from Nova Scotia have been
illustrated in Figs. 7.1, 7.2, 7.30, 7.33, and 7.34. The investigations of the large
coal content by Hacquebard (1972, 1983), Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969)
Hacquebard and Barss (1970), and Hacquebard et al. (1964, 1967) have revealed
considerable similarities to the Australian and German alluvial plain coals referred
to above.
Seam Rl has been formed towards the end of the progradational stage ofTST 1
and would therefore be characterised by the properties of coal seams formed during
marine regression, as discussed in Chap. 8.3.3. However, any coal formed in such a
position near the upper parasequence boundary would also be influenced by the
renewed marine transgression of the following parasequence, as has been illustrated
by Ryer (1984, Fig. 11) from the Ferron Sandstone in central Utah. The setting of
seam Rl within the onlapping transgressive systems tract implies that the next rise in
water level will push the sea further inland than the preceding one. The subsequent
shoreline progradation ofTST 2 might therefore not reach as far seaward as that of
TST 1. This means that at postion A in Fig. 8.28 the seam will be covered by non-
marine deposits and at poistion C by marine sediments. The strandline would be
situated at position B, which in a coal measure environment could consist of a
complex of subenvironments ranging from beaches to landward lagoons character-
ised by varying salinites, as demonstrated by Fulton and Williams (1988) and
previously quoted authors.
The lateral changes in the depositional environments of the roof strata ofseam
Rl will influence its coal composition by overprinting a marine signature on the coal
at position C and, to lesser extent, at position B. Because the marine roof is
genetically unrelated to the underlying coal, the latter would show only those
criteria of marine influence which could be superimposed on it after peat
accumulation had ceased. An example would be a high sulphur content and a
concentration of pyrite near the top of the seam from percolating sea water, similar
to the enrichment of sulphur found in the freshwater peats of southern Florida in
places where they are overlain by sulphur-rich marine or brackish peats (Cohen
et al. 1984, 1987). The freshwater peat formed on a strand plain behind a prograding
barrier beach would probably produce a subhydrous coal due to a relatively high
autochthonous inertinite content. To a small extent this tendency could be balanced
by the increased bacterial activity and tissue destruction following seepage of

seawater into the peat, although the inertinite content of the coal would remain high.
In contrast to the above example of a marine influence causally related to a
different parasequence(or sequence), seam T2 in Fig. 8.28 has been formed as part of
a marine transgression. Such a coal displays a high degree of consistency between
the various parameters of marine influence, of which the previously discussed
Katharina Seam (DiesseI1961) and the Lower Kittanning Seam (Habib et al. 1966),
as well as the Recent peat ~eposits in south western Florida (Spackman et al. 1966)
are excellent representatives. The occurrence of marine roof sediments on the coal
involves landward migration and eventual drowning of the peatlands much in the
way Ferm and Williams (11979) have described the marine transgression over the
Lower Kittanning Seam in western Pennsylvania. The observation by Reidenouer
et al. (1979) of an erosional disconformity at the undulating base of this seam
appears to place the Lower Kittanning Seam (other examples quoted by Reidenouer
et al. 1979, are the Upper and Lower Clarion coals) at the beginning of a
transgressive systems tract and possibly at the beginning of a new sequence. This
conclusion is strengthened by the observed thinning ofthe seam over raised portions
of the floor due to the onlap of the lower coal plies on basement highs which are
overlapped only by the upper coal plies. The effects of such transgressive trends on
coal composition have been discussed in Chap. 7.2.4.
The couplet T2jT2a in Fig. 8.28 is modelled on the Greta Seam and its upper
split, the Pelton Seam illustrated in Fig. 8.11 which refers to position E in Fig. 8.28.
As mentioned above, the Greta Seam was formed on an abandoned lowstand delta
lobe in the course of a marine transgression, which is the reason for its position at the
base of TST 3. While seaward the seam was gradually inundated by marine
sediments (position D in Fig. 8.28) peat accumulation continued landward.
Concurrent shoreline progradation covered a small portion of the seam with
logoonal and terrestrial sediments in position E. Renewed transgression at the
beginning of TST 4 began with the formation of the Pelton Seam which further
landward became the upper ply of the combined Greta Seam in position F. Further
backstepping of the shoreline allowed much of the Greta Seam and its split to be
covered by the marine Branxton Formation.
The transgressive setting shown by the Greta or Pelton Seams (T2jT2a) would
also apply to other lower delta plain conditions and to delta abandonment due to a
change in the course of the feeding trunk stream. Under conditions of continued
subsidence prolonged peat formation may take place on the defunct delta plain in
front of the slowly encroaching sea and under conditions of almost complete
sediment by-passing. This can lead to the formation of thick blanket peats with very
low ash contents and few epiclastic stone bands in the seam profile, as shown by the
Greta Seam. Otherwise there are some similarities to the interdistributary coals of
active lower delta plains, including low TPI (little wood contribution and/or high
tissue destruction) and fairly high GI, as well as both high pyrite contents and
vitrinite fluorescence intensities, which further increase towards the marine roof.
The conditions envisaged in TST 5 are modelled on the previously discussed
Bayswater/Wynn Seam couplet. Seam T3 is in a similar position as the Greta/Pelton
Seam but the model refers specifically to the marine erosion shown by the Wynn
Seam, which is more consistent with a wave-dominated, retrogradational, high

energy shoreline than with the drowning of an abandoned, low energy delta lobe.
Seam R2 follows the pattern of the Bayswater Seam with its regressive coal
properties. The two coals are separated by the maximum flooding surface (mfs in
Fig. 8.28) whose position in the combined seam is indicated by a change from the
predominantly bright lithotypes and high gelification index ofT3 to the mainly dull
lithotypes and low GI of R2.
The significance of the R2/T3 transgression-regression couple is the retention
of the petrographic seam characteristics in the unsplit coal because it offers an
additional explanation for the frequently observed concentration of relatively bright
coal in the lower and middle portions and of dull coal in the upper portions of coal
seams. In the discussion ofthe origin ofthe densosporinite assemblage in Chap. 5.1.3
and of the upper delta/alluvial plain coals in Chap. 7.3.4 the occurrence of dull
lithotypes in the upper portions of those coals was related to a concentration of
hypautochthonous and allochthonous inertinite due to a gradual drowning of the
seams. In the R2/T3 transition illustrated in Fig. 8.28 the change from bright to
dull coal has an opposite origin, being due to a concentration of essentially
autochthonous inertinite. The correct interpretation of the orIgin of inertinite-rich
coal requires therefore a broad analytical base ineluding a consideration of the bio-
and lithofacies ofthe roof strata. Examples given above have shown the value in such
investigations of vitrinite fluorescence analysis. In the R2/T3 couple, the vitrain and
elarain-dominated lower portion of the composite seam section signifies the
beginning of the transgression, followed by maximum flooding and regression in its
durain and elarodurain-dominated upper parts. This means that in this case the
boundary between two systems tracts (HST/TST) is situated within one unsplit coal
seam.
Although in TST 5 the maximum flooding surface is meant to herald the
subsequent change from the transgressive to the highstand systems tract and is thus
equivalent to the maximum flooding surface (mfs) in Fig. 8.1, the above-mentioned
small-scale water table variations may have their own, secondary "maximum
flooding surfaces" to which peat formation responds by producing the respective
lithotypes. This may result in the formation of compound seam sections, such as
Fulton's (1987) repeated occurrences of densosporinite horizons in some thick
Carboniferous coal seams of the u.K., or the variable stacking of bright and dull
coal plies in the Ruhr Basin, as discussed by Strehlau' (1988). An example in Fig. 8.28
would be the combined seam R3/T4 at position H, in which autochthonous dull coal
would follow on bright coal but the reverse may also occur. Such superposition of
bright on dull coal is inferred at position G where seams R2 and T4 are conjoined, T4
being formed at the base of HST 2, as the result of a minor transgression within the
highstand system tract. Also in this case the composite seam at G is shared by two
parasequences.
The highstand systems tract is characterised by widespread marine regression
during which tectonic subsidence continues, but marine ingressions are becoming
weaker and rare. As discussed above, the occurrence of relatively bright coals with
high GI and TPI indices, their relatively high H/C ratios, and/or upwardly
increasing vitrinite fluorescence intensities suggest that even these comparatively
Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation of Coal Seam Settings Sl1
weak and distal transgressions are still capable of imprinting their signature on some
HST coals, particularly, when formed on coastal plains. While in the R2/T3 couplet
of Fig. 8.28 the beginning of the highstand systems tract is situated at the boundary
between the lower bright and upper dull portions of the conjoined coal seam, the
landward TST-HST transition need not coincide with coal formation at all. In
reference to the previously used example from New South Wales this means that the
Wynn Seam does not have to be linked with the Bayswater Seam and vice versa. A
well-documented example of a regressive Bayswater-type coal overlying several
stacked coarsening-upward shoreline deposits without being preceded by trans-
gressive coal formation is the above-mentioned Lower Cretaceous Jewel Seam,
described by Langenberg et al. (1989), Kalkreuth et al. (1989), and Kalkreuth and
Leckie (1989) from west-central Alberta, Canada. In Fig. 8.29 facies indices of the
above-mentioned Jewel Seam and equivalent coals resting directly on the Torrens
Member (barrier beach sand) of the Gates Formation have been plotted together
with the facies indices of the Bayswater Seam. Both sets of coals form a coherent
cluster in which the tendency towards lower TPI and GI values of the Bayswater
Seam is probably due to climatic and botanical differences between the phytogenic
precursors of the respective coals. Like the Bayswater Seam, these Canadian
back barrier strand-plain coals are low in sulphur content, thus indicating that they
were not affected by marine conditions but, as discussed above, there is a slight
_ decreases TREE DENSITY increases-

200.0
limno-telmatic te/mafic
100.0
50.0
'"'"
"E
0
CD
"'D
10.0 ., c
"
0
0
;;;
5.0 ""
0- >
'""
~
.,"
.Q
2·t••9 "
5. 7
'. ..10
D-
1.0
8.0 o 00 (!6 E
"
E
o ~3 x
0.5 0 0 "
:;;
0 0
terrestrial
GI
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
TPI
Fig.8.29. Comparison of coal facies indices determined in the Bayswater Seam (open circles) with
Lower Cretaceous strand plain-coals from Western Canada (dots), after Kalkreuth and Leckie
(1989). The numbers refer to the following Canadian coal seams: 1 Lower Jewel; 2 Upper Jewel;
3 Jewel (Gregg River Mine); 4 No.3; 5 No. 4 (Grande Cache); 6 11; 7 J2; 8 J3 (Mesa Pit); 9 Ai; 10 A2:
11 C (Bullmoose Mine)
increase in sulphur values towards the top and bottom of the Jewel Seam in response
to brackish conditions as the last landward expression of the waning marine
transgressions. Kalkreuth and Leckie (1989) consider the contribution to subsidence
by compaction of the underlying offshore marine muds to be greater than by
tectonism, and they agree with Galloway and Hobday (1983) that the dehydration of
the compacting muds forced the expelled water to flow updip and landwards. This
groundwater movement in conjunction with frequent meteoric recharge due to high
coastal precipitation kept the water table high in the back barrier region without
necessitating the lateral influx of surface water which would have raised the
adventitious ash content of the strand-plain coals. Nevertheless, the relatively high
inertinite content of the progradational HST strand-plain coals indicates drying and
oxidation ofthe peat. Additional examples offrequent advances by the sea followed
by repeated build-up and progradation of the strandline within a HST setting are
the wave- dominated Upper Cretaceous coal-bearing shoreline deposits of Book
Cliffs, Utah, which were described by Young (1976), Balsely and Parker (1983).
Further away from the coast, the gravelly and sandy braid plains discussed in
Chaps. 7.1 and 7.2 are typical of the highstand systems tract including the corres-
ponding coals whose coal facies diagram has been illustrated in Fig. 7.24. The
inertinite-dominated petrographic composition in Australian coals of this prograd-
ational environment is matched by their sub-hydrous chemical nature illustrated in
Fig. 8.20, and by particularly low sulphur values. In spite of their inland braid-plain
setting, distal sea-level variations still appear to exert an influence on the vertical
distribution of some coal properties. An example is the Great Northern Seam from
the Newcastle Coal Measures, which is located below the very thick Teralba
Conglomerate at 835 m in Fig. 7.9D and is also shown in its spatial relationship
within the braid-plain environment in Fig. 7.23. Although the seam section is
dominated by inertinite-rich dull lithotypes with little vertical differentiation, a
transgressive signature is shown by the significant upward increase in vitrinite
fluorescence intensity illustrated in Fig. 8.30A. There is no corresponding decrease
in vitrinite reflectance, with telovitrinite not showing any significant variation at all,
and detrovitrinite recording a slight upward increase. Considering that in the
assessment of technological coal properties vitrinite fluorescence has proved to be a
more sensitive optical property th'an vitrinite reflectance (Ottenjann et al. 1982; Wolf
et a1.1983b; Wolf and Wolff-Fischer 1984; Diessel1985a; Diessel and McHugh 1986;
Diessel and Wolff-Fischer 1986, 1987; McHugh 1986; McHugh et al. 1991), it can be
assumed that microfluorescence intensities are also more sensitive in their response
to palaeo-environmental changes. Indeed, the analysis results and discussion
presented in Chap. 5.4 and elsewhere on optical coal properties as palaeo-
environmental indicators lend strong support to this notion. It is therefore suggested
that the Great Northern Seam responded to a distal rise in sea level within the
context of a highstand systems tract, for example at J in Fig. 8.28 (HST 3). The
alternative possibility that the weak transgressive signal in the coal indicates the
beginning of a new sequence, thus placing the Great Northern Seam at the base of a
renewed transgressive systems tract, is rejected because the increasing terrestrialis-
ation of the depositional conditions in the upper Newcastle Coal Measures provides
little geological evidence for this option.
2.75 eRort
2.5 o Ron!
'- 2.25 ~Rorv
0
0
u: 2
.,E
Q)
1.75
1.5
If)
CD 1.25
>
'".,
0
1 oI546wt
.75 eI650wt
'"
CD
B
!:;
Q)
.5 A ~I700wt
:c .25 ~~~--~~~--~--~~
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 .62.64 .66 .68 .7 .72 .74 .76 .78 .8
lI: Telovitrinite Fluorescence Intensity lI: Vitrinite Reflectance
2.75
2.5
C D
'- 2.25
0
0
u: 2
.,Q) 1.75
E
If)
1.5
CD 1.25
>
'".,
0
.75
'"
Q)
!:; .5
Q)
:c
10 20 30 40 50 6070800 .5 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Maceral Groups in lI: Coal Facies Indices
Fig. 8.30 A-D. The vertical distribution of various coal properties in four subsections (reference is
their upper contact) in the Great Northern Seam, Newcastle Coal Measures, New South Wales.
A Mean fluorescence intensities (50 to 100 readings) measured in water immersion at the indicated
wavelength. B Mean random reflectance (50 readings) in oil for telovitrinite (Rort), detrovitrinite
(Rord) and weighted mean for total vitrinite (Rorv). C maceral group composition including
minerals. D Coal facies
The transgressive signature (without a marine root) ofthe Great Northern Seam
is consistent with two other observations about this seam made in Chaps. 6 and 7,
respectively. The first case concerns the differences observed in the conglomerate-
rich upper Newcastle Coal Measures between concordant and discordant coal/roof
couplets, i.e. between conglomeratic roof sediments with and without angular
discordances of their principal bedding planes (Sp) with bedding in the underlying
coal seams. It was concluded in Chap. 6.3.2.1 that the occurrence of discordant
coal/roof couplets results from unequal loading, and that conglomerates and other
fluvial sediments whose principal bedding planes do not display an angular
discordance but are concordant with the underlying coal probably have been
deposited on an already partly compacted peat. In many cases this could be due to
the effects of loading by previously deposited overbank sediments which were
subsequently removed by erosion. In view ofthe transgressive signature in the Great
Northern Seam, it could be expected to be overlain by lacustrine lutites. Instead its
roof consists mainly of the Teralba Conglomerate which over much of the coalfield
is in direct contact with the coal. Apart from areally restricted washouts, the
conglomerate is concordant with the underlying coal and, as illustrated in Fig. 7.19,
remnants of silt-laminated shale have been found between the Great Northern Seam
and the Teralba Conglomerate. The upward increase in vitrinite fluorescence, the
concordant relationship between the conglomerate and the coal, as well as tIle shale
remnants, suggest seam formation under a transgressive regime, in the course of
which a primary seam roof consisting of lacustrine sediments (plus volcanic ash in
some areas) was formed and subsequently replaced by braided channels draining the
then strongly rising New England Fold Belt. They form a southwesterly trending
belt, which appears to have spread laterally in a southeasterly direction. Because of
the considerable mechanical resistance of peat, the coal shows few effects of erosion,
but in some collieries deep channels occur in the Great Northern Seam, large chunks
of which can be found as rip-up clasts in the commonly steep southeasterly channel
walls.
9 Coal-Producing Tectonic Environments
This final chapter in the investigation of coal sedimentation is concerned with

depositional aspects of the highest order of magnitude, namely, the influence of the
crustal setting on peat accumulation. This is a broad and complex field which draws
on information gathered from many different disciplines ofthe earth sciences. Some
of these are currently evolving quite rapidly, while others are in a "mopping up"
stage, in sensu Kuhn (1970) and Walker (1973), following recent scientific
revolutions. An example of the latter is the replacement of the geosynclinal
hypothesis in the early 1970s by the concept of plate tectonics. Even after a life span
of 20 years, this new paradigm is still in the process of being refined and fitted out
with conceptual subsets, as shown by the current emphasis on terrane analysis. It is
therefore not possible at this stage to make a definitive statement on the chosen
subject, but merely to outline the principle on which a modern geotectonic
classification of coalfields can be established. Even this modest goal is fraught with
difficulty, because the change from the predominantly static geosynclinal view of
global tectonics to its modern, largely mobilistic interpretation has complicated the
tectonic classification of some coalfields. While the tectonic status of many
coalfields, e.g. those in foredeeps or foreland basins has changed relatively little, the
setting of coals found in inter- and intramontane troughs, i.e. within orogenic
cordilleras, cannot be properly assessed without very careful study. According to the
geosynclinal concept, practically all of these intra deeps, together with fore- and
backdeeps, their extra-orogenic counterparts, were regarded as part of a group of
molasse basins, the development of which accompanies or follows "terminal
geosynclinal tecto-orogenesis" (Aubouin 1965). This fixist and strictly sequential
interpretation (highlighted by the term "epieugeosyncline" of Kay 1951) has no
place in modern geotectonic analysis, which views most orogenic belts as collages of
autochthonous and allochthonous terranes, i.e. as tectono-stratigraphic assem-
blages with possibly coeval but heterogeneous stratigraphic records reflecting their
origin in different geological and geographical domains (Monger and Price 1979;
Monger et al. 1982). The tectonic setting, which influenced the formation of an
allochthonous terrane assemblage before accretion, may have been very different in
style and physically far removed from its resting place after docking. It follows that a
multi-terrane orogen may contain a variety of coals formed at different times before
and after terrane accretion. Moreover, contemporaneous pre-accretionary coal
deposits formed in different terranes are likely to vary in coal types, coalification
histories and tectonic styles, and all of these will in turn differ from the post-
accretionary molasse coals, which alone reflect the conditions prevailing in the
orogen itself. Indeed, the situation may even be more complex, as will be discussed in
Chap. 9.3.2.2.
Plate tectonics has created its own nomenclature, of which only the essential
terms will be used here. They will be supplemented by terms which are either
descriptive, and therefore independent of geotectonic theory, or which have stood
the test of time because they are useful in spite of their generic association with
now obsolete concepts. For example, the expressions "mio-" and "eugeosynclinal
assemblage" have been kept here as reference terms for shallow water marine
(mainly shelf), and ocean floor pelagite, turbidite and ophiolite associations,
respectively. Moreover, reduced to a "miogeocline", the miogeosyncline has in the
North-American literature become a standard term for autochthonous, sedimen-
tary terrace wedges onlapping continental margins. Also tectonic attributes of
sediments, such as "synorogenic" flysch and "late syn- (folded) to postorogenic
(non-folded)" molasse, respectively, can still be used in a plate tectonic context
without unduly corrupting their relatively loose definitions. Particularly in the
discussion of coalfields situated near convergent plate edges, the concept of molasse
as the product of the destruction of the uplifted orogen is very useful. As in the
previous discussion, it is not the purpose ofthis chapter to give detailed descriptions
of a large number of cases but to select a few typical examples of coalfields and relate
the essence of their architecture to their respective plate tectonic settings.
9.1 Early Examples of a Tectonic Classification of Coalfields
Large-scale coal formation can take place only in actively subsiding regions, for
example in sedimentary basins. It is possible therefore to characterise the geo-
tectonic environment occupied by a coal measure sequence in a manner similar to
that whiCh is applied to other sedimentary environments. Stutzer (1920) and Stille
(1926) were among the first to recognise the genetic links between tectonism and the
formation of coal. Stille, in particular, referred to the striking difference in terms of
basin fill, number of coal seams present, their average thickness and proportion in
relation to total coal measure thickness, which exist between the Carboniferous and
Tertiary coal measures of Europe. He attributed such dissimilarities to contrasting
degrees of crustal mobility in the areas affected by the two main European coal-
forming periods. His results are summarised in Table 9.1. Even if differences in
compaction ratios between the Tertiary brown and Carboniferous bituminous coals
are taken into account (to a lesser degree the compaction applies to inter-seam
sediments) the contrast is quite remarkable.
Later it was shown by von Bubnoff (1937) that the distribution of the world
reserves of coal is also related to the geotectonic setting of coalfields. His conclusions
are summarised in Table 9.2, which indicates that of all coal deposits known up to
1937, some 71% developed in former tectonically very active environments,
particularly in the molasse foredeeps which develop adjacent to orogenic belts and
receive much of the weathered debris washed down from the uplands.
Early Examples of a Tectonic Classification of Coalfields 517
Table 9.1. Stille's (1926) comparison (slightly modified) between some characteristics of coal
measures formed in tectonically mobile and cratonised parts of Europe, respectively
Carboniferous coal Tertiary coal measures

measures in mobile in cratonic basins of
Variscan basins Central Europe
Average coal measure thickness 3000m 150m

Average number of coal seams 200 2
Average seam thickness 1m 15m
Cumulative thickness of coal 180m 25m
Proportion of total coal 6% 16.7%
Proportion of economic in situ coal 3.6% 12%
Table 9.2. The distribution of world reserves of coal in reference to the geotectonic setting of
coalfields. (After von Bubnoff 1937)
Foredeeps marginal to orogenic belts 70%

Intradeeps within orogenic belts 1%
Shelf basins on cratonic margins 21%
Cratonic interior 8%
The concentration of coal in the regions associated with orogenic belts is even
more highlighted when the lateral extent of the deposits is considered. Coalfields
situated within or on the shelf margins of cratons cover a wider area than the
comparatively narrow foredeeps, but its areal restriction is compensated by the
frequency of coal seams occurring in a thick stack of coal measures. As will be
discussed later, this is related to the substantial and prolonged subsidence that the
continental margin is subjected to near a subduction complex, as an orogenic belt is
accreted onto the plate edge. It is not surprising, therefore, that von Bubnoff (1937)
found also a close temporal relationship between orogenies and coal formation in
North America, Europe, Asia and the Southern Continents. Of course, there are
major orogenies known which are not associated with coal deposits. However,
invariably, their absence is related to factors affecting the vegetable source. For
example, all pre-Devonian orogenies occurred at a time when the plant kingdom
was still insufficiently equipped by evolution to fulfil its role as an effective producer
of peat.
The continental shelf environment, being less mobile, has produced fewer coal
deposits than the orogenic domain. In this context it is important to define the term
shelf. To the geographer, the shelf region is usually that part of the sea which extends
between the strand-line and the continental slope. However, as von Bubnoff(1948a)
noted, the position of the strandline is quite incidental depending on crustal
movements and relative sea level positions. From the geological viewpoint, it
appears therefore useful to extend the definition of the shelf so that the time factor
can be accommodated. Shelf regions may then be regarded as those marginal but
fully integrated zones of continents which are occasionally affected by shallow
marine transgressions. Typical areas are the trailing edges of continental plates
and the cratonic margins of foredeeps. Commonly two types of shelf environments
are distinguished, called stable and unstable, respectively (von Bubnoff 1948a;
Krumbein and Sloss 1963). The majority of their associated coalfields is paralic in
character, which is highlighted by the intercalation of coal measures with marine
strata, a feature that is also common to the molasse foredeeps. However, marine
strata may not always be recognised because oflack offossils, which is related to the
dilution of sea water by an excessive influx of fresh water from the nearby coastal
swamps (Duff and Walton 1962).
Intracratonic coalfields and those formed in intramontane basins are frequently
limnic in character, i.e. they have no hydrological connection to the sea, because they
have been formed in land-locked basins above the then prevailing sea level. A
spectacular modern example of intramontane peat formation occurs in the reed
marshes on the shores of Lake Titicaca, 3810 m above sea level in the South
American Andes. Compared with their paralic counterparts limnic coalfields have
been less productive in terms of coal formation, which results from their relatively
small size and unstable position above depositional base level. However, as
indicated above, the term intradeep may cover a complex array of depositional
environments, some of which may be totally unrelated to the orogen in which they
now occur.
The last group of coalfields mentioned in Table 9.2 occurs in the interior
of continental areas. They owe their existence to a variety of events including
epeirogenic sagging of continental crust and continental rifting. Many peat and coal
deposits formed on consolidated basement have no tectonic origin at all, but are the
result of paludification related to differential subsidence. Examples are subsidence
due to salt migration and leaching in the subsurface, or the formation of sinks above
dead-ice bodies at the end of glacial periods. Other occurrences of small isolated
coalfields are the result of the terrestrialisation of lakes. Most of these coalfields
are limnic, but rare marine incursions may have occurred during their develop-
ment.
The tectonic setting of a coalfield exerts a strong influence on the type of coal
that is formed within its boundaries. Hacquebard et al. (1967), Mackowsky (1968),
Shibaoka and Smyth (1975), Hunt (1982) and others have demonstrated that coal
composition varies more in large paralic deposits than in limnic settings, because of
the larger variety of factors influencing extensive continental shelf or foredeep
environments. Moreover, coals formed in rapidly subsiding foreland basins are
more likely to have high vitrite, clarite and ash contents than coals formed on
cratonic shelves or in slowly subsiding cratonic basins. These coals are likely to be
rich in dull coals consisting mainly of durite plus inertite.
9.2 Basin Formation as Part of Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics, although primarily concerned with horizontal

movements of the relatively rigid lithospheric plates (crust and uppermost mantle)
over the softer asthenosphere (mantle), has also provided an explanation for the
Basin Formation as Part of Plate Tectonics 519
vertical movements that lead to subsidence and basin formation. The following
crustal movements can be distinguished (after Dickinson 1974 and Fischer 1975):
1. Change in crustal thickness. According to. the principle of isostasy thick low-
density continental crust floats higher on heavy mantle material than thin high-
density oceanic crust. For example, an isostatically compensated continental crust
of 50 km thickness extends 4 km above the sea, whereas a 6-km-thin oceanic crust is
covered by approximately.5 km of water (Holmes, 1965). Plate tectonics provides
several mechanisms for both crustal thickening and thinning. The latter, which is of
immediate interest here, is often exemplified in areas of continental rifting, where in
the early stages of plate separation the crust along the rift zone is attenuated by
extensional step-faulting, thus forming rapidly subsiding grabens and half-grabens.
Erosional thining of anisostatically uplifted crustal portions also leads to sub-
sequent subsidence. Uplift due to crustal thickening is of some interest in this
context, because it creates potential source areas for coal measure sediments. This is
particularly important in foredeeps, where basin formation is invariably coupled
with uplift in nearby orogenic belts. Most examples of uplift due to crustal
thickening are related either to the injection of magma into the crust or to
continental collision.
2. Change in thermal regime. Convection currents in the plastic asthenosphere are

responsible not only for horizontal plate movements but also for some vertical
crustal motions which are independent of crustal thickness. Upwelling magma from
the mantle may cause uplift by forming heat bulges in the overlying crust, and new
oceanic crust is formed where such mantle material is extruded along mid-oceanic
rift zones. The latter are elevated above the sea floor because of thermal expansion of
the affected crust which becomes colder and denser with increasing age and distance
from the rise crest. Areas of thermal tumescence within or along the margin of
continental plates are subjected to erosional thinning, which accentuates their
subsidence during the period of thermal decay.
3. Loading effects. When sediments accumulate on an isostatically compensated

crust the additional load will create a disequilibrium which will be balanced by
subsidence. This means that, whatever the initial cause for the creation of a
depositional site, once sediments are beginning to accumulate, their weight and
compaction are in some measure responsible for the deposition of additional
sediments. This, to some extent self-prepetuating process is particularly well shown
by the flexural bending under load of the continental shelf margin (Walcott 1972).
Other common geotectonic sites for load-induced subsidence and sedimentation are
orogenic foredeep margins which are flexurally down-warped under the weight of
the overriding thrust sheets generated in the adjacent fold belt (Price 1973;
Laubscher 1978; Beaumont 1981; Quinlan and Beaumont 1984). Additional loading
of the downwardly flexed crust is provided by the mass of molasse sediments
produced in the fold belt and transported into the developing foredeep.
As has been discussed before, additional causes of sediment and coal formation are
provided by subsurface salt migration and leaching, and eustatic sea-level changes,
in particular by their interaction with crustal movements, which produce a variety of

sedimentary responses in different tectonic domains. For example, rifting of oceanic
crust has depositional consequences quite different from the separation of conti-
nental crust. The rifting of continental crust may lead to coal formation, but the
rifting of oceanic crust is unlikely to lead to the formation of coal. A survey of the
effects of the geotectonic setting of coalfields on peat accumulation and coal
composition requires therefore an understanding of the major crustal elements of
Earth and their principal motions.
A plate-tectonic interpretation of the main crustal elements in reference to their
ability to provide suitable sites for the formation of coal is summarised in Fig. 9.1.
This interpretation is based on the notion that the creation of new lithospheric crust
along mid-oceanic rifts and the lateral movement of the lithospheric slabs towards
CONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC CRUST

CONTINENTAL MIOPLATE OCEAN flOOR
INTERIOR CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Thin coal measures of wide Mobile .helf- Open-ended No coal formation
MIDPIATE extent but shallow depth to ocean with thick coal because of deep water
due to epeirogenesis measures. Examples:
rosmaN Examples: Moscow (USSR) Illinois (USA). Mississippi
Tunguska (USSR), Great (USA), Gippsland (Aus)
Artesian (Aus) Basins. Also Ba.ins. Stable shelf- Otago
important non-tectonic (NZ), Cincinnati Arch
coolfields (USA)
RIFT VAllEY NASCENT SPREADING RIDGE
CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Intracratonic grabens and Usually too deep for cod
half-grabens, Coarse clastics Proto-oceanic gulf with formation. Modern peat
RIFT with llmnic coals. paralic coals. deposits occur on some
Examples: Paparoa Coal M. Examples: Brunner Coal M. emergent islands, e. g.
ZONE in Greymouth and Pike River Coalfields (NZ) Iceland. Low potentiol
:z:
--
Upper Rhine Graben (D), for preservation
a Newark Deep River Basins
J
(USA)
f-o
(/)
CONTINENTAL SUBDUCTION ZONE ISLAND ARC AND
a
p..,
COLLISION CONTINENTAL MARGIN TRENCH COMPLEX
Thick coal measures with many seams in elongated, Small intra-arc deposits.
SUB- narrow foreland basins (foredeeps) parallel and adjacent Examples: Guadalcanal,
to orogenic belts, or as in tnmon tane basins (in tradeeps). New Hebrides. Medium
DUCTION Examples: Retroarc Basin = Examples: Retroarc Basin - size deposits in highly
~ Po-Basin (I); Peripheral B.- Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen deformed fore- and back-
~ ZONE Sub-Alpine Molasse Basin (Aus), Appalachian (USA), an: settings of composite
Q (D,CH) Intradeeps =Saar Basin (D), a.n: systems. Examples:
~
various basins in Inter- Japanese coalfields, Queen
montane Belt of British Charlotte and Vancouver
Columbia (Can) Islands (Can)
CONTI NENT AL TRANSFORM TYPE OCEANIC FRACTURE
~ TRANSFORM FAULT CONTINENTAL MARGIN ZONE
f-o TRANS- Mostly small basins formed
<Ii No coalfields have been No Coal formation
...l by intracratonic wrench reported with certain ty beca.use of deep water
p.., FORM tectonism. Examples:
Tarong Basin (Aus),coalin
FAULT Tintina Fault, Yukon (Can).
Some la.rge transtensional
ZONE basins lateral to continental
collision zones. Exam pIe:
Maritimes Basin (Can)
Fig.9.1. The geotectonic setting of coalfields in reference to Curray's (1975) plate-tectonic

subdivisions of the earth. The identification of countries is by international country code
Coalfields Situated Near Convergent Plate Edges 521
subduction zones, where oceanic crust is consumed, produce three types of plate
junctures. These are (after Dickinson 1974):
1. Divergent plate edges, where plate separation takes place and the developing gap
is filled by upwelling mantle material welding new oceanic crust to the separating
plates.
2. Convergent plate edges, where old crust is subducted into the mantle underneath
the leading edge of the overriding plate.
3. Transform plate edges, where adjacent plates are laterally displaced by move-
ment along strike-slip faults.
The tectonic subdivisions of coalfields used by von Bubnoff (1937) in Table 9.2 can
be broadly accommodated within the plate tectonic framework of Fig. 9.1. The fore-
and many intradeeps are part of plate convergence complexes, which in view of their
overwhelming quantitative, i.e. economic importance, will be discussed first. The
mid plate continental margin is the setting of shelf deposits, whereas the cratonic and
rift valley settings refer to the interior of consolidated areas.
9.3 Coalfields Situated Near Convergent Plate Edges
The relationships between tectonic setting and coal content of a region inferred from
Tables 9.1 and 9.2 suggest that coal can form more frequently in geological
environments capable of offering a larger number and variety of crustal movements
per unit time than less mobile areas. As mentioned above, this is a feature of
foredeeps, which have been prolific coal producers in the past. Mountain chains
consisting offolded and often metamorphosed rocks are formed as linear and often
arcuate welts along the edges of converging plates by a number of tectonic and
magmatic events, all of which appear to be primarily related to the process of
subduction. However, not all former subduction zones have led to the formation of
coalfields, which is a problem related to the nature of the converging plates, i.e.
whether they consist of oceanic or continental crust. According to Figs. 9.1 and 9.2,
there are three scenarios:
1. Subduction of oceanic crust beneath oceanic crust (Fig. 9.2A). It is unlikely that
this situation will lead to significant coalfield formation because of the consi-
derable water cover of the sea floor. Oceanic crust emerges above water only
where it has been thickened by magmatic injection and may then produce
isolated small coal occurrences. However, as long as only oceanic crust is
involved, the lack of a strong nearby sediment source leaves the adjacent ocean
basin starved and too deep for peat accumulation. Conversely, composite arc
systems, in which several subduction zones are operating simultaneously in
opposite directions and/or in which allochthonous crustal fragments (terranes)
have been accreted to the arc system, may provide suitable conditions for coal
VOLCANIC
NON-VOLCANIC
ARC f
ARC
A
S.L
~~'~~~~'
.....
nifllllli!jjr!r!"!!llry:..~V"1,,011111!11!11
. ~ W
~
B RETROARC
BASIN
S.L
Fig. 9.2 A-C. Three

c RETROARC possibilities of plate
BASIN
convergence.
X Continental crust;
H! ocanic crust;
V volcanics; 000 molasse
sediments; ::: marine
sediments
formation. An example are the Japanese islands, which contain coalfields of

Tertiary age in both fore- and backarc positions (Aihara 1986). Forearc basins
elsewhere are not known to be significant coal producers due to the tectonic
instability during the basin stage and the subsequent destruction by tectonism.
The occurrence of a 3000-m-thick Palaeogene succession of folded and faulted
coal measures in the Hidaka Basin of central Hokkaido, described by Aihara
(1986), is therefore a comparatively rare case of a thick coal measure sequence
formed and preserved in a forearc setting.
2. Subduction of oceanic crust underneath continental crust (Fig. 9.2B). There are
several past and present examples of extensive coal formation associated with this
type of plate convergence. The main coalfields formed in the process occupy
retroarc basins (Dickinson 1974) filled with thick sedimentary successions. The
beginning of sedimentation is probably related to extensional tectonics in the
backarc area, at a time when subduction is still in process. However, during and
following the accretion of allochthonous terranes the retroarc basin is subjected
to a compressional stress regime which causes it to subside under the weight of
overriding thrust wedges.
3. Partial subduction of continental crust beneath continental crust (Fig. 9.2C). This
type represents an example of continental collision. Because of its thickness and
low density, continental crust can only partially be subducted which leads to
tectonic stacking and overlap of the two plate margins. The conditions of coal
formations in a retroarc basin are the same as in (2) for the overriding plate. In
addition, at least two loci of potential peat accumulation are contributed by the
consumed plate, one (usually destroyed by subsequent orogenesis and metamor-
phism) in the form of the continental shelf margin which was formed before
collision occurred, and the other in the form of a peripheral basin (Dickinson
1974) formed at the foot ofthe collision belt. Retroarc and peripheral basins share
the same basic foredeep architecture (Beaumont 1981), because both are the
products of flexural downwarping of the underlying crust following loading by
overriding thrust sheets.
Modern examples of (1) are present the Pacific island arcs with the adjacent oceanic
trenches such as, the island chains of Tonga, Kermadec and the New Hebrides.
Examples of (2) and (3) will be discussed below. Because foredeeps, as the main coal
producing environments, are common to both types of plate convergence, the
discussion of specific examples of (2) and (3) will be preceded by some general
remarks on foredeep characteristics.
The term foredeep is used in this text in its original meaning after Suess (1909)
for any trough which develops parallel to an orogenic belt and from which it receives
most of its sedimentary fill, the molasse. The usage of the term is therefore less
restrictive than in Stille (1924), who makes a distinction between a fore- and back-
deep depending on which side ofthe orogen the molasse trough occurs, and it is also
more general than Allen et al.'s (1986) foredeep sensu stricto (also called toe trough),
which is a basin collecting sediment in front of an active thrust system. In accordance
with changing geological paradigms, the foredeep, as applied here, has been
variously referred to as exogeosyncline (Kay 1951), marginal basin (Krumbein and
Sloss 1963), molasse furrow (Aubouin 1965) and foreland basin (Dickinson 1974). In
the nomenclature of plate tectonics the foredeep may be either a retroarc or a
peripheral basin (Dickinson 1974), both of which appear adjacent to a mountain
chain at a stage of orogenic development when the intensive pressure following
continental collision or terrane accretion has resulted in the cessation of sub-
duction, and the thrusting of the outer portions of the emergent orogen over its
forelands causes a flexural downwarp of the affected plate margins. The nearby
uplands provide for high moisture precipitation rates, and also nutrients are freely
available from the breakdown of lithic and feldspathic wackes as well as other
molasse-type sediments supplied by the rising fold belt. Coal is therefore readily
formed when rates of subsidence and other necessary conditions are met. The
molasse sediments overlie discordantly their basement, which commonly consist of
older rocks of the foreland, although marginal parts of the fold belt may also be
onlapped by molasse sediments.
The following description by von Bubnoff (1937) of the Variscan (Hercynian)
foredeep, which extends from southern England through northern France, Belgium,
The Netherlands, northern Germany into eastern Europe, apart from its specific
geographic and stratigraphic references the above description can be taken as a
general characterisation of all foredeeps:
'The most important tectonic phases (Bretonian and Sudetian) preceded the
formation ofthe main coal deposits. While subsequently the mountains rose higher,
their northern foreland subsided considerably and continuously over a wide zone.
Subsidence was strongest in that part ofthe foredeep which bordered directly on the
mountains, whereas further north it weakened and ceased eventually. The foredeep
into which the sea retreated was therefore asymmetrical; the part close to the
mountains subsided deepest and was later folded while further away quieter
conditions prevailed".
Many coal-bearing foredeeps subside more rapidly in the early stages of their
development than during later stages. This waxing and waning of basin subsidence
is often accompanied by a disproportionate release of sediments in the adjacent fold
belt, so that initially the foredeep can accommodate more sediments than are
available for deposition, which leads to a predominance of marine conditions. As
more terrigenous debris is released from the rising fold belt, terrestrial conditions
begin to dominate the proximal foredeep near the orogenic basin margin, while
marine incursions become weaker and more confined to the occasional, epiconti-
nental flooding of the distal foreland. This gradual choking of the basin with
sediments is a common characteristic of foredeep development, which is reflected by
a specific order of superposition of the basin fill ranging upward from mainly fine to
coarse clastic. As the marine and delta front sediments, which dominate early
foredeep development, give way to shoreline and lower, then upper delta plain and
alluvial environments, coal type also changes from the banded to banded bright,
marine-influenced, low TPI coals in the lower portion to the bright, high TPI coals
in the middle portion, and finally to the increasingly dull coals in the upper portion
ofthe basin fill. This last stage, which is associated with coarse conglomerates, is not
always present. For example, it is very well developed in the Newcastle Coal
Measures (see Fig. 7.9) near the orogenic margin of the Sydney Basin against the
New England Fold Belt in New South Wales, but it is missing in the accessible
portion of German Ruhr Basin, where the uppermost coal measures (see Fig. 7.35)
terminate with the bright, high vitrinite, high TPI coals of alluvial plain environ-
ments. It is possible that the Ruhr Basin ceased to receive sediments and produce
coal before it reached the same degree of maturity shown by the Sydney Basin, but,
since the coal measures have an unconformable upper contact, it is also possible that
the missing part was there and has been subsequently removed.
The significance von Bubnoff(1937) puts on the geometry of the basin was later
re-emphasised by Potter and Pettijohn (1963), who stressed the asymmetrical
transverse cross-section illustrated in Fig. 9.3 to be one of the basic features of
molasse accumulations. For this reason Pettijohn (1957) describes these sediments
as clastic wedges, whereby the coarsest and most immature deposits occur in the
thick portion of the wedge close to the border thrusts. The asymmetry of the
foredeep is related to its marginal setting between the young mountain chain and
an older consolidated block. The shape ofthe foreland basin is thus the result of the
tectonic dualism of a mobile orogen on the one side and a stable craton on the other.
Apart from other consequences, this asymmetry means that away from the orogen
the sediments deposited in the foredeep tend to lose their coarse clastic molasse
I I
CRATONIC SHELF FOREDEEP OROGENIC BELT
HINGE LINE BORDER THRUST
x
x x
x x x. x x x x
x x x x x x x x
Fig. 9.3. Schematic cross-section through a molasse foredeep. Crosses Cratonic foreland and
basement; folded lines orogenic belt; dashes shale; dots and circles sandstone and conglomerate of
varying particle sizes
character until on the opposite cratonic margin they are replaced by more mature
shelf deposits, often derived from the foreland. In summary, coal-bearing molasse
deposits have the following characteristics in common:
1. Marginal position on continental crust between a rising mountain chain and a

consolidated foreland or foreshelf.
2. Elongated depositional basin that has an asymmetric transverse cross-section
with maximum subsidence (depocentre) near the orogenic basin margin
adjacent to the rising mountain belt.
3. The trough axis migrates towards the foreland in response to increasing filling of
the basin and the advancement of thrust sheets. Continual plate-plate inter-
action causes the molasse to be folded and faulted near the orogenic margin.
4. Development of orographic basin terminates by infilling and folding near
orogenic margin. Orogenic chain may be thrust over proximal parts of the
foredeep.
5. Foredeep may be separated from cratonic shelf by a hingeline.
6. Source of clastic fill is mainly from orogenic uplands with smaller additions from
foreland.
7. Palaeocurrents are transverse to basin axis close to the orogenic margin. They
correspond to tributaries which tend to feed into a trunk stream with
longitudinal drainage.
8. Thick clastic fill consists of mainly leucocratic wacke-type clastics containing
many coal seams. Therefore, large concentration of coal with wide range of rank
occurs in small lateral expanse. The proportion of limestones and other
chemical sediments is small.
9. Coal rank decreases upward, coal type changes upward from medium bright
with low TPI (marine influenced deltas and coastal plains) to bright with high
TPI (upper delta to alluvial plains), then to dull with decreasing TPI (piedmont-
type braid plains). Sequences may be repeated according to interaction of
tectonism and eustasy.
10. The proportion of bright, high-vitrinite coal is higher on the rapidly subsiding
orogenic margin of the foredeep than on its tectonically inactive cratonic shelf,
where reduced subsidence allows more frequent access of atmospheric oxygen
to the peat resulting in higher inertinite contents.
11. Repeated marine transgressions in lower and middle portion may influence coal
quality in the form of high sulphur contents.
In spite of the many features common to all foredeeps, a detailed comparison of past
and present examples teveals that they are never exactly alike. Important dis-
similarities include differences in basement, in the degree of tectonic deformation
and the nature of the sedimentary fill, including coal seams and their vegetal
precursors. It appears that the main variations in foredeep infrastructure are related
to the intensity of tectonism in the controlling orogen, which in turn depends on
both subduction history and accretion dynamics. Of particular importance in this
respect is the composition of the consumed plate. It has been mentioned before that
continental crust cannot easily be subducted. Convergence of two continental slabs
leads therefore to continental collision, which appears to cause particularly strong
deformation in the resulting orogen, as witnessed by the European Alps, the
Himalayas and some older products of collision tectonics. Conversely, a survey of
fold belts, assumed to have been formed from the accretion of sediments and
allochthonous terranes against the leading edge of the overriding continental crust
(= subduction zone continental margin in Fig. 9.1) reveals striking differences in the
intensity of tectonic deformation in the resultant orogens and their foredeeps. In the
New England Fold Belt of eastern Australia and its adjacent foredeep system
(Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin), tectonism has been comparatively weak, while
in the West Canadian Cordilleras and the foredeep to the Rocky Mountains, the
high intensity and style of tectonism are more reminiscent of continental collision
tectonics. This comparison appears to correlate well with the number and sizes of
allochthonous terranes that were conveyed on the consumed plate and collided with
the continental plate edge.
9.3.1 Molasse Foredeeps Associated with Subduction Zone

Continental Margins
Where one lithospheric plate edge is subducted underneath another, partial melting
of the descending plate and overlying mantle will occur when it reaches a depth of
approximately 100 km. Because the basaltic magma so generated is lighter than the
surrounding mantle material, it will rise and break through the overriding plate and
form a volcanic arc. If both converging plates are oceanic, a chain of volcanic islands
will develop between a deep sea trench, representing the subduction zone, and an
oceanic back arc area which is too deeply submerged to support coal forming
environments (Fig. 9.2A).
When a subduction zone develops at the boundary between a continental and

an oceanic plate, the heavier oceanic lithosphere will tend to descend underneath the
lighter lithosphere (Fig. 9.2B). Occasionally, the reverse case also happens but the
isostatic imbalance created by this mechanism is considerable and therefore can
operate only for a limited period of geological time. In the more common case of a
continental plate overriding oceanic crust, a subduction zone and trench will be
established parallel to the continental margin, whereby the associated volcanic arc
will be close to the coastline on the continental plate, the actual distance from the
plate edge being a function of the subduction angle of the consumed plate.
It has become customary to refer to the establishment of a subduction zone near
the continental margin as the Andean type or cordillera system, in reference to the
subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath the overriding South American Plate.
However, as mentioned above, some important difference occur between the various
members of this group and no two cases are exactly alike. For this reason three
examples offoredeep development associated with the subduction zone continental
margin have been chosen.
9.3.1.1 The Sunda Arc
This modern example of subduction of oceanic crust underneath continental crust is

used here in order to illustrate some of the fundamental principles of the process. A
plate-tectonic interpretation ofthe The Sunda Arc is outlined in Fig. 9.4. This area is
particularly well suited as a model because it still is in an embryonic stage of
accretion which so far has involved merely deep sea sediments and no complicating
exotic crustal terranes. Several key elements ofthe subduction process are therefore
well displayed without having become affected or even obliterated by subsequent
accretion tectonics.
The consumed oceanic lithosphere is part of the large Indo-Australian Plate
which is thrusted beneath the continental Sunda Block at the Sunda Trench. The
continental margin is comparatively young, having prograded oceanward by crustal
accretion during successive and partly overlapping episodes of subduction and
tectonism, thereby creating successive structural belts in the Indonesian Archi-
pelago (Katili 1975). The reason for the repeated continental growth is probably
related to a high rate of sea-floor spreading which must be compensated for by an
equally rapid plate convergence at the consuming plate margin. This leaves little
time for inactive periods during which oceanic and continental crusts are coupled
and sedimentary prisms are formed along the continental margin.
As is common in these situations, plate uncoupling has occurred near the
juncture between oceanic and transitional or continental crust, and because plate
consumption proceeds at high rates, ocean floor sediments, together with some of
the underlying basaltic lavas formed at spreading centres, are scraped offthe oceanic
crust and are piled up at the leading edge of the overriding plate. There they form a
deformed eugeosynclinal flysch assemblage, which has been tectonically stacked at
the inner (landward) slope of the deep sea trench. Accretion occurs at the foot of the
slope along thrust faults which parallel the attitude of the descending plate but
A B
ANDAMAN ISLANDS ANDAMAN SEA INDOCHINA
CRATONISEO
FORELAND
c o
INDIAN
OR
FORESHELF
E
SUNDA SHELF
1Zl1ZOi. OCEANIC CRUST

x;-r; CONTINENTAL CRUST
~ VOLCANIC ARC
. =--.,.- SEDIMENTS
~ MELANGE
I-----i SEtnON UNE
--- LIMIT OF CDNTENTAL CRUST
ON SUNDA BLOCK
Fig.9.4. Plate-tectonic interpretation of the southwestern margin of the Indonesian Archi-

pelago. (After Katili 1975)
become progressively older and more steeply dipping in the direction of the
continent (Seely et al. 1974). Large portions of this embryonic orogenic welt have
already emerged to form a non-volcanic island arc (e.g. Nicobar, Andaman and
Mentawai Islands) above the subduction zone. The area next to the trench axis is
progressively uplifted, while the adjacent zone between 200 and 300 km towards the
continent tends to subside (Le Pichon et al. 1973). The forearc basin so formed
collects a miogeosynclinal assemblage of shallow marine sediments from both the
non-volcanic arc near the trench and the volcanic arc which establishes itself on its
landward margin.
The present situation can be characterised by the three cross-sections shown in
Fig. 9.4. The northernmost section (A-B) is similar to an island arc subduction model
because the overriding plate consists of oceanic lithosphere in the immediate

backarc area and is covered by the Andaman Sea. The continental crust underlying
Indochina further to the east has an intraplate position and is thus not involved in
the present tectonic development of the subduction complex. As long as the current
situation prevails, there is no possibility for coal to form in the oceanic backarc area.
To the south of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the arc-trench system
approaches the continental lithosphere ofthe Sunda Block, such that from Sumatra
to Java, the volcanic arc is situated on continental crust. This position renders the
respective backarc areas ensialic too, and so opens possibilities for coal formation in
the retroarc basin, as indicated in Sect. C-D in Fig. 9.4, which extends from the
Mentawai Islands through Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsular to the northern
Sunda Shelf.
Approaching Sumatra from the southwest, the floor ofthe Indian Ocean lies at a
depth of approximately 4000 m below sea level and drops to over 7000 m in the
Sunda (Sumatra) Trench. The latter occurs seaward of the subduction zone above
which piles of oceanic sediments have been scraped off the descending plate and
tectonically stacked. The chain of non-volcanic islands thus formed (Mentawai
Islands) will continue to grow as long as the turbidites and pelagic sediments
covering the open ocean floor are carried into the trench and plastered against its
inner wall after having been dislodged from the consumed plate. The forearc basin
between the trench and the volcanic arc along the southwestern coast of Sumatra
and further southeast to Java and beyond is taken up by the Mentawai Trough. In
contrast to the highly deformed sediments and scraps of sea floor above the
subduction zone, it receives more shallow water sediments. Although situated on
continental crust, the depositional environment of the forearc basin is tectonically
unstable, which is reflected in a relatively low degree of maturity of the deposited
sediments which have been generated from both the non-volcanic and volcanic arcs.
The volcanic arc is superimposed on thickened continental crust. It contains
small fault-bounded intra-arc basins, examples of which occur in the form of lakes,
sagponds and heavily vegetated swamps along the axis of a 1650 km long fault zone
stretching longitudinally through the highlands of Sumatra (Barisan Mountains)
from Atjeh in the northwest to Semangko Bay in the southeast. Van Bemmelen
(1949) introduced the name Semangko Fault Zone for this fracture system and he
stressed the vertical nature of its associated displacements. For the same reason
Westerveld (1953) referred to it as the "Great Sumatran Fault Trough System".
Later investigations by Katili (1970) have shown that in addition to the vertical
movements which resulted in the formation of graben-like structures in the Tertiary
Period, Quaternary movements along the faults have acquired a strong horizontal
tendency of dextral character.
The back arc area to the northeast of the Barisan Mountains is occupied by
lowlands underlain by Miocene to Recent sediments which fill a sedimentary basin
extending from the foothills in the southwest to the Strait of Malacca to the
northeast. Although still developing, the present retroarc basin has already acquired
an asymmetric transverse cross-section containing 3000 m of sediments adjacent to
the volcanic arc, whereas to the northeast the sediments wedge out against either the
foreland of the Sunda Block or against the shallow waters of the Sunda Shelf and the
Strait of Malacca ( = foreshelf). The clastic fill of the basin rests unconformably on
basement and displays strong molasse character including shallow marine and
terrestrial sediments, numerous coal seams and oil pools. Coal formation dates back
to Miocene time but it is still active today within the lowlands, where extensive
paralic peat swamps occur. The retroarc basin has many characteristics of a
foredeep including the linear configuration, the transverse sediment dispersal, the
paralic nature and others. Still missing are those features which develop in later
stages of the orogenic cycle, such as the thrusting of the presently still embryonic fold
belt (i.e. the non-volcanic arc and the still-to-be-deformed forearc basin and volcanic
arc) over the foredeep. The effectiveness of this process would require the accretion
of more substantial crustal material, e.g. in the form of terrane docking, than the
dislodged deep sea sediments which are currently accreting in the subduction zone
at the plate edge.
Towards Java and the Banda Sea to the southeast, the continental crust of the
Sunda Block becomes attenuated. The backarc area of Java (Sect. E-F in Fig. 9.4) is
therefore covered by a shallow epicontinental shelf sea (Sunda Shelf), which is a
good example ofthe lateral coexistence of coal measures and marine deposits along
strike, and possibly a model for the higher porportion of marine sediments in the
western portion of the Variscan (Hercynian) foredeep north of the Rhenish orogen.
Isostatic adjustment and/or eustatic sea-level changes are capable of draining or
flooding much of the back arc area, thus building up an intercalated series of marine
and terrestrial deposits typical of paralic molasse environments.
From the above discussion follows that the still developing subduction/
accretion complex of the Sunda Block and its backarc display several geological
features which in more ancient orogens and their foredeeps are often difficult to
recognise. These geological features can be listed as:
1. A deep sea trench, the Sunda Trench, with its individually named portions, such
as Sumatra Trench, Java Trench etc.
2. Above the active subduction zone occurs a melange consisting of oceanic
sediments and mid-ocean ridge basalts dislodged from the descending plate
(Mentawai Islands).
3. An ensialic forearc basin (Mentawai Trough) is situated between the non-
volcanic and volcanic arc.
4. A volcanic arc (Barisan Mountains) with fault-bounded intra-montane basins
(intra deeps) in which peat accumulates in raised bogs.
5. A retroarc basin, which acts as a foredeep in which coal has been forming from
Miocene to Recent.
6. A cratonised foreland (Malayan Peninsular) grading laterally into a shallow
foreshelf (Sunda Shelf) in which elevated areas form numerous islands including
those carrying Recent peatlands.
The foredeep rests unconformably on cratonised basement on the overriding plate

and is separated from the forearc basin by an active volcanic arc. Cenozoic coal
formation began in the Tertiary Period and still continues in paralic swamps and
raised bogs. Because of the proximity of active volcanoes to the peatlands,
pyroclastic sediments and their derivatives are prominent among the sediments in
the foredeep, as well as in the intradeeps of the Barisan Mountains.
9.3.1.2 The Sydney Basin
While the Indonesian Archipelago is a unique example of a subduction complex

with foredeep development still in progress, it cannot give complete insight into the
depositional and tectonic framework of its late and post-orogenic stages. Therefore,
a second, more mature model will be discussed. This is the Sydney Basin in eastern
Australia, the geology of which has been discussed in some detail by Mayne et al.
(1974) and Herbert and Helby (1980). Together with the Gunnedah and Bowen
Basins, it is part of a composite foredeep which extends for approximately 2000 km
almost meridionally through the eastern portion of the Australian continent
(Fig. 5.5). Stratigraphic correlations across this foredeep system have been given by
Dickins (1968, 1988), Runnegar (1970), McClung (1978), Brakel (1986), Brakel and
Totterdell (1988) and Briggs (1991). According to Craddock (1975), De Witt (1977),
Hobday (1987) and Cadle et al. (1990), the eastern Australian foredeep system
connects across Antarctica with the African Karroo Basin, which is similarly
asymmetric in cross-section and likewise displays deep subsidence near the orogenic
basin margin close to the Cape Fold Belt. However, the Karroo Basin has a greater
width, due to extensive overlap of the northern shelf on the comparatively stable
platform of the Kaapvaal Craton, and coal is concentrated near the cratonic rather
than the orogenic basin margin, where marine conditions persisted throughout
much of the Permian Period (Cadle et al. 1990).
Molasse sedimentation began in the Sydney Basin during the Permian Period
on continental lithosphere between the accreting New England Fold Belt and an
older consolidated foreland to the west. In the initial stages of basin development
the nascent New England Fold Belt constituted a rather weak sediment source,
which is shown by the widespread marine deposits that characterise early molasse
sedimentation throughout the foredeep complex. Indications of tidal action in the
Bowen Basin also suggest that the Early Permian eastern basin margin was
discontinuous (Fielding 1989). A similar situation has been envisaged for the Sydney
Basin whose orogenic margin began to form as a string of islands before developing
into a continuous mountain front later during the Permian Period (Herbert 1976,
1980). As indicated in Fig. 9.5, the basin foreland consisted of the remnants of several
older orogens, for example the Early Phanerozoic Lachlan and Thomson Fold Belts
on the cratonic margin of the foredeep system, and the Proterozoic Adelaidean and
more ancient welts further west, which have been successively welded onto the
central and western Australian craton since Archean time. The formation of the New
England Fold Belt itself is an expression of the eastward growth of the Australian
continent. The following structural units can be distinguished (see also Fig. 9.6):
1. The Foreland Zone consists of remnants of the Lachlan Fold Belt, which was
consolidated during the Kanimblan Orogeny in Early Carboniferous time
(Packham 1969).
146 0
152 0
146 0
152 0
>400my
Queensland
New South Wales
- - - - - - i - - l - - - - i - - - - t - - - * - - - I - - / - - - 30 0
r eIOr
;. \
~ne ~ne
Fig. 9.5. The tectonic framework of the Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin complex. Isopachs refer
to mid- (left) and Late (right) Permian coal measures. Intervening marine sediments have not been
included. The ages given have been obtained from basement granites. Section A-B is illustrated in
Fig. 9.6 and Sect. C-D in Fig. 9.8 (After Raggat 1938; Malone 1964; Hawthorne 1965; Sprigg 1967)
TAMWORTH
SYNCLINORIUM
SYDNEY BASIN CENTRAL COMPLEX
x x
x x
x x x
x x
x x x
Fig. 9.6. Schematic cross-section through the New England Fold Belt and the Sydney Basin along
A-B in Fig. 9.5. Geological symbols as in Fig. 9.3 with the addition of triangles plutonic rocks and
dashes metamorphic rocks. Not to scale
Fig. 9.7. View of the unconformity between the folded and metamorphosed rocks of the
peneplained Early Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt and a thin wedge of Permian Sydney Basin
sediments at Kanangra Walls, N.S.W. Top and . bottom of basal conglomerate overlying the
unconformity have been emphasized
2. The Sydney Basin is a structural depression of retroarc status (Scheibner 1976)

between the foreland and the New England Fold Belt. Basement consists of
peneplained and down-warped extensions of the Early Palaeozoic Lachlan
Fold Belt which, on the cratonic basin margin, is gently overlapped by a thin
wedge of Permian sediments. An illustration of the unconformity is given in
Fig. 9.7. The basin deepens towards the orogenic margin, but near the border
thrusts molasse sediments rest on the Late Carboniferous lavas and ignimbrites
of the former volcanic arc which fringed the orogenic margin of the foredeep and
separated it from the forearc basin. Although present basin geometry is largely a
function of the compressive regime which dominated Late Permian and Early
Triassic foredeep development, (Evans and Migliucci 1991) the basin appears to
have been initiated by rifting and transcurrent movements (Harrington 1982,
1987) or rifting (Scheibner 1976; Brownlow 1981 b; Quereshi 1984; Lennox and
Wilcock 1985; Roberts and Engel 1987; Leitch et al. 1988; Mallet et al. 1988;
Collins 1990), which is not uncommon in backarc settings. A similar phase of
extensional tectonics preceding the compressional regime has been suggested for
the Bowen Basin, the northern continuation of the Sydney Basin, by Hammond
(1987) and Mallett et al. (1988).
3. The Border Thrusts are a system of reverse faults (Hunter-Mooki Thrust System
of Carey and Browne 1938) along which the New England Fold Belt was up-
thrusted against and partly over the foredeep molasse during the Hunter-Bowen
Orogeny. This event, which occurred between Late Permian and Early Triassic
time (Carey and Browne 1938; Scheibner 1974; Gale 1980; Herbert and Helby
1980; Korsch and Harrington 1981; Rawlings and Moelle 1982; Dickins 1986;
Lohe and McLennan 1991), was associated with the detachment and basinward
movement of allochthonous thrust sheets in the adjacent fold belt (Engel and
Morris 1987). Analogous to similar tectonic settings elsewhere (e.g. the Rocky
Mountain Foothills of Alberta, or the "folded molasse" of Bavaria) the Permian
basin fill is folded near the northeastern orogenic margin of the Sydney Basin,
where it consitutes Voisey's (1959) "Hunter Valley Dome Belt." Glen and Beckett
(1989) regard this belt as a zone offrontal thrusts and fault-generated folds which
together with the border thrusts consist of upward-steepening splay thrusts.
These developed off a floor thrust along which the molasse separated from
basement. After some 20 to 30 km into the foredeep the floor thrust terminates by
upward ramping. Further basin ward towards the southwest, time-equivalent
strata onlap the peneplained cratonic foreland with little deformation but greatly
reduced thickness. The internal area immediately adjacent to the border thrusts is
made up of terrestrial Carboniferous rocks (Kuttung facies of Engel 1962), among
which volcanic arc assemblages are particularly prominent. Apart from a variety
of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks the arc assemblage contains coarse conglome-
rates, glaciogenic sediments and some uneconomic coal seams (DiesselI975). The
latter appear to have formed on the margin between the volcanic arc and the
forearc basin.
4. The Tamworth Synclinorium (Zone A of Leitch 1974; Tamworth Belt of Roberts
and Engel 1987) originated as a forearc basin in which Devonian and Car-
boniferous cherts, turbidites and limestone intermingled with arc volcanics. Their
depositional patterns suggest that both the western cratonised foreland and the
eastern uplands within the adjacent non-volcanic arc have acted as sediment
sources, in a manner similar to both Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands, which
act as sediment sources for the forearc basin of the Mentawai Trough in
Indonesia. The term synclinorium refers to the style of tectonic deformation
which is intensive near the Peel Fault but weakens towards the external border
thrusts.
5. The Peel Fault (or Peel-Manning Fault System) follows a former ridge zone
indicated by reeflimestones, coarse conglomerates and plant-bearing deposits. It
consists of a series of faults along which considerable quantities of serpentinite
have been emplaced (The Great Serpentine Belt). Most authors consider the
thrusts to be of Permian age (Voisey 1959; Packham 1969; Solomon and Griffith
1972; Collins 1990), although others (Benson 1913; Scheibner and Glen 1972;
Korsch and Harrington 1981; Shaw and Flood 1981) envisage them to be
initiated during the Carboniferous Period. The Peel Fault separates the
Tamworth Synclinorium from the oceanic sediments of the Central Complex of
the fold belt. Kinematic studies of serpentenites by Offler and Williams (1987), as
well as correlations of metamorphic grade across the Peel Fault by Offler and
Hand (1988), have indicated a complex movement history along the fault with a
strong sinistral strike-slip signature. In many places it is accompanied by a
tectonic melange and large exotic blocks (olistoliths) of debris flow origin (Leitch
and Cawood 1980). Both the Peel Fault and the associated ridge appear to mark
the position of the non-volcanic arc adjacent to the former trench and subduction
zone.
6. The Central Complex (Zone B of Leitch 1974; Tablelands Complex of Roberts
and Engel 1987) consists of an accretionary non-volcanic arc assemblage which is
composed of a collage of terranes (Flood and Aitchison 1988), which contain
deformed and metamorphosed ("eugeosynclinal") pelagic cherts and lutites,
trench fill turbidites, and greenstones ranging from Middle Silurian to Early
Carboniferous age (Aitchison 1990). Post-accretionary granitic intrusions have
resulted in the formation of many stitching plutons, while terrane dispersion was
accompanied by oroclinal bending (Harrington and Korsch 1987).
Apart from the above-mentioned sparse Carboniferous coal occurrences along the
formers shores of the forearc basin (now the Tamworth Synclinorium) and the
volcanic arc, the main coalfields in the northeastern (Hunter Valley) portion of the
Sydney Basin are located in the retroarc basin. During the Permian and Triassic
Periods it accommodated large quantities of clastic debris from the nascent New
England Fold Belt (David 1907; Diessel 1969a, b; 1970, 1980a; Rattigan and
McKenzie 1969; Branagan and Johnson 1970; Branagan et al. 1976; Herbert 1980;
Conaghan et al. 1982; Brakel and Totterdell 1988). Because of this feature the
northeastern portion of the Sydney Basin has been variously referred to as an
"exogeosyncline" (Voisey 1959), "foredeep" (DiesselI970, 1980a; Britten et al. 1975;
Herbert 1980) or "forland basin" (e.g. Evans and Migliucci 1991). Sediment isopach
patterns established by Branagan and Johnson (1970), Mayne et al. (1974) and
Warbrooke (1981), as well as palaeocurrent directions in epi- and pyroclastic coal
measure rocks measured by Diessel (1966, 1980b, 1985c) and Conaghan et al. (1982)
led to the postulation of an off-shore continuation of the New England Fold Belt
thereby placing the Newcastle Coalfield into an orogenic recess, called the
"Newcastle Recess" by Jones et al. (1984, 1987).
As mentioned above, most of the sediments were received from the New England
Fold Belt but, as illustrated in Fig. 9.8, occasionally the foreland also contributed to
the basin fill (see also Bamberry et al. 1989), which shows the usual asymmetric
foredeep geometry illustrated in Fig. 9.9. The figure also illustrates the contrasting
composition of the thin coal measure and shelf sediments near the southwestern
cratonic basin margin and the thick marine and terrestrial deposits near the
northeastern orogenic margin. The terrestrial sediments include Permian coal
measures and Lower Triassic clastic wedges in which sandstones and conglomerates
form dominant consituents. A comparison between the composition and thickness
ofthe Permian sediments on either side ofthe Sydney Basin is given in Table 9.3. The
concomitant increase in the number of coal seams near the deeply submerged
orogenic basin margin compared with the cratonic shelf margin is brought about by
seam splitting due to differential subsidence, as discussed in Chap. 6.4.1. Some
examples have been illustrated by Agnew and Bayley (1989).
DALWOOD GROUP GRETA COAL MEASURES MAITLAND GROUP

(SAKMARIAN TO ARTINSKIAN) (ARTINSKIAN) (KUNGURIAN TO KAZANIAN)
.' .
NEWCASTLE & TOMAGO COAL MEASUR UPPER NARRABEEN GROUP

(TARTARIAN) (EARLY TRIASSIC)
~ PREDOMINANTLY
~ MARINE SEDIMENTS
LJ
~ PREDOMINANTLY
NON-MARINE SEDIMENTS
I
~ SOURCE AREA WITH
tjjjj ISOLATED BASINS
SECONDARY
::d ::t SOURCE
MAIN
/MAIN
TRANSPORT
DIRECTION
/ SECONDARY
HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE WIANAMATTA GROUP
(MIDDLE TRIASSIC) (LATE MIDDLE TRIASSIC)
Fig. 9.8. Eight cartoons of sediment source areas and drainage patterns in the Sydney Basin in
reference to stratigraphic position. (Based on petrographic and palaeocurrent analyses by staff and
students of The University of Newcastle, N.S.W.)
\
\
\0 Q
c 1'0
\ Ei
<1>
·~::-=O~o---O-·d.°: ~
o o 0·0
, , 0 , :0°, '0°'0,° ,': 00

~
0
~ 0.: O~ 2'
1'0
TATARIAN
et
0-
Z
<1>
....1'0
\l
1500
o
::;
<1>
'"
....
KAZANIAN ~
a
900 '"d
o s;-
~
I~
et
tTl
KUNGURIAN
300
~
'"
Kilometres
50 100
ARTINSKIAN
~ Formation boundary
Unconformity, disconformity or hiatus
SAKMARIAN
.. O .
.• 0'
~ 0: o." Terrestial sediments, including coal
r.cl Marine, near-shore and shoreline sandstone

~
Marine siltstone and laminite, shallow marine,
~ prodelta and delta front
(VVl Volcanic flows. tuffs, breccias, etc, some sediments

~
V>
Fig. 9.9. Schematic transverse section (C-D in Fig. 9.5) through the Sydney Basin showing the changing lithostrati- W
-.l
graphic relationships of the Permian sediments across the foredeep. (After Branagan et al. 1976)
Table 9.3. Lithologic comparison along section line C-D in Fig. 9.5 between the Permian
sediments deposited near the orogenic (NE) and cratonic (SW) margins of the Sydney Basin,
New South Wales. (After McKenzie 1962; Branagan 1960; Engel 1966)
SW Margin near Lithgow NE Margin in Lower Hunter

(cratonic shelf margin) Valley (orogenic margin)
Triassic
100m - Illawarra Coal Measures 400 m - Newcastle Coal measures

Conglomerate = 11 % Conglomerate = 29%
Sandstone = 17% Sandstone = 23%
Shale =63% Shale = 17%
Coal (7 seams) = 9% Tuffs and claystones = 19%
Coal (21 seams) = 12/,~
200m - Shoalhaven Group > 400 m - Tomago Coal Measures
Clastic marine and marine-glacial Conglomerate 1%
sediments with basal conglomerate Sandstone =59%
Shale = 34~1"
Coal (15 seams) = 6%
1500m - Maitland Group
Largely marine clastic
sediments with glacial
intercalations
120 m - Greta Coal Measures
Conglomerate =50%
Sandstone =25%
Shale = 15%
Coal (3 seams) = 10%
2000 m - Dalwood Group
Marine clastic deposits
with glacial intercalations and
occasionally a basal coal seam
Devonian and Silurian Carboniferous
Apart from being more common near the orogenic basin margin, the proportion
of coarse clastic deposits increases also in the upward direction. Examples of this
feature are the changes from marine to terrestrial deposits which occurred twice
during the Permian Period, first, when the marine Sakmarian sediments gave way to
the Artinskian Greta Coal Measures, and again towards the end of the Permian
Period during the change from the marine Kungurian and Kazanian deposits first to
the predominantly deltaic Tomago Coal Measures and then into the mainly fluvial
Tartarian Newcastle Coal Measures. A detailed log of these Late Permian coal
measures is given in Fig. 7.9. Within the Newcastle Coal Measures high sinuosity
streams have been gradually displaced by braided streams, which brought
increasingly coarser material into the foredeep and restricted coal-forming con-
ditions. With the beginning of the Triassic Period, conditions for coal formation
ceased altogether. Similar examples of an overall upward increase of coarse
sediments have been reported from other foreland basins. Rust et al. (1984) report an
increase in the abundance of channel sandstones and a general upward coarsening

from the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) Cumberland Group south of
Joggins, Nova Scotia. The stratigraphic column of the Ruhr Basin shown in
Fig. 7.35 shows a similar trend, which Jankowski (1991) interpretes as a vertical
change from marine basin to lower, then upper delta plain, followed by alluvial plain
conditions.
The upward terrestrialisation shown by the lithologic changes in the interseam
sediments is mirrored by an inverse relationship between the aggregate percentages
of bright coal (vitrain) in coal seams and of sandstone plus conglomerate in the
associated interseam sediments (Warbrooke 1984). Conversely, the proportion of
dull coal (durain) increases sympathetically with the upward increase in coarse
clastics, whereas palaeosalinity indicators, such as boron and sulphur, show a
marked decrease, as illustrated in Fig. 9.10. This trend of decreasing marine
influence is supported further by the upward changes in maceral composition and
the coal facies indices compiled in Table 9.4. The Greta Coal Measures, which are
sandwiched between thick marine sediments, show the strong marine influence by
their extremely low tissue preservation. The TPI values listed in Table 9.4 are
consistently low due to the high rate of bacterial activity which is also responsible for
the strong vitrinite fluorescence discussed in Chaps. 5 and 8. Following a marine
interval (see Table 9.3 or Fig. 9.9), the final terrestrialisation of the molasse foredeep
begins with the Tomago Coal Measures. Having been formed in lower to upper delta
plain environments the TPI values of their coals are still suppressed but increasing,
while the degree of gelification is high (see GI values in Table 9.4) due to increased
vitrinite contents. Optimum tissue preservation at high levels of gelification are
reached in the lower portion (Lambton Subgroup) of the Newcastle Coal Measures,
Moon Island
Beach Sub-Gr.
(14S.228)
Adamstown Sub-Gr.
(4S. 158)
Lambton Sub-Gr.
Fig.9.10. Upward change in mean (33S. 408)
boron and sulphur contents of coal
seams in the Permian coal measures
of the northern Sydney Basin (Sub-
Gr. subgroups of the Newcastle Coal Tomago Coal
Measures
Measures). Boron (dots) relates to the (7S. 98)
lower abscissa; total (open circles),
organic (triangles) and pyritic (crosses)
sulphur relates to the upper abscissa.
The numbers in brackets next to the Greta Coal
Measures
stratigraphic units refer to sample (28S. 118)
sizes for sulphur (S) and boron (B). 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(After Warbrooke 1981) Boron (ad)
Table 9.4. Stratigraphic compilation of washed coals from the Permian coal measures of the
north-eastern portion of the Sydney Basin (Newcastle and Lower Hunter Valley) showing a
systematic upward change in maceral group composition (in percent) and coal facies indices
Seam/Strat. Pos. Vitrinite Liptinite Inertinite Minerals TPI GI
Wallarah 39.2 4.1 51.8 4.9 1.46 0.65

46.2 4.0 45.0 4.8 1.65 0.63
Great Northern 27.0 7.8 56.6 8.6 0.92 0.57
47.6 6.2 41.2 5.0 1.44 1.09
Fassifern 50.8 5.6 43.6 (mf) 1.29 1.54
57.6 4.4 30.3 7.7 1.65 1.12
Moon Island Beach 44.3 5.3 44.4 6.0 1.40 0.93

Subgroup
Aus tralasian 64.0 5.0 21.2 9.8 1.10 3.45

63.6 5.4 24.4 6.6 1.52 4.86
Adamstown 63.8 5.2 22.8 8.2 1.31 4.15
Subgroup
Victoria Tunnel 78.6 3.4 10.8 7.2 1.43 8.36

74.6 8.0 11.6 5.8 2.37 3.87
73.8 5.8 17.2 3.2 1.21 4.69
75.4 6.4 14.8 3.4 1.56 5.44
Young Wallsend 72.2 6.6 17.4 3.8 1.29 4.71
75.6 5.6 10.6 8.2 1.33 7.81
69.8 8.4 15.6 6.2 0.81 5.47
80.6 6.6 7.2 5.6 1.24 11.91
Dudley 73.8 4.8 18.6 2.8 1.54 4.20
53.0 4.2 36.0 6.8 1.44 1.53
60.9 6.7 19.5 12.9 2.74 3.37
Borehole 64.4 7.2 15.6 12.8 2.21 4.60
76.0 5.0 13.2 5.8 1.03 7.06
67.0 3.2 17.2 12.6 1.66 4.42
73.8 6.6 18.0 1.6 1.39 4.94
62.8 9.4 22.5 5.3 1.64 3.22
West-Borehole 64.6 7.2 26.0 2.2 0.94 2.84
Lambton 70.4 6.2 17.2 6.2 1.52 5.21
Subgroup
Beresfield 80.0 8.0 10.0 2.0 1.48 9.88

Upper Donaldson 73.8 12.4 9.6 4.2 0.84 8.27
Lower Donaldson 70.0 10.1 12.3 7.6 0.70 6.41
Big Ben 64.4 14.0 10.4 11.2 0.71 6.60
Ashtonfields 78.0 8.6 2.6 10.8 0.32 31.20
74.2 9.8 3.6 12.4 0.33 21.88
81.8 7.4 1.6 9.2 0.31 58.75
Unnamed 72.0 9.8 13.2 5.0 0.53 6.91
76.6 2.4 7.2 13.8 0.81 10.97
66.4 6.4 13.6 13.6 0.59 19.13
79.2 6.8 5.6 8.4 0.99 15.27
Tomago Coal 74.2 8.7 8.2 8.9 0.69 17.75
Measures
Seam/Strat. Pos. Vitrinite Liptinite Intertinite Minerals TPI GI
Greta 61.4 12.4 24.4 1.8 0.39 3.30

66.2 10.2 19.4 4.2 0.44 4.76
57.0 14.0 25.8 3.2 0.38 2.97
56.6 14.2 24.8 4.4 0.26 3.42
64.4 12.6 20.4 2.6 0.33 3.22
62.2 11.2 23.2 3.4 0.40 3.59
57.6 14.6 25.2 2.6 0.54 2.87
64.2 14.2 18.8 2.8 0.30 4.39
47.4 14.6 29.8 8.2 0.33 1.97
63.2 11.6 22.8 2.4 0.27 3.57
59.6 11.4 24.0 5.0 0.37 2.73
57.6 14.6 25.4 2.4 0.36 2.67
Greta coal 59.7 12.9 23.7 3.7 0.36 3.30
measures
which are of upper delta to alluvial plain origin. Similar conditions apply to the
Adamstown and Boolaroo Subgroups (the latter has not been included because of
lack of samples), after which a sharp drop in GI values near the top of the Newcastle
Coal Measures (Moon Island Beach Subgroup) indicates increased exposure and
oxidation of the former peat surfaces. It is interesting to note that the respective TPI
values are barely affected probably due to the high acidity (suppression of bacterial
activity) which characterised peat accumulation from the Lambton Subgroup
onward.
The upward changes in interseam sediments and coal composition are tangible
expressions of the gradual replacement of marine with terrestrial conditions in the
foredeep, as illustrated in Fig.9.11A to D by a series of lithofacies cartoons.
Fig. 9.11A depicts the situation towards the end of the last major marine trans-
gression of the Maitland Group. Its boundary to the overlying Tomago Coal
Measures is taken at the first appearance of plant fossils within an increasingly
arenaceous sequence. Carbonaceous shale and coal appear likewise within a few
metres above the boundary, but, as mentioned above, marine and brackish
conditions continue to influence the lower to upper delta plain environments of the
Tomago Coal Measures (Fig. 9.11A and B). Apart from the previously mentioned
sedimentological and coal facies indicators, the marine influence is also indicated by
high boron contents (Swaine 1962, 1967, 1968; Warbrooke 1981) in both coal and
interseam sediments. The frequently laminated nature of the sediments displaying
worm burrows, their association with delicate flaser bedding and micro-crosslami-
nation of bimodal azimuths suggest tidal influence. By the time the more terrestrial
Newcastle Coal Measures were formed the deltas had prograded further into the
basin, as indicated in Fig. 9.11C and D.
The high proportion of conglomerate and a substantial influx into the Newcastle
Coal Measures of pyroclastic material seem to indicate an accelerating tectonic
activity in the adjacent New England Fold Belt to the northeast. The conglomerates
150 151 152

151 152
32 ----~--------~--~L-----~----,L
Fig. 9.11 A-D. Lithofacies cartoons showing the progradation of terrestrial sediments into the
Sydney Basin during the Late Permian Epoch. (After Branagan et al. 1976)
represent braid plains and show large-scale heterogeneous cross-bedding. Down-

palaeoslope, mainly to the southwest, the gravel sheets split into individual channel
fills and grade into finer-grained clastics of reduced thickness. Because of their
geological setting close to the orogenic basin margin and their external and internal
geometry, these rudites are regarded as the southwestern extensions of piedmont
deposits (clastic wedges), which intermittently were pushed down from the adjacent
uplands over the wetlands of the Newcastle Coal Basin. Following Branagan and
Johnson (1970), it can be assumed that much of the clastic detritus initially dumped
above base-level on piedmont and alluvial plains was later redeposited such that
diastems and erosion contacts between rock units are common. This period of
intermittently high energy sedimentation which lasted from Late Permian to Early
Triassic time, took place under the regime of a highstand systems tracts which
coincided with rapid uplift in the orogenic hinterland. Feeble reversals to a
transgressive regime, if they did occur at all, were over-ruled by the choking of the
basin with molasse sedim~nts which resulting in poor cyclicity (Duff 1972) and
absence of marine intercalations.
It appears that the main cause ofthe profusion of conglomerates is the proximity
of the orogenic margin of the basin. In most other foredeeps the original depo-
sitional margin near the orogen has been either destroyed by uplift and erosion, as in
the Canadian Rocky Mountains or in the West German Ruhr Basin, or has been
buried underneath thrust sheets during late stage orogenesis, as for example, in the
subalpine molasse in Bavaria. In the Sydney Basin tectonic deformation is weak,
even in the vicinity of the border thrusts, i.e. the Hunter-Mooki Thrust System.
Folding and faulting are not well developed and offer a rare opportunity to study a
very coarse coal measures sequence close to the former depositional margin of the
basin. An additional reason for the coarseness of the interseam sediments may have
been the cool Permian climate in Australia, which caused vigorous erosion in the
probably tree-less and often snowbound uplands ofthe New England Fold Belf, but
contributed little to the destruction of the debris by chemical weathering.
It can be concluded that the Sydney Basin is part of a foredeep system whose
northeastern orogenic margin is in a retroarc position. Although the basin may have
been initiated in Early Permian time by extensional tectonics, its Late Permian
coalfields contain sedimentary and structural features commonly found in thrust-
belt foreland regions, i.e. deformation is characteristic of compression as a result of
crustal shortening (McLennan and Lohe 1990). Imbalances in the respective rates at
which sediments were supplied to the basin and its capacity to accommodate them,
in conjunction with eustatic sea-level variations caused a number of marine
transgressions and regressions. The overall tendency is directed towards increas-
ingly terrestrial conditions, which is a trend followed similarly by other molasse
foredeeps, However, three features of the Sydney Basin appear to be related to this
particular type of subduction complex:
1. As discussed in Chap. 6.3.1.1, there is a high proportion of pyroclastic material in

the molasse which indicates proximity to contemporaneous, siliceous, explosive
volcanism of Plinian type.
2. The degree of deformation is weak, even along the thrust-faulted foredeep
margin, which provides a rare opportunity to study a very coarse coal measures
sequence close to the depositional margin of a foredeep. The mild tectonism in
the Sydney Basin may be related to the comparatively low degree of colli-
sional tectonics that occurred during the formation of the New England Fold
Belt.
3. The interseam sediments contain more coarse clastic sediments than are
commonly found in coal measures, and it appears that the main cause for the high
concentration of conglomerates is related to the cool Permian climate and the

proximity of the sediment source.
9.3.1.3 The Rocky Mountains Foredeep
In the previous case continental crust had been extended from the ancient
Westralian Shield by successive episodes of orogenic accretion, with only short
intervals during which the coastline was tectonically inactive. The example to be
discussed now is at the other end of the spectrum, where a subduction zone develops
along an old continental margin only after a long period of inactivity analogous to
the present trailing continental margins bordering the Atlantic Ocean. During
extended periods of tectonic quiescence following the original opening of the ocean,
a substantial sedimentary prism has been built out from the continent over the
junction between continental and oceanic crust. It is assumed that the shallow
marine and paralic sediments formed on the shelf of the prograding continental
embankment rest on continental crust, whereas the deep water turbidites and
pelagites of the continental slope and rise overlap on deeply flexed oceanic crust. A
suitable actualistic model are the Canadian Rocky Mountains, which are part of a
Cordillera system which appeared in Mesozoic and early Tertiary time along the
western margin of the American continent. The Canadian portion of the cordillera
has been divided into the following geological and physiographic units (after
Monger et al. 1972, 1982)
1. The Insular Belt in the west stretches from Vancouver Island north through the
coastal islands. It consists of largely un- or weakly metamorphosed Upper
Cambrian to Cenozoic sediments and volcanic rocks, some of them formed in an
ancient volcanic arc. The belt has been subjected to multiple deformation and
igneous intrusions. Small, highly faulted intramontane coal occurrences of
Jurassic to Tertiary age occur on Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands.
2. The Coast Plutonic Complex consists of extensive granite intrusions (Cretaceous
to Tertiary) within a volcanic and metamorphic host rock assemblage dating
back to Precambrian.
3. The Intermontane Belt is the eastern-most unit within the Western Cordilleran
Fold Belt (Price et al. 1972). It contains remnants of Upper Palaeozoic to Mid-
Mesozoic oceanic crust and deep sea sediments. Intradeep marine and freshwater
molasse sediments, and plateau basalts have covered much of the pre-organic
sequence. A large number of small intramontane coal deposits, ranging from
Lower Carboniferous to Late Tertiary have been reported by Smith (1989)
4. The Omineca Crystalline Belt forms the core zone ofthe Eastern Cordillera Fold
Belt. It consists of basement rocks ofthe western edge ofthe Canadian Shield and
the distal turbidities and pelagites ofthe continental margin prism ranging in age
from Precambrian to Jurassic. They have been intruded by Jurassic and
Cretaceous granites and metamorphosed to high grades.
5. The Rocky Mountain Belt represents the external thrust zone of the Eastern
Cordilleran Fold Belt. It consists of shelf and upper slope sediments and is
separated from the Omineca Crystalline Belt by the Rocky Mountain Trench.
The five belts are illustrated in Fig. 9.12A with the addition of a sixth, referred to as
the foredeep zone, which is largely identical to the Western Canada Sedimentary
Basin of Smith (1989). Its western and central portions contain the molasse
sediments which were washed down from the uplands to the west, and most of the
coal resources of western Canada. As indicated in Fig.9.12B and C, molasse
sediments are situated partly within the Rocky Mountain Belt underneath which the
westerly dip of the cratonic basement increases until it is lost at a depth of 11 km west
of the Rocky Mountain Trench (Bally et al. 1966). This means that the whole of the
Rocky Mountains is underlain by continental crust, but that the latter extends, at
least in parts, underneath the Omineca Crystalline Belt. This and other structural
relationships between the various belts and their lithologic associations are
displayed in Fig. 9.13. The lithostratigraphic correlation between the belts shows
that any reconstruction of the geological history of the Canadian Cordillera must
take into account the following relationships:
1. The continuation of continental crust, i.e. the Canadian Shield, for a considerable
distance underneath the Eastern Cordillera.
2. The occurrence of three un- or weakly metamorphosed zones (Insular, Intermon-
tane and Rocky Mountain Belts) which are separated by two highly metamor-
phosed, intruded and deformed welts (Omineca Crystalline Belt and the Coast
Plutonic Complex) representing zones of compressional crustal thickening.
3. The contrasting tectonostratigraphic styles in the belts on either side of the two
crystalline welts.
4. The westward younging of the onset of tectonic of the deformation west of the
Rocky Mountains.
The perception of the geological development of the West-Canadian Cordillera

system has undergone considerable variations over the years. Even within the
conceptual framework of plate tectonics, opinions have changed quite considerably,
as, for example, is demonstrated by a comparison of Monger et al. (1972) with
Monger et al. (1982). The last-mentioned paper laid the foundations for the current
view on the origin of the cordillera system, and although this model is constantly
undergoing further refinement, the basic 1982 version is used here in order to convey
the essence of the tectonic concept, which is summarised in Fig. 9.13.
According to Monger et al. (1972), the history begins with the establishment of
an Atlantic-type rift margin along the western edge of the Canadian Shield some
1600 Ma ago. Apart from the possibility of some brief tectonic episodes, the western
shield boundary remained a trailing mid plate continental margin for a period of
some 1200 Ma. During Proterozoic and Early Palaeozoic time a continental
shelf/slope/rise assemblage accumulated with a composite thickness of 20 km and
consisting of proximal miogeosynclinal sandstones and limestone and distal shales
and turbidites. The weight of the sediments caused considerable flexuring of the
intraplate boundary causing a westerly tilt of the cratonic margin, which is
documented by some Palaeozoic unconformities. Although there is no indication of
subduction in the Eastern Cordilleran Fold Belt during Early Palaeozoic time,
island arc volcanics and oceanic crust of that age are known from them Insular
Belt.
U\
!STRUCTURE CONTOURS (m) r? IIIII BROWN COAL
0\
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TO TOP OF CRYSTALLINE v fl
)
BASEMENT (CANADIAN SHIELD) ;:;;.;.~ ~
+++++
DATUM - SEA LEVEL <1~
I
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I
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I
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Fig. 9.12 A-C. The distribution of coal deposits in western Canada. A The major tectonic zones of the Canadian Cordillera and its foreland; B the n'
western subsurface extension of the Canadian Shield; C the location of important coalfields. The terrane position of the numbered coalfields is given tTl
::s
in Fig. 9.13, and Sect. A-B refers to Fig. 9.14. (After Bally et al. 1966; Monger et al. 1972; Norris and Bally 1972; Prince et al. 1972; Wheeler et al. ::.., .
1972; Smith 1989) o
S
(I>
a'"
INTERIOR SHIELD
PLAINS
51 Cc a
~
~ MOLASSE SEDIMENTS
t;:{::::i:o::1 SHELF DEPOSITS
E=.=-=-="J SLOP E AND RISE DEPOSITS
I• • • 1 PLAT EAU BASALTS

P€
Iv v vVOLCANIC
I ARC
16661PLUTONIC ROCKS
I.J.. ";..; I ME T AMORPH IC ROCK S
fl1'X'""'"""X'l EARL V PRO TERO Z OIC
lL.X...J BASEMENT
Fig. 9.13. The structural and lithostratigraphic relationships between the main tectonic belts in
western Canada. The letters designate the following terranes: 0 Olympic; Pa Pacific Rim; W
Wrangellia; A Alexander; GN Gravina-Nutzotin; Ca Cascadia; Br Bridge River; St Stikinia; Cc
Cache Creek; Q Quesnellia; E Eastern. Gaps between the terranes inside and outside superterranes
indicate that spatial relationships are variable or uncertain. The numbers refer to the age and
approximate terrane position of the following intramontane coal measures located in Fig. 9.12:
1 Yakoun Formation on Queen Charlotte Islands; 2 Haida Formation on Queen Charlotte Islands;
3 Nanaimo Group on Vancouver Island; 4 Skonum Formation on Queen Charlotte Islands; 5
Currier Formation in the Bowser Basin; 6 Red Rose Formation in the Telkwa Coalfield, Tantalus
Formation in the Whitehorse Trough, Dezadeash Group in the St. Elias Trough; 7 Tango
Formation in the Sustut Basin; 8 Princeton Group in the Princeton-Tulameen Basin, Coldwater
Beds in the Merritt and Hat Creek Basins, Amphitheatre Formation in the St. Elias Trough,
unnamed beds from Dawson to Watson Lake in the Tintina Trench; 9 Fraser River Formation in
the Quesnel Basin, Bowron River Strata in the Bowron River Basin; 10 Mississippian (Lower
Carboniferous) coal of the Whitehorse Trough, Yukon Territory. (After Bally et al. 1966; Monger
et al. 1972, 1982; Dickinson 1988; Kleinspehn 1988; Smith 1989)
Plate un-coupling near the continental margin appears to have occurred at the
beginning of the Jurassic Period, when the North American plate began to move
(relatively) westward and override oceanic lithosphere of the Protopacific plate
(Monger et al. 1982). From mid-Jurassic to mid-Tertiary time various terranes were
accreted, some consisting of offshore oceanic island arcs, others constituting crustal
slabs which have been shifted northward by transcurrent movements over very long
distances (Irving et al. 1980). The sequence of accretion is indicated in Fig. 9.13
together with the associated tectonic phases. Two periods oftectonism, one in mid-
Jurassic and the other in Late-Cretaceous time, were particularly severe. Monger
et al. (1982) relate these strong orogenies to the collision of the North American plate
with particularly large composite terranes, referred to as Superterrane I and II in
Fig. 9.13, together with the names of the smaller terranes. The superterranes have
been formed by the amalgamation of smaller terranes before they were accreted to
the continental crust, which increased their momentum during docking and was
responsible for compressional crustal thickening, magmatic intrusion and metamor-
phism along their zones of impact. The impact zone of Superterrane I is marked by
the Omineca Crystalline Belt, which consists of the eastern margin of the super-
terrane and the impacted western portion of the continental embankment, whereas
the docking of Superterrane II produced the Coast Plutonic Complex.
While with each terrane accretion the continental crust grew westward by the
width of the terrane minus the amount of crustal shortening, any sedimentation or
emplacement of igneous rocks after docking falls into the post-accretionary, i.e.
post-orogenic phase, as far as that particular terrane is concerned. However, each
subsequent accretion has tectonically affected also previous terranes and their post-
accretionary overlap (molasse) sediments. By contrast, the docking of Superterrane
II resulted not only in widespread tectonism, but also igneous activity and
metamorphism. These and other implications of the terrane concept for the
classification of coal-bearing intradeeps will be discussed in Chap. 9.3.3.
The structural consequences that follow from the high intensity and timing of
accretion tectonics for the Rocky Mountains and its foredeep are considerable
lateral shortening by decollement and thrusting in an easterly direction. In response
to the advancement of thrust sheets following successive episodes of terrane
accretion, the main centre of tectonic deformation migrated likewise from west to
east, which caused many unconformities to occur within the Mesozoic sequence
and had a marked influence on tectonic style and sedimentation part-
terns in the developing foredeep. During the long period of pre-accretionary
tectonic quiescence sedimentation in the area now occupied by the Rocky
Mountains was directed from the Canadian Shield into the sea west of it. With the
docking of Terrane I and the associated tectonism and uplift a complete reversal of
the drainage and dispersal pattern occurred during the Jurassic Period (Fig. 9.14),
which marks the beginning of molasse sedimentation. As tectonism spread towards
the continent, the continental margin became buried underneath gravity slides and
thrust sheets advancing from the rising mountain belt. The tectonic stacking put
additional load on the continental margin which responded isostatically by
subsidence thus forming beside the orogen the foredeep which could accommodate
the increasing volume of clastic sediments produced by-upland weathering and
A B
Q
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BRAZEAU FM. _ '_ _

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~~:~S~~:-<ii: ' -' -:- --~-=-e----~:.~_~:. - -~=.=:::'·=~~",,:,,"::;::--"'''·DAKOTA FM' ~-: :-._= ",....--~ ~
(")
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PERMO - -::. :;.; j"'j.-:;; ~ . ;..- - (i
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...,
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ORDOVICIAN r~~ SHALE ~ SANDSroNE
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Fig. 9.14. Schematic diagram shows the lit hostratigrap hic relationship (unfolded) between the ancient continental emba nkmen t and ;!E
molasse sediments in the Canadian Rocky Mountains and their fo reland. Datum = base of molasse; the location of the section is given in
Fig. 9. 12. (After Monger a nd Preto 1972)
erosion. Since the foredeep began to form at a time when tectonic spreading towards
the continent was very active, and because its base rested on deformable shelf
sediments of the old continental embankment, the foredeep itself was severely
affected by tectonism, at least near the orogenic basin margin.
The molasse consists of a series of overlapping clastic wedges being derived from
the then emerging uplands to the west. According to Rapson (1964) and Gibson
(1977), the lowest of these is the Fernie Formation (now Fernie Group after Gibson
1979), which is still mostly marine in origin and consists of dark, bioturbated shales,
which grade upward into laminated silts and sands containing hummocky cross-
stratification. The overlying Kootenay Group has a maximum thickness of 1112 m
and contains several formations, which in the southern parts of the Rocky Mountain
Front Ranges and Foothills are known (in ascending order) as the Morrisey,
Mist Mountain and Elk Formations, plus some regional correlatives (Gibson
1983, 1985). The Morrisey Formation consists mainly of shoreline deposits and
forms the base of the coal-bearing Mist Mountain Formation (Fig. 9.15). The coal
measures form prominent outcrops in at Mist Mountain (Fig. 9.16), where they
comprise brackish and alluvial elements, which include upward coarsening,
bioturbated shales and laminites, channel sandstones and conglomerates, as well as
coal seams. The formation has an average thickness of 500 to 600 m (maximum
= 1000 m), 8 to 12% of which consists of coal occurring in a large number of seams
from a few decimeters to 18 m thick (Grieve 1985). The upward-changing
depositional environments from strand plain and lower to upper delta plains are
indicated by the coals in a systematic increase in vitrinite content (Cameron 1972;
Pearson 1980). Further upward into the Elk Formation the coal content decreases
again and ceases in the Cadomin Formation, which consists of pebble conglomerate
Fig.9.15. View of two coal seams separated by coarsening upward unit (arrowed) in the Mist
Mountain Formation of the Kootenay Group below Cascade Mountain (to right) in Banff
National Park, Alberta
Fig.9.16. View of several upward coarsening, bioturbated shales and siltstones, overlain by
channel sandstones and conglomerates (arrowed) in the coal-bearing Mist Mountain Formation at
Mist Mountain, extending to the right of the saddle in the left portion of frame
formed by an influx of coarse clastics in response to increased orogenic movements

in the adjacent cordillera.
Being coarsest in the thick proximal portion of the wedges, the clastic molasse
deposits were dumped close to the source rocks in an asymmetric foredeep whose
axis followed the eastward migration of the thrust sheets. As has been noted by Bally
et al. (1966) the thickest and coarsest Kootenay sediments and their stratigraphic
equivalents occur in the Front Ranges, whereas in the more distal Foothills they
become finer and are overlain by coarse clastic rocks of the Lower Cretaceous
Blaimore Group in the south and the Luscar Group with the coal-rich Grande
Cache Member of the Gates Formation (see discussion of strand plain coals in Chap.
7.4) further north (McLean 1982; Leckie and Walker 1982; Leckie and Kalkreuth
1988; Macdonald et al. 1988); Langenberg et al. 1989; Kalkreuth and Leckie 1989;
Kalkreuth et al. 1989). Similarly, thick sandstone sequences of the coal-bearing
Upper Cretaceous Belly River Formation and Edmonton Group overlie the thin
distal end of the Lower Cretaceous deposits, thus indicating the outward migration
of the foredeep with decreasing geological age. This trend, which is a common
feature of molasse foredeeps, is also mirrored by the paludal environments in which
the coal seams were formed.
The older coals are better developed near the orogenic basin margin whereas
with decreasing age the optimum coal-forming conditions are pushed further away
from the orogen. In the Rocky Mountain foredeep this means that coals tend to
become younger from west to east, with the result that the deposits of the Front
Ranges are Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous in age, in the Foothills they are Early
Cretaceous, whereas those in the Plains are Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary in
age (Norris and Bally 1972). Concomitant with the eastward younging of the
molasse sediments th~ir coals display a decrease in rank (Fig. 9.12C). Medium to low
volatile bituminous coals occur within the molasse remnants now riding high on the
thrust sheets of the Front Ranges, particularly in the East Kootenay and Peace
River regions, which contain a little over two-thirds of Canada's measured and
indicated coking coals (Smith 1989). Further east they give way to the high-volatile
to sub-bituminous coals of the Foothills and Plains until the lignites of southern
Saskatchewan are reached. This broad correlation between geological age, depth of
burial, residence time and coal rank (Norris 1971; Hacquebard and Donaldson
1974), which indicates pre-tectonic coalification (Kalkreuth and McMechan 1984;
Kalkreuth and Langenberg 1986; Smith 1989), applies mainly to the less deformed
portions of the Foothills and the Interior Plains. In the Front Ranges, were tectonic
deformation is more severe, the simple age/rank relationship has been modified
locally by late thrusting. For example, Hughes and Cameron (1985) record higher
rank levels, where the emplacement of thick thrust sheets on coal seam has increased
their depth of burial, and also Pearson and Grieve (1985) find some localised
evidence for post-tectonic coalification associated with important tectonic
structures.
The eastern migration affected not only the depocentres of the foredeep but also
its deformational pattern. Schematically, the effects of the marked tectonic polarity
towards the foreland and its subsequent shift in sedimentation are shown in
Fig. 9.17. As previously deposited molasse sediments are incorporated in the
deformation and uplift of the Front Ranges, they undergo weathering and erosion
such that the resistant components are reworked into the younger portions of the
MONASHEE MTNS ROCKIES PLAINS

W
'--------1[>
TERTIARY
U. CRETACEOUS
CLASTICS
x
x x
L.CRETACEOUS - U. JURASSIC
Fig. 9.17. Three cartoons extending from the Omineca Crystalline Belt to the foreland illustrating
the eastward migration of tectonism and molasse sedimentation. (After Bally et al. 1972)
foredeep. These constitute the Foothills of which the Outer Foothills are less
deformed than their older, more westerly predecessors (Inner Foothills). In the
Interior Plains, which cover large portions of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, the
gradually thinning coal-bearing formations and their marine intercalations onlap
the Canadian Shield with very little tectonic deformation (Fig. 9.18). This is another
feature common to most foredeeps.
In the Rocky Mountains the tectonic deformation along the orogenic
margin of the foredeep is particularly strong, whereby the comparatively incompet-
ent coal seams sandwiched between more competent rocks were often used as shear
planes (Norris 1957, 1958). As a results of this movement the affected coals became
crushed (Fig. 9.19) and changed some of their properties (Bustin 1982). The con-
siderable tectonic intensity, which extended well into the foredeep, created also some
difficulty in separating the latter from the orogen itself. Disjointed remnants of once
continuous coal-bearing molasse deposits occur throughout the Front Ranges of the
Rocky Mountains, where they are either riding high on the hanging walls of major
thrusts, e.g. the Fernie Basin above the Lewis Thrust (Smith 1989), or have been
overridden by them, as shown in Fig. 9.20 by the Rundle Thrust over the Kootenay
Group, and in Fig. 9.21 by the McConnell Thrust over the Belly River Formation.
Conversely, there are also some Palaeozoic inliers piercing through the molasse
cover ofthe Foothills along thrust sheets (Keating 1966). Because of the similarity in
structural style, the Foothills are commonly regarded as part of the Rocky
Fig. 9.18. View of the flat-lying clays, marls, sands and coal of the Upper Cretaceous Edmonton
Formation at Horseshoe Canyon near Drumheller, Alberta. Note arrowed persons for scale
Fig. 9.19. View of faulted portions of Balmer coal near entrance to open cut on the western flank
of the Fernie Basin, British Columbia. On right side of frame the nearly horizontal seam and over-
burden occur above road level. To the left the coal has been dragged upward by the fault which
is located near the gap in the road embankment. Further to the left all strata are vertical, including
the coal seam (arrowed)
Fig. 9.20. View ofthe Three Sisters from the Trans-Canada Highway near Canmore with modified
interpretation according to Price et al. (1972). Rundle Thrust separates underlying Kootenay
Group (J Kk) from overthrusted older Palaeozoic rocks, including the Devonian Fairholme (Dfa),
Alexo-Sachenach (Dax) and Palliser (Dpa) Formations, and the Mississippian (Lower Carboni-
ferous) Banff (Mbf) and Livingstone (Mlv) Formations
Fig. 9.21. View of Mount Yamnusca, Alberta, where the McConnell Thrust has pushed Middle
Cambrian limestone (Cel Eldon Formation; Cpk Pika Formation) for 32 km over the Upper
Cretaceous Belly River Formation (Kbr). The McConnell Thrust is regarded as the boundary
between the Foothills and the Front Ranges of the Rocky Mountains. (Modified interpretation
according to Price et al. 1972)
Mountain Belt, although, when the sedimentary fill is considered, even the Front
Ranges represent merely elevated proximal portions of the foredeep now largely
stripped of its molasse cover down to its pre-Jurassic basement.
It can be concluded that the molasse foredeep of the Eastern Cordillera is
superimposed on the proximal shelf portion of a former continental embankment.
Its setting is on the overriding continental lithosphere, which puts it into a backarc
position and classifies the foredeep as a retroarc basin. Tectonic deformation is
extreme on the orogenic side where the former margin has been destroyed by
thrusting, uplift and erosion. The severity of tectonic deformation may be related
to accretionary tectonics involving some very large composite terranes. Apart
from some rare exceptions (e.g. Crows Nest Volcanics in Lower Cretaceous)
volcanic activity had little influence on molasse sedimentation because the centres of
eruption followed the strong accretionary outward growth of the continental
margin.
9.3.2 Molasse Foredeeps Associated with Continental Collision Margins
Plate consumption along a subduction zone can lead to crustal collision when
blocks of thick lithosphere reach the leading plate edges. The buoyancy of the thick
and low density lithosphere will permit only partial subduction, which leads to
closure of the ocean basin and substantial and complex tectonic deformation along
the collision suture. Since it is unlikely that the shapes of the colliding plate edges are
mirror images of one another (Dickinson 1974), points of intense tectonism will
alternate with synchronous deposition of flysch-type sediments in remnant ocean
basins along the line of collision.
The developing fold belt will have a bilateral symmetry (divergent bicouple after
Aubouin 1965), in which the tectonic, metamorphic and sedimentary polarities are
directed away from the suture belt and towards both continental forelands. Low
angle thrusting and nappe formation is widespread and is directed primarily
towards the consumed lithosphere (Lammerer et al. 1976).
As illustrated in Fig. 9.22, it is assumed that the Atlantic-type continentc;tl
margin of the consumed plate contains a sedimentary continental embankment,
which consists of a proximal shelf prism and increasingly distal slope, rise and deep
sea sediments. All of these are supplied to the subduction zone, where they are likely
to be scraped off the ophiolitic basement and emerge as a tectonically stacked
melange in the form of a non-volcanic arc, while another shelf sequence may
accumulate in the forearc basin on the overriding plate.
Molasse sedimentation takes place in intradeeps within the fold belt and in
marginal basins on either side. The edge of the continental plate which is partly
consumed, becomes depressed to form a foreland basin, which, because of its
outlying position with respect to the mountain belt, has been called "peripheral
basin" by Dickinson (1974). In the terminology of descriptive nomenclature the
peripheral basin is a foredeep or foreland basin, although it occupies a very different
tectonic position compared with the retroarc basin which, previously, has also been
referred to as a foredeep. Indeed, the classical Subalpine Molasse Foredeep of
Switzerland and Bavaria constitutes a peripheral basin within the continental
collision complex of the European Alps and so does the Indogangetic Basin on the
VOLCANIC
ARC
CONTINENTAL REMNANT SUBDUCTION FOREARC RETROARC
EMBANKMENT OCEAN ZONE BASIN BASIN
x x
x x x
x x x
x x x x
---~;J x
Fig. 9.22. Two cartoons illustrating the plate-tectonic setting of peripheral and retroarc basins.
Legend as in Fig. 9.2
subducted margin of the Indian plate. Continental collision leads therefore to the
formation of two molasse basins situated marginally to the central orogen. Both
have foredeep character, although one is a peripheral basin (e.g. the Subalpine
Molasse Basin) and the other a retroarc basin (e.g. the River Po Basin). In the
following discussion the role of the foredeep as a peripheral basin is stressed.
There are several continental collision complexes, both ancient and modern,
which would serve as examples of peripheral basin development. The large alluvial
cones which are fanning out from the gorge exits of the great Himalayan rivers over
the Indogangetic Plains (Geddes 1960) are, for example, part of the most recent of
several molasse cycles which began with the Siwalik Group in mid-Miocene time as
one of the results of the collision between the Indian and Chinese plates (Prakash
et al. 1980). Modern equivalents of coal development are 8 to 10 km wide marshy
zones, the "Tarai", which parallel down-slope a 10 to 30 km wide piedmont zone,
called "Bhabar".
The European Alps, where the term "molasse" was originally applied, were
formed in the course of a crustal collision which culminated in the Tertiary Period
and is commonly known as the Alpine Orogeny. The two continental crusts
involved in the event had been cratonised during the Caledonian and Variscan
Orogenies, remnants of which are still visible in the Alps although they have been
tectonically and metamorphically overprinted by the Alpine Orogeny. Dietrich and
Franz (1976) distinguish five main stages in the development of the Alps.
Supplemented by additional references, they can be used as a basis for the following
simplified outline of the events that preceded the deposition of the molasse:
1. Late Permian to Triassic Period (approximately 235-200 MaJ. First tectonic

subdivision occurs with the development of two rift systems in the Eastern and
Southern Alps. Evidence is the occurrence of clastic sediments, evaporites
(Salzkammergut), basaltic volcanic and subvolcanic activity in the northern rift.
The southern rifts south of the Peri adriatic Lineament extended from Bolzano
past Klagenfurt to the Dinarides (for localities refer to Fig. 9.23) and produced
various intrusive and extrusive rocks, as well as evaporites and carbonates.
2. Jurassic Period (approximately 195-150 Maj. The Pennine ocean (Tethys) is
formed as a pull-apart basin following the eastward shift of Africa relative to
Europe after the opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Coward and Dietrich 1989). On
the southern margin of the northern plate a continental embankment consisting
of Helvetic and Ultra-Helvetic limestone and other shelf sediments accumulates
(as on left plate in Fig. 9.22), while the southern shore received coarse clastics. The
southern rift became defunct, resulting in continuity between the southern
African and Ligurian plate.
3. Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Period ( approximately 150-110 MaJ. F orma-
tion of oceanic ridge and crust in the Pennine Ocean. Ophiolites, radiolarites and
pelagic limestones are common components of the Pennine Bundner Schiefer
(schistes lustres) accumulated in an ocean basin at least 250 km wide.
4. Cretaceous to Early Tertiary Period (approximately 100-45 Maj. This was a
period of subduction of the Pennine oceanic lithosphere under the southern plate.
Anticlockwise rotation of the plates resulted in the Middle Cretaceous Eoalpine
Fig.9.23. The Alpine Fold Belt and its marginal molasse basins (open circles) (After Schonenberg
1971)
phase of diachronous collision tectonics which progressed from the eastern to the
western Alps (Coward and Dietrich 1989).
5. Late Eocene to Miocene Epoch (approximately 43-10Ma). Further anticlock-
wise rotation of the southern plate relative to the northern plate leads to the
consumption of the remaining oceanic crust (Coward and Dietrich 1989)
resulting in widespread collision of the two continental plates, wrench faulting
and uplift. This is the main phase of the Alpine Orogeny (Triimpy 1973) which
results in partial underthrusting of the northern continental margin beneath the
southern plate (Dietrich and Franz 1976). Upward directed compensation
movements with northerly tilt initiates extensive detachment ofnorth-vergent
thrust sheets and nappes in Late Eocene time (Lammerer et al. 1976).. The
concomitant loading on the depressed northern plate leads to foredeep
development and molasse deposition with the beginning of Oligocene time. The
northward thrust in the central, eastern and western Alps is balanced in the
southern Alps by a south-vergent thrust belt which has been pushed over the edge
of the Adriatic plate (Roeder 1989). The result of this loading effect has been the
formation of a southern molasse foredeep, the Po Basin.
The northern Subalpine Molasse Foredeep occupies the setting of a peripheral basin
in sensu Dickinson (1974). As shown in Fig. 9.23, it extends from Switzerland to
Austda and has its main development in terms of width and depth in Bavaria where
most of the coal occurs. The foredeep is highly asymmetric with maximum sediment
thickness of approximately 5000 m occurring close to the Alpine border thrusts. The
latter separate a folded and thrusted portion of the molasse from the Alpine nappes
which advanced up to 10 km over the internal portion of the molasse basin
(Schonenberg 1971). To the north the Subalpine folded molasse abuts abruptly
against the unfolded foreland molasse along a thrust zone, as illustrated in Fig. 9.24.
For the most part of its development, the rate of subsidence of the molasse
basin was more or less balanced by a commensurate rate of deposition,
but several megacycles grading from marine through deltaic into fluvial sedi-
ments can be distinguished and are probably related to tectonic events in the fold
belt (Fiichtbauer 1967b). This sedimentary development is also mirrored in the
stratigraphic terminology, which makes a distinction between a Lower and Upper
Marine Molasse and a Lower and Upper Freshwater Molasse, respectively. Coal
measures occur in both freshwater units, although they occupy a transitional setting
which incorporates deltaic and fluvial elements of the coastal platform. The total
number of coal seams varies laterally between 20 and 60, but average seam thickness
is only 0.3 m so that the proportion of coal in the coal measures amounts to scarcely
1%.
In accordance with their foredeep setting, the coals are quite ~right and some
are relatively rich in sulphur in response to some marine influence. The coals are
mostly sub-bituminous in rank which does not increase substantially with depth.
This is a common feature of foredeeps, particularly near their orogenic margins,
were the downwarped cold continental plate has suppressed geothermal gradients
and lowered heat flow (Teichmiiller and Teichmiiller 1978). In peripheral basins the
suppression of isotherms is even stronger than in retroarc basins, because of the
underthrusting of continental crust and the subsequent flow of mantle material
away from underneath the foredeep towards the rising fold belt.
9.3.3 Coal-Bearing Intradeeps
An intradeep is an intra- or intermontane molasse basin commonly bordered by

cordilleras. Since its basement usually consists of older, deformed portions of the
orogen it also constitutes successor basins (pro parte) after King (1969). As
N s
FORELAND MOLASSE SUBALPiNE MOt.ASSE AlPINE NAPPES
IA'~
..
Fig. 9.24. Cross-section through the subalpine and foreland molasse in Bavaria. (After Teich-
muller and Teichmuller 1978)
mentioned previously, a spectacular modern example is the Altiplano in the South

American Andes. Peat formation on a limited scale is presently taking place there
along the shores of Lake Titicaca and, as this example shows, intradeeps are likely to
be characterised by fresh-water conditions without much hydrologic connection to
the sea. Indeed, the supposedly limnic nature of intradeeps has traditionally been
one of their hallmarks. Others according to von Bubnoff (1937) are:
1. tectonic setting along major faults;

2. continued subsidence over long periods;
3. great thickness of sedimentary fill with repeated coal formation.
The archetype of all coal-bearing intradeeps has been the Late Carboniferous Saar-
Nahe Basin situated within the Variscan (Hercynian) Fold Belt of western Germany.
It contains up to 7.5 km-thick molasse sediments consisting of 4.l km Upper
Carboniferous coal measures and 3.4 km Lower Permian sediments composed of
1.6 km grey fluvio-Iacustrine Lower Rotliegend and 1.8 km red alluvial Upper
Rotliegend deposits (Schafer 1989). This basin fill is separated from the paralic Ruhr
Basin to the north by the folded Rheno-Hercynian Zone. As outlined in Fig. 9.25, to
Fig. 9.25. The setting of

the Saar Trough within
the Variscan (Hercynian)
Fold Belt. (After Kneuper
1966)
the south the Saar-Nahe Basin borders against the metamorphosed Saxo-
Thuringian Zone, a terrane of different tectonostratigraphic provenance compared
with the Rheno-Hercynian zone.
Coal measure deposition began in Namurian time and lasted to the Stephanian
Epoch with some coal seams extending into in Lower Permian sediments (Kneuper
1966). Following a weak post-Westphalian orogeny, the basin experienced marked
changes in the depositional conditions during the Stephanian Epoch. The main
features are the disappearance ofthe central anticlinal zone (Saarbriicker Hauptsat-
tel), which during the Westphalian divided the intradeep into a northern and
southern trough (Kneuper 1966). It is assumed that this anticlinal zone constitutes
the remnant of a major rise in the Variscan system (Mitteldeutsche Schwelle)
situated between the Rheno-Hercynian and the Saxo-Thuringian zones, which
during Late Carboniferous and Permian time disintegrated and became the site of
several fault-bounded intramontane troughs characterised by intrusive and extrus-
ive igneous activity. Simultaneously, the depositional area extended beyond the
limits of the original basin, particularly towards the northeast in which direction the
coal accumulation shifted from the Stephanian Epoch onward (Schonenberg 1971;
Kneuper 1966). Mid-Permian and subsequent tectonism resulted in considerable
deformation of the molasse trough.
Even the most cursory survey of coal-bearing basins which would convention-
ally be called intradeeps shows a wide range of tectonostratigraphic styles. Many
contain marine intercalations and other sediments formed in palaeo-environments
that would be considered as incompatible with an origin in intramontane molasse
troughs. In some cases the ages of coals and their interseam sediments even predate
the accretionary tectonics responsible for the formation of the orogen in which they
occur. The key to this variety in depositional environments, tectonic styles and age
relationships with the controlling orogenies is terrane analysis, as will be demon-
strated by making use of the previous discussion of the accretionary history of the
western Canadian Cordillera system in Chap. 9.3.1.3.
The structural and lithostratigraphic relationships between the main tectonic
belts in western Canada shown in Fig. 9.13 (their locations are indicated in Fig. 9.12)
also include the ages of intramontane coal deposits and their approximate location
within Monger et al.'s (1982) terranes. The coal ages, their locations and geological
descriptions have been compiled from Smith (1989), who also gives a comprehensive
reference list. Additional information has been obtained from Tipper et al. (1981).
The coal occurrences numbered 1 to 4 are located in the Insular Belt and therefore
fall within Superterrane II, whereas coals 5 to 10 occur within the Intermontane Belt
and some overlap into the Omineca Crystalline Belt. They are therefore related to
Superterrane I. The following relationships apply:
Coal 1 is located in the Cowgitz field on Queen Charlotte Islands. The coal measures
have been dated only tentatively and may belong to both the Middle Jurassic
Yakoun and the Lower Cretaceous Haida Formation. Coal seams appear to have
been formed in small, paralic basins which were subject to marine transgressions.
The deposits have suffered severe tectonic deformation and were subjected to
igneous intrusions which upgraded some of the coals to anthracite. The age of the
coals and their high rank and deformation are consistent with an origin that
predates the accretion of Superterrane II which occurred in mid-Cretaceous time
but it might also largely predate the Late Jurassic amalgamation of the Wrangellia
(in which the coals occur) and Alexander Terranes into Superterrane II.
Coal 2 is restricted to the Lower Cretaceous Haida Formation on Queen Charlotte

Islands and therefore postdates terrane amalgamation but still predates terrane
accretion. Although located of the Wrangellia portion of the composite terrane, this
coal should be part of the post-amalgamation overlap assemblage referred to as the
Gravina-Nutzotin Terrane in Fig. 9.13.
Coal 3 consists of high volatile bituminous coal which occurs in six erosional
remnants of the Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo Group on Vancouver Island. Coal
formation appears to have begun on an eroded land surface which may be related to
the preceding accretionary tectonism. The coal measures, which are up to 2000 m
thick, therefore constitute an intramontane molasse assemblage, although they were
apparently deposited in lowlands and subjected to several marine transgressions.
Subsequent deformation and igneous activity, possibly related to the docking of the
smaller outer terranes, disrupted the originally continuous coal measures.
Coal 4 comprises Middle to Late Tertiary lignites (brown coal) situated in small,
possibly lacustrine basins on Queen Charlotte Islands. Their young age, low rank
and weak deformation are testimony to their post-accretionary origin.
Coal 5 occurs in the Currier Formation, of the Groundhog Coalfield in the

northeastern part of the Bowser Basin in northern British Columbia. The basin
covers large parts of the Intermontane Belt and Superterrane I (particularly the
Stikinia Terrane) with marine and freshwater sediments (Bowser Lake and Sustut
Groups) that range from Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous. In view of the envisaged
amalgamation of Terrane I by the end of Triassic Period and the attachment ofthis
composite terrane to the continental margin in mid-Jurassic time, the origin of the
Bowser Lake Group and subsequent sediments postdates both amalgamation and
the accretion of Terrane I, but not ofthe more westerly terranes,which accreted later.
Depending on their location and stratigraphic position these intramontane molasse
sediments have therefore been affected to a greater or lesser degree by subsequent
accretionary events. Particularly the collision of the large Superterrane II with the
mid-Cretaceous continental margin west of the previously accreted Superterrane I
and smaller terranes had a marked effect on the coals of the older post accretionary
overlap assemblages. The 400- to 600-m-thick Currier Formation, being the oldest
of the unit of the Bowser Lake Group, has been most severely affected by multiple
deformations and thermal events, which caused rank increases up to meta-
anthracite.
Coal 6 is contained in the Red Rose Formation of the Lower Cretaceous Skeena
Group, which contains a large number of coal seams in the Telkwa Coalfield,
located near the southern rim of the Bowser Basin. The rank is mainly medium to
high volatile bituminous and deformation, mainly by thrust faults, has disrupted the
coal measures in many places. Other occurrences mentioned in Fig. 9.13 occur in
little-explored basins in the remote Yukon Territory.
Coal 7 appears to be penecontemporaneous with the docking of Superterrane II

(Laramide Orogeny), because it occurs in thin seams in Upper Cretaceous non-
marine clastic deposits (Tango Formation) formed in a narrow trough near major
fault zones at the western margin of the Bowser Basin. The coals are high volatile
bituminous and have been subjected to folding and thrust-faulting.
Coal 8 is distributed over a large number of isolated Early Tertiary (mainly Middle
Eocene) basins, which are within the Intermontane Belt. Only some examples have
been listed in Fig. 9.13, and these include the Princeton-Tulameen, Merritt and Hat
Creek Basins in British Columbia and the St Elias Basins, as well as a string of
coalfields in the Tintina Trench in the Yukon Territory. All deposits are post-
accretionary in origin with respect to their Superterrane I basement, and most of
them occur in elongated fault-bounded troughs which are the result of post-orogenic
block faulting, either in the form of extensional grabens or transtensional pull-apart
basins. In either case the basins contain mainly lacustrine and fluvial sediments with
a high proportion of coarse clastics. In many cases the coal deposits have been
affected by mild pre-Late Eocene tectonism. Probably the most spectacular example
of a coal-bearing graben structure is the Hat Creek Coalfield, which measures only
25 by 4 km but contains up to 550-m-thick coal measures in which over 2 Gt of
brown to sub-bituminous coal are concentrated. No less impressive is the string of
coal-bearing pull-apart basins which accompany the giant Tintina Trench and
similar dextral wrench faults, which extend from Alaska deep into the Yukon
Territory. Because of the remoteness of the area, their coals are still largely
unexplored but a number of coalfields have been named, which appear to contain
considerable tonnages of subbituminous and brown coal.
Coal 9 constitutes the youngest coal of the Intermontane Belt, ranging in age from
Late Eocene to Pliocene and in rank sub-bituminous to brown coal. The main coal
deposits occur in the Fraser River Formation of the Quesnel Coalfield together with
massive conglomerates, sandstones and shales.
Coal lOis of Early Carboniferous age and is included here as an example of a pre-
amalgamation and accretion deposit. It occurs in the large Whitehorse Trough in
the Yukon Territory and ranges from low volatile bituminous coal to anthracite
rank. It is a relatively high-sulphur coal, which might indicate marine influence, but
the deposit is not sufficiently explored to assess its depositional environment.
The above compilation re-enforces the previously expressed notion that the term
intradeep and its synonyms covers a wide range of coal basins, which show a variety
of temporal and tectonic relationships with the host cordillera and its structural
elements. A summary of the various settings in relation to terrane development is
given in Table 9.5
Table 9.5. The origin of intramontane coal deposits (intradeeps in sensu lato) in relation to
terrane development and orogenetic host. PP = preservation potential
Pre-accretionary Accretionary Post-accretionary

Mainly deformed basins of Fault-bounded basins Mainly late- and post-
various origins with no formed during docking at orogenic, fault-bounded
genetic relationship to host plate edge; often highly basins in new cordillera
cordillera deformed with weak deformation
Pre-amalgamation
Coal deposits of single
terranes, e.g. volcanic Coalfields formed during
island arcs; low PP the docking of single
terranes;
Amalgamation low to medium PP Coalfields reflecting the
Small structural coal conditions in the orogen.
basins formed during Range extends beyond
amalgamation; low PP Coalfields formed orogenic cycle; high PP
during the docking
Post-amalgamation of composite terranes;
Coal deposits of low to medium PP
composite terranes;
low to medium PP
- - - - - pre-molasse - - - -__ - - - - - molasse ---->. post-molasse --
9.3.4 Coal-Bearing Transtensional Lateral Basins
Strike-slip fault movements can generate both basins and ridges because the zone
affected by the translational movement may also be subjected to either tension or
compression, or to both, in different areas along the trend of the transcurrent fault.
These different forms of strain may be due to variations in the local stress pattern
between splay faults evolving from deep crustal transcurrent faults, such as the
strike-slip flower structures of Harding and Lowell (1979) or the transfer-fault
flowers of Gibbs (1987a). Also kinks and bends along transcurrent fault line
constitute areas of either transpression, for example, at kinks to the right in dextral
faults, or transtension, for example, at kinks to the right in sinistral faults.
The geotectonic status of wrench fault tectonism is somewhat ambiguous and
depends on the size of the faults and the crustal portions affected by them. The
largest of the many strike-slip movements which dissect the earth's surface, trans-
locate lithospheric slabs and have therefore been listed in a plate edge position in
Fig. 9.1. Togther with divergent movements at spreading centres and convergent
movements towards subduction zones the large transform faults determine the
kinematic pattern of plates. The major transform faults associated with divergent
motion of oceanic lithosphere are usually arranged parallel to small circles of
rotation about the Euler poles of spherical geometry (Howell 1989}. Between these
large transform faults which affect plate motion over hundreds or thousands of
kilometres, and the small scale wrenching that is commonly part of localised
tectonism, there are many transitions. One of them, the Tintina Fault in the Yukon
Territory of Canada, has been referred to above in the context of an intramontane
setting. Although the lateral displacement along the Tintina Fault was large, the
associated coalfields appear to be relatively small, probably because of the lack of
anastomosing subsidiary splay faults, which have been found to result in basin
subsidence (Crowell 1974; Christie-Blick and Biddle 1985). Coalfields similar to
those occurring along the Tintina Fault have been formed in cratonic settings
and will be referred to in Chap. 9.6.2, whereas in this context emphasis is on a type of
coal-bearing pull-apart basin which is generated by complex transcurrent fault
movement lateral to a continental collision complex.
Most fold belts which are the results of convergent plate motion have produced
the kinds of molasse- and often coal-bearing fore- and intradeeps discussed
previously. However, some orogens formed by continental collision are associated
with a third setting for a molasse basin which is strike-marginal to the controlling
orogenic belt and formed by pull-apart action between or along very large
transcurrent faults. Gibling (1989) uses the descriptive term "lateral basin" for the
resultant transtensional zone and refers to the collision of India and Eurasia as a
geologically young example and the impact of northwestern Palaeo-Africa on the
Appalachian region as a more ancient case in point. Another example would be the
Vienna Basin, which is situated on strike of and lateral to the European Alps.
After its separation from Gondwana in mid-Mesozoic time, India shifted
northward and collided during the Early Tertiary Period with the Eurasian plate
resulting in the formation of the Himalayan Fold Belt. This was accompanied by
considerable crustal shortening and thickening through a combination of underth-
rusting of the northern portion of the Indian plate underneath Tibet and by the
eastward extension of portions of the Eurasian plate. According to Howell (1989),
this collision between the two continental crusts "was a crash felt around the world"
because of major plate rearrangements that appear to coincide with the accretion
event at around 43 Ma ago. Closer to the collision site, the northward push of India
into and underneath Eurasia caused the southern portion of Eurasia to wrap around
the northern part ofthe impacting plate (India) by transforming the frontal thrusting
into lateral strike-slip movement on either side of the Indian continent. This
kinematic setting resulted in the formation of transcurrent faults, which are sinistral
on the western and dextral on the eastern margins. The strike-slip movements
produced transpression and transtension at various localities along the trends of the
major fault zones resulting in the formation of pull-apart coal basins in Burma,
Thailand and Malaysia. Even today there are still major rivers north of the
Himalayan thrust zone which drain the orogen longitudinally into laterally
arranged receiving basins, such as the South China Sea.
Probably the largest coal-bearing lateral basin is the previously mentioned
(Chap. 8.4) Maritimes Basin of Atlantic Canada which extends over a longitudi-
nal distance of 1000 km from western New Brunswick to offshore southeastern
Newfoundland with a maximum width of up to 500 km (Gibling 1989). The basin
was initiated by the mid-Devonian Acadian Orogeny at the northeastern margin of
the nascent Appalachian orogen but it began to receive most of its molasse deposits
from the laterally emerging Appalachian Fold Belt during and after the Mississip-
NORTH
AMERICAN
CRATON
500km
D...
••
Late Carboniferous
molasse
---+ Generalized paleo flow
WEST ~ 6~~g~~SySiSSiPPian
AFRICAN __ End Alleghenian
CRATON .....- . Orogeny
_ _ Major faults
Fig. 9.26. Plate tectonic sketch map indicating major fault movements in the Appalachian and
Mauretanian Orogens in Late Carboniferous time. Also shown are generalised palaeocurrent
directions in the coal-bearing molasse basins and the positions of the North American and West
African Cratons at the time. (After Gibling 1989 with plate positions based on Scotese et al. 1979)
pian and Alleghenian Orogenies between mid-Carboniferous and Early Permian

time. As indicated in Fig. 9.26, the Appalachian Fold Belt was formed by the
northwesterly push of the West African craton into Laurentia which on the African
side formed the Mauretanian Orogen with similar molasse basins but opposing
tectonic polarity (Schenk 1978).
The impact of the West African craton on the Appalachian region has had an
effect similar to the collision of India and Eurasia, except that the two plates were
subsequently separated by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, which largely
obliterated the original plate relationships (Webb 1969). Apart from the generation
of frontal thrusts over the Appalachian foredeep, extensive strike-slip movements
occurred along the margin of the impacting African plate, particularly the Reguibat
Spur (Gibling 1989; Gibling et al. 1987). In northeastern U.S.A. and eastern Canada
the wrench tectonism led to the subsidence of several Late Carboniferous and Early
Permian depocentres along the strike-slip trend, which splayed northeast of the
Fundy Rift Zone and formed the large Maritimes Basin (Webb 1963, 1969; Poole
1967; Belt 1968; Arthaud and Matte 1977; Bradley 1982, 1983; Rust 1984; Gibling
et al. 1987; Rust et al. 1987). This basin is a composite depression consisting of up to
nine subbasins containing separate coalfields, of which the Sydney Coalfield, which
occurs mainly offshore but overlaps marginally on Cape Breton Island, contains the
largest concentration of coal in 13 major seams within the 2-km-thick Morien
Group (Calder et al. 1985). Post-depositional deformation in the various subbasins
is commonly mild and restricted to gentle folding or tilting with only few cases of
steeply dipping and faulted strata.
In Fig. 9.26 only the largest faults dissecting the Maritimes Basin with up to
several hundred kilometres displacement (McCabe et al. 1980) are shown, as well as
generalised palaeocurrent directions in the Westphalian to Permian coal-bearing
molasse sediments associated with the Appalachian Orogen. In the Maritimes Basin
these directions are commonly parallel to the controlling faults, a situation which
lateral basins share with many intradeeps and rift basins. The principal directions
are to the northeast and east, probably draining into the same receiving basin as the
westerly flowing rivers of the Upper Carboniferous coal measures in central and
western Europe referred to in Chap. 8.3.1. The strike-parallel easterly palaeoflow in
the Maritimes Basin contrasts with the palaeocurrent directions in the Appalachian
Foredeep. In common with other foreland basins, the proximal flow directions are
transverse to the basin axis and become longitudinal more distally. As indicated in
Fig. 9.26 this longitudinal drainage of the foredeep is to the southwest, which is
opposite to the directions in the Maritimes Basin, which suggests a sediment source
for the Maritimes Basin in the central and southern portion of the northern
Appalachians. According to Gibling (1989) the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian)
currents "traversed the old Acadian mountains of the northern Appalachians along
narrow valleys that followed NE-oriented (commonly strike-slip) faults".
As mentioned in Chap. 8.3.1, the mid-Carboniferous to Early Permian sedi-
ments of the Maritimes Basin consist of 4-km-thick alluvial plain deposits in which
high to medium volatile bituminous coal seams and fluvial sandstones alternate at
regular intervals. The composition of many of the onshore coals correlates well with
the previously discussed transgressive coals without a marine roof, although an
increasing marine influence can be expected further east in the offshore portions of
the basin closest to the sea into which the Canadian and European Carboniferous
rivers drained. Hacquebard (1972) distinguishes between laterally persistent but
relatively thin, autochthonous, banded flood plain coals, usually containing stone
bands, and more hypautochthonous, relatively uniform lacustrine (in this text
referred to as flood basin) coals, commonly without stone bands. A detailed
description of the onshore coal deposits of Nova Scotia is given by Calder et al.
(1985).
9.4 Coalfields Situated Near Divergent Plate Edges
Plate breakup and separation can affect both continental and oceanic crust. In both
cases the process is preceded and accompanied by thermal tumescence which is best
shown in the present day mid-oceanic ridges and uplifted margins of intraconti-
nental rift valleys formed before continental separation. As indicated in Fig. 9.1,
rifting of oceanic crust has not produced any substantial coalfields because the mid-
oceanic rift margins remain usually well below sea level. Apart from a few small
islands, the only larger landmass situated on a mid-oceanic rift and being composed
of oceanic crust is Iceland where presently peat is formed in some inland bogs. They
show that coal formation is possible but on a rather restricted scale and due to
special circumstances which, in the case of Iceland is the superposition of the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge on a hot spot. Apparently there are no ancient coalfields on oceanic
crust for which the peatlands of Iceland could be regarded as a modern analogue.
Conversely, many coalfields have been formed where continental crust was affected
by rifting.
9.4.1 The Kinematics of Continental Rifting
According to Dickinson (1974), four plate-tectonic settings mark the successive

stages of the evolution of rifted continental plates, which can be listed in the
following order of appearance:
1. the pre-rift arch;

2. the rift valley;
3. the proto-oceanic gulf;
4. the narrow ocean.
As the above process continues, the narrow ocean will develop into a mature ocean
bordered by passive continental margins, a modern example of which is the Atlantic
Ocean. In this model the pre-rift arch is the result of the rise ofa mantle plume which
leads to an initial thermal uplift of the order of 1 to 2.5 km. The affected crust
constitutes an area of erosion so that there is little chance for coalfield formation
at this stage of development. The arching causes fracturing in the crust and is
associated with peralkaline volcanism. This is concentrated near the crests of broad
domal uplifts, as shown by the setting of the Kaiserstuhl in the Upper Rhine Graben
between the uplifted crusts of the Vosges Mountains and the Black Forest on the
French and German sides of the failed Tertiary rift, respectively.
More recent developments in extensional tectonics (Wernicke 1981, 1985;
Wernicke and Burchfiell982; Gibbs 1984, 1987a; Bosworth 1985; Lister et al. 1986)
have seen the emergence of new concepts of intracratonic basin formation, which
put less emphasis on the role of volcanism and regard it more as a corollary of
extension rather than as the driving force (Lister 1987). One of the main reasons for
its reduced emphasis has been the discovery of a large number of basins formed by
extensional tectonics in which volcanism played a subordinate role. Instead, the
common thread that connects these basins is a distinct asymmetry caused by the
projection of steeply dipping normal faults from the surface of the rift zone to a
regional low-angle shear plane, which cuts obliquely through the crust and
lithosphere. In the form of a detachment fault, this shear plane accommodates large
Coalfields Situated Near Divergent Plate Edges 569
amounts of upper crustal brittle extension (Reynolds 1987) while the lower crust
extends by ductile stretching (Lister 1987). With increasing depth, the detachment
fault becomes therefore a zone of mylonitisation and ductile stretching. The low-
angle and oblique position of the detachment fault across the crust and lithosphere
results in the formation of two different plate margins, an upper plate margin
consisting of rocks above the detachment and a lower plate margin in which much of
the crust and all of the lithosphere is situated below the detachment. Consisting of
rocks above the detachment and a lower plate margin in which much ofthe crust and
all of the lithosphere is situated below the detachment.
LOWER PLATE MARGIN UPPER PLATE MARGIN
Grabens Centro l High Ra i sed Rift

and Ha l r -grabens Ramp Basin Margin
Post-rift Unconformity
Fig. 9.27 A-C. Three cartoons illustrating the development from a rift valley to - a passive
continental margin by extensional tectonics. (Compiled from Etheridge et al. 1987; Gibbs 1987a-c;
Lister 1987; Reynolds 1987)
A simplified illustration of some of the elements of extensional tectonics is given

in Fig. 9.27. The detachment fault controls much of the architecture of the rifted zone
in its hanging wall, partly by the extent of movement along the detachment and
partly by the shape ofthe fault plane. The ramp and flat geometry ofthe detachment
fault shown in Fig. 9.27 A, is a common feature of extensional basins, as has been
revealed by both deep seismic profiling and balanced section modelling (Gibbs
1987c). Movement along a flat detachment fault (or a ductile zone at greater depth)
will produce a stack of antithetic fault blocks in the overlying crust. With ongoing
extension the crustal blocks and their enclosing normal faults rotate and form either
a listric fan or a domino array, or both (Wernicke and Burchfiel 1982). The
accompanied extension of the affected crust will flatten and lock the rotated faults
(Gibbs 1984), which during further extension is resolved by either re-faulting the
tilted blocks (Gibbs 1987a; Lister 1987) or by abandoning the first array oflocked
fault blocks and establishing a new surface breakaway for the detachment fault
(Lister 1987; Reynolds 1987). The second case has been illustrated in Fig. 9.27B.
The tilting of crustal blocks above flats adjacent to the surface breakaways of
detachment faults results in the formation of grabens and half-grabens, in which
substantial quantities of sediments can accumulate. Differential subsidence between
the elevated rift margin and some graben floors exceeds 5 km and may reach 10 km
(Kinsman 1975). As shown in Fig. 9.27 A, other kinds of basins develop above ramps
and are therefore called ramp basins. According to Gibbs (1987a,1987c), half-
grabens are formed adjacent to emergent ramps while hanging wall basins occur
above buried ramps. Because they are little affected by faulting, they have more the
appearance of flexural basins, although so-called breakthrough faults (Gibbs 1984)
may form in deep ramp basins above major mid-crustal ramps.
The infrastructure of many modern and ancient rift valleys demonstrates their
capacity to generate coal, provided climatic conditions and subsidence rates are
right. The same applies to the development of a rift valley into a proto-oceanic gulf,
which is listed separately in Fig. 9.1 under the heading of "nascent continental
margin". At this stage a change in basement occurs with juvenile oceanic crust
beginning to be welded on the ruptured continental lithosphere. As illustrated in
Fig 9.27B, this process follows the extreme attenuation of the continental crust by a
combination of brittle deformation and ductile stretching in the crust's upper,
middle and lower portions, respectively. Mantle plumes will rise to the surface and
initiate the formation of oceanic crust. The thermal effects on the two continental
margins are at maximum at this stage, resulting in widespread erosion of the uplifted
portions close to the heat bulge. More distally, sedimentation may continue in sag
basins which overlap the fault boundaries of older grabens and half-grabens. As new
crust continues to be formed, the rifted continental margin becomes increasingly
incorporated into the plate interior and comes to lie further within it. Thermal decay
and increasing distance from the spreading centre causes the continental margin to
subside (sag phase), which is followed by the construction of a shelf prism
(continental embankment) above the post-rift unconformity. A chematic illustration
of a continental margin is given in Fig. 9.27e, based on a combination of supra-
detachment ramp/flat and subdetachment stretching geometry. Many variations of
this model are possible, some which have been described by Etheridge et al. (1987). It
follows that the rifted continental margin constitutes a plate boundary for a brief
initial stage of lithospheric separation, only to be converted into an passive,
Atlantic-type trailing continental margin of midplate setting (Kinsman 1975).
In the initial stages of rifting some of the subsiding troughs are not much affected
by clastic sedimentation, because the raised continental margins are tilted away
from the rift zone, thus deflecting water courses away from the troughs. Once clastic
sedimentation has strated, the restricted width of the rift valleys and juvenile proto-
oceanic gulfs causes the incoming sediments to be piled up at a rate that often
balances and exceeds even relatively high rates of subsidence. However, with
ongoing lithospheric separation, the receiving basins become wider and their
basements sink deeper into the asthenosphere, because of the increasing underpinn-
ing by oceanic crust. The incoming sediments, which have to cover longer distances
and are spread over a larger area, with the result that the clastic rift sequence changes
upward from coarse, terrestrial, basal fanglomerates to fluvial sandstones, interbed-
ded with flood-plain laminites, followed by lacustrine shales and eventually marine
sediments. The beginning of marine transgressions marks the end of the rift stage
and the beginning of the proto-oceanic gulf. The gross upward decrease in particle
size is the reverse of the common trend in the coal bearing foredeep molasse, which
usually begin with marine sediments and then grade into increasingly coarse
sediments to the point that coal formation ceases altogether, before clast sizes
decrease again as the orogenic uplands are worn down.
The coal-forming conditions provided in the early stages of continental rifting in
rift valleys and proto-oceanic gulfs deteriorate when the rift zone begins to be
transformed into a narrow ocean. At this stage the incoming sediments cannot fill
the receiving basin anymore, but the still raised (e.g. Red Sea) and youthful
continental margins of the narrow ocean have not yet been able to build up a con-
tinental shelf, which according to Table 9.2 has generated a large amount of coal.
The development of a wide continental margin with deltas and extensive coastal
plains is part of the maturing process ofthe ocean, when much of the original crustal
rift has been deeply buried in the two diverging plates and has become a mid plate
continental margin (Fig. 9.1).
9.4.2 Coal Formation in Rift Valleys
Continental rifting commonly affects a wide zone of lithospheric tension measured

in tens or even hundreds of kilometres. Crustal attenuation is usually accomplished
by block faulting resulting in alternating horsts and grabens, including halfgrabens
due to block tilting, on either side of the main rift. As mentioned above, the surfaces
of rifted continental margins often dip away from the rift zone following thermal
doming. In the early stages of rifting this leads to frequent sediment starvation and
flooding in the main rift valleys. In domino or other tilt-block arrays subsidence and
flooding are at maximum where the hanging wall dip-slope abuts against the
uplifted footwall of the adjacent tilt-block while peat formation is concentrated in
hanging wall mires further up the dip-slope away from the axis of maximum
subsidence and deposition (Leeder and Gawthorpe 1987). Modern examples are the
flooded valley floors of the East African rift system, while similar conditions appear
to have prevailed in the early stages ofthe development ofthe Tertiary Upper Rhine
Graben between France and Germany. Based on published information by
Teichmiiller (1979) and Doebl and Teichmiiller (1979), it can be estimated that
approximately 70% of the basin fill ofthe Upper Rhine Graben was formed in either
lacustrine or restrictive marine environments, in some cases leading to the formation
of evaporites. Such condition are not conducive to widespread humic coal formation
but may lead to be deposition of sapropelic coals and oil shales, as is shown in the
Upper Rhine Graben by the occurrence of Eocene bituminous marls at Messel, near
Darmstadt, at Stockstadt and other places. Degens et al. (1971) have reported
modern equivalents of such organic matter-rich sediments from Lake Tanganyika.
An interesting Australian example of an alginite-rich rift valley deposit is the
Rundle oil shale in Queensland, situated between the Rundle Range and Curtis
Island north of Gladstone. The oil shale consists oflamosite in sensu Hutton et al.
(1980) occurring within a lutaceous sequence called The Narrows Beds, which is rich
in ostracods, spores and pollen, gastropods, plant fragments, as well as fragments of
tortoise shells, crocodile teeth and fish bones. The fossils indicate an age ranging
from Early Tertiary to possibly Miocene (Lindner and Dixon 1976). The Narrows
Beds are confined to the Narrows Graben, which is fault-bounded within the
Coastal Block (Kirkegaard et al. 1970). The graben is 6 km wide and 30 km long in a
northwesterly direction parallel to the coast. The oil shale, which has a massive
appearance, occurs in several horizons with an aggregate thickness of over 100 m in
some places. The depositional pattern suggests a deepening of the Rundle lake in a
southwesterly direction, indicating antithetic tilting of the graben basement. The
interseam sediments consist of brown to green lacustrine claystones and mudstones
grading into marls and argillaceous limestones. Brown coal forms a minor
component, particularly in the upper portion of the sequence.
In addition to the occurrence of sapropelites in rift valleys, there are some
notable examples of coal formation during the early stages of continental break-up.
An example is the southern Perth Basin in Western Australia (Fig. 9.28). It formed in
response to tensional stress between Australia and the Indian segment of
Gondwana, probably from the Late Carboniferous to the Aptian Epoch, when the
first oceanic crust was emplaced between the diverging continental slabs (Veevers
and Evans 1975). The basin floor consists of the same Precambrian rocks which
constitute the Yilgarn Block to the east and the small Leeuwin Block in the
Margaret River to the west of the rift. As in some other parts of the Westralian
Shield, the basin floor is covered with Late Carboniferous to Early Permian tillites
over which the Permian sea transgressed from the north. While marine conditions
prevailed throughout much of the depositional history of the northern portion of
the Perth Basin mainly non-marine sediments, including intermittent coals ac-
cumulated in its southern portion until it was also flooded, when the continent
finally broke up during the Aptian Epoch.
The point has been made that the main rift valleys may not be ideal sites for coal
formation mainly because of their frequently too high rate of subsidence. This is
BOtM.PAfHE
GULF aA.$ I ~
--
C~~~~ {~
Ca r Olfl , Muja M e m be r s
+ Collfebt,un, Pr emio-t M e mbc- r $
ITD1
MEASU RES
+
E::±l Preeamb n a n
Fig. 9.28. The setting of the Perth and Collie Basins in Western Australia. (Compiled from Lowry
1976; Doutch and Nicholas 1978; BMR 1980)
Fig. 9.29. Quartz sandstone and granule

conglomerate consisting of planar cross-
bedded bars (b) and megaripples (r) as
interseam sediments in Muja Open Cut,
Collie Basin, W.A.
Fig. 9.30. Panorama of the upper part of the Collie Coal Measures in Muja Open Cut near Collie,
Western Australia. To the left the thick coal measures have been bent upwards against the border
fault of the Stockton Ridge, whereas to the right they thin and overlap gently on the Archean
basement (outside frame) of the Yilgarn Block
different in the subsidiary rifts which extend either on one or both sides of the main
rift and consists of satellite grabens and half-grabans. Two such structures appear to
be the Collie and Wilga Basin which are fault-bounded troughs situated 25 and
50 km west of the Perth Basin on Archean basement of the Yilgarn Block (Fig. 9.28).
The Collie Basin, which is the larger one, covers an area of aproximately 230 km 2
some 160 km south of Perth (Sappal 1986). The basin contains approximately
1300 m of Permian coal measures above a basal tillite. The sequence includes up to
28 seams of sub-bituminous coal with seam thickness of up to 11.6 m (Lowry 1976).
Detailed investigations of coal composition have been made by Sappal (1986). He
found that the coal'smoisture content (as received) ranges between 26 and 31 %and
that ash is generally less than 10% and sulphur varies between 0.3 and 0.7%. The coal
is finely banded with a preference for dull, banded dull and banded lithotypes,
although the proportions of these lithotypes show wide variations between seams.
The same applies to the maceral group composition with both vitrinite and
inertinite ranging from 25 to 65%. There does not appear to be a systematic vertical
change in coal type. The bulk of the interseam sediments consists of cross-bedded
fluvial (braided stream) sandstone (Fig. 9.29) which grades upward into siltstone and
shale, often capped by a coal seam. Marine beds have not been found but
bioturbated siltstone and shale with flaser bedding occur in the upper portion of the
coal measures.
Fig. 9.30. (Continued)
The present Collie Basin appears to be the remnant of a once larger trough and,
as indicated in Fig. 9.28 by the position and orientation of faults inside the basin and
along its margin, it has been subjected to considerable block faulting resulting in the
formation of three sub-basins, called Cardiff, Shotts and Muja Sub-Basins. A
panoramic view of a large open cut in the Muja Sub-Basin is illustrated in Fig. 9.30.
It is a halfgraben which has been downfaulted to the southwest. The Lower Permian
sediments may have been continuous with those in the Wilga and the Perth Basin.
Late Permian sediments which contain most of the coal in the Cardiff Member (in
Cardiff Sub-Basin) or Muja Member (in Muja Sub-Basin) appear to have been
deposited in an active rift valley.
Other examples of satellite rifts can be found along most rifted continental
margins, e.g. along the Great Australian Bight and in North America where a series
of elongated grabens and half-grabens of Triassic age are scattered along the
Atlantic seaboard from Nova Scotia to South Carolina (Reinemund 1950). They are
part of the marginal fault system which accompained the main zone of rupture that
led to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The sediments contained in the fault-
bounded troughs are of terrestrial origin and consist of conglomerates, sandstones,
shales up to 6000 m thick (e.g. Newark Series). In southerly direction the total
thickness decreases, the sediments become finger-grained and more coal-bearing,
such as in the Deep River Basin of North Carolina. Germane to the tectonic setting
on the margin of an extensive rift zone is the occurrence of volcanic and sub-volcanic
rocks of basaltic character. Similar coal deposits occur along the rift margins of
western, southern and eastern Australia.
As mentioned above, the rift-valley stage ends when the developing split in the
continent reaches the coastline and allows seawater to fill the widening gap between
the diverging crustal slabs. Coal-bearing sediments which indicate the gradual
change from intracontinental to oceanic conditions, i.e. from the rift valley to the
nascent continental margin setting of Fig. 9.1, can be found in New Zealand, where
remnants of a once considerably larger concentration of coal formed in a rift valley
setting, occur in the Paparoa Coal Measures of the Greymouth and Pike River
D LATE TERTIARY & QUA TERNARY SANDS & GRAVELS
I>:·.:. APOST-EOCENE MARINE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS

_ BRUNNER COAL MEASURES
~ PAPAROA COAL MEASURES
1:0;':1 PORARARI GROUP

E22JI GREENLAND GROUP
r: : 1
GRANITE & GNEISS
Fig.9.31. Geological sketch map of the Paparoa Tectonic Zone on the West Coast of New
Zealand's South Island. (After Suggate 1978; Laird and Lewis 1976)
Coalfields on the West Coast of the South Island. According to Bowman and
Newman (1983) the Upper Cretaceous to basal Tertiary (approx. 75-60 Ma)
Paparoa Coal Measures accumulated in a 15-km-wide tectonically active rift basin
related to the opening of the Tasman Sea, i.e. the separation of New Zealand from
Australia. As illustrated in Fig. 9.31, the two coalfields in which Paparoa Coal
Measures have been retained occur in the southern portion of the Paparoa Tectonic
Zone, whereas elsewhere they have been eroded following inversion and uplift of the
trough, possibly in response to transpression along the nearby Alpine Fault. The
former Paparoa trough now constitutes a topographic high, the Paparoa Range
(Fig. 9.32), in which basement gneiss, granite and Early Palaeozoic sediments are
exposed after most of the former rift valley fill has been stripped by the uplift. The
Greymouth Coalfield, which is the larger of the two coalfields mentioned above,
contains Paparoa Coal Measures in a south plunging anticlinorium, whereas in the
Pike River Coalfield they occur in a fault-bounded outlier.
Fig. 9.32. View of the

Paparoa Range from the
Pike River Coalfield, N.Z.
Helicopters are landing
on lower portion of
Paparoa Coal Measures
SOUTH NORTH
(GREY MOUTH AREA) (WESTPORT AREA)
STILLWATER MUDST. J.T-'-T-'-i2..

and regional equivalents .!.- .!..-.!..i.!.. Early Miocene
INANGAHUA MEMB. •.•..
COBDEN LIMESTONE
Oligocene
and regional equivalents
- - - --
KAlATA MUDSTONE - - - - ."
::::-:-:=--=-:-:-:=-==-f.-=:=-:=-::-=:-=-4- Eocene -----+::;;=:;=;:
ISLAND SANDSTONE
BRUNNER COAL
MEASURES
(J)
w DUNOLLI MEMB. Palaeocene
a:
:::>
(J) GOLDLIGHT to
«
w MUDSTONE
::;; Late
..J REWANUI MEMB . Cretaceous
«
0 WAIOMO MUD ST.
<..l
« MORGAN MEMB.
0
a:
«
a. FORD MUDST.
« PORARARI
Fig. 9.33. The
a. JAY MEMB.
GROUP stratigraphic setting of
GREENLAND GROUP Mid Cretaceous the Paparoa and Brunner
Coal Measures in the
Early Paparoa Tectonic Zone.
GRANITE &
GNEISS
Palaeozoic to (After Suggate 1978;
Precambrian Newman 1984)
A composite stratigraphic section of the sediments formed in the developing rift

is given in Fig. 9.33 for each of the southern (Greymouth) and central (Westport)
portions of the Papora Range. Rifting began in Middle Cretaceous time resulting in
the deposition of the Porarari Group of which the Hawks Crag Breccia is the most
prominent formation. An illustration of this basal fanglomerate is given in Fig. 9.34.
It consist of angular blocks of granite and arkosic sandstone which were deposited
as talus and alluvial fans from nearby fault-scarps (Suggate 1957; Laird and Lewis
1976). In the central Paparoa Range the Hawks Crag Breccia is underlain and
overlain by flood plain deposits (Ohika and Topfer Members, respectively) which
result in a combined thickness of 2500 m of terrestrial sediments for the whole of the
Porarari Group. Elsewhere, the group is reduced to a few tens of metres of Hawks
Crag Breccia followed by Paparoa Coal Measures, or it is missing altogether so that
the Paparoa Coal Measures rest unconformably on Lower Palaeozoic basement.
The coal measures reach their maximum development in the southern Paparoa
Range north of Greymouth in the form of up to 1000-m-thick rift valley fill deposits
which contain at least six economic coal seams (Black 1986). These reach thicknesses
in excess of2 m but the seams are rather discontinuous. Ash contents of the raw coal
are relatively low, and so is the sulphur content. As mentioned in Chap. 5.4.2, the
most striking feature of the Paparoa (and Brunner) coals is their extraordinary high
vitrinite content, mostly in the form of detrovitrinite. The Paparoa Coal Measures
have been divided into seven stratigraphic units ranging in time from the Late
Cretaceous to the Palaeocene Epoch.
Fig. 9.34. View of the Hawks

Crag Breccia (Porarari Group) on
the West Coast of the South
Island, N.Z.
According to Bowman and Newman (1983), Paparoa Coal Measure sedimenta-

tion commenced with a thick sequence of locally derived greywacke conglomerate
and sandstone (Jay Member) brought into the trough from adjacent scarps by
alluvial fans and high energy streams. Accelerated subsidence of the valley floor
resulted in widespread flooding and the deposition of the 300 m thick Ford
Mudstone of lacustrine origin (see Fig. 9.33). A fluvial, coal-bearing sequence,
referred to as the Morgan Member, including some volcanic activity on the eastern
margin of the rift zone, followed the silting-up of the Ford lake. Reduced sediment
supply caused renewed flooding of the valley floor followed by deposition of the
Waiomo Mudstone which, in turn, was succeeded by the coal seams and fluvial
sediments of the Rewanui Member. Together with the over- and underlying
members of the Paparoa Coal Measures it forms conspicuous outcrops in the Pike
River Coalfield, where some thick seams of clean subbituminous to high volatile
bituminous coal are exposed. Intermittently, granite-derived clastic interseam
sediments were brought into the trough longitudinally from the northeast by
braided streams which caused some erosion of the coal, as shown in Fig. 9.35. The
northeastern granitic source was supplemented by a western source from whence
alluvial fans of greywacke detritus were derived (Fig. 9.36). This suggests that at this
stage the western fault was still operative and a scarp still existed, although in time its
Fig. 9.35. Outcrop of high volatile bituminous coal in Paparoa Coal Measures in the Pike River
Coalfield, N.Z. The coal has been partly eroded by high energy braided streams
Fig. 9.36. Cartoon illustrating the palaeogeographic setting of the Paparoa Coat Measures during
the Rewanui/Goldlight depositional episode. (After Newman 1984)
topographic relief was lowered and it lost its influence as a sediment source. There is
no evidence of sediment having been received from the eastern side of the trough,
presumably because of lack of insufficient relief difference on either side of the
boundary fault.
The northeastern source continued to shed coarse detritus into the trough while
a third lacustrine transgression advanced from the south and covered the drowning
braid plains and peat swamps with the Goldlight Mudstone at the beginning of
the Palaeocene Epoch (Fig. 9.33). The depositional cycles of the Paparoa Coal
Measures were terminated with the re-establishment of fluvial and paludal
conditions in the form of the Dunolli Member. This sequence was the last
sedimentary unit formed in a terrestrial rift valley setting. Subsequent sedimentation
in the Paparoa Tectonic Zone shows an increasing marine influence which is
evidence of the change from intracontinental tectonics to the nascent continental
margin conditions listed in Fig. 9.1 and discussed below.
9.4.3 Coal Formation in Nascent Continental Margin Settings
The ruptures that lead to crustal separation progress from the rift valley stage to the
formation of a proto-oceanic gulf, when the attenuated crust which floors the main
rift zone becomes permanently flooded (Dickinson 1974). New oceanic crust which
is injected into the widening rift is welded on the divergent continental margins. The
spreading centre thus migrates from the continent into the oceanic domain by which
action the continental margin acquires a mid plate setting.
In the above discussion it has been implied that the Paparoa Coal Measures
were formed in a rift valley setting adjacent to the main axis of plate separation
which is now buried underneath the Tasman Sea. In many ways the geological
setting of the whole of the Westland graben belt is not unlike the rifted continental
margin of the cartoons A to C shown in Fig. 9.27, except for the subsequent
eversion that transformed the Paparoa trough into the uplifted Paparoa Range. Its
change from a limnic to a paralic setting occurred towards the end of the Palaeocene
Epoch when continental break-up allowed an embryonic Tasman Sea to transgress
from the south over the then submerged plate edges and the adjacent attenuated
continental margins.
In the Westland area the Palaeocene to Eocene Brunner Coal Measures are the
first sedimentary response to the changed tectonic regime. Their area of deposition
extends far beyond that ofthe preceding rift valley sediments which they overlap in a
northerly and easterly direction. As a result, Brunner Coal Measures rest uncon-
formably on basement rocks in the Westport region (Buller Coalfield) and other
areas not reached by the preceding Porarari Group and Paparoa Coal Measures.
The Brunner Coal Measures encompass up to 150 m of coal interseam
sediments in the Island Block open-casts (Garvey Creek Coalfield) near Reefton, but
elsewhere the sequence is usually thinner. The basal coal seam is several metres thick
(Fig. 9.37) followed by quartzose sandstones, laminites, shales, and some thin coal
seams. The composition of the coal measures suggests that they developed in a
lagoonal or back barrier environment, which was pushed northward in front of the
sea transgressing from the south across the widening rift zone. The Brunner Coal
Measures show the change from terrestrial to marine conditions by an upward
increase in pyritic sulphur in the coal coupled with a change from fluvial sediments
near the base to bioturbated tidal and barrier beach deposits towards the top.
Fig. 9.37. View of open cut in the Buller Coalfield near Westport, New Zealand, showing several
metres of clean Brunner coal. The large holes in the coal face are old drives of the former
underground operation
As indicated in Fig. 9.33, the coal measures are overlain by marine sediments in
the form of the Island Sandstone in the south (e.g. Greymouth and Pike River) and
Kaiata Mudstone in the north (e.g. Buller and Flat Creek). This period of flooding of
the developing continental margin reached its climax in the Oligocene Epoch with
the formation of widespread limestone deposits. Towards the end of the Tertiary
Period, a change in the tectonic regime at the beginning of the Kaiboura Orogeny
initiated both transcurrent and vertical movements along the Alpine Fault which
also affected the Paparoa Tectonic Zone (Laird and Lewis 1976). The highlands to
the west, which during the rift valley stage served as an important sediment source
for some of the greywacke derived Paparoa Coal Measure sediments (Bowman and
Newman 1983), subsided below sea level along a fault situated just offshore from the
present coastline. The latter consists of the now elevated basin fill and its basement
while the former eastern uplands have also been downwarped underneath the Grey-
Inangahua Depression (see Fig. 9.31).
Like the coals of the Paparoa Coal Measures, Brunner coals range from sub-
bituminous to medium volatile bituminous, the majority being of high volatile
bituminous rank. Their vitrinite content is usually very high and, as referred to in
Chap. 5.4.2, consists mainly of detrovitrinite. Some seams possess an extraordinary
low ash content of less than 0.5% in the raw coal, which suggests ombrotrophic
(raised bog) peat-forming conditions.
Coalfields on Midplate Continental Margins 583
9.5 Coalfields on Midplate Continental Margins
Of the three midplate positions listed in Fig. 9.1 only two, namely the midplate
continental margin and the continental interior, are possible sites for coalfield
formation. Both belong to the cratonic domain in which almost 30% of the world's
coal reserves have been formed.
Coal measures formed on the margin of continental crust are commonly paralic
and often comprise alternating terrestrial and marine sediments, formed in response
to a combination of epeirogenic crustal movements and eustatic events. Coalfields in
this setting may thus be subjected to oscillatory movements, whereby changes from
transgression to regression and vice versa can be accelerated or retarded by eustatic
sea-level changes. Tectonic stability and low physiographic relief in a mature
cratonic hinterland see to it that the marginal shelf is supplied by a steady flow of
sediments, the quantity of which approaches a constant (Sloss 1962). Depending on
the energy conditions along the shoreline, a variety of coal-forming environments is
available, including coastal plains, lagoons, deltas, back swamps, estuaries and
others, which permit the formation of coal seams under both transgressive and
regressive conditions in the manner discussed in Chaps. 7 and 8.
9.5.1 Coalfields of Mobile Shelf Basins
Since lithospheric rupture frequently involves the thermal upwelling of a mantle

plume, the continental margin is often still elevated by the time oceanic crust is
added to it. The extent of elevation differs with the magnitude of volcanic activity
that accompanied the extensional tectonics. Continental rifting occurring above
large mantle plumes causes domal uplifts of the crust above the sites of thermal
tumescence with weaker uplifts affecting the areas ofless severe igneous activity. The
initially updomed continental margins will be subjected to a greater degree of
erosion than those raised to a lesser degree, whereby the erosional thinning of the
affected continental crust will be greatest in the crestal areas. With the initiation of
continental separation and the formation of new oceanic crust, both margins of the
ruptured continental crust will be pushed away from the locus of the mantle plume.
The resulting subsidence will be accentuated in those crustal portions which have
undergone erosional thinning resulting in the formation of a semi-circular or semi-
ellipsoidal sedimentary basin of 250 to 500 km radius, the depocentre of which
coincides with the former dome crest area (Kinsman 1975). It follows than an
extensive rift belt might produce a midplate continental coastline along which
relatively mobile, open-ended, sometimes trumpet-shaped shelf basins collect thick
and wide paralic sedimentary accumulations on the former plume sites (Fig. 9.38A),
separated by thinner deposits formed in coast-parallel troughs on relatively stable
shelf platforms in interplume positions (Fig. 9.38B).
The mobile shelf basin, which forms an embayment in the coastline, attracts
more sediments than the interplume sites which lost their mobility when rifting
Fig. 9.38 A, B. Schematic diagram comparing

the configuration of an open-ended, mobile
B shelf basin and a coast-parallel rift basin
Fig. 9.39. Schematic block diagram of an open-ended shelf basin in continental margin setting.
1 Continental crust; 2 oceanic crust; 3 progradational sediment prism with volcanic rocks (stars) at
base; 4 continental rise; 5 continental slope; 6 continental shelf A - B is a section in the plane of
symmetry; C-D in a marginal cross-section
ceased along the continental margin. An impression of the contrasting width of the
respective shelf deposits is given in the block diagram of Fig. 9.39. The slow
subsidence of the attenuated continental crust underlying the embayment at the
former plume site (Sect. A-B in Fig. 9.39) facilitates the build-up of a thick paralic
sedimentary prism, which contains volcanic rocks as its base (the latter is not
necessarily the case in interplume positions) and many intercalations of marine and
terrestrial (induding coal measures) deposits throughout the sequence. Conversely,
in the interplume position, indicated by Sect. C-D in Fig. 9.39, the sediment cover of
the down-faulted continental margin is comparatively thin.
There are other mobile open-ended shelf basins which do not appear to have
subsided because of erosional thinning and thermal decay of the rifted continental
margin. Yet, continental break-up and rifting seems to have been involved, because
such sediment-filled coastal embayments are situated on and follow the trends of
crustal fracture zones reaching from the continental margin for up to several
hundred kilometres into the continental interior. Such basins occupy the sites of
failed rifts (aulacogens) of triple point junctions which were abandoned when the
continent split along the present continental margin. Also transfer faults may
combine in such a manner that coastal embayments and offsets are formed, as has
been suggested as a mechanism for the southern margin of the basins trailing the
southern margin of Australia (Etheridge 1987).
Irrespective of the mechanism of formation the essential features of an open-
ended shelf basin can be summarised as follows:
1. The basin shape is oblong, semi-circular or semi-oval with a centrally located axis
and a symmetrical transverse section. Usually, the basin widens and deepens
towards the ocean (Potter and Pettijohn 1963).
2. The lithic fill consists of proximal coarse clastics and distal siltstones, shales and
limestones. Coal measures are common and may contain thick seams on account
of the secular downwarp of their basement. The effects of crustal movements on
the depositional pattern are modified by eustatic sea level changes leading to
complex depositional cycles.
3. The lithofacies pattern is characterised by interdigitation between terrestrial,
transitional and marine components. Fluvial sandstones in association with
flood-plain silts and laminites and backswamp coals dominate the inshore
portions of the basin. Down-palaeoslope they are replaced by deltaic deposits
including distributary channel fills, interdistributary bay shales, as well as lower
and upper delta plain coals. Distributary mouth bars and prodelta clays grade
into marine shelf sediments, including limestone.
4. The palaeocurrent pattern is revealed by the facies arrangement and such
primary directional structures as cross-bedding, ripple marks and sole marks.
They reflect a palaeoslope parallel or subparallel to the basin axis, i.e. in the
direction ofthe expanding sedimentary prism. In contrast to the proximally thick
and coarse foredeep sediments, the sediments of shelf prisms are proximally thin
and coarse, and become basin ward finer and thicker. Coal seams included in the
section tend to split down-palaeoslope.
5. The tectonic setting is on the continental margin but may overlap on oceanic
crust in highly constructive deltas. Sediment sources on the continental hinter-
land are usually both topographically low and distal leading to the deposi-
tion of relatively mature clastics.
6. The post-depositional deformation is usually not intense, resulting in folds oflow
amplitude and large wavelength. The combined effects of thermal decay,
erosional thinning of the crust and depositional loading may result in the
construction of several kilometre thick sedimentary prisms. Coalification may
thus advance well into the bituminous coal rank.
The differentiation into relatively mobile and stable cratonic shelf environments
has important consequences for the formation of coalfields. Probably the best-
studied example is the southern margin of the Canadian Shield, where in Late
Palaeozoic time the coal-rich Interior Basins of the United States developed as
continental embayments (Potter and Pettijohn 1963) opening to the south and being
separated from each other by platform areas, (e.g. Cincinnati Arch, Ozark Uplift).
These constituted-more rigid portions of the crust which at the time of sedimentation
were covered with a thinner veneer of shelf sediments than the more mobile basin
they separate. The low-lying terrain and frequent flooding ofthese wide and shallow
depressions in the Carboniferous continental margin produced coal measures of
astonishing cyclicity on which the original cyclothem concept was based (Weller
1930; Wanless 1931, 1950; Wanless and Weller 1932; Wanless and Shephard 1936;
Weller 1956, 1958; Duff 1974; and others).
Coalfields formed in mobile shelf basins have been described from many parts of
the world. Most ofthem have a similar basin architecture for which the coal and oil-
rich Gippsland Basin in southeastern Australia (Fig. 9.40 top) may serve as an
example. The Gippsland Basin contains a marginal marine to fluvio-deltaic coal-
bearing sequence with a volcaniclastic pile overlying Palaeozoic basement (Fig. 9.40
bottom). There is evidence of former updoming, but only as part of a more complex
tectonic development of the region. According to Smith (1982), the formation of the
Gippsland Basin was affected by two rifting and drifting events, the first of which is
associated with the opening of the Southern Ocean following the separation of
Antarctica from Australia. This Strzelecki-Otway Rift phase, which lasted from the
Berriasian to the Albian Age (Early to Middle Cretaceous), produced east-west
oriented fault troughs as in Fig. 9.30, whose structural trends extended into the
Gippsland area, where up to 3 km of Strzelecki Group sediments, including the
Wonthaggi Coal Measures, accumulated in fault troughs. The second rifting and
drifting event is associated with the opening of the Tasman Sea and thus is
genetically related to the previously discussed Paparoa Tectonic Zone in New
Zealand. Its active phase spans the time from the Cenomanian Age to the Eocene
Epoch during which the 3- to 4-km-thick fluvial/deltaic sediments of the Latrobe
Group and offshore marine shales and limestones began to form. Both facies
persisted into the post-rifting and drifting period (including most ofthe coal) and are
thus part of the subsidence phase which followed pre-Tasman rift doming. This
subsidence phase overlaps with the "Gippsland stable phase" and "shelf phase" of
Smith (1982), who recognised the five tectono-sedimentary phases shown in
Fig. 9.41.
An example of persumably aulacogen (failed arm of a triple junction rift zone)
origin is the Bonaparte Gulf Basin on the north-western margin of Australia. As
illustrated by the cross-section in Fig. 9.42, it is underlain by the Petrel Graben,
which contains Late Silurian and Early Devonian red beds and evaporites in the
lower central portion, followed by Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous
limestone reefs and deep-water'equivalents (Doutch and Nicholas 1978). From the
Permian Period onward, sedimentation (including coal seams) spread beyond the
confines of the Petrel Graben, which became buried deeper within the broadening
basin as the continental margin warped under the accumulating load.
The tendency for sediments !o overstep opposite continental margins relatively
soon after rifting leads to the formation of a "steer's head basin", so called because of
its distinct cross-section, of which the Bonaparte Gulf Basin illustrated in Fig. 9.42 is
an example. It distinguishes the aulacogen and other interplume and intracratonic
rifts from the shelf basins formed by crustal thinning and thermal decay. In the latter
138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154
I
34
I
I
-t-7
138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154
z .,
a:
:>
"'-'
<C
a: >-
..
w
0 0
.,
~
..
:J
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-' UJ W 0. ~
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>-
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~ z -'
E
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>-
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o 6
o 50 100 KM
10
=
D Non omarine
Irleleck . G,ou Q
~ Non "ma fl ne
l auobe Group
~ Ma r ina
~ Seaspray Group
_ NOnomarine
Sa l e Group
Fig. 9.40. The setting of the Gippsland Basin in SE-Australia (top) indicating the position (W -E)
of the section below. (Redrawn after Smith 1982)
Ma EPOCH GIPPSLAND BASIN TECT NI

PH A
RECE NT
PLIOCE NE GIPPSLAND
SHELF
MIOCENE PHASE
25
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE PHASE
50
PALEOCENE
TAS MAN SEA
ORIFT
75 PHASE
"0
1<
LATE
TASMAN SEA
w
0- RIFT
(/)
::;) PHASE
100
0 . v -v .v ' v
w
(,)
< -v . v .V .v STRZELECKI·
....
w EARLY v OTWAY
a:
(,) STRZELECKI' V RIFT
125
. V .V - V - V . V VPHASE
-v v - v -v -v · v v Fig. 9.41. The
PALAEO ZOIC TAS MA N tectonostratigraphic
ER A OROGEN history of the Gippsland
rv:vl NON · MARI NE
[ L.Y....:J VOLCA NOCLASTICS
D'.. COAL!L;I;l
' : . : MEASURES MARINE I:L.=cJ
[ill] NOT
PRESE NT
Basin in SE-Australia.
(After Smith 1982)
sw NE
x
x x
x X x
x x x
x x •
x
x
x x
........ : .......... . ..... . . ....... .
... ·0·.·. -... eo • : ••••• • •••• • ••••••••
x
::::::::::: :::: :::::::::::::.:.: . :.:. :. ::: :::: ...;. .

e o • • • • • • • . . . . • • o • • • ~"o : .................... ..
x x x x x x
x
x
x
Precambrian
x
x
x x .·-:·~\)~~~f~~:~~~=!:~~~:~?.....................0 ............ .
• .. "......
x
x x x
x
x
x
x x x x
salt
X
x x x PETREL GRABEN 40 IC m
x x )( x
1
~ - 15
10
Fig. 9.42. Cross-section normal to basin axis through the Bonaparte Gulf Basin in NW -Australia.
For location see Fig. 9.28. (After Edgerly and Christ 1974)
case the raised continental margins keep sedimentation confined to the rift zone for a
long time even after the diverging crusts have separated, as is shown by the still
raised margins of the Red Sea. If sediments spread over adjacent areas at all, they
involve only portions of the continental crust on the margin of which the basin is
situated and not the opposite rift margin as well.
9.5.2 Coalfields on Stable Shelf Margins
Continental margins which were not affected by thermal doming during rifting are
less likely to produce large coalfields than former plume sites or aulacogens do,
because the crustal portions involved in the post rifting downwarp are narrow and,
since they lack the initial updoming and concomitant supracrustal erosion, the
amount of subsidence is smaller than in open-ended shelf basins. As mentioned
above, the physiographic expression of former plume sites and aulacogens are
continental embayments, which attract the major sediment supplying inland rivers
at the expense of the more stable interplume sites. The latter are therefore not as
effective in accumulating thick shelf wedges, except where rivers have been able to
project large deltas into the sea.
The lack in thickness of sediments formed on stable shelf margins is often
balanced by their considerable lateral extent. With increasing age, continental
margins will approach a position close to sea level, as is shown by the ancient shields.
This reduction in physiographic relief increases the effects of eustatic sea level
changes on the peneplained cratonic platform which oscillates between lowland,
marsh and shallow epicontinental sea. The result is a thin veneer of cyclic shallow
water marine and terrestrial sediments, which are unconformably underlain by
basement rocks. Sediment thicknesses are usually measured in hundreds of metres
rather than in thousands, as is the case in the more mobile basins. Since flooding and
deposition of epicontinental shelf sediments can reach deep into the interior of
continents (e.g. the North Sea in Europe), shelf environments can occupy a
transitional setting between the continental margin and its interior.
One of several examples of coal-bearing platform (stable shelf) sediments can be
found in Central Otago on New Zealand's South Island. The geological situation is
schematically illustrated in Figs. 9.43 and 9.44. The area was once covered with a
continuous sheet of coal measures most of which were destroyed by erosion in the
course of Late Miocene and Plioccene block faulting. Isolated remnants of the coal
measures have been retained in halfgrabens and other depressions, some of which
contain considerable coal resources.
The coal-forming period which intermittently lasted approximately 50 million
years from the Senonian to the Miocene Epochs, followed the Rangitata-II Orogeny
at the beginning of the Cretaceous Period (Bradshaw et al. 1981). The resulting
orogen was subsequently peneplained so that the Late Cretaceous transgression
could migrate from east and south across much of the South Island and the eastern
portion of the North Island. The earliest post-Rangitata sediments are actually of
Middle Cretaceous age. However, they occur mainly in the Clipper Basin which
extends offshore between Christchurch and Dunedin. They comprise 2000 m of
mainly alluvial sediments, including coal, which deposited in grabens and half-
grabens which were active at the time of deposition (Browne and Field 1988). While
sedimentation continued in the Clipper Basin and led to the deposition of another
3000 m of Late Cretaceous marine sediments, a much thinner platform cover began
to spread into the Otago and Canterbury Plains. The emplacement of marine
deposits (usually beginning with greensands) was preceded by peat formation in
TAS MA N SEA
SOU T H E RN REGION
'-___ 'O-'
O.'m PACIFIC OCEAN
Fig.9.43. Sketch map of New Zealand showing the main coal districts. Section A-B extends from
north of Dunedin northwest through central Otago. Remnants of coal-bearing Senonian to
Pliocene platform cover (a) have been preserved in half-grabens on metamorphic Torlesse Terrane
basement (b) and regional equivalents. (After Mutch 1963; Diessel 1978)
E F
Omar a ma Nas e by Dunb ac k Shag Poinl
B ASA L T PLIOCE N E
GRAV E LS SANDS a nd C L AYS
'"c: BRO WN J COAL M ARLS MIOC E N E
-'"
E
~
0
z
SO FT
~,,"m """'" L IM E STON E
L IM E STONE
TU FF ITE
'c:"
;;
::!'
OLIGOC EN E
6RO W N~
L I M ES T ON E EOCE N E
COAL GREE N SAND
(Pa l aeo -
SU 6B I TUMI -
NO U S COA L
GRE E NSA ND f-- ce ne) -
H. V .B I T UM I N O U S
COAL SE N ON I A N
Fig. 9.44_ Time-space diagram of the coal-bearing platform cover in central Otago, N.Z. (After
Mutch 1963)
coastal swamp belts, which were pushed inland in front of the invading epiconti-
nental sea. Marine conditions reached maximum distribution at the beginning of the
Oligocene Epoch, after which the sea retreated, probably assisted by the uplift ofthe
Southern Alps and the concomitant release of large amounts or sediments. In the
course of the marine regression the Miocene coals were formed.
Coalfields on the Continental Interior 591
As indicated in Fig. 9.44, the flooding ofthe lowlands of Canterbury and Otago
produced a thin wedge of epicontinental deposits, in which two groups of coals can
be distinguished (Suggate 1959). The older, transgressive coals range from the Late
Cretaceous to the Oligocene Epoch. They rest on folded and metamorphic basement
(Torlesse and Haast Schist Terranes) and are covered by marine sediments. The
oldest coals are exposed in fault-bounded troughs at the Otago coastline near Shag
Point, 50 km northeast of Dunedin. The coal-measures contain 10 to 12 seams some
of which are up to 2 m thick. Both coal and interseam sediments, which are not
unlike the Wonthaggi Coal Measures in Victoria (Australia), reach a combined
thickness of up to 350 m. They consist of alluvial deposits in which coarse cross-
bedded sandstones and conglomerates are common. In some seams even the coal is
weakly cross-bedded and contains pebble layers. The whole sequence dips gently to
the east and has been traced geophysically to the Chatham Island, approximately
270 km east of Christchurch, where the same unit is referred to as the Waihire Bay
Group. In a north-westerly direction the coal bearing strata become thinner and
younger. Coal seams coalesce or wedge out and also the marine roof sediments
become reduced in thickness, until they disappear near the town of Naseby (near E
in Fig. 9.43). The marine influence on the underlying transgressive coals wanes
inland, i.e. to the northwest, which results in a substantial reduction of their high
sulphur content. Because the platform cover thins in the same direction, coal rank
and interseam diagenesis decrease likewise. At the western extremity ofthe platform
cover only one or two coal seams are found which may reach an aggregate thickness
of 40 m but commonly do not exceed 6 to 8 m.
The younger coals range in age from Oligocene to Miocene. They consist of soft
brown coals, which rest on marine sediments and are overlain by largely uncon-
solidated fluvial gravels and sands. As mentioned previously, only isolated remnants
of the once widespread platform cover have been preserved, mostly in postdepo-
sitional antithetic halfgrabens (Fig. 9.43), which trend in a northeasterly direction.
9.6 Coalfields of the Continental Interior
The internal parts of a continental plate can be affected by various kinds of crustal
movements, some of which can lead to the formation of coalfields, given the right
climate and other favourable circumstances. Indeed, epicontinental flooding and
continental rifting can reach deeply into the interior of a continent. The difference
between the two is that in the case of epicontinental flooding, the depositional
environment migrates from external to internal, whereas in continental rifting the
depositional environment is generated from within the continent and acquires a
marginal position as plate divergence proceeds. However, if plate motion stops or a
rift zone is abandoned before complete lithospheric separation has been achieved,
the initially formed graben system remains in an intracratonic setting and can
become a site of coal formation when the respective rates of subsidence and peat
accumulation match.
9.6.1 Epeirogenic Coal Basins
Withdrawal of mantle material from underneath continental lithosphere may result

in epeirogenic sagging ofthe overlying crust with or without fracturing and without
ever leading to plate separation. Alternatively, upwelling mantle material may cause
thermal bulging of the crust without causing its rupture. While in an elevated
position, erosion might cause supracrustal thinning, which will result in subsidence
during the long period of thermal decay that follows removal of the hot spot
conditions. Other causes of lithospheric subsidence include differentiation of the
asthenosphere (upper mantle), intralithospheric volcanism and injection of dense
mantle material into the crust (Fischer 1975).
Coalfields can be formed by any of the mechanisms referred to above, and it
might be difficult in individual cases to determine the initial cause of subsidence.
Once sedimentation has begun the process is, to some extent, self-sustaining because
the loading effect ofthe accumulating sedimentary cover will continue to depress the
crustal slab even though its original cause might have died away. An example is the
above-mentioned fault-generated steer's head basin, in which the adjacent crust is
downwarped by the weight of the depositional fill after the original rifting has
ceased. In most cases only moderate sediment thicknesses are arrived at, with
the result that coals contained in the epicontinental cover remain low in rank
because of insufficient postdepositional subsidence. If high rank coals occur in such
a setting, their coalification has probably been accelerated by igneous activity. If,
however, this is lacking, the commonly low geothermal gradients of thick, old and
cold continental crust are insufficient to generate high rank coals in the continental
interior under shallow cover. An example are the coals the Moscow Basin, which,
despite their Early Carboniferous age, have remained at the rank of brown coal
because of almost total lack of any substantial postdepositional subsidence.
Probably the largest example of coalfield formation connected with epeirogenic
sagging of continental crust is the North-Siberian Tunguska Basin. Its relatively thin
epicontinental deposits cover 1 Mkm 2 and contain two coal seams of Permian age
(von Bubnoff 1948b). Some Late Carboniferous and Jurassic coals are also present.
Large areas of the basin are capped by Triassic basalts and also basic intrusives are
known. The associated high heat flow appears to have raised coalification
temperatures to such levels that bituminous coal is now widespread and even
anthracite and graphite are present.
9.6.2 Coalfields Associated with Wrench Faults
Transtensional movements, which cause block separation and subsidence of pull-

apart basins in a continental plate setting are of interest in this chapter. Some
examples such as the string of coalfields in the giant Tintina Trench in the Yukon
territory of Canada have already been mentioned in the context of intradeeps
.=
VJ
YARRAMAN
BLOCK
TARONG
BASIN
1
----\--4---128"
0 50Km
I I
Fig. 9.45. The setting ofthe Tarong Basin within the Yarraman Block of southeastern Queensland,
Australia. Crosses Igneous rocks; diagonal ruling Carboniferous sediments; stippled Triassic coal
measures. The sketch underneath the inset suggests the wrench mechanisms of basin formation.
(After Beeston 1979; Garces and Flood 1984)
(Chap. 9.3.3) in order to emphasise their association with accretionary tectonics

rather than their setting on a freshly extended continental crust. Reference has also
been made to the strike-slip flower structures of Harding and Lowell (1979) or the
transfer-fault flowers of Gibbs (1987a), which evolve from transfer and other deep
rooted transcurrent faults. In conjunction with dip-slip and oblique-slip arrays they
are part of the leaf tectonics which are characteristic of the mixed-mode basins of
Gibbs (1987a), who refers to the coal-bearing Midland Valley of Scotland as an
example.
While in the mixed mode leaf tectonics sedimentation and subsequent deform-
ation are causally linked, there are many pull-apart basins, some of them con-
taining coal measures, where there is either no genetic link to any preceding
tectonism or it is rather obscure. Such an example of a coalfield formed in response
to wrench tectonism is the Tarong Basin in Queensland, northwest of Brisbane,
Australia (Fig. 9.45). According to Garces and Flood (1984) it developed as a Late
Triassic graben within the Palaeozoic Yarraman Block. Reserves of approximately
400 Mt high volatile bituminous coal occur in several thick seams which in some
places coalesce to give a composite coal section of over 20 m. Other sediments in the
300 m thick sequence include conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. Much of the
coarse debris has been emplaced by alluvial fans, debris flows, and braided channels
most of which originated in the western uplands. As illustrated in Fig. 9.45, it is
assumed that the Tarong Basin was opened by dextral wrench movement along a
kinked transcurrent fault.
9.6.3 Coal Formation in Non-Tectonic Basins
Apart from tectonically initiated basins, there are also numerous coal occurrences
which Qwe their origin to non-tectonic events, such as silted-up lakes and naturally
dammed valleys. Reference has been made before, e.g. in Chap. 7.2.4, to the influence
of palaeotopography on the distribution and composition of coal. Particularly good
examples, both modern and ancient, of topographic control on peat accumulation
are found in former galcial valleys. For instance, many lowlands created by the
scouring action of Pleistocene galciers have been subjected to paludification during
deglaciation, and where valleys had originally been filled with water, additional peat
has been formed by terrestrialisation. A similar palaeogeographic control on coal
formation was exercised by the glaciogenic pre-Karroo basement in the coalfields of
Transvaal and the Orange Freestate in South Africa (Cairncross and Hobday 1985);
Cairncross 1989; Cadle et al. 1990). A detailed study of the mechanics of peat
accumulation in non-tectonic settings has been made by Falini (1965).
Another group of coal deposits, which may be regarded as transitional between
tectonic and non-tectonic in origin is associated with underlying salt deposits, which
combine high plasticity with a high degree of solubility. Both these properties have
been responsible for the formation of coalfields with diameters measured in tens of
kilometres and with coal thicknesses measured in tens of metres. However,
subsidence is not sufficient to allow the formation of a thick overburden resulting in
low ranks, which do not exceed the brown coal stage.
Two modes of basin origin can be distinguished. The first is related to the
flowage in the subsurface of salt deposits under high overburden or tectonic
pressure, to which the salt reacts by migrating towards zones of lower stress. In
folded regions, for instance, salt migrates away from synclines into anticlines whose
crests carry less overburden. The upward-directed movement is supported by the
low specific gravity of the salt. The rate of motion is small but continuous for a
considerable time. Surface subsidence may occur in areas from which the salt moves
away resulting in the formation of closed basins. According to Lehmann (1953),
processes ofthis kind during the Tertiary Period have formed important brown coal
deposits in Central Europe and elsewhere, among them the 70-km-Iong basin of
Konigslutter-Bernburg in Germany.
Salt leaching also gives rise to surface subsidence when salt deposits of shallow
depths, such as the tops of salt domes, are affected by groundwater circulating
through permeable strata or along fracture planes. Because of the high solubility of
salt, subsurface leaching is extensive, thus causing not only gradual subsidence ofthe
overlying strata, but occasionally, underground cavities are formed which may
collapse suddenly. Surface features are therefore not unlike those of karst topo-
graphies and if subsidence is such as to favour the formation of peat, the seams are
PLEISTOCENE SANDS TERTIARY COAL
UPPER
LOWER
/' "
....... 1
lKm
...... / .........
I /'
- ""''-''Vnt>lT''
/ ,,/ \/\
Fig. 9.46. Cross-section through the brown coal basin Geiseltal near Halle/Saale in Germany.
(After Lehmann 1953)
characterised by very irregular floors (Lehmann 1953). Many Tertiary brown coal
deposits have been formed in this way, with a particularly high concentration in
Central Europe. A well-studied example is the Geiseltal south of Halle/Saale,
Germany, a cross-section of which is illustrated in Fig. 9.46. Although small in area,
its Eocene brown coal content reaches a thickness of up to 100 m but isopachs vary
considerably, because deposition took place on a highly irregular and unevenly
subsiding Mesozoic basement. Localised acceleration of subsidence resulted in
deposition oflacustrine sediments. Basinward the intercalations of clastics decrease,
so that towards the centre the seam consists of relatively pure coal.
10 Concluding Remarks
These final annotations serve two purposes, which can be expressed in the double
questions: what has been achieved and where do we go from here? As mentioned in
the Preface, one of the aims of this monograph was to argue the case for coal facies
analysis as a useful tool in palaeo-environmental reconstruction. This was mainly
addressed to the sedimentologists who work in coal-bearing strata but often make
little use of the wealth of information the enclosed coal can provide. The other aim
was to sell sedimentology to the coal petrologists who could benefit from widening
their palaeo-environmental enquiry to include modern sedimentological and
stratigraphic methods. This strategy required a close integration in the layout of the
text of the relevant aspects of coal science and sedimentology. "Integration" and
"relevance" are the operative terms in this context. There are several good
sedimentology texts on the market, and Stach's classic coal petrology text is
currently being re-written, but both approaches to the subject matter offer at the
same time too much and not enough. More importantly, sedimentology and organic
petrology are treated in the available texts as separate entities with few or no palaeo-
environmental cross-references, which is the key element in this monograph.
Naturally, the fusion of two large fields of earth sciences into a manageable and
coherent presentation requires some rationalisation. In the interest of brevity, those
subjects which are marginal to the aims ofthe project have been treated accordingly.
An example is physico-chemical coalification, which has received only passing
attention, because the book is primarily concerned with the depositional conditions
at the time of peat accumulation. The degree of subsequent coalification is of lesser
concern, although the discussion in Chap. 9 of intradeeps and terranes has shown
that coal rank is closely related to the timing ofterrane amalgamation and accretion.
Indeed, coalification studies based on coal seams or dispersed organic matter are a
standard procedure in modern basin analysis, but this field extends beyond the aim
of this monograph and has already been catered for by a growing body of literature,
such as Robert's (1988) study of organic matter and the thermal evolution of
sedimentary basins.
The analytical methods which have traditionally been applied to palaeo-
environmental analysis are increasingly supplemented by new techniques. In addi-
tion to the classic microlithotype-based coal facies analyses of Hacquebard et al.
(1964, 1967), new quantitative parameters, such as the maceral-based tissue
preservation and gelification indices, have been devised and used extensively in this
text. Furthermore, it has been shown that microfluorometry has a much wider
application in palaeo-environmental research than has hitherto been realised.
598 Concluding Remarks
Fluorescence intensity measurements on vitrinite hold great promise in this field,

and the present lack of standardisation of the technique should be no hindrance
to their application. Other emerging analytical methods referred to in
the text are concerned with the detection of geochemical palaeo-environmental
signatures, i.e. elements and organic geochemical characteristics of palaeo-
environmental significance. There is little doubt that these techniques will play an
increasingly important role in the study of coal formation, but care should be taken
to maximise their benefits by detailed sample characterisation. It is a sad fact that the
present organic geochemical literature contains too many examples of analysis
results whose value has been diminished by poor sample description.
Apart from the desire to combine the analytical techniques of coal petrology
and sedimentology as integral parts of palaeo-environmental analysis of coal
measures, it also seemed appropriate to apply new concepts to the wider field of coal
geology. Of particular relevance in this context is the sequence stratigraphy
introduced by Vail et al. (1977), and further developed by van Wagoner et al. (1990).
Mter the emphasis placed on autosedimentational processes in the 1960s and 1970s,
the advent of sequence stratigraphy appeared like a revival of the old cyclothem
concept. However, this first impression is quite wrong since sequence stratigraphy
does not impose restrictions on any particular order of superposition but provides it
with a conceptual framework. Hopefully, the discussion in Chap. 8 has demon-
strated that the benefit coal geology derives from this conceptual framework is
reciprocated by providing sequence stratigraphy with a powerful tool in a difficult
geological environment. Sequence stratigraphic analysis was originally based on the
recognition and correlation of seismic reflection surfaces, and this procedure works
best in nearshore and marine environments. The essentially terrestrial geological
space occupied by coal measures has often been a place of conflict between allo- and
auto cyclic forces, which can lead to genetic misinterpretations of the stratigraphic
record. The possibility to recognise transgressive or regressive trends in coal seams,
as outlined in Chaps. 7 and 8, adds another dimension to sequence stratigraphy.
The coal geological literature contains few references to modern tectonic
concepts, such as terrane analysis and extensional tectonics, on which the geo-
tectonic classification of coalfields in Chap. 9 has been based. As much as possible,
the traditional geotectonic groupings of coal basins have been retained although
some of them, e.g. intradeeps, can no longer identify a specific tectonic environment
of coal formation. As a side issue the discussion of accretionary tectonics has
revealed another case of a superficial similarity to an older concept, namely that of
tectonic phases. The naming and timing of tectonic phases reached a high point in
the 1940 sand 1950 s under the influence of Hans Stille, but the view of the existence
of discrete tectonic punctuations in orogenesis was replaced in the declining years of
the geosynclinal concept by the paradigm of greater continuity of orogenic
processes. Basically this is still today's view, but interest has been renewed in the
recognition and exact timing of unconformities because of their correlation with
terrane docking events and their significance in sequence stratigraphy. Once again,
the application of the new concepts have brought greater sophistication to coal
geology, and also in this case there is feedback, particularly from coalification
studies to terrane analysis.
Concluding Remarks 599
With few exceptions, I have tried to stay away from the well-trodden grounds of
Illinois, the Appalachian Basin, the Midlands, Wales, Yorkshire, Silesia, the Saar
Basin and the other places where coal geological history was made. Where
traditional examples have been used, such as the columnar section of the Ruhr Coal
Measures in Fig. 7.35, they have been presented in a new manner. As indicated in the
Preface, the reason for relying on many examples from outside the classic coal
regions was partly dictated by the geographical constraints of my experience.
However, an equally important reason for this choice was the desire to shift, at least
by a small amount, the imbalance in a body of literature which is weighted heavily in
favour of the Carboniferous coals from the Northern Hemisphere. Most of the
current coal geological paradigms and models are either based on Carboniferous
coals and coal measures or have been tested in reference to them. Considering their
wide range of properties, stratigraphic timespans, biomass input, climatic and
geological settings, the Gondwana coals of the southern continents and the
Cretaceous coals of North America and New Zealand, referred to so frequently in
this text, have much to offer.
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Author Index
Abdel-Basset Z 659 Aubouin I 515, 523, 556, 602

Abelson PH 630 Augustyn D 229, 602
Abramski C 177, 192, 601 Australian Standard 2856 2, 57, 89, 112,
Adams AE 271, 601 122, 602
Adams CJ 606 Ayers WB 409,410,426,427, 602
Adams F 613
Adams TD 148,601
Addison R 146, 601 Baas-Becking LGM 481, 602
Agnew D 301, 535, 601 Bach WN 629
Agrali B 310,601 Baerken MJ 609
Agueda JA 610, 618 Baganz BP 412,419, 602, 626
Aihara A 522, 601 Bahamonde JR 610
Aikman RP 604 Bailey A 8, 137, 229, 244, 602, 631
Aitchison JC 535, 601, 618 Bailey JG 103, 203, 204, 448, 602, 614
Aitken J 346, 601 Bain CE 608
Albrecht P 616, 641 Bajor M 171, 258, 603
Alderman AR 151, 601 Baker DR 224,225,603,658
Alemany LB 659 Baker EW 255,641
Alexander R 623, 640 Baker G 229, 242, 616
Allan J 248, 249, 257, 322, 601 Baldwin T 604
Allen JRL 266,267, 288, 289, 368, 386-388, Balkwill HR 643
402, 403, 601 Bally AW 545-547, 551, 552,
Allen PA 523, 601 603, 640, 656
Allerdice DJ 205, 602, 626 Balme BE 116, 138, 141, 154,229,603, 637
Alpern B 70, 101, 104, 109, 112, 166, 229, Balsely JK 512,603
379, 498, 602, 604, 605, 608-611, 617, Bamberry W 535, 603
620, 625, 627-630, 632-635, 637, 639, Banks MR 27, 650
643, 648, 650, 651, 653, 655, 657 Baragwanath GE 139, 603
Altschuler ZS 241,602 Barba P 610, 618
Andel TH van 648 Barbour MG 625, 657
A'lderson EJ 468, 621 Barbour RJ 625, 657
AndersonJAR 6,7,9,11,15,16,42,44,162, Bardhan B 265, 641
169, 377, 602 Baren FA van 148,214,638
Anderson TF 241, 658 Barghoorn ES 57, 104, 603, 650
Andrejko MJ 139,612, 644 Barker CE 85, 224, 603, 643
Andrews PB 606 Barnes HH 383, 603
Anon 138, 302-305, 602 Barrett HE 624
Anon (a) 304, 602 Barron PF 92, 181,204,206,246,603,646
Arbey F 605 Barss MS 166, 193,406, 508, 623
Arditto PA 506,602 Bartberger CE 445, 603
Argall GO Jr 616,624,641,644,646,656 Bartle KD 248, 603
ArnborgT 50,65,602 Barto C 501, 603
Arthaud F 566, 602 Barton C 648
Ashley GH 479,602 Barton WA 103,603,646
Attwood DH 134, 209, 602, 635 Bartram KM 7, 43, 117, 162, 198, 603
662 Author Index
Barwis JH 386, 440, 442, 455, 603 Bohor BF 146, 148,243,480, 605, 646, 655
Batts BD 241, 265, 479, 480, 649, 659 Bolewski K 143, 605
Bauer MA 654 Bolger PF 602
Baxter AJ 467, 605, 628 Bolli HM 649
Bay RR 46, 604 Bonijoly M 81, 605
Bayley K 301, 535, 601 Bonner GW 305, 635
Beaumont C 519,523,604,620,643 Bonnett R 255, 605
Becker K 177, 604 Bonnin J 633
Beckett J 349,448,491, 504, 534, 604, Boon JJ 609, 651
621, 623, 657 Boron DJ 5, 10, 605
Beerbower JR 463, 604 Bostick NH 81, 84, 224, 226, 605, 635
Beeston JW 63, 107-109, 138, 182, Bosworth W 568, 605
185, 202, 593, 604 Boulmier JL 640
Belcher CB 158, 615, 619 Bouma AH 466, 606
Bellamy DJ 11, 377, 638 Bouroz A 146,606
Belt ES 389,426,566,604 Boutefeu A 617
Belyaev SS 217, 604 Bowen E 301,622
Bemmelen RW van 529,604 Bowman RG 577, 579, 582, 606
Benedict LG 99, 181, 604, 654 Boyd R 466,470,606,615,641
Bennett AJR 3,37,84, 127, 190,306,604, Bradford DL 612
607,648 Bradley DC 566, 606
Bensley DF 216,651 Bradley WH 18, 606
Benson WN 534, 604 Bradshaw JD 589, 606
Bentz A 651 Brady SA 333, 618
Berg JH van den 416, 604 Brakel AT 447,531,535,606,627
Berg RR 612 Branagan DF 341,535,537,538,542,606,625
Berkel GJ van 229, 604 Brandt BA 621
Berpaud C 604 Brassell SC 613
Berner RA 241, 242, 480, 604 Bray EE 249, 606
Berschinski C 609 Breger IA 624, 625
Bertrand PR 177, 215, 246, 604 Brelie G von der 54, 179, 198,208-211,
Besley BM 619 345,606
Best GR 612 Brice JC 350, 606
Best MA 646 Briggs DJC 506, 531, 606
Betekhtina OA 403, 604 Briggs G 616
Beutelspacher H 618 Britten RA 148, 190,331,335,336,345,
Bhattacharaya J 506, 604 346, 348, 408, 446, 448, 535, 606, 607
Biddle KT 565,609 Britton ED 644
Bienner F 611, 615, 616 Broadbent SR 78, 607
Bigg-Wither AL 636 Broadhurst FM 346, 607
Birmingham TF 623 Bromley BW 648
Bjor¢y M 601 Brooks JD 138, 141, 229, 241, 245, 249,
Black PM 205,216,578,615 251-253, 554, 555, 603, 607, 620, 627, 648
Blackburn DT 198, 209, 213, 605 Brothers RN 615
Blakely RF 462,641,643 Broussard ML 610
Blank H 637 Brouwer MJN 440, 654
Blatt H 284, 286, 605 Brown DA 27, 607
Bless MJM 164, 170,403, 605, 658 Brown FW 634, 635
Bloomquist CAA 616 Brown HR 99, 244, 607
BMR 573,605 Brown JH 648
Boateng DAD 229, 605 Brown JR 636
Bocking MA 373-376,605 Brown K 65, 79, 607
Boctor NZ 265, 480, 605 Brown KJ 615
Bode H 142, 605 Brown SC 637
Bodily DM 649 Brown ZA 634, 635
Boehner RC 620 Browne GH 589,607
Boersma JR 416, 605, 644 Browne WR 534, 608
Boguliubova LI 226, 654, 655 Brownlow JW 310,533,607
Author Index 663
Bryson R 656 Chandra D 194, 609

Bubb IN 655 Chao ECT 609, 637
Bubnoff S von 516-518, 520, 523, Charlesworth HAK 643
524, 560, 592, 607 Charney LS 641
Buchanan DJ 298, 607 Chauvin WJ 636
Burchfiel BC 568, 570, 658 Chen JR 229, 609
Burger D 468,617 . Cheng ZD 255, 257, 609, 659
Burger K 142, 146, 607, 608 Chesal S 608
Burgis WA 336, 346, 608 Chilingar GV 653
Burk CA 648 Chitale SV 374, 621
Burke PJ 605 Christ RP 588,615
Bustin RM 9, 12, 13,42,44-46,50,53, Christie ADM 608
78, 173, 224, 553, 608, 652 Christie-Blick N 565, 609
Butel DG 183,310,608 Ciereszko LS 631
Butterworth MA 117, 164, 170, 176, 608, Clark MC 607
649,659 Clarke KE 452, 495, 609
Claypool GE 241, 609
Clifton HE 429,430,451,609,627
Cadle AB 531, 594, 608, 626 Cloos H 653
Cady GH 161,608 Clymo RS 7,21, 50, 52, 377, 610, 633
Cahill RA 621 Cohen AD 8, 13, 15,23,24,42,46,52,
Cairncross B 594, 608, 636 53,55,57,58,60,66,162,169,171,172,
Calder JH 567, 608 174, 177-179, 207, 212, 230, 265,
Callcott TG 8,72,73,127,177,192,202, 341, 406, 456, 479-481, 494, 508, 610,
203,477,608,614 612,651
Calver MA 476,608 Coin CDA 103,623
Cambach RK 648 Coleman JM 12, 14, 380, 410, 411, 413,
Cameron AR 177,406, 550, 552, 608, 613, 419,426,427,466,606,610
615, 623, 627 Coleman ML 479,634
Cameron CC 5, 174, 230, 608, 641 Collins WJ 533, 534, 610
Campbell KSW 607, 635, 656 Collinson JD 384, 386,402, 610, 649
Campbell PB 646 Collinson MEV 35, 38, 174, 648
Campbell RB 658 Colmenero JR 361, 610, 618
Campion KM 673 Colombo U 639
Campos R 624 Cominco J 657
Cant DJ 386, 675 Conaghan PJ 310, 333, 535, 611, 629
Carey SW 534, 608 Connan J 253, 611
Carlson GD 455, 608 Connell JH 214, 611
Carlston CW 383, 608 Connolly JR 341, 611
Carmichael SMM 506,608 Conway KM 604
Carpenter BS 618 Conybeare CEB 280,611
Carrucio FT 626 Conze R 271, 611
Carter GS 17, 608 Cook AC 3, 27, 58, 72, 78, 79, 104, 108,
Carter L 608 120, 138, 151,200,202,224,244,406,
Carter RM 464, 468, 608 408,607,611,616,627,629,630,639,649,651
Carver RE 158, 608 Cook DG 643
Casagrande DJ 14,154, 171,241,242, Cook JC 298, 611
258,265,478-481,609,612 Coon 18 298, 611
Cassyhap SM 351,404,462,609,620,621 Cooper BS 232, 611
Castano JR 84, 600 Cooper W 621
Cavaroc VV 353, 375,419, 609, 617, 635 Corcoran JF 151,229,244,611
Cawood PA 535,633 Cornelius CD 84,611
Cecil CB 140, 242, 609, 624, 645 Cornford C 79, 611
Chaffee AL 171,181,205,248-251, Correa da Silva ZC 177, 224, 498, 611, 612
254, 256, 258, 609, 629 Corvinus DA 406, 612
Chakrabarti NC 194, 609 Cotter E 383, 612
Chamberlain NG 298, 609 Couch EL 242,480,612
Chandra AD 651 Courel L 296, 612
664 Author Index
Coward MP 557, 558, 612, 633, 645 331,341,347,355,378,482,405,406,

Cowie I G L 625 420, 421, 424, 443, 445, 447, 452, 476,
Coxhead BA 621 482, 483, 488, 489, 494, 496, 501, 509,
Craddock C 531, 612 512,534,535,591, 607, 613~615
Creasey JW 648 622, 636, 653, 655
Creelman RA 229, 612 Dietrich D 557,558,612,645
Cresswell M M 606 Dietrich VJ 557,615
Criss RE 635 Dilles SJ 646
Cronin LE 612, 625 Dillon JW 164, 190, 624
Cronin TM 468,612 DiMichele WA 28,43, 174,615,639,642
Crook KA W 280, 288, 607,611, 612 Disko U 627
Crosby EJ 647 Dixon DA 572, 633
Crosdale P J 639 Dobell P 229,615
Crowell JC 565, 612 Dobrin MB 302,615
Cunningham A 117,612 Dobson GC 624
Curray JR 520, 612 Doebl F 572, 615
Curtis CD 612, 634 Dolsen P 610
Czechowski F 255, 605 Dolson CP 650
Donaldson AC 623, 645
Donaldson JR 83, 166, 192, 195,346,406,
Dahm H 151,647 508, 552, 591
Damberger HH 225, 339, 612, 632 Donn WL 26,615
Dannenberg A 4,612 Doolan KJ 139, 154, 237~239, 615, 657
Dapples EC 623, 650 Dormans HNM 60,615
Dark WA 248,612 Dorsey AE 265, 322,615
David A 139, 612 Dorsselaer A van 254, 615, 616
David F 38,407,612 Douglas AG 248,249,252,601, 615, 621~623
David TWE 322,323,326,535,612 Douglas McLaren A 620
Davies DK 435, 612 Doutch HF 573,586,615
Davies JL 439, 612 Downey MA 298, 643
Davis A 77~79, 138, 140, 154,164, Downie C 119,615
166,177,186,188,215,217,223,224, Downing B 654,
240, 613, 621, 629, 633, 637, 643, 645 Doyle JF 298, 615
Davis KP 170,613 Drake CL 648
Dawson FM 418,459,613 Dreher G B 621
De Jong KA 643, 655 Dreissen PM 377,615
De Witt MJ 531,613 Driver RC 614
Degens ET 148,164,217,229,243,250, Drozdova IN 632
480, 572, 613, 630 Duff PMcLD 146,391,461,462,518,
DehmerJ 179, 180, 198,209,211~213, 543, 586,615,643
219, 247~249, 254, 613 Duffin RH 298,615
Denmead AK 27, 626 Duke WL 642
Denoyer E 229, 613 Dulhunty JA 87,615
Derbyshire FJ 633 Dulong FT 609, 635, 637
Dewers F 640 Dunham KW 247,615
Dewey JF 633 Durand B 216,626,640,653
Dickins JM 531, 534, 613 Durie RA 244,607,616
Dickinson CH 245, 620 Durnbavan M 335, 336, 635
Dickinson WR 519,520,522, 523, 547, Dutcher RR 229,608,616,643,645
556,558,568,581,612,613 D;-rkacz GR 235,616
Didyk BM 252,613
Diessel CFK 27, 28, 37, 39, 56, 62, 65, 67,
68, 78~81, 85, 89,102,107,110,117, Eagar RMC 229,403,480,616
127, 132, 133, 146, 149, 151, 153, 154, Earl WL 624
157, 158, 177, 181~185, 189~192, 200, Eckardt CB 643
201,203,216,217,219,220,221,226, Eckhardt FJ 608
229, 235, 244, 265, 275, 277, 279, 292, Eden RA 309,616
294,296,310, 313, 315~317, 323, 326-328, Edgerly DW 588,616
Author Index 665
Edison T A 225, 607, 629 Field BD 589, 607

Edwards AB 229,242,616 Fielding CR 403,405,424,428,531,617,618
Edwards GE 37,616 Filby RH 229, 604, 618
Edwards IH 301, 305, 623 Finkelman RB 139, 229, 240, 618, 634, 651
Edwards W 616 Finney HR 139,618
Egan AR 229, 640 Fischer AG 25,519,592,612,618,630
Eggeling WI 17,616 Fischer F 22, 256, 618
Eggelsmann R 45,46,616 Fisher RV 317-319,320,618
Eggert DL 391, 616, 639 Fisher WL 349,618
Eglington G 625,651,654,659 Fisk HN 13,380,402,424,426,618
Elders CA 627 Fitch AA 684
Ellery WN 636 Flaig W' 214, 618
Ellery K 636 Fletcher JD 635, 638
Ellington RT 637 Flood PG 310,333,535,593,618,620
Elliott IL 637 Flood RH 534, 629, 648
Elliott L 506,616 Flores RMV 4, 350, 351, 353, 402, 602, 604,
Elliott MA 639 609, 618, 619, 622, 627, 629, 635, 636, 640,
Elliott RE 298, 336, 341, 345, 388, 616 644, 646, 649, 655
Elliott T 410,416,418,419,423,430, Fonton S de 628
432,458,616 Forgeron SV 615
Embry AF 469, 616 Foster GN 648
Emery KO 630 Foster H 226, 605
Engel BA 27,533-536,616,645 Fowler JC 611
Englund Kl 427,616 Franchetau J 633
Ensminger A 254, 616 Francis EH 146, 619
Ergun S 81,636 FrancisW 19,22,49,127,138,139,181,619
ErnstW 166,223,229,243,244,475,480,617 Franklin RE 80,619
ErtellR 625 Franks PC 151,619
Espitalie 1 84, 85, 246, 617, 655 Franz U 557, 558, 572
Esterle IS 166,377,406,608,617 Frazer FW 158,244,619
Etheridge MA 569, 570, 585, 617, 634 Frazier DE 169,424,426,452,466,619
Ethridge FG 612 French BM 80, 619
Evans B 625 Frenzel B 10,619
Evans ED 249, 605, 606 Freund H 132, 619
Evans EW 549 Friedel RA 158, 639
Evans PR 533, 535, 572, 617, 656 Froggatt PC 327, 619
Ewing CIC 146,619 Fruth I 632
Exarchos C 621 Fiichtbauer H 146, 151,271,276,559,
Exon NF 468, 617 619,659
Eyles CH 467,617 Fullkotter J 659
Eysinga FWB van 469,470,624 Fulton 1M 7, 164, 168, 175, 176,403,406,
475,490,508,510,619
Fabian HI 618
Fahnestock RK 388, 624 Gabrielse H 638, 655
Falcon RMS 43,186,193,617,626 Gaertner HW 629
Falini F 11,12,594,617 Gage M 658
Falkner A 428,617 Gagliano SM 410,411,419,426,610
Farnham RS 139,618 Gaines AF 229,619,659
Felix Cl 164, 617 Gale WJ 534,619
Ferm lC 166, 271, 305, 341, 375, Gallegos El 638
380, 382, 386, 387, 389, 390, 406, 410, Galloway WE 333,404,409,512,619
414, 424, 427, 442, 454, 455, 457, 462, Garces BJ 593, 620
463, 509, 602, 603, 608, 609, 611, 617-619, Garner LE 387, 636
626, 627, 637, 641, 645, 647 Gaskell TF 27, 604, 628
Fernandez LP 361,610,618 Gawthorpe RL 572, 633
Fiebig H 168,403,618 Gay lD 612
Fiege K 461,618 Geddes BJ 557, 620
666 Author Index
Geikie A 322, 620 Green D 642

George AM 4, 122, 127, 130, 131, 180, Greenhalgh SA 298, 630
203, 206, 210, 211, 602, 620, 626, 635 Greensmith JT 271, 622
Gerchakov SM 624 Greenwood-Smith R 612
Gibbs A 564,568-570,593,620 Greer SA 458, 622
Gibby MG 642 Gressly A 1, 622
Gibling MR 368,371,381,387,391,405, Grew ES 80, 622
422, 508, 565-567, 620, 646 Grieken R van 613
Gibson DW 120,550,620 Grieve DA 550, 552, 608, 622, 641
Gierlowski TC 660 Griffith JR 534, 650
Gieseking JE 618 Grimstone LR 306, 622
Gijzel P van 216, 255, 607, 620, 648 Gripp K 640
Gilbert TD 246, 248, 254, 642 Gronli K 609
Gill BF 305, 620 Grosse-Brauckmann G 5-7,41,45,47,
GiIlis KS 608 49, 51, 52, 66, 179, 377, 622, 643
Gingerich PD 408, 620 Groth PKH 164,223,622
Ginsburg RN 656 Groves B 301, 622
Given PH 154,171,181,205,217,230, Gu YD 254, 256, 622
237, 245, 258, 608, 620, 621, 637, 659 Gubler Y 280, 622
Gleit CE 158,621 Guennel G K 116, 622
Glen RA 534, 621, 647 Guilford C 601
Glenister BF 637 Guion PD 403, 622
Glick DC 240, 621 Gumz W 35, 622
Gloe CS 209, 621 Guthorl P 647
Glooschenko WA 6, 10, 609, 636 Gutjahr CCM 626
Gluskoter HJ 148, 154, 155, 158, 265, Guyot RE 323, 614, 622
237, 243, 479, 480, 605, 621, 644
Godfrey NHH 428,621
Goldberg ED 621 Habib D 150,223,452,509,622
Goldhaber MB 157,265,479,621 Habicht JKA 26, 622
Goldschmidt VM 480,621 Hacguebard PA 83, 137, 166, 192-195,
Goldstein RH 85, 603 346,406,508,518,552,567,597,623
Gole CV 374,621 Hadley 18 604
Golovchenko X 468, 642 Hagemann H-W 164, 166, 198,207,209,
Goni J 624 217,247,248,250,252254,257,
Goodarzi F 82, 117, 177, 224-226, 621 498, 612, 623, 659
Goodlet GA 462,621 Haggart BA 15, 623
Goodwin PW 468,621 Haigh JE 301, 305,623
Gooley R 637 Hall KN 102, 623
Gordy PL 603 Hallam A 615
Gore AJP 173,602,610,619,621,628 Hallbauer DK 32, 144, 623, 631
Gorham E 256, 643, 646 Halloday IAR 640
Goscombe PW 305, 306, 621 Hamblin AP 428, 432, 623
Gothan W 33, 119, 209, 621 Hamblin WK 652
Gottlich K 42,377,616,621,622,639,647 Hamilton DS 258,349,426,446,447,
Gould HR 426,621 506, 604, 623, 633, 652
Gould R 2, 63, 103, 621 Hamilton LH 80, 139, 229, 322, 624, 646
Gould RF 660 Hammond RL 533, 624, 635
Gould K 607 Hancock PL 633
Goulton RJ 635 Hand M 535, 640
Graas G van 257, 621 Hanes J 298, 624
Grant DM 659, 660 Hanley JH 351,402,618
Grant PR 607,620,648 Hanlon FN 446, 607
Grantham PJ 252, 615, 621 Happ SC 402, 624
Graumann E 21, 22, 647 Hag BU 469,470,624
Gray J 457, 622 Harbaugh JW 462, 624
Gray RJ 99, 622 Hardenbol J 624
Grebe H 164,622 Harder H 242, 480, 624
Author Index 667
Harding TP 564, 593, 624 Hofer LJE 78, 636

Harman PG 298, 624 Hoffmann CF 254, 600, 626
Harms JC 388, 624 Hoffmann E 78, 169, 172, 408, 626, 651
Harper AL 637 Hohenstatter E 7, 626
Harper LF 310,595 Holdern GR Jr 604
Harrington HJ 533-535,624,631 Holland MJ 424, 600, 626
Harris LA 265,479,624 Hollerbach A 198,209,248,252,254,623,626
Harrison JA 107, 117, 631 Holmes A 519, 600, 626
Harrison RK 601 Holster WT 241,609,626
Hartlieb J 142, 190,624,654 Holt GE 298, 305, 641
Hartung W 142, 624 Holz HM 80,215,600,626
Harvey RD 164, 190, 624 Homewood P 601
Hatcher PG 92,204,205,214,246,256, Hood A 84, 600, 626
257, 624, 625, 634 Hoover DS 609
Hatherly PJ 298, 625 Hopkins ME 621, 623, 650
Hatlelid WG 655 Horell MA 660
Hausser D 602 Horne JC 380, 382, 386, 387, 389, 390,
Havenaar I 625, 633, 647 410,419,424,427, 440, 442, 454-457,
Haverkamp S 177, 625 602,603,608,609,617-619,626,627,
Hawkins LV 645 641, 645
Hawthorne WL 27, 532, 625 Horsfield B 246, 627, 635
Hay RL 315,625 Horst U 116,601,627
Hayatsu R 246, 253, 625 Horvath ZA 82, 627
Hayes MO 440,442,443,456,603,625 Howard JD 458, 601, 627
Haynes JR 601 Howell DG 564, 565, 602, 627
Heacock RL 626 Hower JC 177, 406, 627, 655
Hedemann HA 82,618,625 Howes MS 605
Hedges JT 92, 625 Hoy T 637
Hein FJ 354,625 Huang W-Y 254,602,627
Heinbokel JF 627 Hubbard DK 451,602,627
Heinhold M 209, 625 Hubbard RJ 468,469,602,627
Helby RE 531,534,614,625 Huck G 82, 602, 627
Henderson JH 462, 643 Hughes JD 552, 602, 627
Henderson RE 651 Hunt JW 177,193,194,333,446,452,518,627
Henderson RJ 298, 625 Hunt SR 632
Henderson W 247,625 Hunter PS 208,603, 609, 627
Herbert C 408,531,534,535,606,614,625 Hunter RE 429, 430, 432, 448, 609, 627
Hercules DM 634,635,638 Huntington J 305, 306, 637, 648
Herout V 252, 651 Huntjens FJ 78,615,627
Herzen RP von 613 Hurst HE 17, 603, 627
Hess JC 146, 634 Hutton AC 14, 17, 78, 120, 224, 572, 603,
Heward AP 448, 625 611, 627
Hey RD 383, 625
Hickling HGA 92,625
Higgins RS 134, 209, 626
Hill D 27, 626 Iley M 602
Hill MBL 657 Illing LV 660
Hills ES 310, 626 Imbalzano JF 620, 621
Hills LV 457, 648 Inagaki M 81,603,628
Hiltmann W 209, 626 Ingerson E 620
Hippo E 639 Ingram HAP 50, 603, 628
Hjulstrom F 269,626 Ingram RL 281,603,628
Hobday DK 193, 194,333,404,409,413, International Committee for Coal Petrology
442,454,455,512,531,594,608,619,626,627 57,78,87-89,119,121,123,127,628
Hobson GD 639,660 Irving E 26, 27, 548, 604, 628
Hodgson W 622 Itaya T 81, 628, 640
Hoefs J 32, 626 Ivanov MV 604
Hoehne K 142, 626, 647 Iyengar MS 77, 604, 628
668 Author Index
Jackson LJ 298, 301, 607, 628 Keating LF 553, 610, 630

Jackson RCi 388, 604, 628 Keith ML 229,265,479,480,613,630,658
Jacob H 50, 79, 121, 171, 205, 209, 214, Keller WO 149, 630
217,628 Kelling Ci 619
James OP 467,604,606-608,616,617, Kemezys M 138, 141,242, 244, 630
628, 635, 642, 656 Kemp PH 242, 630
Jamieson CiW 631 Kershaw AP 43, 198, 209, 630, 634
Jankowski B 474, 539, 606, 628 Kessler MF 244, 630
Japorte JL 617 King 0 631
Jasic M 635 King OW 298,630
Javor B 480, 606, 628 King CiR 164,648
Jelgersma S 468, 606, 629 King PB 559, 630
Jenkner A 78, 600 King TNW 237,626, 631
Jeram AJ 603 Kinsman 011 570, 571, 583, 630
Jerzykiewicz T 613,637 Kinson K 244,619
Jeschke L 5, 117, 652 Kirkegaard ACi 572, 631
Jessen W 309, 403, 461, 462, 629 Kirsch H 144, 148,623,631
Jin K 213, 216, 218, 246, 629 Kisch H 149,611, 631
Johns RB 213, 245, 251, 254, 603, 609, Kiss LT 237,626,631
629, 642, 648, 649, 656 Kistemaker PCi 651
Johnson OP 174,428,464,468,608,629,636 Kivinen E 30, 631
Johnson CiAL 476, 607, 629 Klare B 242, 631
Johnson KR 200,604,629 Kleeman JO 618,640
Johnson MW 298, 341, 535, 543, 629 Klein Ci deY 445,631
Johnson RC 379, 654 Klein-Reesink J 209,213,631
Johnson RO 200, 611 Kleinspehn KL 547,613,631
Johnston JE 629 Klemm 0 632
Johnston M 248, 642 Knauff W 475,631
Jones B 603 Kneis H 609
Jones BCi 358, 646 Kneuper Ci 560, 561,631
Jones OW 603 Knight CL 27,614, 631
Jones J 311,607,629 Knight JL 616
Jones JCi 535, 611, 629 Knox I 640
Jones JM 121,629,639 Kohlrusch A 370
Jones RH 132, 134, 607, 629 Kolattukudy PE 117, 120,631
Jones RW 225, 607, 629 Komar PO 403, 631
Jopling AV 283, 608, 629 Komarek EV 162, 631
Josten K-H 38, 164,608, 622, 629 Koons CB 249,631
Judson S 612, 618, 630 Kopp OC 265,322,615,624
Jurasky K 209, 608, 629 Koppe WH 428,651
Korsch RJ 534,535,624,631
Kosanke RM 107, 113, 117, 164, 176, 631
Kagi RI 640 Koster EH 360, 646
Kaiser WR 404, 409, 410, 426, 427, 602, 629 Kosters EC 8, 631
Kalin 0 660 Kotter K 78, 124,322,631,635
Kalkreuth W 78,83,84, 120,224,225, Koukouzas C 608
428,511,512,551,552,608,615,629,630,632 Koy AJ 641
Kanaris-Sotiriou R 146,650 Kraft JC 444, 632
Kanstler AJ 85, 627, 630 Kramer JR 231,632
Kaplan IR 157,241,242, 265, 478, 479, Krasnow MR 635
602, 609, 621, 626, 630, 652 Krauskopf KB 231,632
Karas J 637, 659 Krausse H-F 322, 335, 337, 339, 479, 632
Karmasin K von 166,609,630 Kreji-Ciraf K 617
Karr C 603, 613 Kremp Ci 166,491,629, 632
Karweil J 75, 82-84, 630 Krenkel E 642
Katili JA 527-529, 609, 630 Krevelen OW van 52, 72, 78, 204, 235,
Kato H 81,630 615, 627, 632
Kay M 515, 523, 657 Kronberg BI 636
Author Index 669
Krumbein WC 312,461, 518, 523, 632 Leythaeuser D 249, 633, 634, 644, 659
Kuenstner E 226, 632 Liabeuf J-J 602
Kuhn JK 621 Lin R 79,215,217,633, 643
Kuhn TS 515,632 Lind EM 17, 633
Kukuk P 140,632 Lindner A W 572, 633, 637
Kullerud G 155,265,480,605, 641 Lindsay JF 610
Kutzner R 166, 177, 632, 636 Lipman PW 317, 319, 633, 638
Kwiecinska B 81,632 Lippolt HJ 146, 634
Lister GS 568-570,617,634
Littke R 48,49, 117, 148, 150, 155, 164,
Labonte M 630 166, 168, 177, 190,201,226,242,246,
Lahiri A 77, 604, 628 406,484,485,491,634,647
Laird MG 576, 578, 582, 632 Liu SY 92,94, 102, 109, 113, 120, 190, 218,
Lam J 251,632,641 246, 379, 634, 644, 653
Lammerer B 556, 558, 632 Lohe EM 534, 543, 634, 637
Land DH 601 Lopatin N 84, 634
Landis CA 80, 632 Lottes AL 660
Langbein WB 384, 632 Louda JW 255, 603
Langenberg CW 428, 494, 511, 551, 552, Loughnan FC 141, 143, 315, 634
630, 632, 635 Love LG 156, 157, 241, 477, 479, 480, 634
Langenheim JH 612 Lowell JD 564, 593, 624
Langer AW 12, 646 Lowry DC 573, 574, 634
Langford-Smith T 606 Lu J 213,634
Lapo AV 632 Lucas AJ 620, 621
Larsen G 653 Luly J 209, 634
Larson RR 634, 637 Lynch LJ 103,603,646
Larter S 246,257,601,632, 648 Lyons PC 108, 119,229, 240, 241, 243,
Laubscher HP 519,632 244, 480, 604, 605, 608-611, 617, 625,
Lavers BA 301, 302, 632 627, 629, 630, 632, 634, 635, 637-639,
Lazell SK 648 648, 650, 651, 653, 655, 657
Le Pichon X 528, 633
Leblang GM 298,632
Leckie DA 428,432,511,512,551, Macak J 638
605-608,616,617,628,630,632, Macauley G 78, 224, 608, 630
635, 642, 656 Macdonald DS 494, 551, 632, 635
Leckwijck W van 461, 633 Maciel GE 656
Ledvina CT 632 Mackay GH 134, 208, 209, 213, 635
Leeder MR 384, 572, 616, 633 Mackenzie AS 626, 640
Leeuw JW de 609,621,622 Mackenzie WS 601
Legun AS 350,351, 381, 390, 633, 646 Mackowsky M-T 41,48,71,82,89,90,
Lehmann H 594, 595, 633 109, 138, 154, 177, 190,229,242, 243,
Lehmann RJ 305, 633 322, 518, 601, 635, 651
Leistner F 627 MacNeil DJ 608
Leitch EC 533-535, 633, 640 MacPhee JA 636
Lemos de Sousa MJ 104,602,656 Maddocks P J 624
Lennox M 533, 633 Madec M 617
Lensch G 82, 633, 654 Magdefrau K 30, 32, 43, 635
Leopold LB 350, 351, 355, 356, 374, 383, Mahaffey JF 615
384, 632, 633, 659 Makjanic J 229, 635
Leplat P 617 Malan 0 630
Lerch HE III 625 Mallett CW 271, 305, 335, 336, 533, 604,
Lerwill WE 298, 660 614,620,622,630,631,634,635,641,649,657
Levey RA 387, 633 Malone ELJ 27, 532, 635
Lewin J 649 Man EH 660
Lewis CA 626 Mantel W 601
Lewis DW 576, 578, 582, 632 Marchioni DL 177,190,193-196,198,
Lewis FA 80, 655 202,206,207,331,335,336,346,405,
Lewis Smith RI 52, 633 406, 408, 635
670 Author Index
Marijanovic P 635 Michelau P 223,617,629,637

Marley WE 413,419,424,442,448,454, Michels H -CH 223, 651
456,635 Middleton G 605
Marquis F 617 Middleton GV 1,610,624,637
Marsh H 79,602,611 Migahid AM 17, 637
Marshall CE 92, 172, 625, 644 Migeon HN 659
Martin B 609 Migliucci A 533,535,617
Martin RR 229,635,636 Millar A 608
Martini IP 6, 10, 428, 609, 636 Millay MA 634
Martini HJ 651 Miller DR 305, 306, 637
Masson AG 403, 490, 636, 646 Miller JP 633
Mathew D 654 Miller R 639
Matte P 566, 602 Miller RN 158, 217, 230, 237, 620, 637
Mattern D 634 Miller WG 621
Matthewson DH 640 Mills JC 615
Maxwell JR 252, 256, 622, 623, 656 Minkin JA 229,240,609,634,637
May GP 298,658 Minnigerode C 209, 637
Mayne SJ 531,535,636 Mitchell GD 323, 637
Mazwell JR 626 Mitchum RM Jr 466, 638, 655, 656
McBeth L 625 Mittapalli R 164, 166, 638
McCabe PJV 5, 7, 8, 10, 12,288, 335, Moelle KHR 275,310,331,354,534,614,644
375, 567, 636 Mohor BF 660
McCarthy TS 168,169,171,232-234, Mohr ECJ 148, 214, 638
237, 258, 380, 636 Moldowan JM 245,250,604,609,615,
McCartney JT 78,81,636 622, 638, 642, 644, 648, 659, 660
McCarty KL 636 Moller GW 166,638
McClung G 531,636 Mollica F 642
McCormick G 654 Monger JWH 515,544-549,561,628,638
McCubbin DG 454, 636 Moody JB 659
McDonnell KL 611,629 Moore D 380,461,462,602,638
McFadden WH 246, 247, 612, 636 Moore DG 377,427, 612
McGowen JH 349, 387, 636 Moore ES 11,46,310,638
McHugh EA 65, 79, 102,216, 219,220, Moore GT 610
437,447,448,480,512,607,614,636 Moore JG 319,638
McIntyre NS 229, 635, 636 Moore LP 625
McIver JR 636 Moore LR 140, 142, 150, 172, 638
McKee ED 435, 636, 647 Moore PD 5, 6, 7, 638
McKenzie PJ 146, 535, 536, 636, 644 Moore RC 461, 638
McKirdy DM 249, 252, 253, 627, 643 Morales Z 610
McLean AJ 608 Morelli JJ 229, 634, 635, 638
McLean JR 355,551,636,637 Morgan JM 621
McLennan TPT 534, 543, 634, 637 Morris LN 534, 633
McMechan ME 82, 84, 552, 609, 630 Morris PA 616
McMillan WJ 637 Morrison MES 17, 633
McTaggart S 622 Moule KJ 306, 638
McWhae JRH 27, 637 Mountjoy E 480, 606, 628, 658
Meent D van de 246, 637 Mountjoy EW 678
Meinschein WG 254, 602, 627 Mrazikova J 257, 638
Melton RA 271, 305, 617, 637 Muir M 607,620,644,648
Merriam DF 462,604,624,641,643 Muir WLG 645
Metzner H 637 Muller J 162, 602
Meuzelaar HL 248, 256, 626, 637 Mullineaux DR 317,633,638
Meyer AH 606 Mumme IA 301, 302, 638
Meyer H 653 Mumpton FA 625
Meyers PA 615 Murawski H 1, 638
Miall AD 350, 355, 356, 359, 360, 361, 368, Murchison DG 78, 105, 121, 223, 224,
371, 384, 603, 610, 626, 633, 637, 646, 649 232, 252, 322, 601, 611, 629, 632, 635,
Miao F 193,637 638-640, 644, 649
Author Index 671
Murdoch CMcC 602, Osvald H 173, 194,640

Murphy MTJ 651,654,659 Ottenjann K 79,80, 121,216,217,512,
Murray CG 631 623, 640, 653, 659
Murray DK 658 Oudin lL 626
Murray R 605 Ourisson G 254, 616, 641, 645
Mustoe GE 642 Overbeck F 5, 11, 640
Mutch AR 590,639 Owen N 659
Nalwalk Al 158,639 Packham GH 531, 534, 641, 644

Nance D 659 Page FM 229,619,659
Nanson GC 351,639,646 Page HG 641
Natusch DFS 613 Painter PC 621
Naucke W 8, 236, 639 Pakdel H 603
Naumova SN 162, 639 Palmer CA 229, 230, 608, 635, 638, 641
Navale GKB 166, 177,602,639 Palmer D 298, 635, 641
Naylor RD 608 Palmer DC 210, 211, 641
Neale ER W 643 Palmer JE 642
Neavel RC 78, 154, 224, 639 Palmer SE 255, 256, 641
Nelson Wl 322, 337, 391, 507, 632, 639 Palmer W1 608
Nemec W 354,610,618,639 Panteleyev A 637
Neubert K-H 602 Paola C 613,631
Neustadt MI 16, 639 Paproth E 403, 641
Neuzil SG 637 Parbury CRF 331,641
Newman 1 226-228,490,498,577-580, Pareek HS 265, 641
582, 606, 639 Park RG 612, 645
Newman NA 227, 490, 639 Parkarinen P 30, 631
Ng N 89,639 Parkash B 557, 641
Nicholas D1D 229, 615, 640 Parker LR 512, 603
Nicholas E 573, 586, 636 Parrat RL 155,265,480,641
Nicholls GD 265, 640 Parrish JT 25, 641
Niclar KJ 642 Parry LG 27, 604, 628
Nio S-D 604,654 Patching TH 622
Nitecki MH 618 Patteisky K 38, 82, 627, 641
Nobiling R 609, 637 Paul EA 620
Noble RA 252, 640 Paulet 1 617
Noda T 80, 81, 640 Paulson Cl 612
Noe AC 479, 652 Pauncz I 305, 641
Norris DK 83, 552, 553, 640 Payton CE 638
Nummedal D 627 Peace DG 298,641
Nurkowski lR 404, 640 Pearn WC 462,641
Pearson DE 550, 552, 641
Pearson Ml 151,265,480,641
O'Brien RT 146, 640 Peck W 298, 641
O'Donnell Hl 654 Pederson KR 251,632,641
O'Gorman lV 158, 640 Pedlow G W 360, 641
Oberlin A 80, 605, 628, 640 Pelzer G 645
Oberlin M 605 Penland S 426, 427, 445, 606, 641
Oehlschlager AC 612 Peppers RA 38, 164, 166, 176,477, 641, 642
Oele E 629 Perez M 644
Oertel G 627 Perry Gl 659
Oestereicher W 485, 640 Peters C 480, 621
Offier R 80,81,534,614,640 Peterson 1M 605, 638
Okuyama-Kusunose Y 81, 640 Peterson MS 622
Oltz DF 629 Petrascheck W 142, 229, 265, 480, 642
Oomkens E 413,416,458,640 Pettijohn Fl 161,266,271,276,280,291,
Orlic I 635 524, 585, 642, 643
Osanik A 169,424,452,619 Pevear DR 146,642
672 Author Index
Pfaffenberg K 10,211,223,486,642 Puffe D 45, 643

Pflug H 209, 642 Pugmire RJ 92, 637, 658-660
Pheifer RN 634 Piittmann W 247, 248, 612, 623, 643, 659
Philippi GT 249, 642
Phillips CR 229, 605
Phillips R 642 Qin Y 213, 217, 218, 246, 629
Phillips RE 646 Quereshi IR 533, 643
Phillips RL 609, 627 Quesson A 229,602
Phillips TL 28,38,43,164,166,171,174, Quian L 637
179,346,391,428,477,615,616,624,642 Quick JC 217, 643
Philp RP 245, 246, 248, 254; 637, 642 Quinlan GM 519,643
Phleger FP 648 Quirke JME 248, 644
Pickhardt W 107,660 Quitzow HW 606
Pieper B 475,631
Pietzsch K 209, 642
Piller H 78, 642 Raaf JFM de 416,644
Pillmore CL 146, 605 Rabitz A 223,403,475,618,644
Pines A 642 Radke M 247, 248, 250, 253, 644
Pinheiro R 626 Ragaini RC 618
Pitman WC 468, 642 Raggat HG 532, 644
Pittion J-L 604 Ragot JP 81,644
Playford PE 637 Rahmani RAV 4,404,424, 457-459,
Plint AG 467, 642 602, 604, 609, 619, 622, 627, 629, 636,
Pluim SB 636 640, 644, 646, 649, 655
Plumstead EP 32, 43, 643 Rahmanian VD 673
Poeder D 653 Raine MJ 636
Polak B 6, 643 Raistrick A 172, 644
Poll HW van de 615 Raiswell R 610
Pollastro RM 646 Ralph BJ 642
Pollmann S 623 Ramirez A 610
Ponce F 610 Ramsbottom WHC 476, 644
Pons LJ 615 Ramsden AR 624
Poole GR 298, 615, 624, 625, 643 Rankama K 231, 644
Poole WH 566, 643 Rao CP 154, 644
Posamentier HW 656 Raos D 635
Posey CJ 383, 659 Rapson JE 550, 644
Potonie H 28,47, 109, 643 Rasidi JS 636
Potonie R 109, 137, 643 Rattigan JH 27, 535, 644
Potter PE 161,229,244,266,276,280, Rawlings CD 534, 644
291,462,480,524,585,642,643 Raymond AC 322, 610, 639, 644
Powell TG 249, 252, 253, 643 Raymond AL 660
Power PE 27,643 Raymond R 139, 154,644
Prado J 79, 643 Reading HG 610,616
Pratt DC 256, 643 Reesor JE 658
Pregermain S 109, 602 Reeves DR 301, 303, 304, 644
Presley MW 645 Regul R 35, 622
Preston B 615 Reich S 625
Preston FW 461,643 Reidenouer D 137,242,407,408,509,645
Preto VA 549, 638 Reineck H-E 287, 458, 645
Price AG 299, 643 Reinemund JA 575, 645
Price B 654 Reinhart PJ 645
Price FT 155,241,243,265,480,643 Reinson GE 430,432,442,645
Price LC 224, 643 Remy R 41, 170, 645
Price NB 243, 480, 656 Remy W 41, 170, 645
Price NR 146, 643 Ren YE 660
Price RA 515, 519,544, 554, 555,638,643 Rendic D 635
Prior DB 380,610 Renton JJ 140, 609, 645
Proser D 632 Renwick RI 301. 645
Author Index 673
Reszka A 605 Salim on JB 660

Reynolds RL Jr 24.3, 645 Salvador CI 610, 618
Reynolds SJ 569, 570, 645 Sanger JE 256, 646
Rhoads CA 621 Sangree JB 655
Richardson ES 60, 660 Sappal KK 574, 646
Richardson EV 285, 287, 649 Saxby JD 205,646,649
Richter DK 151,583 Saxena RS 177,380,412-414,419,
Rickard DT 242, 480, 645 609, 627, 639, 647
Riedel D 146, 619 Scalan RS 249, 647
Riegel W 209,390,622,631,.637,645,651 Sceverenyi N 625
Rietz E 618 Schacht schabel P 10, 647
Rigby JK 647 Schaefer J 647
Rimmer S 164,166,177, 186, 188,223, Schaeffer RG 644
612,613,645 Schafer A 560, 647
Ringis J 298, 645 Schafer HNS 244,616
Rittenberg SC 241,478, 609, 630 Schafers CJ 611
Rittenhouse G 624 Scharer G 660
Roach ~J 200, 342, 344, 346, 348, 657 Schaub K 631
Robert P 78,83,99, 119, 120, 121,224, Schedl A 469,647
597, 645 Scheffer FlO, 647
Roberts DL 608 Scheibner E 533, 534, 640, 647
Roberts J 533-535, 645 Scheidt G 177, 201, 226, 322, 647
Roberts OC 639 Schellendorf GB 146, 647
Roeder D 558, 645 Schenck PA 609,621,622,625,633,647
Roeschmann G 404, 645 Schenk PE 566, 647
Roger KH 636 Schidlowski ~ 32,626,647
Rohmer ~ 254, 641, 645 Schmidt E 21, 22, 647
Romankiw LA 635 Schmidt K 653
Rosenthal G 242, 645 Schmidt-Thome P 613
Rosswell TH 52, 652 Schmincke H-U 317-320,618
Rowley DB 660 Schmitz-Dumont 124
Royce K 611 Schneider E 166, 647
Ruby CH 271, 645 Schneider S 16, 647
Ruch RR 621 Schneider W 213, 647
Rucuc L 616 Schnepfe ~~ 602
Rullkotter J 615 Scholle PA 636
Runnegar BN 531,645 Scholten RA 643, 655
Russel RD 272, 646 Schone-Warnefeld G 151,647
Russell NJ 92, 181,203,204,207,209, Schon en berg R 558, 559, 561, 613, 647
216, 246, 323, 612, 642, 645, 646, 649 Schopf J~ 647
Russell SJ 613 Schrader H 22, 256, 618
Rust BR 350-352, 354, 356, 358-361, Schuch ~ 7, 616, 647
368, 371, 376, 381, 386, 387, 389-392, Schuller A 142, 146, 647
403, 405, 422, 490, 538, 566, 620, Schumm SA 349,350,383,402,647
633, 639, 646, 658, 660 Schwark L 643
Ruter H 298, 646 Schwartz RK 443, 648
Rutter H 298, 624 Schwarz bach ~ 403, 648
Ryan NJ 621 Schweighardt FK 609
Ryan WBF 649 Scotese CR 566, 641, 648
Ryer TA 12, 146,463,505,506,508,646 Scott ACV 35,38,162,164,170,174,
Rzoska J 17, 646 603,609,610,619,626,636,638,639,
648, 650, 653, 655, 660
Scott E 601, 611, 632
Sahama TH G 231, 644 Scott RA 631
Sakai H 609 Scott RG 625
Sakurovs R 90, 646 Scruton PC 425, 648
Saleh S 629 Seedsman K 645
Salehi ~R 139,229,624,646 Seely DR 528, 648
674 Author Index
Seifert WK 245, 638, 648 Smith GC 57, 72, 104, 586-588, 602,
Selden P A 603 630,649
Self S 317, 648, 656, 658, 659 Smith GG 544, 545, 547, 552, 553, 561,649
Sellers GA 634 Smith JE 249,647
Selley RC 271, 349,462, 648 Smith JW 241,251,265,479,480,607,649
Selvig WA 117, 648 Smith ND 350, 356, 649
Senftle IT 246, 257, 648 Smith PA 381,649
Sernander R 50, 648 Smith RL 320, 649
Seyler CA 72, 73, 123, 202, 203, 264, 477, Smith S 639
478, 497-500, 648, 654 Smith WG 12, 14,426, 610
Shanks WC III 635 Smits LJM 301, 302, 632
Sharkey AG Jr 658 Smyth M 37,127,177,190,193,202,406,
Sharma RP 641 408, 409, 448, 518, 607, 627, 649, 650
Shaw AC 18,620,648 Snyman CP 32, 501, 650
Shaw AJ 78,607 Soepraptohardjo M 615
Shaw G 113,254,255,607,648 Solomon M 534, 650
Shaw RD 631 Souther JG 638
Shaw SE 534, 629, 648 Spackman W 7,11,13-15,17,42,55,
Shepard FP 648 57, 66, 162, 164, 190, 194, 199, 200, 223,
Shephard RP 461, 586, 657 237,452,491,509,610,616,620-622,
Shepheard WW 457, 648 637,650,651,655
Shepherd J 298, 648 Sparks RSJ 317,318,648,650,656,658,659
Sheppard RA 315, 597 Spearing D 636
Sherwood NR 611 Spears DA 146, 229, 243, 244, 480, 606,
Shibaoka M 2,3,37,63,84,85, 103, 190, 616, 650
205, 261, 323, 518, 607, 621, 634, 646, Spray A 27, 650
648, 649, 652 Sprigg RC 27, 532, 650
Shieh YN 155,241,265,480,642,643 Sprunk GC 109,654
Shigo 11 604 Spyckerelle C 616
Shimoyama T 265, 479, 649 Stach Ell, 41, 52, 57, 78,107,112,116,117,
Shimp NF 643 119-121,137,142,161,166,168,170,
Shobert HH 629 172, 223, 229; 244, 484, 486,
Shultz JL 658 491,601,650,651
Shuttenhelm RTE 604,654 Stadler G 608
Siefert L 609 Staines HRE 428,651
Siever R 642, 643 Standards Association of Australia 27,651
Silber CC 602 Stanley DJ 610,642
Simon FO 602, 634 Stanton RW 229,609,651
Simon JA 154, 621 Staub JR 46,169, 171, 174,341,456,494,603,
Simoneit BRT 252,256,257,613,624, 608,609,617-619,626,627,641,645,651
637, 649 Stecyk AC 639
Simons DB 285, 287, 649 Steel RJ 354,610,618,639
Simony PS 643 Stejskal EO 647
Simpson 1M 607 Stephens JF 624
Sindler S 638 Stephenson PJ 651
Singh IB 287, 458, 645 Stevens KR 18, 49, 656
Sisson TW 319, 638 Stevenson IP 616
Skinner HCW 151,601 Stewart GA 603
Slansky JM 323, 240, 649 Stewart I McC 607,611,615
Slatyer RO 214,611 Stille H 36, 37, 516, 517, 523, 598, 651
Sloss LL 312,461,471,472,518,523, Stocking CR 657
583, 632, 649 Stocks HB 140,651
Sluiter IR 43, 198,209,630,634 Stoddart FG 305,306,445,614,651
Smee BW 637 Stoffier D 146,651
Smith AHV 137,164,166,172, 190, 194,649 Stone IJ 79, 651
Smith AL 659 Stopes MC 88, 132, 137, 140, 161,651
Smith DG 350, 351, 649 Stout SA 204, 216, 651
Smith GB 639 Straaten LMJU van 458,612,651
Author Index 675
Strachan MG 646,652 Tewalt SJ 426, 654

Strangeway OW 628 Tewari RC 351,609
Strasburger E 162, 651 Thiessen R 107, 109, 116, 265, 379,479,
Stratmann K 148,611,631 480, 654, 658
Strehlau K 38,80, 113, 164, 166, Thomas BR 252, 654
168-173, 176, 177, 182, 186-188, Thomas CG 646, 652
190,200,202,491,510,651 Thompson CL 634, 637
Streibl M 251,252,651,659 Thompson JB 604
Strobl RS 635 Thompson PW 667
Studier MH 625 Thompson RR 99, 181,604,654
Stutzer 0 109, 142,479,516,651,652 Thompson S III 638
Styan WB 9, 12, 13, 42, 44-46, 50, 53, 173, Thompson WO 435, 654
652 Thompson-Rizer CL 634
Succow M 5, 117, 652 Thompson J 306, 654
Suess E 523, 652 Thompson PW 171, 194,209,653,654
Suggate RP 226,229,479,576,578,591,652 Thomson S 298,310,654,658
Sullivan TO 635 Thomson S III 655
Summerhayes CP 468, 652 Thorne L 229, 654
Suter JR 606, 641 Thornton RCN 654
Sutton N 609 Tie Yiu-Liong 617
Svenson 0 298, 299, 632, 643 Till VS 301, 654
Svensson B 52, 652 Timofeev PP 199,226,654,655
Swaine OJ 148, 244, 480, 541, 607, 652 Ting FTC 164, 166, 190, 198, 223, 655
Sweaney JL 605 Tipper HW 561,655
Sweeney RE 242, 652 Tissot BP 14, 18, 34, 84, 245, 249, 251,
Swinchatt JP 627 253, 255-258, 611, 615, 616, 655
Symonds PA 617,635 Tobin C 28, 655
Todd RG 655
Totterdell JM 531, 535, 606
Tadros NZ 177, 202, 258-260, 493, Tourtelot HA 244, 655
506, 652 Townrow JA 328, 655
Tankard AJ 620 Tozer ET 647
Tanner FW 283, 652 Trask PO 599
Tarr W A 242, 652 Traves OM 631
Tasch KH 190, 192, 199,223,617,637,652 Traxel K 609
Tavener-Smith R 437, 454, 455, 652 Treibs A 255, 655
Taylor CP 298, 652 Treworgy CG 632
Taylor G 639 Trinkle EJ 177, 655
Taylor GA 318,652 Triplehorn OM 146, 605, 655
Taylor GH 3, 30, 37, 63, 67, 68, 107, 109, Trudinger PA 604,642
113, 117, 120, 127, 138, 141, 156, 182, Triimpy R 558, 655
190,211,218,242,244,246,379,485,501, Tschudy RH 164,631,655
604,607,630,634,644,649,651-653 Tugarinov AI 652
Taylor 1M 276, 653 Turner G 298, 655
Taylor RE 272, 646 Twenhofel WH 655
Teichmiiller M 7,26,41,43,60,68,72,
76, 78, 79, 82, 84, 85, 89, 105, 109, 117, 121,
Ubbelohde AR 80, 655
137,140,142,157,166,170,174,190,
194,209,213,216,223-225,229, UNOP 380, 655
Uren RE 445, 447, 448, 452, 453, 655
265, 322,477, 479, 480, 486, 488, 559,
572, 636, 640, 641, 644, 651, 653, 654
Teichmiiller R 60, 79, 82, 140, 142, 224, Vail PR 463-469,472, 598, 624, 638, 648,
265, 322, 404, 559, 606, 615, 636, 641, 651, 655,656
653,654 Valeska F 630
Templeman-Kluit OJ 638 Valkovic V 635
Ten Haven HL 177, 201, 246, 635 Vandenbroucke M 626
Termier P 142, 654 Vaninetti GE 427, 656
Terwindt JHJ 416,440,458,605,640,654 Vasey GM 403,656
676 Author Index
Vassallo AM 625, 659 Weering T-CE van 604, 654

Vassoyevich NB 654 Wehner H 629
Veevers JJ 572, 629, 656 Weier TE 229, 230, 657
Vella P 606 Weimer RJ 404, 658
Verheyen TV 204,625,629,656,659 Weisenfluh GA 603,608,609,617-619,
Veverka L 638 626, 627, 641, 645
Vicari H 660 Weller JM 360, 461, 490, 586, 657, 658
Villey M 640 Wellman HW 226,479, 658
Visher GS 386-388, 393,409, 656 Welte OH 14, 18,34,245,249,251-253,
Visser MJ 414,416,633,656 255-258, 607, 627, 633, 655, 658
Visser SA 17, 618 Wenger LM 224, 225, 658
Voisey AH 534, 535, 656 Werner H 617, 653
Volkman JK 252, 254, 256, 656 Wernicke B 568, 570, 658
Voo R van der 648 Westerveld J 529, 658
Westgate LM 241,658
West 011 TS 635, 638, 640, 649
Wadell H 271, 656 Weyland H 33,119,621
Wagner RH 164, 656 Whalley WB 648
Wagoner JC van 463, 464, 466, 467,506,598, Wheeler JO 658
656 Whelan JF 635
Waksman SA 18,49,379,656 Whitby KJ 298, 658
Walcott RI 519,656 White CM 246, 252, 658
Walker CT 243,480, 601, 619, 656 White 0 76, 117, 119, 265, 479, 480, 658
Walker GPL 317,318,327,650,656,658 White EW 616
Walker PL Jr 158, 640 White ME 2, 658
Walker RG 161,354,386,388,409,412,427, White WA 632
428,432,467,515,551,617,623,625, White WS 604
632, 642, 645, 646, 656 Whitmore TC 9, 11, 15,42-44,658
Wall TF 607, 611, 615, 657 Widmier JM 655
Walter H 16, 656 Wiems B 636
Walter MR 604, 642 Wijhe OH van 164,170,658
Walther J 1, 656 Wilcock S 533, 633
Waltho A 657 Wild GO 406,602,627
Walton EK 461,518,615,648 Wilde V 645
Walton GC 653 Wilford GE 15, 658
Wand less MV 229, 244, 637, 641 Wilk ZA 638
Wang Y 622 Williams A 534,640
Wanless HR 461,490,586,656,657 Williams EG 164,265,479,480,508,613,617,
Waples 0 84,252,657,658 645,658
Warbrooke PR 139,177,191,193,194,200, Williams GO li01
229-232, 236-239, 243, 244, 320, 321, Williams H 643
342-344, 346, 348, 357, 382, 450, 480, Williams JJ 608
493, 535, 539, 541, 614, 615, 657 Williams PF 361, 376,475, 509, 619, 658
Ward CR 138, 148-151, 154, 158,236,242, Williams RJ 298, 658
244,271,298,301,305,427,635,657 Williams VE 642
Warmelow KT van 32,623 Williamson IA 607
Warne SStJ 138, 140, 156, 158, 211, 653,657 Wilson CJN 327, 619, 658
Warwick PO 604 Wilson MA 92, 117, 246, 603, 625, 658, 659
Waskowitz RS 604 Wilson RCL 463, 659
Watson OMS 140, 651 Wilson RG 200, 611
Watson S 601 Wiltschko OV 469, 647
Waugh JS 642 Winans R 625
Webb GW 566, 657 Winder CG 636
Weber CR 349,604,605,657 Win dolph JR 427, 616
Weber M 301-305,657 Winkler E 211, 213, 248, 249, 254, 659
Weber-Oiefenback K 632 Winter MF 310, 659
Webster VJ 638 Wiser WH 660
Wedepohl KH 231,657 Witters J 643
Author Index 677
Wnuk C 35, 659 Yarzab RF 257,637,659

Wolf M 54,92,157,179,181,198,208-211, Yeakel JD 179,612,613,659
216, 217, 224, 229, 498, 512, 606, 607, Yelf R 298, 655
612, 623, 640, 643, 659 Yen TF 245,604,609,615,622,642,644,659,
Wolfe J 25, 659 660
Wolff-Fischer E 65, 78, 79, 103, 181, 209, Yole RW 628
216,217,220,224,226,235,498,512, Yost RA 644
607, 614, 623, 632, 640, 643, 659 Young BR 601
Wolk E 209, 659 Young RG 512,660
Wollrab V 251, 625, 659 Yu SM 298, 641
Wolman MG 350, 351, 355, 356, 374, 383, Yy-Lein A 604
633,659
Wong H 613
Wood J 305, 306, 651 Zaitlin BA 354, 660
Wood RE 660 Zak I 609
Woodcock JT 621 Zalesski MD 119,660
Woodford AO 1, 659 Zangerl R 60, 660
Woodland BG 156, 659 Zaritsky PV 146, 660
Woodsworth GJ 655 Zeichmann W 214,660
Woodward SM 383,659 Zelmer PP 255, 660
Woolnough WG 310,659 Zen E 604
Worsley TR 468,659 Zetzschke F 113, 660
Wright LD 413, 610 Zhang X 213, 637
Wright TV 318,659 Zhou YP 146,660
Wunderlich F 458, 645 Ziegler AM 25,641,648,660
Wyss WF 154,620 Ziegler PA 476, 660
Zilm K W 246, 660
Ziolkowski A 298, 660
Yablokov VS 655 Ziolkowski W 314,361, 368, 660
Yang Z 255,659 Zubovic P 232, 660
Subject Index
Aapamire (string-bog) 310 467, 494, 511, 534, 550, 553, 555
rx/3 hopane 254 Albian 586
abortive spores 114 alcohol 120, 254
absorption 149, 225, 307, 485 Aldebaran Sandstone 27
Acadian Mountains/Orogeny 565, 567 alders 30
accretion/-ary 441,515,523,527,548,562,598 Alethopteris 43
lapilli 317, 321, 322 Alexander Terrane 547, 562
non-volcanic arc assemblage 535 Alexandra River 351
planes 289, 352, 384-388,415,416,437,442, Alexo-Sachenach Formation 554
457 algae/algal 1, 4, 12-14, 17, 18, 32-34,46-48,71,
ridge barrier sands 454 72,78,87,119,120,162,163,173,174,197,
tectonics 527, 548, 555, 562, 593, 598 215, 249, 251, 254, 402, 485, 492, 498
acetic acid 250 alginite 78,89, 119, 120, 163, 173, 185, 199-201,
acid/-ity 6, 47,55,66,75,117,149, 169, 179, 180, 213,224,255, 311, 492, 498, 518, 572
185,212,214,242,246,247,264,478,486, aliphatic 22, 75-78, 112, 117, 120,203,205,248,
492, 541 250
peat 486 aliphatic/aromatic ratio 203, 204, 207, 213, 218
Ackama 42 alkali 6, 75, 264, 269, 309
acoustic velocities 303 alkaline 50, 121, 264, 486
Acrostichum aureum 42 earths 6, 244, 269, 264, 309
acrotelm 50, 52, 94, 95, 181,249,253,256,405 alkane 112, 213, 247-251
actinomycetes 50 alkene 248
activation energy 83, 84 alkylnaphthalene 257
acyclic hydrocarbon 248 alkylphenanthrene 257
Adamstown Subgroup 313, 364, 539-541 Alleghenian Orogenies 566
Adelaidean Fold Belt 531 Allegheny rocks/West Virginia 375
Adriatic plate 558 allochthonous 4, 16, 17, 46, 67, 171-176, 185,
adventitious 138, 140, 171, 232-238 199,353,408,425,490,491
ash 233-238, 310, 512 mineral 170, 232, 233
minerals 138, 140, 170, 171,202,230,263 plants 140, 173,411
Aegir Seam 221, 475, 476 allocyclic
aeolian 271, 429 forces 598
aerated water 63, 202, 214 mechanism 463
aerobic 47, 48, 53, 61 sea-level changes 507
bacteria 50 allophane 149
biodegradation 48, 105 aHosite 166, 199
organisms 49 alluvial 45, 381, 404, 418, 437, 505, 557
Mrica/-n 2, 17,413, 557 fan 354, 380, 506, 579, 593
plate 557, 566 plain 4, 16, 37, 169, 190, 191, 220, 349, 352,
Agathis 117 380,381,383,388,389,392,404-406,408,
aggradation 337, 350, 352, 378, 385 419,425,428,453-455,467,493,497,506,
air-borne particles 271 507, 510, 524, 525, 539, 541, 543
Alaska 34, 359, 563 ridge 169, 170,402,404,407
Albert Seam 398, 475 valley 37, 161, 352, 354, 380, 381, 407, 409,
Alberta 83, 351,404,412,415,418, 424,428,457, 446, 453
680 Subject Index
alluviation 416, 471 aquatic 46, 47, 173, 199

Almirante Bay 172 Araucaria 43
Alnus glutinosa 42, 218 arborescent 46
alpha (IX) cross-stratification 289, 387 gymnosperms 36
Alpine Fault (NZ) 577, 582 lycopod 164, 172, 173
Alps (European) 355, 37~ 526, 556-559 vegetation 6, 36, 148, 170, 171, 196, 197, 202,
Altiplano 17, 354, 560 474, 501
Alton Marine Band 157, 479 arborosite 200
Alum Mountain Volcanics 27 arc-trench system 529
alumina 6, 138, 139, 143 Archean 531, 574
aluminium 6, 229, 231, 243 Archerfield Sandstone 448, 452, 499, 502, 503
alumino-phosphate minerals 154 Archerfield-Bulga Formation 445-448, 453
Amazon 457 arenite 270, 273, 274, 281, 290, 294
amino acids 241, 257, 258 Argentina 14
sugars 245 arid 9, 18,25
amorphous peat 24 Arkarula Sandstone 446, 448
Amphitheatre Formation 547 arkose/arkosic sandstone 273, 578
anaerobic 47, 52, 59, 88, 94, 181, 230, 250, aromatic/ity 22, 75-78, 90, 103, 203-205, 213,
408 217,218,224,247,254,256,257
analcime 314, 315 arsenic 231, 239
anastomosed/anastomosing Articulatales 35
channel/flow/river 16, 293, 336, 348, 350- Artinskian 27, 28, 536-538
352,405 Ashford Basin 27
subsidiary splay faults 565 ashstone 314
vitrinite 199 Ashtonfields 540
Andaman Islands/Sea 528, 529 Asia 218, 517
Andes 527, 560 asthenosphere 518, 571, 586, 592
Andromeda 42 asymmetrical ripples 282, 429
anemophilous pollen 209 Atchafalaya River 426
Angara 38 Atjeh 529
Angelika Seam 399 Atlantic
Angiospermae 33 coast 42, 443, 451, 456, 494
angiosperm 39, 113,204,254 Ocean 544, 557, 566, 567, 575
biomarkers 219 seaboard 443, 575
wood 53, 92, 204 Atlantic-type continental margin 545, 556, 571,
Angola 380 575
anisotropic minerals 271 attribute properties 162, 187
anisotropy 95 attrinite 53,89, 100, 101, 128-130, 180,211
ankerite 150, 151,482 attritus 82, 129, 212
Anna aulacogen 585, 586, 589
Seam 398 Australasian Seam 313, 364, 404, 540
Shale 479 Australia/-n 2-4,17,27,32,33,36-38,43,48,78,
annual growth rings 18-20,28,29, 171,328 85,90,92,94,96,98,113,117,129,136,146,
anoxic zone 253, 256, 477 148, 150, 154-156, 162, 180, 182, 187, 189,
Antarctica 2, 38, 469, 531, 586 198,200,203,204,208-213,216,219-221,
anthracite 4,5,32,72-74,77,80,82,90,104,124, 226,236-239,244,251,254,298,301,310,
158, 561, 563, 592 313,320,322,331,336,339,348,352,359,
Anthracite Coal Basins 360 361,376,377,408,424,426,428,452,453,
antidune 282, 285, 286, 288, 316, 317 455,458,464,468,480,485,506-508,512,
antithetic fault blocks 570 520,526,531,543,572,575,577,585-588,
Anvil Rock 591, 593
Channel 339 Austria 558
Sandstone 336 authigenesis 140,232,269
apatite 151, 153, 482 authigenic 140, 150, 197,230,232,258,267,269,
Appalachian/-s 164, 186, 188,424,442,461,520, 273, 314, 490
565-567, 599 autochthonous 4,14,17,46,96,140,170-173,
Appin Colliery 341 175,180,184-187,200-202,311,379,411,
Aptian Epoch 572 504, 509-511, 515
Subject Index 681
autocyclic 463, 507, 598 barium 209, 231, 239

autosedimentational 4, 170, 341, 343, 346-348, bark 20,50-54, 103, 105, 179,207
404,463,598 barred shoreline 429, 432-435, 448
Autun 33 barrier 429, 430, 474, 504
Avicennia marina 42 beach 12, 13, 172,292,293,295,409,427-429,
Awaba Tuff 313, 328, 365, 374-377 435-438,444,447,448,453-456,462,473,
Ayrdale Sandstone 29 490,494-496,498,502,505,506,511,581
islands 429, 444, 456, 495
progradation 466, 508
/111. hopane 254 retrogradation 444
back-levee swamp 404 barrier-lagoon complex 454
backarc 522, 528-530, 533, 555 Bartlett Member 353
backbarrier4,190,191,350,381,409,427-430, basal
440-444,447,448,451-456,463,473,474, conglomerate 447, 464, 533, 538
490, 494, 495, 498, 507, 511, 512, 550, erosion/-al contact 318, 337-339, 387, 391,
581 403,414,419,422,432,441,442,449,457
backshore 429, 437-439, 451 non-erosive contact 419
backswamp 16, 329, 348, 392, 585 fanglomerates 571
backwash 432, 435 basalt 530, 544, 575, 590, 592
bacteria/-l 13, 44, 47, 50, 52, 59, 92,148,170,171, base surge 318, 319
173,202,212,214,215,217,223,230,232, basement 407, 408, 509,532, 544, 556, 577, 581,
241,245,250,254,258,261,262,264,408, 589,594
423,477,478,480,484,485,491,492,494, basin 10, 17,37,83,84,182,183,200,266,280,
509,541 313,337,343,345,350,354,360,463,468,
bacteriopheophytin 256 475,476,498,515-519,522-525,529-531,
Baeckea 42 533-535,538,542-563,565-570,577,583-
Baileysville 457 585, 586, 592, 594
balanced section modelling 570 Battle River Coalfield 459
Baldur Seam 396 bauxite 144
Bali Trough 528 Bavaria 213, 355, 374, 534, 543, 556
ball and pillow structures 280, 291, 295 bay 12, 409, 413, 419, 422
Ballimore Beds 28 Bayswater Seam 69, 109, 110, 191, 347, 445-
Balmer coal 554 448,452-454,491,498-505,510-512
Balmoral Seam 29, 65 Model 504, 505
Banda Sea 530 BayswaterjWynn Seam couplet 473, 509
banded bright (Bd) coal (clarain) 132-137, 191, PP hopane, 254
196,203-207,211,212,405,407,408,453, beach, 427, 505
507,508,510,524 barrier 312, 410, 454, 455
banded (BD) coal (duroclarain) 132-137, 196, cusps 435
202-207,211,212,405,524,574 deposits 447
banded dull (Db) coal (clarodurain) 132-137, front 443
170,196,198,202-207,212,405,408,510, lamination 429, 435-437, 442, 448,449
574 ridge 437, 441, 443, 444, 499
Bandelier Tuff 319 sand 292, 432,511
Banff Formation 554 beachface 430
Banff National Park 354, 550 Bear Island 35
bank collapse 422 Bear Paw Formation 415, 418
bankfull Beauchene Island 52
channel depth 384 Beaufort-Mackenzie Basin 467
discharge 351, 356 Beauly Firth 15
width of channel 383 bed 7, 8, 75, 212, 270, 282-287, 349
Bankhall Colliery 346 bedding 61, 65, 81, 277, 280, 284, 297, 317, 387,
Bankston Fork Limestones 336 411, 418, 422, 423, 458, 541
bar 12, 13,350,356,358,359,387,409,427,432, bedload 270, 330, 349, 356, 370, 373, 385-387,
434, 448, 573 416, 462
Baralaba 28,150 Belgium 476, 523
Baram DeltajRiver 15, 16 Bellbird Lens 491
Barisan Mountains 529, 531 Belly River Formation 551, 553, 555
682 Subject Index
Belmont 23, 376 Black Jack Formation/Coal Measures 28, 260,

Bennettitales 33, 261,426,491,492
bentonitejbentonitic 146, 149, 314, 348 Blackhawk Formation 413, 419, 442, 454
benzene rings 256 Backwater 28
Beresfield Seam 363, 540 Blackwater District, Queensland 137
berm (beach ridge) 429, 430, 437-439, 444, 448, Blaimore Group 551
454,455 Blair Athol 28
Berriasian 586 Blakefield Seam 445
beryllium 239 blanket deposits 391, 501
Besserdich Seam 401 block faulting 571, 575
beta (p) cross-stratification 289, 387 Bliicher Seam 398
Betula pubescens 42 Bluff 28
Bhabar 557 bog 3, 5-9, 16,41-46,139,148,164,168,172-
Bicoloria 116 176,182,184,187,197,202,212,214,227,
Big Ben Seam 348, 362, 540 263,264,350,377,378,406,493,530,568
bimaceral/-ic microlithotypes 137, 193 bogen structure 104
bimodal azimuth 440,541 Boggabri 182-185, 190,200, 310
biochemical 18,47,65 Bolton Point Conglomerate 359, 361, 366, 367,
degradation 196 373,-376, 378
gelification 52, 88, 179, 205, 207, 212, 213 Bolzano 557
increase in aromaticity 204, 207 Bonaparte Gulf Basin 586, 588
processes 52 bond cracking 217
sediments 269 bone coal 407, 408
biodegradation 105, 113, 117, 120, 166,202,216, Bonner Branch 457
217, 249, 256, 328, 379, 424 Book Cliffs 512
bioliths 230 Boolaroo Subgroup 313, 364, 541
biological 3, 26, 47, 245 Booragul Tuff 313, 376
biomarker 219, 245, 246, 252 border thrusts 360, 524, 525, 533, 543
biomass 5,11,44,46,47,49,53,61,139,164,169, bore 87, 134, 135, 198, 298, 299, 301, 306, 349,
171,182,200,205,207,217,232,245,249, 437,493
257,263,346,378,381,405,406,425,485, boreal rainforests 50
511, 599 Borehole Seam 133, 134, 141, 147, 148, 191, 192,
biopolymers 204, 216, 217 307,313,344,382,383,431,436,437,443,
biotite 147, 308, 315, 321 450,451,453,454,493-498,500,502,504-
bioturbated sediments 1,421,422,428,431,447, 507, 540
451,452,454,458,495,550,551,557,574, Borken 213
581 Borneo 9, 174, 528
bioturbation 221, 297, 390, 411, 416, 418, 429, boron 1, 148, 164, 166,223,229,231,232,239,
457, 458, 493 242,243,447,475,480,493,539,541,
birches 30 boron/gallium 243
birdfoot delta 380,410 boronflithium 243
bireflectance 72, 81 Botryococcus braunii 33, 120
birefringence 53 Botswana 168, 380
bitumen 109,213,225 Bottom Hutton Seam 309
bituminite 89, 148, 213 bounce marks 291
bituminous 1,5,8, 12,22,31,48,53,55,57,59, Bowen Basin 22, 28, 48, 60, 69, 70,108,151,202-
61,69,74,80,89,90,92,98, 101, 104, 107, 204,206,207,300,335,428,446,447,506,
112, 113, 116, 120-124, 127, 132, 135-137, 531, 533
150,151,156,158,177,180,189,200,202, Bowron River Basin 547
203,205,207,209,224,230,235,236,247, Bowser Basin 547, 562
249,251,254,256,263,303,322,345,451, BR density 304, 305
470,477,516,552,562,563,572,579,582, brachiopods, 32, 166, 221, 401
585, 592, 593 brackish 11, 12, 164, 220-223, 264, 380, 440,
bivalve 175,221,401,454 451,452,461,475,480,486,489,491,493,
black coal 57, 88, 72, 77, 87, 90, 103, 104, 113, 494, 508, 512, 541
132, 178, 199-207 water 33,42, 166, 169,170,232,424,425,440,
Black Forest 568 451,452
Subject Index 683
braid plain 4, 37, 191, 194, 335, 336, 349, 350, C-H-O compounds 73
352-380, 405, 453, 512, 525, 542, 581 C 4 -naphthalene/phenanthrene
deposits 330, 331, 351,352,359-380,386,574 ratios 257
Bramsche Massif 82 Cache Creek Terrane 547
Brandfusinit 105 cadmium 239
Branxton/Branxton, Formation 342, 485, 486, Cadomin Formation 550
537 Cadomin coalfield 494
Brazil, 14,498 caesium 240
breaker line 429, 432 Cairns 28
Brereton Limestone 339, 479 Calamariaceae 33
Bretonian tectonic phase 524 Calamites 43, 390, 404
Bridge River Terrane 547 Calamogrostis 42
bright (B) coal lithotypes (vitrain) 132-137, 148, calcite 85, 150-152,244,268,418,482
150,164,170,173,196,202-207,244,303, calcium 229, 231, 240
328, 329, 346, 350, 361, 367, 377, 389, 391, calcrete formation 381
405,407,408,488,507,508,510,524-526, Caledonian 476, 557
539 Calen Coal Measures 27
brightness log 134 Calgary 458
Brisbane 28, 532, 593 caliperlogftool 300, 302-305
British Columbia 12, 45, 50, 53, 120, 174, 520, Callcott's EIDuent Triangle 72, 73
554,562,563 Callide Coal Measures 28
brittle deformation 570 Callitris 43
bromine 239 Calluna 42
Broonie Seam 445, 447, 453, 502, 503 Calophyllum 42
brown coal 4, 5, 18,30,41,53,54,57,61,72-75, calorific value 75
77,81,87,89,90,92,96,99-104,107,113, cambium 18, 19
127-132,150,177-180,199,203,205-214, Cambrian, 14, 33, 544, 549, 555
230,237,251,255,256,258,404,516,562, Campanian 587
563, 57~ 590, 591,592,594, 595 Canada/Canadian 7, 9,12,42,83,351,354,361,
brownness 134, 208 368,376,381,387,390,404,412,415,418,
Brunei 15 424,428,441,442,453,455,457,458,467,
Brunner Coal Measures 226, 490, 520, 576, 578, 494,495,506,508,511,512,520,543-549,
581,582 552, 553, 561, 565, 567, 585, 592
brush marks 291 Canberra 532
Bryophyta 33 Canmore 554
bryozoa 32 Cantabrian Zone 360
BSE mode 139 Canterbury Plains 354, 374, 589, 590
Buchanan Tunnel 362,414,418,423 caoutchouc 255
Budgewoi 373 Cape Breton Island 567
Buff Point Seam 313, 365 Cape Fold Belt 531
Bulahdelah 27 Carbankerite 123
Bulga Formation 448, 452, 499, 502, 503 carbargilite 123, 126, 169, 170, 197
Buller Coalfield 576, 581, 582 carbohydrate 242, 245
Bulli Seam 39, 54, 134-136, 191,200,201,216, carbominerite 124, 137, 177, 196-198, 488
278,283,292,293,336,341 carbon 50, 58-60, 70-77, 80, 82, 92, 104, 105,
Bullmoose Mine 511 112,130,131,203,228-230,248,253,256,
Biindner Schiefer 557 264,302,477,478,497,499,500
Buntsandstein 595 atoms 78, 80, 215
burial history 84 dioxide 8, 47, 49, 50, 73, 76, 131
buried ramps 570 preference index (Cpn 249, 250
Burma 565 carbonaceous shale 132,281,296,341,493,541
Burrum 28 carbonate 8, 21, 22, 76, 94, 123, 137, 138, 150-
Burwood Beach 337 158,244,299, 327, 389,48~ 557
bush fire 16~ 163 Carbondale Formation, 339, 479
Buttai Seam, 363 Carboniferous 2, 3, 7, 9, 21, 26-28, 33, 35-38, 43,
butyric acid 250 48,67,70,71,82,92,109-114,122,123,138,
Bylong 338 148, 164, 169-172, 174, 179, 183, 188, 190,
684 Subject Index
Carboniferous (cont.) 411-423, 430, 432, 438, 440-442, 447,

220-226,241,306,309,310,322,349-351, 449-451,456,458,462,542,551
360,377,382,386,387,389,390,394,395, avulsion 278, 312, 339, 346, 352, 358, 391,402,
403-406,408,413,422,432,443,455,457, 413,414,418,423,426,462
462,463,469,475,476,480,486,490,498, braided 170,335,336,350-374,378,386,538,
508,510,516,517,531-539,544,560,563, 579, 593
566, 567, 572, 586, 588, 592, 593, 599 deposit/sediment 330-337, 339, 341, 351-
CarboniferousjPermian unconformity 221, 223 353,359-373,379,381,391,401,404,423,
carbonisation 99, 103, 297 440, 539, 550, 574
carbonyl groups 204 flow/current 340, 357, 358, 416, 449
carbopolyminerite 123, 124 gradients 270, 351, 355, 471
carbopyrite 123 meander/-ing 16,289,329,336,348,349,355,
carbosilicite 123 374,381-386,388,402,407,416,442
carboxyIj-ic 50, 92, 205, 245, 251 migration 346, 348, 349, 381
Cardiff 28, 574, 575 mouth 380, 427
Cardiopteris 43 profile 471, 488, 514
Cardium Formation 467 sinuosity 191, 262, 349-351, 355, 373, 374,
Carex 23, 42, 43, 178 380-384,413, 538
hyalinolepis 24 width/depth ratio 330, 349, 355
lyn 42 char/-red 59, 63-65, 75, 76,163, 171,327
carotenoid/-s 113, 215, 254 charcoal 21, 25, 46, 58, 59, 64, 65, 105,171, 174,
Cascade Mountain 550 179, 180, 203, 207
Cascadia Terrane 547 Charlestown Conglomerate 361, 364
Castanea 43 Chatham Islands 591
Catherine Hill Bay 366, 367, 373, 439 chelate complexes 237
catotelm 50, 52, 53, 88, 95, 249, 253, 256 chemical
Caytoniales 33 activity 65, 230
cell (inc!. plant cells) 4, 19-22,24,49,52-60,61, decomposition 26
64-66, 67, 69, 82, 90, 92-95, 97, 99-107, digestion 92
117,120,121,126,130,138,139, 149,150, element/-al 52, 72, 73, 76, 78, 140, 228-233,
152, 155, 178, 181, 182, 184, 190, 196, 199, 237-240, 243, 258, 265
205,217,219,230,256,477 enrichment 231, 243, 244
cellulose 19-22,26,48,49,53,55,61,66,71,91, weathering 268, 269, 543
92, 95, 181, 203, 204, 213, 214, 216-219, chemofossils 245-247
229, 256 Chernier-barrier deposits 420
celluloseflignin ratio 214 chert 268, 315, 534, 535, 549
cementing minerals 299 China 213, 218
Cenomanian 28, 586, 587 chitinous cuticles 117
cenophytic 33 chlorite 149,482
Cenozoic 33, 426, 530, 544 chlorine 229
Central chloroform 247
African graben zone 17 Chlorophycea 33
Coal Basin 361 chlorophyll 230, 252, 254, 255
Complex 532, 535 Chriemhilt Seam 396
German Ridge 560 Christchurch 358, 589, 591
& Southern Fold Belt 532 chromium 231, 239
cephalopods 401 chrysene 257
cerium 239, 244 chute 386, 387
Cessnock 27,342 Cincinnati Arch 520, 586
CH 4 /C0 2 ratio 74 cinder dykes 297
Chain Valley Seam 313, 365, 376 cinerite 146, 148
chalcedony 150, 268, 315, 482 cingulum 164
Chaloneria 43 Cladium 43
Changuinola 172 Clarence-Moreton Basin 28, 593
channel 12,46, 164,171,190,263,279,289,293, clarite 123, 125, 127, 137, 164-166, 170, 193,
310, 336-339, 348, 352, 356, 358, 361, 196,197,409,488,518
367-374, 376, 381-389, 394, 402, 404, clarodurite 170, 173, 193, 196-198,202
Subject Index 685
clast/-ic 175,269,280,291,296,297,339,354, 202,263,306,350,361,368,379,452,464,

356,474,490,538,563,571 466,469,471,474-478,480,484-491,493-
sediment/-ation 7, 176, 268, 276, 305, 335, 498,502,505,507-510,512-514,567,583,
348, 538, 557, 571 594,598
wedge 330, 354, 524, 535, 542, 548 fracture pattern 127
clastics 13, 18, 525, 542, 553 freeze-dried 209
clay 11, 15,24,59,123,126,132,137-144,148- geology 266, 598
150,158,164,169,184,229,232,242,243, measures 3,4,28, 35, 37,47, 146, 162, 176, 182,
261,268-274,281,283,295,299,301-303, 183,190,192,194,215,224,226,230,231,
308,320,331,341,344-348;351,360,390, 241,242-244,256,258,261,266,268,269,
402,408,411,419,456,482,483,553,585, 271,277,280,281,284,288,289,296-301,
590 305,306,310,312,329,336,339,342,343,
claystone 140, 141, 146,263,281,301,308,315, 349,351,359,360,361,381-383,386,389,
319-321,348,401,407,408,572,538 402-417,424,428,432,440,453,457-462,
Clearfield County 407 464,475,477,479,497,498,502,506-508,
cleat 102, 121, 138, 141, 151, 152, 156, 157 516-519,522,524,530,532,535,538-540,
Clifton Formation/Group 351, 381, 390 543,550,559-563,567,572,574,578,579,
climate/climatic 2, 9,11,13,19,25,26,44,45,48, 582-586,589-593
49, 174, 197, 375, 378, 463, 467, 469, 470, microscopy 79, 161
543, 544 minerals 6-8,13,76,123,137-159,170,197,
climbing ripples (ripple drift) 285, 390, 392 209,240,258,348,424
Clipper Basin 589 petrology 4, 597, 598
Clostridium 217, 219 phytogenic precursors 4, 48, 92,138,140,163,
desulfuricans 217, 242 229
cluster analysis 240 plants 41, 138, 164
Clyde River Coal Measures 27 ply 490,503
coagulants 323 properties 3, 39, 71, 73, 74,181,261,477,485,
Coal 486,492,503,504,512,515
age 246, 561 quality 161, 264, 301, 304, 306, 427
age/rank relationship 552 raw 226, 237, 482, 578, 582
air dried (ad) 76, 134,208 reserves 516, 583
analysis 38, 138, 162, 229, 303 resistivity 303
ash 6-9, 13, 76, 122, 123, 131, 137, 138, 157, resources 545, 589
168-172,191,192,195,202,209,213,226- roof 1, 4, 9, 16, 154, 166, 220, 221, 228, 265,
230,232-239,243,258,259,261-263,304, 266,275,278,280,292,294,311-339,348,
305,310,345-348,360,361,377,404,407, 349,373,377,456,461,474-491,493,494,
427,428,474,490,509,518,574,578,582 497, 498, 503, 508-510, 513, 514, 567
balls 179, 346 samples 78, 185, 190,222, 226, 229, 246, 322,
beds 28, 305 378, 453, 482
boghead 17, 32,47,87,120,158,163,172,311, sapropelic4, 87, 113, 119, 164, 172, 185, 188,
353 189,222-225,255,311,405,407,485,489,
brightness 105, 208 572
cannel 38,47, 87, 113,153, 172,222,482,353, science 306, 597
491 seam 4,122,140,141,170,175,199,209,259,
characteristics 301, 350 320,337-348,374,377,404,409,445,448,
classification 75 452,470,474,485,499,507,508,510,535
clasts 322-326 steam 27, 28
colour 127 stratification 127
components/composition/constituents 4, 18, type 4, 16, 37, 41, 48, 74, 78, 130, 161, 173,
21,37,48,52,68,71,74,77,87,88,103,132, 192-215, 227, 247, 263, 524, 525, 574
161,169,182,192,194,198,228-230,232, vitrinite-rich 37, 100, 166, 408
238-240,242,244,265,311,407,448,453, Coal Cliff Sandstone 292
471,477,493,506,508-510,518,541,574 coal/channel relationships 336
development 525, 550, 551, 557 coal/floor couples 266
dykes 276, 277 coal-laminated shale 281
exploration 266, 298, 299, 301 coal/mineral associations 124
formation 7, 17, 161, 168, 172, 175, 187,201, coalfield setting 468, 516-518, 520, 522, 523,
686 Subject Index
coalfield setting (cont.) 506,513,524,525,534-544,549-551,563,

526,529,547,568-572,575,576,581,583- 574, 579, 591, 593
585,591-593 conglomerate/sandstone transitions 331
coalification 4,5,8,18,22,35,37,41,45,48-50, conifer 218, 257
52,57-66,70-75,77,80-90,99,100,103, Coniferales 33, 39
104, 113, 121, 127, 136, 139-141, 178, coning and quartering 198
203-205,207,211,212,214-221,224-227, conjugate double bonds 215
230-232,235,245-248,252-257,311,312, Conocarpus erecta 42
322, 477, 515, 552, 585, 592, 598 conodonts 153, 154,244,401,482
Coast Plutonic Complex 544, 545, 547, 548 contact-metamorphic rock 268
coast/-al 4, 9, 12-17,32, 169,263,312,381,412, continental
426-430,439,443,444,451,455,458,467, collision 519, 520, 522, 523, 526, 557, 565
471,473-475,483,485,490,494,495,498, embankment 544, 549, 550, 556, 557, 570
511, 518, 525, 572 embayment 585, 589
coastline 9, 13, 410, 448, 449, 452, 583 foreland 556
cobalt 229, 231, 244 interior 591
cobble 269, 270 lithosphere 529, 570, 592
coefficient of roundness 272 margin 32, 516, 517, 543-545, 556, 562, 567,
coking coals 428 569-571, 576, 581-589
cold climate flora 68 plate 517, 527, 556, 559
Coldwater Beds 547 rifting 518, 519, 567, 569, 571, 583, 584, 591
Collie 28, 102, 573-575 separation 567, 583
Collie Burn Series 28 slope 32, 466, 518, 584
collinite 88-90, 142 convolute 280, 291, 296
Collinsville 352 Cooktown 28
Coal Measures 27, 428 Coopers Creek 352
colloid/-aI50, 53, 55-57, 66, 89, 90, 94, 96,101- Coorong Lagoon 33, 120
103, 119, 151, 153,214, 219, 220, 269 copper 229, 231, 239, 244
colloids 47,52,55-57,59,67,90,94,95,97,100, Cordaitales 33, 39
102, 103, 112, 118, 119, 138, 143,214,232, cordaitean-rich coals 179
269 cordaites 43, 179
collophane 153, 482 cordillera 544-546, 561
Cologne 258, 345 core 299, 301
Colorado 18, 256 cork 18, 19, 103-105, 120, 196
River 393 corpocollinite 53, 55, 57, 89, 100, 102, 103
colour 134, 199, 208-214, 381 corpogelinite 130
column chromatography 247 corpohuminite 89, 102, 103
combination sonde 304 corpomacrinite 67, 69, 112, 184
compressional stress 522 corposclerotinite 107, 108
Combretocarpus 42, 212 cortex 18, 20, 116, 117
combustion 58, 60, 66, 104, 105, 180, 184, 196, cortical tissue 90, 102, 104
207,311 Cowgitz field 561
compactability 265, 473 Cowper Tuff 313,328
compaction 1, 12, 53, 55, 61, 75, 77, 81,130,139, crandallite 244
140,156,266,294,330,334,335,341,348, crass is pores 116, 163
424,473-475,485,512 crassisporinite, 114, 163
compressive strength 300 craton/-ic 340, 468, 517, 518, 521, 524-526, 530,
Compton scattering 302 533-535,538,544,545,565,566,583,585,
Conant Limestone 336, 339,479 589
conchoidal fracture 52 Cratoxylum 42
concretion 22, 138, 140,241,269,280,390,452 creek 386, 402, 423, 440
condensation 57, 76-78, 82, 90, 204, 205, 217, Cretaceous 14, 26, 28, 33, 34, 39, 83, 120, 226,
257 254,256,257,353,404,412,413,415,418,
cone-in-cone 152, 156 419,424,428,442,448,454,457,467,494,
Congaree River 387 505-507,511,512,544,548,549,551-555,
conglomerate 260, 270-273, 280,330-338,359- 557, 561-563, 577, 578, 586-589, 591,
376,378,386,401,426,451,464,495,497, 599
Subject Index 687
crevasse/crevassing 289, 333, 391-394,405,414, Dacrydium 43

417-423, 426, 462 Dactylocladus 42
crocodile teeth 572 Dadoxylon 392
Cromerian 469 Dalwood Group 28, 342, 536
cross-bedding/-lamination/-stratification 17, Danube River 355, 374
283,284,288-290,316,317,319,331-333, dark (Dk) lithotype 130, 131, 180,203-214,254
340,341,349,352,353,356,357,361-369, Darling Downs 28
371,387-392,411,416-422,428-432,435, data processing 306
437,440-443,449-451,455,457,458,474, Dawson Lake 547
542, 548, 573, 585, 591 de-watering structures 310
cross-linking 92, 204, 205 debris flow 354, 535, 593
Croudace Bay Formation 361, 365, 369 decarboxylation 8, 73, 92, 251, 252
crown fires 162, 179 deciduous flora/vegetation 2, 30, 68, 197
Crows Nest Volcanics 555 decollement 548
Crowsnest Coalfield 120 Deep River Basin 520, 575
crude oil 245 deep sea 526-529, 544, 556
crust/-aI468, 515, 518-523, 525, 527-529, 532, Deerplay Fault 346
543-545,548,555,557-559,564,565,567- deformational structures 295
570, 572, 581, 583-586, 591, 592 degassing 76, 144
crystallinity 90, 156, 308 deglaciation 495, 594
CSR 212 degrado-sernifusinite 60, 62, 108, 136, 199
Cumberland Group 351-353, 389, 390, 394, degradofusinite 105, 107, 108
539 degradosclerotinite 108
cumulative floats 344, 348 dehydration 53, 55, 59-61, 66, 73, 81, 87, 88,95,
Cupressus 43 139, 156, 163, 180, 253, 257, 308, 512
Curie-Point mass spectrometry 248 dehydroxylation 8, 92, 137, 158, 204, 257, 307
Curlewis 27 delta 3, 9,12,13,15,168,191,280,281,333,349,
current 268, 274, 276-279, 282-285, 290-293, 350,354,361,380,381,392,404,407,409-
384,393,411,413,416-419,427,431,435, 428,439-445,448,449,453,454,456-458,
439,442,448,451,456 462,463,466,470,474-477,506,507,509,
Currier Formation 547, 562 510, 524, 559, 571, 583, 585, 586, 589
Curtis Island 572 plain 4, 12, 13, 16, 37, 50, 161, 169, 191, 350,
cuspate ripple cross-lamination 449 380-383,386,389,392,403-419,423-426,
cut-and-fill channels 368 444-447,452,453,456,459,466,474,485,
cuticle 20, 28, 30,49,70,72,107,116,117,163, 493,497,498,506,507,509,510,524,525,
197, 223, 241, 424, 486 538, 541, 550, 585, 586
cuticloclarite 196, 197 progradation 13, 168,282,410,413,419,424,
cutin/cutinite 2, 89, 114, 116, 117, 120, 130, 135, 425,457,466
163, 197, 379, 424, 425, 484, 485, 488 demethanation 73-75, 204
cutite 197 demethylation 204
Cycadales 33 Dempsey Formation 495, 537
Cyanophyceae 33 Denison Trough 27
Cyanophyta 32 Denmark 443
Cycadales 39 densinite 53, 89, 100, 101, 129, 130, 179, 180,211
cyclic 256, 461 density 79, 124, 135-138,235,243,258,259,300,
cyclo-alkanes 250 302-304, 432, 519
cyclo-paraffins 250 densospore38, 114, 116, 126,163-168,170-176,
Cyclodendron 43 199, 222
cyclothem 4, 461, 462, 598 densosporinite 161, 163, 164, 166-176, 186, 188,
Cygnet Coal Measures 28 199, 202, 222, 223, 405, 498, 510
Cuperus papyrus L. 380 Densosporites 162, 164, 175
cypress 10 oblatus 164, 166
Cyrilla 23, 25, 178, 179, 206, 207 depocentre 525, 566
C. racemiflora 42 depolymerisation 92,117,216,217
Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus 211 depositional environments 2-4, 9, 25, 41, 47,50,
Czechoslovakia 244, 251 103,142,146,162,179,190,192,194,213,
215,224,226,230,231,241,242,244,250,
688 Subject Inde:x:
depositional environments (cont.) Distichlis 42

256,258,266,269,277,289,299,311,312, distributary channel 12, 13, 289, 350, 386, 409-
330,349,355,359,379,424,426,453,458, 416,418-422,426,427,448,456,462,585
459,463,465-467,471,472,474,479,502, diurnal reversals 440
507,508,516-518,524,539,543,561,563, Dixon Park Beach 435
564, 578, 585, 589, 592-594, 598, 599 Dnjepr River 16
depth of burial 264 Dogger 28
descending plate 526, 530 dohexacontane 249
desiccation 18,46,58-67,87, 103, 112, 127, 134, dolerite 82
162,164,169,171,180,190,200,205,311, dolomite 21, 140, 150-152,244,389,482,549
322,360,381,492,493,504 Domina
desmocollinite 53, 59, 67, 82, 89, 98, 100, 101, horizon 221
112,166,170,180,195,216,252,424,489 seam 397, 476
desoxophylloerythroetioporphyrins (DPEP) domino (tilt-block) array 570, 571
255 Donaldson Seam 348, 362
Desulphovibrio desulfuricans 217, 242 Donar Seam 396
detachment fault 568-570 Donau Glacial 469
detrogelinite 89, 100, 103 Donau/Giinz Interglacial 469
detro-inertinite 89, 109, 130, 135, 148, 170, 181, Donjek 359, 368, 376
184, 190, 206, 208 dopplerite 55
autochthonous 379 doppleritic xylite 205
dispersed 200 downed
detromicrinite 109 logs 322
detrosite 199 trees 326-328
detrovitrinite 2, 3, 53, 57, 59, 67, 69, 70, 89, 98- downlap/-ping 464, 498, 499, 505
101, 110, 114, 118, 119, 130, 135, 148, 156, DPEP-porphyrin 256
162,166,169,170,172,178,181,191,205, DPEP/ETIO ratio 256
206,208,210-212,217,219,220,227,252, drag marks 291, 293
407,424,427,485-489,492,503,512,515, drainage 258, 266, 310, 407, 536
578,582 Drosera 42
devitrification 146, 308 Drosera anglica 44
devolatilisation 8, 75, 82, 235 drought 46, 171
Devonian 26, 33, 34, 38, 117,517,534,549,554, Drumheller 412, 415, 418, 457-459, 553
565, 586 dry
Dewey Point Member 382 ash-free (daf) basis 76, 82, 253
dextral faults 563, 564 (db) basis 76, 237, 238
Dezadeash Group 547 distillation 22
diagenesis 22, 41, 99,140,141,150,151,156,180, forest swamp 192, 198, 200, 345, 346
249, 275, 591 lithotypes 311
diagonal bar, 356 mineral matter free (dmmf) basis 76, 237, 238,
diamond drill holes 374 477, 478, 497, 500
diastem 543 organic matter free (domf) basis 237, 238
dicarboxylic acid 120 DTA techniques 308
dichloromethane 247 Dubbo 28
Dickebank Seam 399 Dudley Seam, 134, 147, 191,200,235-237,277,
dicotyledons 39 313, 344, 363, 385,403,494, 540
Dicranum fuscescens 51 dull (D) coal (durain) 37, 132-137, 164, 166, 170,
dilatation 477 172, 189, 191, 196, 198-204,244,303,311,
Dinarides 557 328,329,346,350,377,379,405-408,484,
dipmeter 303 510, 512, 518, 524, 539, 574
directional Duncan Seam 111
fabric/features 277 dune/dunes 282, 285, 286, 317, 319, 414, 429,
structures 401, 585 430, 437, 438
dirt band 202, 490 Dunedin 17,589-591
Disaccites 211 Diinnebank Seam 399
dispersed organic matter (DOM) 85, 224, 225, Dunolli Formation 581
402, 411, 598 Dunvegan Formation 506
Subject Index 689
Durban 437, 454 minerals 140, 141, 150, 155, 242, 483
Durham Coalfield 403, 405 precipitate 269
durite 123, 137, 164, 166, 169-172, 186, 188, 189, recrystallisation 230
193-198,202,488,518 epoxi-type resin 121
duroclarite 126, 170, 193-197,200 epsilon (6) cross-stratification 289, 387
Dutch North Sea coast 432, 440, 438 equal-time horizon 505
equilibrium temperature 84
Equisetales 33
Earth 520 Equisetophyta 35
magnetic dipole axes 26 Equisetum limosum 42
magnetism 274 Erda Seam 396
rotational axis 26 Erft Basin 345
East African (graben) rift system 17, 572 Erica 42, 44
East Kootenay 552 Eriophorum 42, 44
East Maitland 28 vaginatum 44
Eastern Cordillera (-n) Fold Belt 544, 545, 548, Ermeloo 33
555 eroded peat 361, 474
Eastern Terrane 547 Eromanga Basin 14
Eburonian 469 Esk Trough 593
Ecca Group 413, 454 erosionj-aI35, 46, 291, 312, 336, 392,435,449,
Edgeworth Tuff 313 466, 473, 510, 555, 589, 592
Edinburgh 322 contact/surface 318, 331, 336, 337, 340, 348,
Edmonton 358,367,370,385-387,391,392,401,403,
Formation 553 404,413,419,422,432,441,442,447,451,
Group 550 457, 543
Eemian 469 disconformity 509
effiuent 73-75, 82 remnants 562
EI Sudd 17, 168, 170 scours 330
Elaeocarpus 42 surface 360, 373, 451, 467
Elbe River 456 thinning 519, 583-585
Eldon Formation 555 truncation 411, 464
electric point counter 124 unconformity 470
electron microprobe analysis 158 essential
electrons 215 elements 230, 244
Eleocharis 42 oils 252
Elk Formation 120, 550 ester 20, 113,249,250
Elphinstone 28 Estonia 32, 119
Elsterian 469 estuary 4, 15, 284, 350, 416, 427, 456-459, 583
Elymus 42 estuarine setting 409
Emery 419, 454 etching techniques 39, 54, 89, 101
endothermic reaction 307 acidified potassium permanganate 39,. 89
Energy Shale 339, 479 oxidative 56
EnglandjEnglish 523 eugelinite 53, 57, 89, 100, 102, 130
ensialic 530 eugeosynclinal
enzymes 230 assemblage 516
Eocene 17, 18,30,213,226,404,490,522,558, sediments 535
563, 572, 581, 586-588, 595 Euler poles 564
Epacridaceae 42 Euramerica/-n 2, 38, 43
epeirogenic sagging 518, 592 Eurasia/Eurasian plate 565
epi-detachment ramp/flat 571 EuropejEuropean 2, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16,21,30,42,
epiclastic 148, 149,209,263,266,267,269,270, 43, 154, 218, 221, 355, 476, 477, 516, 517,
313,322,392,427,509 523,526,557,567,589,595
epicontinental 13, 30, 31, 524, 530, 589-592 eustasy/eustatic 424, 456, 465-469, 499
epidermis 117 eutrophic 10, 170,213,417
epieugeosyncline 515 margins of raised bogs 172
epigenetic eutrophy 148, 167, 202, 212
gelification 95, 96, 100, 179-181,213 eu-ulminite 53, 89, 92-97, 100, 102, 130, 180
690 Subject Index
evaporation 25, 46 Fern Valley swamp 335, 336

evaporite 18, 549, 557, 586 fern 24, 35, 38
evapotranspiration 9 peat 172
Everglades 10, 212,481 fern-like plants 32
excitation (radiation) 70, 80, 215 Fernie Basin 553, 554
exine 38, 70, 113, 114, 116, 117, 137, 163,241, Fernie Formation 428
249,488 Fernie Group 550
exogeosyncline 523, 535 ferro-magnesian minerals 274
exothermic reactions 308 Ferron Sandstone 424, 508
exsudatinite 89, 108, 121 ferrous iron-reaction with H 2 S 480
extensional tectonics 522, 533, 543, 563, 568- fibrous
570, 583, 598 peat 22, 23
extraformational conglomerate 386 brown coal 128, 129
Filicales 35
Filicophyta 35
Fabasporites exilis 1'15 Finefrau Seam 400, 476
fabric 266, 267, 272, 274-279 Fingal 28, 55, 116
ab-plane 354 Fingal Valley 117
ac-plane 296, 352, 433 fir30
bc-plane 337 fire 46, 63, 162, 169-171, 179,252
clast-/framework-supported 273, 276, 409 clay 309
framework/matrix (M/F) ratio 23, 24, 44, 178 horizon 46, 174
matrix-supported 273, 274, 331 splay 46,171,174,341
facies 1, 3,4, 7, 9, 12,25,48, 135, 169, 170, 172, first order cycle 468
176,177,179,181,186,190-200,207,225, fish
261,280,298,299,312,346,360,370,378, bones 154, 572
379,405,407,451-453,459,462,498,500, teeth 153, 244
503, 504, 511, 512, 515, 539-541, 585, 586, fissure 121, 151
597 fixed carbon 75, 76
failed rift 585 Fl facies 360, 361, 373
Fairford Claystone 445 flame structure 280, 291, 295, 296
Fairholme Formation 554 flaser bedding 284, 411, 423, 428, 541, 574
fair-weather flash pyrolysis 257
discharge rates 356 Flat Creek 582
sedimentation 443 float/sink methods 159
water level 351 floating 24
wave base 429, 430, 432, 451, 471, 473 flocculation 180
Falher Member 424 flood 12, 13, 170, 263, 285, 290, 354, 388, 389,
fan delta 333, 354, 361 391, 402, 404, 419
Fassifern 192, 540 basin 16, 170,202,281,353,371,374,381-
Fassifern Seam 313, 328, 365, 375-380 383,388,392-407,418,490
fat 121,250 deposits 391
fatty acid 117, 217, 247, 250, 251 peak 356, 388, 389,419
Fiiulnis 47 plain 16, 169, 170, 281, 290, 337, 351-353,
fault/-ing 521, 543, 564-566, 585, 593 356,370,371,373,381-383,385,388-393,
fault- 402-408,442,447,476,490,567
bounded 529, 530, 560, 563, 574 deposit/sediment 172, 281, 293, 329, 353,
scarp 578, 579 370,374,382,385,389,393,401,404,419,
fauna 32, 221, 403, 458, 476 497, 571, 578, 585
Fe-rich chlorite 149 water 10, 67,169,170,185,202,263,265,353,
feeding traces 60, 221, 401 355,356,375,391,417
feldspar 142, 144, 147, 148,268,269, 273, 308, flooded valley floors 572
420, 449 flooding 170,176,417,419,424,447,493,495,
feldspathic wacke 273, 523 501,510
fen 6, 10, 15, 192, 350 frequency 391
Fern Valley Seam (Lower and Upper) 313, 330- rift basin 571
334, 364, 370, 371, 374, 389 seasonal 169, 170, 380, 501
LlUUJt:i'-'L .LllUt:iA U:1'
floor 1,4,36, 167,265,306-312,407,474,479 current 411

flora 2,3,10,24,25,37-44,46,68, 117, 182, 197, deposit/sediment 218, 293, 336, 339, 382, 389,
214 402, 416, 474, 559, 563, 579, 581, 586
Florida 10, 11, 13-15, 17,42,163,164,181,212, gravel 463, 590
241,258,479,481,491,509 sandstone 277, 280, 291, 294, 336-339, 348,
flow 266,276-287,321,336 352,385,391,402-404,407,415,440,451,
competence 270 495, 497, 508, 567, 571, 585
deposit 319 transportation 336
mantle material 559 fluvio-deltaic coal-bearing sequence 586
regime 387, 388 fluvio-Iacustrine 560
lower 285-286, 290, 349, 388, 391,442,443, flysch 274, 516, 527
449 Fm facies 360, 361
upper 285-287, 349, 355, 388, 391,435,442, fold belt 37, 274, 519, 556, 559, 565
449 bilateral symmetry 556
segregation 451 embryonic 530
stability 351 fold belt/foredeep couplet 355
texture 55 folded molasse 534
vector system 267 folding 82, 543
velocity 269, 270, 386 Foothills 548, 551, 553, 555
fluid foraminifera 222, 401
coalification products 73 Ford lake 579
escape 280, 411 Ford Mudstone 578, 579
inclusions 85, 87 forearc basin 522, 528-530, 533-535, 556
fluor-apatite 244 foredeep/foreland basin 37, 83, 182, 261, 274,
fluorescence 70, 79, 80, 91, 92, 95,105, 106, 107, 280, 281, 340, 360, 424, 468, 476, 489,
111,112,114,119,120,186,213-225,245, 515-527,530-544,550-559,565-567,571,
255,262,264,324,325,485-487,491,492, 585
503,515 foreland 260, 354, 523, 525, 528, 529, 533, 535,
alginite 120 546, 549, 553
desmocollinite 216 foreset (Sf-plane) 277-279, 288, 318, 331, 333,
detrovitrinite 219 335,340,341,368,384,387,415,421,433,
groundmass 213 440,450,451,457
huminite 217, 218 foreshelf 525, 528, 530
inertinite 216, 219 foreshore 429, 430, 432, 435-439, 447-449, 451,
intensity 80, 103,215-221,223,323,325,485, 495, 497, 506
491, 492, 503, 504, 511, 598 forest 22, 46
liptinite 122 bog 6, 7, 11, 16
measurements 222 fire 61, 63, 162
microscopy 39, 157 peat/-land 9, 11, 172,339,379,405,425
primary 92,216,217 swamp 7, 8,169-171,192,197,198,200,345,
secondary 217 346
telovitrinite 216, 219, 220, 485, 486, 491,503, Fort Union Formation 351, 402, 409, 426
504,513 fossil 58, 166, 245, 278, 380, 461, 477, 482
vitrinite 214, 215, 218, 220, 221, 223, 264, 485, assemblage 349
491,492,498,504,508,510,512,514,539 fuels 12
wavelength 80, 209, 215-217, 219-221, 430, orientation 277-279, 327, 341
492, 504, 513 river 382
fluorine 240 soil (palaeosol) 309, 495
fluorinite 89 Four Mile
fluorometry 79, 80, 219 Creek Formation 362
fluorophore 215, 217-219 Point 291, 352, 353
flute casts 280, 291, 292 Fourier transform infra-red spectrometry/
fluvial 281, 330, 348, 349, 351, 382, 384, 409, 457, spectroscopy (FTIR/FTIRS) 159, 203,
476, 581 204,246
action/activity 410, 474 fourth order cycles 463, 506
channel 289, 310, 336-339 Foybrook Formation 408
conglomerate 451 France 33, 476, 523, 572
692 Subject Index
Franco-German border 17 Gannister 479

Fraser River 12, 45 Garvey Creek Coalfield 576, 581
delta 9, 50, 174 gas
Formation 547, 563 chromatographic analysis 249
freeze-drying 30, 63, 65, 209, 263, 379, 501 chromatography (GC) 246
Freitag Formation 27 -mass spectroscopy-computer (GC-MS-
French Massif Central 17 C) techniques 248
fresh-water 14-16, 33, 42, 164, 175, 220-223, gas liquid chromatography (LC) 247
231,232,244,261,301,312,403,411,452, heave structures 274, 280, 411
457,459,485,491,493,494,518,544,560 gas/water escape structure 291
fossil 166, 461 . Gastrioceras listeri 479
lake 16, 168 gastropods 572
limestone 403, 490 Gates Formation 428, 506, 511, 551
marsh 12, 15, 452 Geiger-MUller counter 302
saw grass 11, 15 Geiseltal 595
sediments 222, 475, 479, 494, 508, 562 Geitling Seam 400
swamp 16,200,232,424 gelification 3, 52, 53, 57, 59, 66, 89, 94, 95, 97,
Freya Seam 396 100,104,108,127,129,130,179-181,190,
Friedrich Heinrich Colliery 481-483, 488, 489 191,197,203-205,207,209,212,213,459,
Front/-al Ranges 83, 551, 552, 555 497, 539, 541
frontal g. index (GI) 180, 181, 184-190, 198,206,207,
slope of a subdelta 422 252,264,350,378-380,405,417,424,425,
splay 411, 440 447,452,453,500,503,504,507,509-513,
thrust/-ing 534, 565 539-541, 597
Froude Number 287, 349, 388 gelinite 89, 102, 103, 179
fuel ratio 76 gelo-inertinite 89, 107, 112, 135, 181, 206, 208
functional groups 90, 154, 245, 249, 256 gelocollinite 53, 57, 58, 89, 100, 101
Fundy Rift Zone 566 gelovitrinite 3, 53, 57, 89, 100, 102, 107, 130, 181,
fungal/fungi 33, 50, 214, 258 206,208, 210-212
action/activity/attack 47, 60, 262 geochemical
hyphae 218 biomarkers 246
matter 178 fossils 245
remains 107, 108,213 gelification 57
spores 101, 108 mire settings 230, 244
tissue 60, 62, 196 prospecting 230
fusain (F) 132-137, 169, 170, 174,202-204,207, signatures 228, 245
311,346 geochemistry 176, 322
Fushun Basin 255 geographic latitude 25-27
fusibility 65, 99, 103 geophysical
fusinite 2, 48, 58-61, 65, 67, 71, 72, 77, 89, 103- coal exploration 298, 299
105, 107, 108, 126, 130, 137 150, 154, 155, log (wireline) 300, 301, 303, 349
162,163,169,170,172,173,181,184-189, logging 299, 301, 302
196,197,200-202,216,235,252,341,405, geopolymer 204, 217
425 Georgia 23, 58, 178, 458
fusinitisation 21, 49, 58, 65, 180 geosynclinal concept 515, 598
fusite 123, 126 geotectonic setting 516, 517
fusitoclarite 195-197 geothermal gradient 82, 559, 592
German
Bight 456, 458
gallium 231, 239, 255 Creek Coal Measures 335, 300, 428
Gallup Coalfield 353 germanium 239
gamma Germany 2, 8, 36, 45,56,82,98,110,180,210-
(y) cross-stratification 289, 387 213,224,252,257,258,307,345,390,415,
radiation source 302 433,462,476,481,483,488,489,508,520,
ray log 300-305 523, 543, 560, 572, 595
Gangamopteris, 43 Gieseler Fluidity 221, 477
ganister 309 Gilbert-type delta 333
Subject Index 693
Ginkgoales 33 grass 10, 12, 13, 39, 451

Gippsland Basin 42, 84, 90, 92, 96, 101, 102, 117, gravel 401, 411, 413, 428, 442, 463
180,198,203,210-213,237,251,520,586- bars 358, 359
588 sheet 354, 375, 377, 378, 542
Girondelle Seam 221, 399, 400, 476 Gravina-Nutzotin Terrane 547, 562
glacial 349 gravitational force field 277
cycles 524 gravity slide 335, 548
intercalations 538 Great
marine sediment 538 Artesian Basin 28, 520
valleys 594 Australian Bight 575, 581
glaciation 9,469,495 Barrier Reef 464
glacier 32, 594 Heath 174
glacio-eustatic 468, 469 Northern Seam 216, 313, 365, 372, 376, 512-
Gladstone 17,28,572 514, 540
Glanzbraunkohle 129 Sumatran Fault Trough System 529
Glebe Formation 364 green algae 33
Gleichenia 42 Green River oil shales 18, 33,229
Glen Munro Seam 445 Greenland Group 576
global greensand 589-591
sea-level positions 468 greenstones 535
tectonics 515 Gregg River Mine 511
Gloeocapsa 32 greigite 157
Gloeocapsomorpha prisca 32, 119 Grenzsandstein 401, 433, 440, 442
glossopterids 501 Greta
Glossopteris 39, 43, 107, 277, 278 Coal Measures 28, 29, 34,279,294, 342, 484,
flora 3, 30, 38 486,487,536,537,539,541
Gloucester Basin 202-204 Seam 28, 34, 68, 106, 191, 192,220,221,241,
glycerol 250 296,426,427,452,477,478,485-487,491,
Glyptostrobus 43 509, 541
Gm facies 360, 361, 368, 369 Greta/Pelton Seam 509
Goldlight Lake 498 Grey-Inangahua Depression 576, 582
Goldlight Mudstone 581 Greymouth 520, 577, 578
Gondwana 2,3,28,38,43,65,469,480,501,565, greywacke 273, 274, 579, 582
572 Grimberg Seam 397
climate 375, 480 Grillo 1/2 Colliery 157,481-483,488,489
coals 28, 43, 63, 65, 67,190,223,241,306,425, groove casts 291, 293, 294
492, 599 Groundhog Coalfield 562
flora 117, 182 groundwater 4, 35, 37, 47, 48, 50, 185, 190, 195,
Gondwanidium 43 202,211,214,237,242,261,264,266,319,
Gonystylus 42 406, 407, 444, 471, 512
Goonyella Middle Seam 428 fluctuations/oscillations 35, 87, 209
Gordonia 42 table 3, 5, 9-12, 17,35,45-53,61,60,87, 163,
Gottessegen Seam 401, 415, 440 175,176,179,182,190,197,201,406
goyazite 154, 244 Gt facies 360, 361
Gp facies 360, 361 Guadalcanal 520
graben 17, 519, 570, 571, 574, 589, 591, 593 Gulf of Mexico 14, 443
graded bedding 185, 187,201,207,281,451,501 Gunnedah Basin 21, 31, 48, 57, 118, 182, 186,
Grafton Shales 28 258-261,310,426,446,448,491,507,
grain-mounts 198 531
Grande Cache Coalfield 83, 494, 511 Gunz/Mindel Interglacial 469
Grande Cache Member 551 Gustav Seam 398
Grande Couche 4 gutta 255
granite 535, 544, 576 gymnosperm 19, 36, 39, 53, 70, 71, 92, 113,252,
granule conglomerate 331, 370, 573 256, 257, 501
graphite 32, 78-81, 83, 592 Gymnospermae 33
graphitisation 80, 81, 87 gymnospermous plants 3
graphitoid crystallinity 256 gypsum 242, 549
694 Subject Index
gyttja 47 cross-beds 331, 368

peat 50 lithotypes 135, 148
point bar accretion planes 387
heterosporous 38, 113
H-Grade 51 Hidaka Basin 522
H/C ratio 52, 59, 68,112,130,131,205,213,218, high
262, 264, 490, 499, 500, 510 energy channel 271, 354, 374, 457, 580
H/C versus O/C diagram 71, 72 moor 5, 6,10
H 2 S,480 pressure metamorphic 81, 85
Haast Terrane 591 resolution reflection seismic 298, 303
Hacquebard's double triangle 194-198 volatile bituminous coal 5, 21, 31, 48, 57, 58,
Hagen Seam 148, 176, 393, 396 60, 66, 69, 72, 74, 76, 80, 97, 99, 101, 102,
Haida Formation 547, 561, 562 105,107,108, 111, 114, 118, 120, 149, 165,
hailstone imprints 291, 294 180,186,188,204,205,207,216,217,224,
half-grabens 519, 570, 571, 574, 575, 589-591 235,236,247,250,252-254,256,263,322,
Halifax Hard Bed Coal 156, 157,479 345,451,453,562,563,579,580,582,590,
Halle/Saale 595 593
halophytic vegetation 458 high-performance liquid chromatography
hanging wall 553, 570, 571 (HPLC) 247, 248
Hannover 45, 390 highstand systems tract (HST) 464, 465, 468,
Hapton Valley Colliery 346 495,498, 508, 512
Hartbraunkohle 129 Highveld Coalfield 310
Hat Creek 177, 547, 563 Hill Top Drift Mine 346
Hartley Hill Seam 313, 364 Hillsborough TufT 313, 364
Hauptfloz 210 Hilt's Rule 82
Hawkesbury Sandstone 536 Himalayas 526, 557, 565
Hawks Crag Breccia 578, 579 Hjulstrom's Diagram 269
Hazard No.6 Coal 387 hogback 310
Hazard North 387 Hohensyburg 433
heat Hokkaido 522
bulge 519, 570 Holland 174, 345,433,434,443,476
flow 71, 82, 592 Holocene 14, 15, 17,30, 163, 327, 374, 375, 378,
heavy minerals 146, 159, 268, 437, 448 429, 456, 469, 481
Hebburn No.2 Colliery 296 Holsteinian 469
Helene Seam 398 homogeneous macerals 214
Helmstedt 211, 213 homogenisation 52, 77
Helvetic Alps 558 homogeneous
hemicellulose 49, 66 anisotropic 274-276
hemiterpene 252 isotropic 274, 275
hemoglobin 255 statistically isotropic 274, 275
heptane 249 homogenisation 52, 77
herbaceous plant tissue 67
cell tissues 48 temperature 85
plants 11, 12,21,22,53,58,72,90, 100, 170, vegetable matter 190
179,185,191 homohopanes 212
undergrowth 197, 328 homosporous 38
herbosite 200 plants 113
Herrin (No.6) Coal 174, 337, 339, 479 Hongai Coalfield 4
Herrin Seam 154 hopane 253, 254
herringbone cross-bedding/stratification 416, hopanoid 253
418,428,440,458 hornfels 268
hetero-atoms 255 horsebacks 310
heterocollinite 10 1 Horseshoe Canyon Formation 457, 553
heterocompounds 213, 256 horsetail 35
heterocyclic compounds 247, 255 horst 571
heterogeneous Hoskissons Seam 258-261, 446, 448, 491-493,
anisotropic 275 504
Subject Index 695
hot spot 568, 592 hydroxybenzene 256

Hugo Seam 398 hydroxyl 205, 245, 302
humates 180 hydroxyl-apatite 244
humic 4, 18,22,27,28,34,35,49,51-53,55,60, hypautochthonous 17, 166, 172, 185,311,425,
61,65,67,75,87,90,95, 101, 113, 119, 120, 484,491,508,510,567
127,130,172,195,219-223,245,255,257, coal 189, 501
263,328,482,488,491,572 peat components 406
acid 47, 55, 66, 72, 75, 94, 101, 179, 180, 185, hypothetical coal 237, 238
265
colloids 47,52,55,67,69,71,95,101,103,112,
214
degradation products 205, 217, 223, 243 ice
humification/humified 4, 47-61, 65, 66, 72, 88, crystal 28, 29
92, 97, 100, 105, 119, 127, 129, 139, 164, imprints 291, 294
178-181,185,189,191,197,201,202,204, rafted pebbles 495
205,212,216,217,233,245,249,251,253, Iceland 520, 568
311, 379,493 Ida Seam 398
wood 55, 60, 61, 94, 171 ideal cyclothem 461, 462
huminite 57, 72, 88-90, 99, 103, 122, 217, 218 Iduna 1 Seam 393, 396
huminosity 51, 403, 493 igneous
hummock 317, 432 activity 548, 562, 583
and hollow 173 intrusion 544, 561
hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) 429-432, rock 268, 298, 548
437, 440, 450, 455, 474, 550 ignimbrite 318
humocollinite 53, 55, 89, 90, 101, 130, 177,211 Ilex 42
humodetrinite 53, 55, 89,100,130,177,210,211 Illawarra Coal Measures 28, 278, 283, 296, 329,
humotelinite 53, 57, 89, 92, 93, 99,130,177,210, 338, 542
211 Illinois Basin 154, 164, 174, 243, 244, 336, 337,
humus 49, 51, 214 479, 480, 520, 599
Hunter Valley 27-29,36,107,192,202,391,426, illite 144, 148,227,242,243,301,308,315,348,
445, 453, 478, 535, 537, 540 482
Dome Belt 534 imbrication 69, 201, 277-279, 356, 358, 370
Hunter- India/-n 2, 38, 349, 351, 565
Bowen Orogeny 534 . Ocean 528, 529
Mooki Thrust System 446, 532, 534, 543 plate 557, 565
Hunterlab Colorimeter 208 Indiana 391, 507
hydration 55, 59,268, 302, 310 Indo-Australian Plate 527
hydro-aromatic bridges 256 Indo-Pacific region 9
hydrocarbon 33, 38, 60, 215, 247, 248, 322 Indochina 528, 529
hydroexplosions 320, 321 Indogangetic Basin/plain 354, 374, 556, 557
hydrogen 52, 68, 72-75, 77, 92, 130, 131 202- Indonesian Archipelago 527, 528, 530
204, 212 228, 229 235, 239, 248, 250, 257, inertinite 2, 37, 38, 49,58,59,65,71-73,79,88,
264, 302, 477, 478, 497, 499, 500, 507 89,97, 100, 101, 103-109, 122-127, 135-
peroxide oxidation 158 137,139,140,162-166,170,177,181-207,
sulphide 13, 241, 477, 478 210,212,217-219,226,227,239,256,311,
hydrogen-bearing compounds 235 344,345,377,406,424,453,484,488,490,
hydro lases 92 493,498,500-504,508,510,512,513,526,
hydrological connection 17 540, 541, 574
hydrolyse/hydrolysis 6, 55, 59, 65, 92, 95, 148, Inertite 123, 127, 137, 193,488, 518
250, 268, 315 inertodetrinite 2, 60, 61, 67-70, 89, 109, 110,
hydrolytic 122,126,130,137,139,172,184-189,195,
decomposition 47, 49, 55 197-201,207, 311, 324, 328, 379, 452, 484,
splitting 66 490, 493, 501
hydrophytic plants 168 inertodetrite 193, 197
hydroplastic peat 297 inertovitrite 197
hydroplasts 323 inflow/evaporation ratio 168
hydrous 268, 269 infra-red spectroscopic analyses 204
696 Subject Index
inherent ash 47, 138, 140, 171, 184, 200, 232- ionised oxygen 158
238, 263, 346, 348, 379 Ipswich Coal Measures 28
inland ice 27 Ireland 476
inlet channel 440, 442, 449 iron 138,229, 231, 240, 244, 255
inorganic 375 carbonate 327
constituents 47, 135, 138, 139, 408 oxide 237, 448
detritus 16 sulphide 13, 156, 424
forms of sulphur 154 supply 408
geochemistry 161 iron-bearing dolomite 150
matter 49, 138, 139, 157, 170, 229, 233, 263 irradiation energy 215
inorganically bound elements 238 Irtysh 16
insects 50, 60, 92 Irwin River Coal Measures 28
instrumental neutron activation analysis island arc volcanics 545
(INAA) 229 Island Block 581
Insular Belt 544, 545, 547, 561 Island Sandstone 578, 581
intercellular space 20, 55 iso-alkanes 248, 250
interdistributary bay 10, 13,284,290,411-414, iso-fatty acids 252
416-423,425,426,440,509 isolith map 260
interference ripples 288 isometamorphic coals 248
interglacial periods 467 isopach 341, 409, 427, 450, 532
Interior Basins 585 isoprene 250, 251
Interior Plains 553 isoprenoid 215, 252, 254, 256
intermicellar 77, 78 isostatically compensated crust 519
mobile phase 218, 256 isotherms 82
side chains 76, 82 isotope ratio 241, 478
Intermontane Belt 544, 545, 547, 561-563 Italia Road Formation 27
Internationa} classification system 87 Itea 42
interplume IV Factor 192
position 584
rifting 586
interrogating radiation 301 Jackerath Horst 345
interseam James Bay 495
sediments 1,200, 266, 306 Japanese
tuff 146, 313-315, 319 coalfields 520
intertidal 195, 284, 293, 414, 423, 430, 440, 458 islands 522
Intertropical Convergence Zone 25 Java 148, 378, 528-530
intra- Trench 530
arc basins 529 Jay Member 578, 579
seam tonsteinjtuff 144-146, 313 Jerrys Plains 445, 446
intraclast 368, 373, 422 Jewel Seam 453, 494, 511, 512
intracontinental tectonics 581 Jewell's Swamp 23
intracratonic Jinsuo Basin 213
basin 452, 498, 568 Joe River 15
rift 588 Joggins 291, 294, 351-353, 389, 390, 392, 453,
setting 592 539
intradeep 515, 517, 518, 521, 531, 544, 548, 556, Johann Seam 398
559-561, 563-565, 561, 567, 592, 598
Julia Creek 33
intraformational clasts 372, 373 Jurassic 2,14,26,28,33,34,54,82,544,548,549,
intralithospheric volcanism 592 551, 553, 555, 557, 562, 588, 592
intramontane
basin 17, 518, 530, 559
molasse 559, 516, 562
setting 565 K-feldspar 147
trough 515, 544, 547, 561, 564 Kaapvaal Craton 531
intraplate Kaiata Mudstone 578, 588
flexuring 545 Kaiboura Orogeny 588
position 529 Kaisberg Conglomerate 401
Subject Index 697
Kaiserstuhl 568 Kuznetsk 35

Kalahari BasinjDesert 380, 381 Kyushu 479
Kalimantan 169, 212
Kalmia 42
Kanangra Walls 533 L Seam 221
Kandelia candle 42 Lachlan Fold Belt 531, 533
Kangaroo River 27 lacustrine 17, 38, 119, 163, 168, 174-176, 199,
Kanimblan Orogeny 531 201,209,213,220,223,255,348,353,485,
kaolinite 141-149,227,242,274,308,315,344, 490,491, 562, 572, 579
345,482 deposit/sediment 17,218,311,374,385,403,
kaolinitisation 142, 308 404,474,486,490,491,495,513,563,571,
biotite 143, 145, 147 572, 594
feldspar 269 transgression 493, 581
claystone/tonstein 133, 139, 142, 143, 145, Laevigatosporites minor 175
147 lag deposit 331, 368, 374, 435, 442, 447-449,
mica 269 451,462,474
volcanic rocks 147 Lagarostrobus 42
Kappa (K) cross-stratification 290, 388 lagoon/-al 10, 12-15, 119, 120, 168, 348, 350,
Karignan Conglomerate 376 409,424,429,439,442-444,450,451,454-
Karl Seam 398 456,473,485,489,490,494,496,497,499,
Karoline Seam 399 505
Karroo Basin 413, 437, 454, 507, 531, 594 deposit/sediment 428, 440, 442, 443, 454, 455,
Karweil Diagram 84 473,494,509
Kassel 213 Laguncularia racemosa 42
Katharina Seam 56, 62, 67, 110, 152, 153, 156, lahar 318
157,221,244,307,416,417,476-478,481- Laird Formation 507
484, 488, 489, 509 lake 11, 16, 168,174,283,335,353,373,402,403,
Katharina-Hermann-Gustav Seam 398, 417, 518, 572, 594
422 Lake Agassiz 174
Kazakhstan 35 Lake Tanganyika 572
Kazanian 27, 28, 536, 537 Lake Titicaca 17, 518, 560
Kentucky 382, 386, 387, 389,413,419,424,427, Lake Victoria 17
454,455 lamalginite 120
Kermadec 523 Lambda (2) cross-stratification 290, 388
kerogen 224, 246 Lambton Subgroup 135, 136, 146-148, 313,
Kianga 28 363, 539-541
Kimberley Seam 291, 352, 353 laminated/lamination 17, 281, 387, 388, 435-
King Georges Sound 458 438, 440, 442, 451
king tide 169 claystone 320
kittosite 166, 219 deposits 338, 348, 374
Klagenfurt 557 mud 443
Kobold Seam 396 sandstone 447, 458
Koel-Damodar Valley 351 shale 388, 389, 391, 421
Konigslutter-Bernburg 594 silt 388, 443, 458, 550
Konigsmoor 45 laminite 229, 274, 275, 278, 281, 329, 385, 392,
Kootenay Formation 428 393,411,421,422,450,495,550,571,585
Kootenay Group 547, 550, 551, 553, 554 lammacrinite 67, 69, 112, 201
Kosi River 349, 374 Lancashire Coalfield 179, 346
Kotara Formation 330, 371 land plants 34,47
Krebs mine 407 lanthanum 231, 239
Kreftenscher Seam 400 lapilli 314, 318
Kugmallit Formation 467 Lappland 50
Kukersite 32, 119 Laramide Orogeny 83, 563
Kungurian 28, 536, 537 laser induced carbonisation 103
Kuntha Hill 28 laterite 143
Kupferschiefer 595 latifolia 42
Kuttung facies 534 Latrobe
698 Subject Index
Latrobe (cont.) lipid/-s 78,109,216,217,219,229,245,246,250,

Group 586-588 264, 485, 493, 504
Seam 96 liptinite 2, 68, 70-82, 88, 89,100,101,109-127,
Valley 4, 90, 94,117, 130, 131,211 130-137,140,148,161,163,170,177,190,
Laura Seam 28, 398, 417, 476 194-198,201-203,205,206,208-212,218,
Laurentia 566 222-224,227,235,239,248,252,253,324,
Laurophyllum 43 344,379,427,485,486,488,492,504,513,
Lawrencetown Lake 441, 443, 444 540,541
Lawson Shale 336 liptite 123
layer ordering 80 . liptodetrinite 89, 114, 121, 130, 172, 184, 185,
leached alkalis and alkaline earths 309 201,203,211,218,219,223,485,488,490
lead 231, 239, 244 liptohuminite 218
leading plate edge 521, 527, 555 liptohumocollinite 218
leafjleaves 17, 19, 20, 24, 25, 31, 34, 35, 67, 70, liptohumotelinite 218
105,116, 117, 136,593 listric fan 570
Ledum 42 Lithgow Seam 446
Leeuwin Block 572 lithicjlithification 268, 273, 405, 523
Leigh Creek 17,28,242 lithium 231
Coal Measures 28 lithofacies 266, 298, 299,305,306,360,371,381,
lenticular bedding 284, 428 461, 462, 496, 505, 541, 585
Lepidodendraceae 33 lithology log 300, 304
Lepidodendron 43,164 lithosome 267, 297, 312,450,455
Lepidophloios 43, 164 lithospherejlithospheric 518, 526, 527, 529, 556,
leucocratic clastics 274, 525 568, 570-572, 591, 592
leucospore-rich vitrinite/fusinite facies 175, 176 lithotype-black coal 4, 87, 127-137, 148, 166,
levee bank 13, 168,388,390-393,404,414,419, 180,198-207,210,249,254,299,311,340,
422,424,427 346,377,405,408,471,484,510-512,574
breachedfbreaching 16, 278, 391, 392, 404, lithotype-brown coal 90, 92, 122, 127-131, 177,
419 179,180,199,202-214,249,254
deposit 329, 390-393, 402, 412 Litsea 42
levigelinite 89, 102, 180 Little River Coal Measures 28
Lewis Thrust 553 Livingstone Formation 554
lichen 51, 120 Load casts/pockets 280, 291, 295
Liddell Seam 196, 408, 409 load-induced subsidence 519
Lidsdale Seam 446 Lochinvar Anticline 342, 345
light lithotype (Lt) 130, 131,203-214, 254 Loki Seam 396
lightning strike 46, 173 long-chain monomers of fatty acid 120
lignified cell walls 19,20, 100 longitudinal ripple 288
lignin 19,21,22,41,48-51,53,60,61.71,90- longshore
92,95,181,203,204,213-216,218,229,256 accretion 429
lignin-based aromaticity 218 currents 410, 411
lignin-rich cell walls 53, 92 dispersal of sand 427
lignosite 200 drift 12, 13, 380, 448
Ligurian plate 557 trough 432, 434, 435, 449
limeflime-rich soils 139, 268 lLJphozia species 51
limestone 151,226,268,274,302,304,312,403, Louisiana 8, 14,424
419,454,461,490,525,534,545,549,555, Love channel waves 298
557, 572, 582, 585, 586 low angle 556, 568
limnic11, 16, 18, 195,201,223,252,488,498,518 ash coal/peat 3, 7, 168, 170-172, 176, 195,
limnotelmaticl1,46, 162, 169, 172,178, 195, 197 202,428
200,201,213,344,378,381,404,406,408, energy environment 284, 442
425,511 salinity lagoon 168
linear regression 216 sulphur coals 154, 241
lingoid megaripples 357 temperature ashing 76, 158
Lingula 166 volatile bituminous coal 5, 72, 74, 76, 99, 113,
lingulids 401 116, 552, 563
linsen bedding 458 Low Bamsley Seam 163,198
Subject Index 699
Lower precursors 73, 181, 185, 406

Bowen Volcanics 27 properties 71, 77
Clarion coal 407, 437, 509 Mackay 27
Donaldson Seam 540 mackinawite 157
Freeport Sandstone 349 Macquarie Syncline 342
Fresh-water Molasse 559 macrinite 2, 61, 67, 69, 70, 72, 89,95, to7, 110-
Kittanning Seam 166, 186, 188, 199,200,223, 112, 126, 136, 163, 181, 189, 190, 196, 197,
509 201, 207, 216, 235
Marine Molasse 559 macro/megaspore/megasporinite 113, 114, 120,
Mountain Seam 346 178, 198,-200
Pilot Seam 313, 315-317, 321, 326, 327, 364 macrofibrils 20
Rhine 179, 212-214, 258, 345, 413 macroite 196, 197
lowland 16, 589 macrotidal shoreline 430, 434, 439, 440, 456
lowstand systems tract (LST) 464, 465, 507, 508 Madagascar 2
LS density 304 magmatic injection/intrusion 519, 521, 548
Ludlow Member 426 magnesite 150
Luise Seam 399 magnesium 139,229-231,240,244
lunate megaripples 429, 430, 432, 433, 440, 451, magnetic
455 latitude 25, 26
Lunda Ridge 380 survey 298
lupane 254 pole 26
Luscar Coalfield 494 minerals 159
Luscar Group 551 Magnolia 42
lutaceous deposit/sediment 352, 361, 374, 382 Maine 174
lutite 17,270,281,290,294,295,301,383,389, Maitland 28, 342
411, 513, 535 Maitland Group 342, 536, 541
Lycophyta 35 major elements 228, 232
lycopidiales 35 Malayan Peninsula 9, 529, 530
lycopod 35, 38,113,139,164,166,173,179,346 Malaysia 407, 528, 565
lycopod-rich coals 179 MaIm 28
Lycopodiaceae 33 Maludan peninsula 15
Lycopodiopsis 43 Mancos Shale 454
lycopsid 35, 328 manganese 229, 231, 240, 244, 255
Lycopsida 35 mangrove to-15, 172, 452, 458
Lycospora 166 Manitoba 553
pusilla 175 Mannering Park Tuff 313
lycospore 164-166, 170, 177,406 mantle 468, 518, 519, 559, 592
lycospore-rich bright coals 173 plume 568, 570, 583
lycosporinite 188 marcasite 154, 156, 157,242,262, 264
lycosporinite-bearing durite 186 Margaret River 572
Lyonia 42 marginal basin 523, 556
marine 4, 11, 14,32,50,148, 150, 154, 166, 174,
220-223,225,226,229,242-244,258,264,
maceral 265,269,301,312,377,409,424,426,440,
analysis 122, 156, 161, 177, 190,202,212 445,446,448,453,457,462,471,473-484,
botanical attributes 162 488,490,491,493,495,498,507-509,511,
classification 2, 88-90 512, 524, 525, 530, 531, 538, 539, 541, 550,
count 122, 127, 203 572, 574, 581, 584-586, 590, 598
debris 57, 184 algae 119, 120, 252
detrital 89, 485 fauna 458
distribution 166, 235 fossils 166, 380, 461, 477
divergence 71 incursion/ingression 447, 476, 477, 495, 5to,
fragments 199 518, 524
group/sub groups 2, 48, 57, 88, 89, 99, 100, influence 1, 166,219, 220, 223, 228,242,244,
103,122,124,127,136,139,177,264,488, 312,380,389,407,411,424,479,485,486,
492, 515, 540, 574 491,494,495,499,509,525,539,541,559,
palaeo-environmental significance 162 563, 567, 581, 591
700 Subject Index
marine (cont.) dark (M-D) lithotype 130, 131,203-214

intercalation 543, 553, 561 light (M-l) lithotype 130, 131,203-214
interval 453, 503, 538 volatile bituminous coal 5, 8, 21, 48,72,74,77,
limestone 461 103,203,216,219,235, 563 567, 582
mud 463, 512 megacycles 559
organic matter 254 megaripple 282-284, 286, 289, 322, 357, 370,
plants 249, 255 387,388,414,422,432,433,437,440,451,
regression 4, 7, 11, 15, 16, 32, 407, 426, 448, 455, 573
452,461,462,471,472,493,497,508,510, megaexactus forest 211
543,590 . melange 528, 556
sand 345, 549 melanocratic arenite 274
sediment/deposit 15, 37, 154, 156, 166, 249, Melbourne 532
265,304,361,411,426,428,447,452,475- melnikovite 154, 157
480,482,485,486,489,491,495,498,508, Melvilles Seam 426
509, 516, 522, 524, 527-530, 532, 535, 536, Menapian 469
538,544,559,562,571,582,583,585,586, Mentawai Islands 528-530, 534
589, 591 Mentawai Trough 529, 530, 534
shale 166, 175, 244, 301, 304, 461, 482, 586 mercury 239
split (in coal) 345, 445 Merewether Conglomerate 364, 369-371
transgression 1, 4, 7, 10, 11, 14-17, 38, 407, Merritt Basin 547, 563
426,427,444,447,452,461,462,466,469, Merrywood 28
471-477,482,489,490,494,498,505,507- Mersey Group 28
509,512,518,526,541,543,561,562,571 Mesa Pit 511
Maringouin Delta 470 mesoetioporphyrins (ETIO) 255
Mariopteris 43 M esolobus 166
Mariscus (saw grass) peat 11, 15, 212 mesophyll 28, 30, 31, 67, 68, 70, 105, 107, 116,
Mariscus jamaicensis 42 117
Maritimes Basin 508, 520, 565-567 Mesophytic 25, 33, 36, 38
Markov chain analysis 213, 408, 461 meso trophic setting/meso trophy 6, 170, 202, 263
Marks Point Conglomerate 376 Mesozoic 27, 33, 107, 470, 544, 548, 594
Markwell Coal Measures 27 metabituminous coal 5
marl 11, 153, 403, 553, 572, 590 metabolism 230
marsh/-land 6,10-16,24,50,52,168-170,178, metamorphic/metamorphosed 82
192,194,200,204,350,375,380,381,414, rock 81, 268, 521, 532, 533, 544
419,423-425,440,451,452,455,456,458, stage of coalification 41
494, 518, 589 zones 545
mass metamorphism 82, 523, 548
balance 49, 171 metasomatic replacement 95
spectroscopy (GC-MS) 246 glass shards 314, 315
Mathilde Seam 398 minerals 141
matrix 24, 32, 59, 100, 138, 158, 271-274, 299, methane/methanol 52, 72, 131,247
302, 348 methine 255
matrix/tissue ratio 207 methoxy carbon/ester 20, 92
Mattbraunkohle 129 methoxyl groups 204
Matthias Seam 398 methyl groups 253
Maules Creek Formation/Subbasin 182-186, methylene bridges 256
200, 310, 507 Mg-prochlorite 149
Mauretanian Orogen 566 mica 142, 147, 269, 277, 341
Mausegatt Seam 400 micelles 75, 77, 218
maximum flooding 176,495,510 micrinite 2, 68, 69, 89, 109, 110, 125, 178, 190,
McConnell Thrust 555 199,488, 541
Me-humates 139 microbe/microbial 44, 48, 50, 60, 245, 246
mean maximum particle size 370 action/activity 7, 41, 47,71, 171, 179,212,
mechanical 226, 245, 249, 427, 484, 485
discontinuity 275, 339 digestion 92
structures 389 reworking 171, 258
medium transformation of liptinite 223
Subject Index 701
microcomponents 68 Miocene 28,42, 117, 180,213,345, 529,530,557,

microcross-Iamination 185, 188, 201, 411, 422, 558, 572, 587-590
501 miogeo(syn)cline 516, 528, 545 .
microfibrils 20 miospore 116, 163, 172, 175, 199, 200, 485, 486
microfluorometry 79, 80, 597 mire 3, 5-7,9,10,24,37,41-46,66,72, 161, 162,
microlithotype 4,87, 123-127, 131, 130, 135- 168,169,171-174,176,182,184,194,195,
137,192-198,200,346,409488 197,202,207,209,212,218,227,231,243,
analyses/analysis 124, 161, 192, 194, 195, 198, 258,261,263,264,310-312,315,328,340,
597 348,353,374,426,456,489,492,493,507
microphotometry 78, 80 setting 230, 263, 264
microreflectance 78 surface 320, 329, 335
microspore 38, 68, 70, 113, 114, 116, 163 types 7, 9, 44-46, 168, 173, 182,212,218,261,
microsporinite 113 264, 353, 374
microtidal shoreline 429, 430, 439, 440, 442, 443, Miscanthus junceum Stapf., 381
455,458 Mississippi 168,426
microtome sections 53, 178 Basin 520
Mid-Atlantic Ridge 568 Delta 413, 426, 466, 470
Middle Band 496 River 393, 426, 466, 470
Middle Kittanning coal 419 Mississippian 547, 549, 554
middle lamella 20 Orogeny 566
Midgard Seam 396 Missouri River 393
Midland Valley 322, 593 Mist Mountain Formation 547, 550, 551
Midlands 28, 599 Mitteldeutsche Schwelle 561
mid-ocean ridge basalts 530 mixed
mid-oceanic ridge/rift 519, 521, 567 brackish zone 11
midplate 520 layer clay 148,308,348
tectonic stability 583 load channels 349
setting 571, 581 mode leaf tectonics 593
migrating ombrotrophic/rheotrophic peatlands 7
ripple trains 290 mixing line 234, 235, 237
river channel 346 mnemonic descriptors 305
thrust sheets 551 mobile
Miike Coalfield 479 belt 35
Mindel Glacial 469 orogen 524
MindelfRiss Interglacial 469 phase 217, 218
mineral shelf basin 583, 584
analysis 157, 158 moisture 8, 26, 74-76
composition 8, 299, 482 availability 181, 264
concentrations 159,258 content 5, 47, 75-77, 80, 122, 127,205,228,
detrital 17,90, 170, 199,200,232,258,267 302,574
grains 120, 140, 149 supply 171
leaching from peat 8 molasse 37, 261, 274, 280, 182, 355, 360, 457,
nutrients 6 516-519,522-526,530,534,539,543,544,
residue 158 547,548,551-555,557-562,564-567
salt 5, 6 basin 476, 515, 524, 557-559, 564-566
solutions 322 clastic wedge 345, 550
species 124, 138, 197, 268, deposit/-ion 354, 531, 559, 566
syngenetic 140, 156,482-484 sedimentf-ation 83, 355, 522-524, 531, 534,
mineralisation 47, 49-53, 61, 139, 140, 156, 184 543, 545, 548, 549, 552, 553, 556, 561
minerite 123, 137, 197 trough 523, 561
minerotrophic/minerotrophy 6, 9,10,170,214 mollusc 402
mining 221, 266, 280, 339 molybdenum 229, 231, 239
Minnesota 139, 174 Monashee Mountains 552
minor monochromatic fluorometry 80
elements 73, 228, 232 monocotyledons 39
mouth bar/crevasse channel couplet 419, 420, monomaceralf-ic microlithotypes 123, 124, 137,
422 193,195
702 Subject Index
monosaccharides 92 Namurian 27, 401, 415, 433, 440, 461, 476, 477,
mono terpene 252 561
montan wax 252 Nanaimo Group 547, 562
Montana 409, 426 naphthaline 247
montmorillonite 143, 144, 146, 149, 242, 307, Narrabeen Group 365, 536
308, 315, 348 Narrabri 183
Montrose Seam 313, 364 narrow ocean 568, 571
Moon Island Beach Subgroup 313, 365, 376, Narrows Beds/Graben 572
378, 539-541 Naseby 590, 591
moor 196, 209 natural
Moranbah Coal Measures 428 levees 389
Morgan Member 578, 579 maceral association 192
Morien Group 360, 361, 387, 422, 490, 567 nearshore 1, 8, 263
Morrisey Formation 550 bar 432, 433, 449
Morwell Seam 96, 203, 213 necrotisation 50-52, 55, 61, 63, 66, 95, 100,493
Moscow/Moscow Basin 16,520,592 needle coals 120
moss 5, 10, 21, 41, 51 Neoscortechina 42
Mount Kembla Colliery 294, 296 net thickness map 409
Mount Mulligan Coal Measures 28 Neufloz Seam 400, 440
Mount St. Helens 318, 319, 327 Neuropteris 43
Mount Yamnusca 555 neutralisation 6, 264
Moura 28 neutron log/-ging 300, 302
Mt. Arthur Seam 445 New Brunswick 351, 381, 390, 565
Mt. Pelion 28 New Caledonia 85
Mu (Il) and Nu (v) cross-stratification 290 New England Fold Belt 182, 183,259-261,355,
mucilagenous matrix 32 377,426,446,514,524,526,531,532,434,
mud/mudstone 13, 14,16,47,48,284,294-297, 535, 541, 543, 593
318,375,381,404,420,421,431,432,442, New Hebrides 520, 523
458, 463, 472, 491, 512 New Mexico 319, 353
cracks 200, 201, 291, 294, 390, 393 New South Wales (N.S.W) 21, 28, 29, 31, 36, 39,
drape 414-416, 423, 437, 458 54, 57-59, 62, 65-68, 102, 105-107, 109,
Mud Lake 17, 491 110,116,127,133,134,136,141,143-149,
muddy facies 442 174,182,186,188,190-192,196,200-202,
mudrock 148 216,220,232,236,237,241,258-260,277-
mudstone 132, 201, 226, 270, 274, 401, 420 279,282-286,292-297,307,308,310,313,
Muja Member 575 314,321,323,329-334,336-345,348,355-
Muja Open Cut 574 359,361,362,371,375,376,378,379,382,
Muja Sub-Basin 575 385,391,392,403,406,408,413,414,418,
Mulbring Siltstone 362, 537 420,423,425,437-439,441,443,445,449,
Mulgedie 28 452,454,456,473,477,478,484-487,491,
multi-terrane orogen 515 492,496,497,499,500,504,506,511,513,
multifunction probe 304 524, 532, 533, 538
multiple deformation 544 New Zealand 17, 205, 226-228, 236, 263, 327,
Munmorah Conglomerate 282, 365, 376 354,358,374,375,464,490,498,520,576-
Miinsterland No. 1 Bore 82 582, 586, 589, 590, 599
Muree Sandstone 537 Newark
Muschelkalk 595 basin 520
Muswellbrook 28, 446 Series 575
mycorrhiza (root nodules) 218 Newcastle (N.S.W.) 282,342,369,373,385,414,
Myrica 43 419, 423, 435, 436, 439, 446, 543
Myrtle Lake 174 Coal Measures 28, 29, 36, 37, 135, 136, 141,
143-149,200,237,243,277,285,306-308,
313-317,319-330,336,337,342-344,357,
359-379,382,385,389,404,406,418,437,
n-alkanes 247-251 438,442,449,450,454,494,512,513,524,
n-fatty acids 252 536-542
n-hexane 247 Coalfield 146, 200, 235, 314, 315, 342, 343,
Subject Index 703
345,358,362,370,377,442,449,454,493- Nuphar 42, 44, 46

496, 505, 535, 542 peat 46,173
Newfoundland 565 nutrient 3, 5, 6, 10, 13, 15, 170, 171, 213, 390,
Nibelung Seam 396 424
nickel 229, 231, 239, 244 availability 214
Nicobar Island 528, 529 conservation 237
Niederrheinische Bucht (Lower Rhine Embay- supply 44, 148,212,214,261,264, 265, 406
ment) 210, 211, 345 nutrition 6, 170
Nile Valley 9 nutritional chain 485
nitrogen 73, 75, 139,214,229-231,239,244,255, Nymboida Coal Measures 28
258,477 Nymphaea 23, 42, 43, 178
availability 214 alba 42
coal 244 marsh 24, 171
peat 171 odorata 24, 42
Niveau Geitling 2, 440 peat 11, 25, 172, 179, 206, 207, 212, 241
Nobbys SeamjTuiT 147,313,323,328,337,344, N ymphoides aquatica 42
364 Nypa
Noeggeratiopsis 43 fruticans 42
non-aromatic peat 11
bridges 76 Nyssa 43
compounds 75, 77, 78
material/matter 77, 90
non-barred shoreline 429, 448 O/C ratio 59, 103, 131, 205
non-essential elements 230 O/H ratio 60
non-gelified macerals 211 Ob 16
non-lignified herbaceous plants 179 Oberlausitz 213
non-polarised light 78 Oberpfalz 180, 213
non-sedimentary to sedimentary material (N/S) Ocala 17, 491
ratio 23, 24, 178 ocean/-ic 568, 571
non-spinose acritarchs 193 backarc area 528
non-tectonic coal formation 594 basin 168,468, 521
non-volcanic arc 522, 528-530, 535, 556 crust 468, 519-521, 528, 544, 545, 558, 567,
non-woody 570, 581, 583-585
cell tissues 100, 182 floor sediments 516, 527
vegetation 11 island arcs 548
Norah Head 373 plate 527
North Africa 14 ridge 530, 558
North America/-n 2, 32, 355,477,490,517,548, water 231
566, 575, 599 Odin Seam 395
North Carolina 575 Odd-over-even predominance (OEP) 249
North Dakota 389, 426 offiap 464
North Island 589 offshore 495, 505, 506
North Pole 469 mud 431, 463, 512
North Sea 458, 589 region 432
Northern Coalfield 28 sediment 498
Northern Hemisphere 2, 3, 28, 35, 37, 38, 117, transition zone 429-432
148,599 transport 466
Northwestern Coalfield 28 OH functionality 92
Nothofagus 42 OR-groups 257
Nova Scotia 291, 294,351-353,360,371,387, Ohika Member 578
389,390,392,394,405,411-444,490,499, Ohio 350,419
508, 539, 567, 575 oil shale 14, 17, 32, 47, 120,211, 572, 590
nuclear Okavango
logging 302 Delta/Swamp 168, 170, 171, 232, 237, 258,
magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) 380,381
204, 246 peat 207
Nundah 28 River 380
704 Subject Index
Okefenokee Swamp 23, 24, 58, 140, 170, 171, organo-metallic complexes 232
178, 207, 209, 212, 241, 406, 479, 481 organo-petrographic components 48, 74, 87,
oleannane 254 194, 198
oligocene 17, 345,467, 558, 582, 587, 588, 590 oriented core samples 299
oligotrophic 6,16,148,168,170,202,212,213, oroclinal bending 535
378,406 orogen/-ic 83, 268,515,518,523-526,530,531,
oligotrophy 44, 167, 214 543,548,551,555,556,559,561,564,565,
olistolith 535 571, 589, 598
olivine 268 basin margin 280, 281, 313, 468, 519, 524-
Olympic Terrane 547 526, 533-535, 538, 542-544, 550 553, 555,
Omarama 590 559
ombrogenous 46, 172, 173, 176, 197, 263 belt/welt 274, 517, 519, 523, 528, 565
high moor 6, 11 movements 35, 550
mire 6, 9, 46, 173 orogenesis/orogeny 517, 523, 543, 548, 561, 598
peat/-land 5, 9 orographic basin 525
raised bog 6, 261 Orontium 42
ombrotelmite 5-8, 45, 46, 174, 182, 197, 212, orthoclase 6, 268, 308
263,264 oscillation ripples 282, 283, 403, 419
ombrotrophic 6-9,11, 15,42-44, 195-197,209, oscillatory wave zone 431
211, 213, 237, 353, 406 osmosis 32
bog/mire 8,16,41,44,164,168,194,212,374, Ossabaw Sound 458
378 Osterwald 390
peat6,8-11,176,209,214,235,236,377,406, ostracods 401, 572
407, 582 Ostrava-Karvina Coalfields 244
ombrotrophy 161, 381 Otago 464, 520, 589-591
omikron (0) cross-stratification 290, 387 Otago and Canterbury Plains 589
Omineca Crystalline Belt 544, 545, 547, 548, outer planar facies 451
552,561 Outer Shoal Delta 470
onlap/-ping 464, 503, 508, 509, 553 overbank 348,350, 371, 376, 381, 388,404,418
Ontario 495 association 352, 381
oolite 280 deposit/-ion/sediment 281, 286, 290, 295-
oolitic limestone 274 297,329,335,338,339,348,352,354,361,
oomicrite 274 373,374,377,382,386,389,391-394,416,
oosparite 274 419,420,422,474,479,513
opal 139, 150, 315, 322 overburden 48, 50, 55, 71, 81
opaline phytolith 139 Oviedo 361
opaque mineral fraction 158 oxbow lake 381, 388
open hole drilling 299 oxi-semifusinite 60
ophiolite 516, 557 oxidation 11, 46-50, 58, 60, 61, 67, 88, 92, 95,
ophiolitic basement 556 103, 105, 107, 108, 112, 139, 158, 162, 166,
optical anisotropy 78 179-181,187,196,200-205,221,232,242,
optimum stream profile 471, 514 249,256,264,346,348,378,379,406,473,
Orange Freestate 594 474,492, 501, 505
orbital theory 215 oxidised
Ordovician 33, 119, 549 coal 298
organic/s 52 humic matter 196
acids 6, 50, 158, 230, 257, 265, 310 peat 48, 137, 139, 184
chemofossils 247 resinite 184
complexation 232 resinous material 108, 196
compounds 49, 5~ siderite 146
debris/detritus 16, 170, 381 oxidising conditions 48, 211, 253
geochemistry 161, 322 Oxley River 28
geopolymers 217 Oxycoccus 42
matter 4,5,7,8, 18,44,49,85, 138-140, 142, oxygen 5, 47,49, 52, 58, 66, 72, 73, 75, 77,85,131,
158,174,180,199,224,225,232,234,237, 158,180,196,205,212,214,228-230,235,
242,243,254,263,269,322,379,411,416, 239, 255, 478, 497, 500, 504, 526
572,598 oxygenated water 408
organism 60, 457 oxygenation 214
Subject Index 705
oyster 454 paraffin 248-251

Ozark Uplift 586 paragenetic maceral assemblage 163
paralic 16, 343,471,490,518,530,543,561,584
Paralycopodites 43
p-waves 298 Parastemon 42
Pachysphaera 34 parenchyma 19,20
Pacific Parr's equation 76
island arcs 523 Parsifal Seam 395
Plate 527 particle
Rim Terrane 547 imbrication 386
packing density 276 roundness 271, 272
Palaeo-Mrica 565 shape 271
palaeo- size 268-270, 272, 356, 370
channel 164, 341 particulate block 198
environment/-all, 9, 16, 37, 41, 48, 70, 139, parting lineation 387
161-163,166, 168, 177, 190, 192, 194, 198, Pascoe River 28
199,202,214,221,228,229,232,243,245, pavement texture 65
249,254,258,261,264,275,283,284,288- Peace River 552
290,312,328,349,355,373,417,437,442, peat/-land 3, 5-17, 23-25, 30, 35, 36, 41-55, 58,
455,476,483,490,501,513,597,598 61,65,71-73,81,87,90,95,100,102,112,
palaeobotany 161 127,130,139-142,148,150,162-176,179,
Palaeocene 410, 549, 578, 581, 587, 588 180,181,189,191,194,199,206-214,217,
palaeoclimate 3 218,222,223,230-233,240,241,245,246,
palaeocurrent/-flow 28, 277-279, 458, 459, 505, 249,256,258,262,263,298,306,310,312,
525, 567, 585 324-326,330,335-341,346,348,349,355,
analysis 267, 277-279, 290, 298, 536 373-379,403,404,406,421,424,426,441,
directions 269, 391, 535, 566, 567 444,453-455,458,471,475,476,479-481,
palaeoequatorial belt 469 484-486,490-494,498,501,507,509,513,
palaeogeography 458, 580 514, 518, 526, 530, 594
palaeolatitudes 25-27 acidity 6, 7, 223,478,486,491
palaeomagnetic distribution 25, 28 arborescent vegetation 451, 501
Palaeophytic 33, 39 ash 3, 8, 152, 168, 169, 171, 172, 176,200,
palaeo relief of the seam floor 310 232-234,426
palaeosalinity indicator 229, 232, 242-244, 475, bacterial activity/destruction 254, 484, 485,
480 509
palaeoslope 350 blanket 9, 12, 426, 428, 509
palaeotopography 594 composition 3, 18, 48, 73, 87, 178, 232, 234,
Palaeozoic 2, 33, 531, 533, 544, 545, 553, 554, 240, 257, 310
578, 585, 587, 588, 593 decomposition/destruction 140, 148,311,501
Palangkaraya 212 depositional environment 3, 8, 11-15, 17, 50,
Palaquium 42 140,148,172,241,245,312,376,377,402-
pale (Pa) lithotype 130, 131, 180,203-214,254 407,414,420-422,424,426,428,429,451,
Palliser Formation 554 454,456,473-475,478,480,481,491,493,
palm trees 11, 15, 30, 39 494,498,499,505,508,509,568,571,591
paludal conditions 13, 505, 551, 581 . paralic setting 6, 7, 11, 168, 173, 175, 181, 211,
paludification 10, 11, 36, 174, 464, 506, 594 214,381,424,442,454,455,504,530
palynology 161 deposits 3, 9, 14, 15, 19, 25, 30, 35, 46, 52,
Panama 172 172,174,232,407,458,470,508
Panicum/hemitomon 23, 24, 42, 178 drowning 311, 490, 494, 509
Paparoa erosion 173, 312, 339, 368, 376, 473
Coal Measures 226, 498, 520, 576-582 exposure 379, 499
Range 576-581 fire 59, 172, 173,253,341
Tectonic Zone 576-578, 581, 582, 586 formation 1, 3, 5, 9-17, 21, 24-27, 34-37,
trough 578, 581 45-48, 50, 59, 66, 67, 136, 139, 140, 162,
paper coal 116, 117 163,166,168,170,172-174,176,181-184,
papyrus 17 190, 214, 228, 230, 242, 243, 249, 258,
marsh 169, 170, 380, 381 262-266,310,312,313,326,328,330,335,
meadows 17 339,340,346,348,353,374-377,380,381,
706 Subject Index
peat/-land (cont.) petroleum generation 190

388,404-407,424,428,444,451,453,456, Pewee Seam 265
468,469,472-475,489,490,491,493,498, pH effects 3, 7,13,44,50,148,151,166,169,170,
499,504,507-510,515,518,520,521,523, 174,181,205,213,214,217,232,242,261-
560, 592, 594 264,315,424,478,484,486,492,493
oxidation 49, 137, 184,492,498, 512, 541 Phanerozoic 531
sulphur 154, 241, 456, 479, 481 phenanthrene 247, 257
type 7, 8, 11, 15, 22-25, 41, 46, 47, 50, 53, phenoclast 273, 274, 348, 374
162,166,172,173,178,179,203,207,209, phenol/ic 22, 50, 92, 204, 205, 256, 257
212, 227, 254, 263, 405 pheophytin-a 256
vegetal precursors 17, 19,24,25, 171, 179, phi-scale 270
241,257, 377 phlobaphinite 89, 102, 103, 105, 180, 218
water 5, 148, 173, 308, 408, 491 phloem 18, 19, 35
wood contribution 22, 92, 181, 328, 405 Phoenicites 43
peatification 47, 179 Phoenix paludosa 42
Peawaddy Formation 27 phorbide 255
pebble/lag 331, 368, 447, 448, 451, 495 phosphate minerals 151, 153
pectic acid 20 phosphatic fossil fragments 482
pectin 20 phosphorite 151, 153, 242, 482, 483
pedogenic calcareous nodules 381 phosphorous 229, 231, 240, 243, 244
Peel photoautotrophic algae 485
Fault 534 photolytic polymerisation 117
Thrust 532 photometric rank determination 78
Peel-Manning Fault System 535 photomultiplier 78
pelagic sediments 529, 535 photosynthesis 19,230
pellet (graupen) tonstein 145, 147 Phragmites communis 42, 43
Pelton Seam 484, 485, 509 phreatic eruption 319
Pennine 175, 557, 558 phreatomagmatic activity 319
Pennsylvania/-n 2, 164, 179,223,310,337,350, phyllite 268
360,368,389,405,407,413,419,454,463, phyllocladus 43
490, 507, 509, 567 Phyllotheca 38, 43
pentacyclic triterpene 253, 254 physical weathering 267, 268
peralkaline volcanism 568 physicochemical gelification 89
perhydrocylcopentan-phenanthrene nucleus physiographic/-al relief 349, 583, 589
254 phytane 252, 253
Periadriatic Lineament 557 phytanic acid 253
periderm 20, 105 phyteral 161, 162
periderm/wood ratio 179 phytogenic 2, 41, 107, 138-140, 511
peripheral basin 522, 523, 556-559 phytol 252
Permian 2, 3, 7,14,25-28,33,36-39,41,43,49, phytolith 139, 184
65,68,102,112,113,117,120,122,123,146, pi (n) cross-stratification 290, 387
148,154,155,182,187,202,219,221,223, n-electrons 215
241,261,297,310,313,320,328,351,355, Picea 42
362,378,382,405,406,408,424-426,437, picene 212, 219, 254
442,451,454,469,480,495,506,508,531- piedmont 354, 377, 474, 525, 542, 543
540,542,543,557,560,566,567,572,574, Piercefield Seam 36, 445
586, 588, 592, 595 pigment 252
Permo-Carboniferous 183, 469, 549 Pika Formation 555
unconformity 222 Pike River Coalfield 520, 576-580
Persea 42 Pi/a 33, 34, 43, 120
Perth Basin 28, 54, 572, 573 pillar sample 122, 190, 198
Petrel Graben 586, 588 pimanthrene 257
petrification 21, 29, 94, 140, 389, 390 pimanthrene/total alkylphenanthrenes ratio
petrofabric analysis 299 (pi/IP) 257
petrographic pinch-and-swell structures 317
coal components 4, 71, 88, 161 pine 30
composition/constituents 18, 39, 48 wood 21
Subject Index 707
Pinus 42, 43 20 point method/ocular 124, 125, 127

radiata 91 poisson's ratio 300
sylvestris 18, 42 Poland 476
Pistol Club quarry 436, 438, 441 polarised light 53, 78
pitch 77 polished thin sections 34, 91, 111, 158
pith 18, 19, 35 polishing relief 58, 59, 103, 107
plagioclase 146, 308, 314, 321 pollen 14, 15,24,38,46,49,70-72,113,116,163,
Plains 350, 551 193,195,209,211,223,245,249,322,486,
plane-polarised light 78, 79 572
planktonic algae 120, 162 polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAR) 322
vegetable matter 46, 254 Polychaeta 457
Planolites polycyclic isoprenoids 256
burrows 401 polymer/-isation 53, 57, 71, 72, 75, 82, 90, 95, 97,
ophtalmoides 221 100, 113, 117, 180
plant 3, 19,34,39,41-43,45,49,52,67,71,182, polyphenols 256
197, 214, 277-279, 424, 572 polyterpenes 255
ash 47, 49, 138, 171, 232-234, 237 Polytrichum 42
debris/detrital/detritus 46, 47, 63, 173, 178, polyunsaturated isoprenoid/sterene 254
209,411 pond/-ed/-ing 10,45,46, 311, 320, 228, 407
decomposition 25, 26, 52, 148,202 Pontederia 42
growth 5, 15,25,26,28,46,48,49, 181,229, Populus 42
474 Porarari Group 578, 581
kingdom 32, 33, 39, 517 pore water 302
nutrients/nutrition 5, 6, 148, 378 porigelinite 53, 57, 89, 95, 100, 102, 130
remains/remnants/residue 46,53,54,318,326 porosity 302
species 6, 15,44,48 porphin 255
structures 50, 51, 54 porphyrin 229, 247, 255, 256
plasma 76 post-
Plasshofsbank Seam 221, 399 accretionary 515, 562, 563
plastic deformation 55 cyclothem era 4
plate 4, 515, 516, 518, 519, 521-527, 530, 545, depositional 59, 71, 90, 592
548, 564, 565, 568, 570 glacial 3, 14,464,468,491
boundary 548, 571 orogenic 513, 548, 563
collision 557, 558, 565 polymerisation macerals 57
divergence/separation 521, 567, 571, 576, 581 Rangitata sediments 589
edge 517, 520, 521, 527, 555, 564, 567, 581 rift/-ing 570, 586, 589
tectonics 516, 518, 520, 523, 528, 568 tectonic coalification 552
plateau basalts 544 potassium 139,229, 231, 240, 244, 301
playa lake 18 hydroxide 6
plectenchyminite 107 leaching 148
Pleistocene 9, 32, 218, 374, 494, 594, 595 permanganate 35, 56, 89
plicates 193 Powder River Basin 351, 402, 409, 410, 426
Plinian ash column 318 Priisident Seam 398
Pliocene 213, 563, 587-590 pre-
plume site 583, 584, 586, 589 accretionary coal deposits 515, 563, 564
pluton/-ic rocks 268, 535 amalgamation and accretion deposit 563,
Po 355 564
Basin 520, 556-558 detrovitrinitic 178
Poa flabellata 52 graphitic 78
Pocahontas Basin 424 Karroo basement 594
Podocarpus 43 micrinite 178
point bar 285, 336, 350, 356, 382, 385-389, 442, molasse 564
462 orogenic sequence 544
accretion beds/planes/surfaces 289, 352, 384- phlobaphinite 178
387,414,415,437,457,458 polymerisation macerals 57
deposits 348, 381, 386, 404 resinite 178
point count 52, 122, 178, 198, 383 rift arch 568
708 Subject Index
pre- (cont.) 201,217,227,241,242,244,262,264,309,

Tasman rift doming 586 408,420,424,425,452,477,479-490,499,
tectonic coalification 552 508-510, 581
vitrinite 178 pyritic
Precambrian 32, 33, 544, 572, 588 coal 158
precipitation 5, 9, 25, 45, 46 sulphur 76, 154, 155,223,408,476, 539, 581
Preolenna 28 pyroclastic deposits/rocks/sediments 142, 146,
preservation potential 9, 25, 30, 181, 264,437 148,263,281,306,308,313-328,401,530,
pressure solution 276 535, 541, 543
primary pyrofusinite 58, 60, 66, 72, 104, 105, 180, 196,
directional structures 585 203, 207
reservoir of elements 230 pyro-semifusinite 180,203,207
seam roof 348, 374, 514 pyrolysis 162,246, 318, 326
sedimentary structures 280-294 pyrolysis-gas chromatography plus mass spec-
Princeton Group 547 troscopy (Py-GS-MS) 246
Princeton-Tulameen Basin 547, 563 pyroxene 268
principal surfaces of deposition (Sp) 266, 277, pyrrole 255
285, 288, 333, 334, 513
Pripyat-Polessye Basin 16
Pripyat marshes 168 quality circle (southern Illinois Basin) 479
pristane 252, 253 quartz 122, 123, 139, 142-150,261, 268, 271,
pristane/phytane ratio 252, 253, 256 273,274,277,308,313-328,344,345,420,
prod marks 291, 294 455, 457, 482, 573
prodelta 12,410-412,421,422, 578 quartzite 90
progradation/-aI/prograding 9, 13, 15, 16, 30, quartzose sandstones 260, 581
168,175,282,410,413,419,424,427-430, quasigelifusinite 199
443,448,449,452-458,466,493,495-499, Quaternary 33, 466, 469, 470, 529, 576
503, 504, 508, 509, 512 Queen Charlotte Islands 520, 544, 547, 561, 562
Prosper II Colliery 481, 482, 488, 489 Queensland 14, 17,22,33,60,69,70,108,111,
Proteaceae 43 135,136,149,151,202,300,335,428,506,
protein 121, 229, 230, 257 532, 572, 593
Proterozoic 531, 545 Quercoidites microhenrici 211
proto-oceanic gulf 568-571, 581 Quesnel Basin/Coalfield 547, 563
Protopacific plate 548 Quesnellia Terrane 547
protoplasm/ic bodies 20, 92 quinone 205
proximate analysis 75, 76 Quintinia 42
pseudo-
corposclerotinite 101, 108, 109
fibrous peat 24 radio
phlobaphinite 89, 100, 103, 180 frequency oxidation (RFO) 158
sclerotinite 108 imaging methods 298
vitrinite 100, 181 radioactivity 301
pseudomorphous tonstein 142, 147 radiocarbon dating 15
Psilophyta 34 radiofibroblastic apatite 482
psilophytes 34, 38 radiograph/-ic 132, 134
Psilopsida 33, 34 radiolarites 268, 557
PT conditions 71 rainfall 15, 25
Pteridophyta 32, 35 rain imprints 291, 294, 295
pteridophytes 3, 35, 37, 38, 70, 113, 501 rainwaterjleaching 169,237, 315
Pteridospermales, pteridosperms 33, 38 raised bog 3, 5-9, 41, 44, 45,148,164,168,172-
pteropods 35, 38 176,182,185,187,196,197,212,214,227,
Pteropsida 33, 35 263,264,350,356,377,402,406,407,492,
Ptilidium pulcherrimum 51 530
pull-apart basin 360, 557, 563, 565, 592, 593 channel 402, 424
Pullea 42 levees 13, 424
pumice 144, 146 terrace 358
putrefaction 47 Rakaia River 358, 375
pyrite 1, 13,76,140,154-158,168-170,173,185, ramp basin 570
Subject Index 709
ramping 534 signature 15

Rangal Coal Measures 135-137, 335 Reguibat Spur 566
Ragitata-II Orogeny 589 Reids
rank 5, 8, 28, 32, 66-85, 87, 90, 99, 100, 101, 104, Dome Beds 27
112,113,127,134,148,158,180,204,205, Mistake Formation 313-317, 320-328, 364
212,214,217,219,221,223,224,228,235, Reinschia 33, 43, 120
236,247,248,250,252-254,257,258,264, relief stripping 507
303, 320, 488, 552, 561, 562, 591, 594 remission measurements 209
Rathluba Seam 191, 345, 419-422 repolymerisation 217
Ravensworth Seam 347 residence time 53, 84, 85, 87
ravinement 447, 464, 473 residual minerals 139, 142, 146,267
ray fungi 50 resin 19,22,39,49,66,72,92, 101, 117,119,253,
Raymond Terrace 27, 28 323
razorbacks 309 duct (canal), 18, 19, 39, 96, 117, 118
reaction rate 83 resinite 2,89,117-120,125,130, 135, 154, 178,
reactivation surface 416 184, 197, 379, 488
Recent 10, 12,33,41,57,61, 164,203,223,258, resinoclarite 125, 197
384. 509, 529, 587, 588 resinous material/matter 88, 107, 108, 119, 196
receptor value 471, 472, 474 resistivity log/tool 303
red beds 586 resite 197
Red Rose Formation 547, 562 Restionaceae 42
Red Sea 571, 588 retene 257
Redbank Creek Seam 445 retene/total alkylphenanthrene (Re/IP) 257
red/green quotient 80 retroarc basin 522, 523, 528-530, 543, 555-557
Redhead/Conglomerate 330-335,342,364,371, retrogradation/-al 444, 466, 469, 470, 489,
373, 374, 389 510
redox potential (Eh) 3, 166, 181,205, 213, 232 Rewanui Member 498, 578, 579
reducing conditions 13, 47, 48, 249, 252 Rewanui/Goldlight depositional episode 580
reduction zone 50 reworked
reed/vegetation 12, 16,24 barrier beach 473
reef limestones 534 peat 199
Reefton 576, 581 splay sediments 419, 420
reflectance 59, 61, 64, 65, 70-72, 74, 77-81, 85, tutTs 142
87,90,98,99,101,103-113,119,135,180, Rhacopteris 43
183,205-209,214,216,218-220,222-227, Rhenish/Fold Belt/orogen 82, 530, 560
247,252,257,262,264,311,322-325,327, Rheno-Hercynian Zone 560, 561
485,490-492,503,504,511,512 rheotrophic/rheotrophy 6, 9,11,41,44,46,161,
detrovitrinite 98, 486,492, 504, 513 197, 211, 213, 214, 237, 377
huminite 217 Rhine River 458
inertinite 72, 103, 205, 212 rhizome 24, 66, 178
telocollinite 84 Rhizophora 11, 15, 172
telovitrinite 98, 183, 216, 217, 219, 220, 222, apiculata 42
223, 225, 486, 492, 504, 513 mangle 14, 42
vitrinite (Rov, Ry) 58, 59, 74, 77, 79-85, 87, 98, Rhone delta 413
99, 135, 217, 223-227, 247, 252, 257, 264, Rhynchospora 42
311,322,327,485,486,490-492,503,504, rift/-ed/-ing 468, 490, 519-521, 533, 557, 568,
508, 512, 513, 525 571-577, 581, 583, 584, 586, 588, 592
reflectance/depth of burial curve 224, 225 basin 84, 360,468, 567, 577
reflectance/temperature correlation 85 margin 468,545,567,570,571,575,581,584,
refraction seismic 298 586
refractive index 78, 223 valley 17, 340, 521, 567, 569-581, 586, 594
Regel-Cyclothem 461 zone 519, 520, 568, 571, 575, 578, 581, 582,
regeneration complex/hypothesis 173 588, 591
regression 4, 7,15,16,32,221,345,407,426,448, rill marks 291, 293, 294
452,461,462,471,472,493,497,505,508, ring carbons 255
510, 543, 583, 591 Rio Changuinola 172
regressive 175,467 rip channel 432, 434, 449
deposits 401 ripple (ripple mark) 278-280, 282-290, 317, 386
710 Subject Index
ripple (cont.) rushes 12

388-390,392-403,411,419,423,429-431, Russia 168
435,440,443,449,450,458,495,585
Riss Glacial 469
Riss/Wiirm Interglacial 469 Saalian 469
river 13, 16, 168, 231, 244, 266, 290, 293, 329, Saar 142, 144
336,346-359,374,380-382,384-388,390, Basin 142, 252, 257, 520, 599
402,404,405,412,426,439,442,443,457, Trough 560
466, 470, 471, 495, 557, 567 Saar-Lorraine-Basin 498
river- Saar-Nahe Basin 560
borne nutrients 390 Saarbriicker Hauptsattel 561
dominated delta 404, 412, 413, 416, 419, 466 Sabal43
Roaring Creek/Mine 391, 507 saccate pollen 193
rock sag basin 570
basement 544, 581, 589 Sagittaria 42
cement 269 dominated peat 172
fragment 270 Sakmarian 27, 28, 536-538
mechanics 275 SAL Factor 192
temperature 82 Sale Group 587
rock-eval kerogen typing 246 Salicornia 42
Rocky Mountain/-s 83, 354, 355, 457, 459, 526, saline deposits 18
543-545, 547-550, 552, 553, 555 Salix 10
Foothills 83, 534, 553 salt 18, 519, 594
Front Ranges 550, 551 salt-water 42
Trench 544, 545, 547 marsh 12, 440, 452, 456, 458, 494
Roettgersbank Seam 398, 476 wedge 457, 458
roll-stones 309 saltation marks 291
root/-let 19, 22-25, 35, 36, 44, 54, 66, 170, 178, Salzkammergut 557
179,297,307,309,346,380,393,401,420, sample preparation 122, 159, 198, 242
422,452,474 sand/sandstone 1,38,90, 132, 147, 148,200,226,
root-derived vitrinite 201 261,268,270-273,277,280-282,284,290-
rooted vegetation 195 297,301,302,304-306,329-339,341,348,
rose diagram 277, 279, 312, 328, 341 352,356,360-374,379-382,385-391,401,
Rosenbusch-Bowen reaction series 268 403,404,409-411,413,414,419-424,427-
Rosewood-Walloon 28 433,435-442,447,448,451-458,462,463,
rotational pole 25, 26 473,493,495,508,511,525,535,538,539,
Rotliegend/-es 560, 595 545,549-551,553,563,567,571,573-579,
Rowley 346 581, 585, 590, 591, 593
rudaceous fine-grained 274, 284, 296, 387-389, 394,401,
bedload 370 413, 416, 419, 448, 451, 458, 462
particles 270 medium-grained 284, 401, 432, 448, 462
rudite 270, 273, 542 wave 280, 282, 286, 290, 360, 386, 388, 414,
Ruhr 48, 114, 223, 415, 417 440, 457
Basin 36-38, 56-62, 82, 83,110,114,115,138, sand/shale ratio 200, 356, 357, 382, 383, 409,
144, 148, 152, 153, 156, 157, 165, 169, 176, 497
188,198,201,220,223-226,244,247,248, Sandgate Formation/Seam 362, 363, 495
252,253,257,307,392,393,395,404-408, sandier-upward sequences 467
416,424,432,440,443,461,462,475,476, sanidine 142
481,482,488,489,508,510,524,539,543, Santonian 587
560,599 sapropel/-ic 11, 16, 47, 136, 173, 222, 223, 244,
Rur Graben 345 257,491
Rundle sapropelite 167, 172, 186,257,353,425,482,489,
oil shale 17, 32, 572 572
Range 572 Sarawak 15, 16, 407
Thrust 553, 554 Samsbank Seam 400, 476
runnel 429, 437 Sams biinkgen Seam 400
runoff 45 Saskatchewan/River 351, 359, 553
Subject Index 711
satellite prism 544, 584

delta 392 rock 268, 273
graben 572 settings 161
rift 490, 575 structures 201, 267, 280-297, 359, 390, 429
saturated hydrocarbons 247 430
savanna woodlands 15 sedimentology 597, 598
saw grass 11, 13, 15 seed/os 36, 38, 39, 117, 249
Saxo-Thuringian Zone 560, 561 seismic
Saxonvale profiling 570
Claystone 445 reflection surfaces 598
Mine 36, 391, 392 survey 298
Saxony 108, 142, 213 traces 465
scalar properties 162, 163 Selaginella/Selaginellaceae 33, 43, 328
scandium 239 selective decomposition 60
schistes lustres 557 selenium 239
schistosity 81 self-potential (SP) 304
Schizoneura 43 selon la ligne method 124
Schoenoplectus lacustris 42 SEM (scanning electron microscope) 139, 158,
SchOttelchen Seam 399, 476 159
Sciadopityspollenites serratus 211 Semangko Fault Zone 529
Scirpus 42 semi-anthracite 5, 74, 83, 149, 217
sclerotinite 89, 107, 108, 130, 189, 196, 201 semicoke 297
Sclerotites brandonianus 101 semifusinite 2,3,28,31,49,58-70,72,89,105-
sclerotodetrinite 108 109,117, 130, 137, ISO, 152, 155, 156, 162,
Scotland 15, 44, 146, 322, 341, 592 163, 169, 170, 181, 182, 184, 185, 189, 196,
Scott Glacier type conglomerate 359, 361 199-202,207,216,235,328,377,380,425
scour-and-fill structures 331, 411 Senonian 589, 590
SE-Asia 11, 42, 174 separation of minerals 158, 159
Sea 12, 14, 16, 30, 164, 168, 476, 526, 528, 544, sequence stratigraphy 4, 461, 463-471, 495, 502,
572, 589 503,506-509,512,598
bed 43 basin floor fan (bf) 464, 466, 470
level/changes/fluctuations/variations 4, 7,15, highstand systems tract (HST) 464, 465, 467,
17,30,32,312,345,374-376,405,407,408, 470,495,502,503,506,507,510-512,543
426,447,454,463-471,473,490,499,507, incised valley fill (ivf) 464, 466, 507
512, 519, 530, 543, 583, 585, 589 lowstand systems tract (LST) 464-466, 470,
water 13, 16,32,231,232,241,244,312,411, 495, 506, 507
471, 478, 481, 490, 491, 501, 509, 518 maximum flooding surface (mfs) 464-467,
seasonal water availability 169, 170, 380, 493, 495, 503, 506, 507, 510, 511
501 parasequence 464-467, 470, 489, 495, 496,
seasonally dry climate 197 502, 507, 508
Seaspray Group 587, 588 sea-level changes 463-465
seat earth 35, 265, 307, 309, 380, 381, 404, sequence boundary (SB) 464-468, 470, 495,
462 503, 506, 507
Sebangau River (Sungei Sebangau) 169 shelf margin systems tract (SMST) 464, 465,
second order cycles 468 467, 506, 507
secretion sclerotinite 108 transgressive systems tract (TST) 464-468,
sedge 10, 16,24 ,470,477,479,489,495,502,503,506-512
clay 50 Sequoia 43
grass peat 11, 53, 172, 212 Sequoiapollenites polyformosus 211
sediment/-ation 1,9,13-15,172,175,266-269, sericite 482
280-282,297,349,353,392,404,407-409, sericitised plagioclase 315
411,416,419,426-428,439,452,456,458, sesquiterpene 252
463,467,474,489,499,507,509,515,530, Seyler's Chart 72, 73, 202, 477, 478, 496,500
542, 567, 571, 578, 583, 589, 591 bright coal band 73, 202, 203, 205, 264, 477,
sedimentary 178, 281, 349, 461 498-500, 508
basin 27, 266, 463, 516, 584 perhydrous field 202, 203, 264, 477, 478, 497,
bypassing 374, 507 499, 500
712 Subject Index
Seyler's Chart (cont.) side

subhydrous field 202-205, 477, 478, 497, 499, bar 356
500, 508, 512 chains 75, 77
Shag Point 17,590,591 side-wall 304, 305
shale/shaly 1, 132, 134, 147, 149, 164, 166, 169, siderite 22, 140, 146, 150, 152,244,308,309,321,
170,172,174,175,177,200,225,244,270, 418, 482, 483
271,274,276,281,301,302,304,305,309- sideritic clay 390
311,329,331,341,356,357,372-374,382, Siegfried Seam 395
383,388,389,391,393,401,405,407-409, Sigillaria 35, 43, 164, 390
411,416,421-423,447,450,451,454,457, Sigilariaceae 33
461,462,474,479,480,482.491.493,497, SiIesia 142, 599
513,514,538,541,545,547,549-551,557, silica 6, 138-140, 143, 149, 184,236,237,243,
563, 571, 574, 581, 585, 586 247, 268, 309, 315, 323-325, 327, 389
shale-laminated sandstones 281, 393, 41l, 422, silica-alumina
423,449,462 gels 142
shaly ratio 261, 345
coal 147, 401 silicate 122, 148, 149, 157
facies 167 detrital 482
shear modulus 300 minerals 142
sheet flood/flow 286, 287, 291, 354, 435 silicic acid 6
Sheffield 156 silicon 231, 240
shelf 30, 32,410, 517, 518, 525, 530, 571, 583, 584, silt/siltstone 15, 16, 36, 132, 169, 201, 226, 270,
586, 589 271,281,292,297,329,349,375,387,388,
basin 517, 583-585, 589 390,391,393,401,404,411,413-422,432,
break 30, 32, 466 443,447,452,454,456-458,495,549-551,
deposit/sediment 41l, 467,525,550,557,586 574,585
margin 519, 523, 535, 538, 589 silted-up
platform 466, 584 channel 310, 402
prism 556, 570, 585 lagoon 445
sand 445, 458 lake 594
shelf-margin deltas 466, 470, 507 Silurian 14, 32, 33, 535, 549, 586
shelf/slope/rise assemblage 545 silver 231, 239
shell 32, 164, 41l, 416 single point resistance 304
Shepherds Hill 369-371 Singleton/Coal Measures 27, 28, 342
Sh facies 360, 371 sinistral fault/strike-slip 535, 564
Shoalhaven Group 27 sinter 280
shoalf-ing 428, 458 Si0 2 /AI 2 0 3 ratio 260
waves 430, 440, 451 Siwalik Group 557
zone 431, 432 Skeena Group 562
shoot/root ratio 179, 346 skip marks 291
Shorea albida 42 Skolithos 457
shoreface 1l, 409, 429-432, 435, 439, 447-451, Skonum Formation 547
473, 505 slack water 414, 416
sediments 428, 433, 440, 447, 448, 455, 495 slate 268
shore-parallel current ripples 435 slickensided surfaces 309
shore/shoreline 408, 410, 427-437, 439-443, slope gradient/sediments 355, 556
448,449,455,456,458,463,465,466,490, slump
495, 509, 524, 583 breccia 291
deposits/sediments 452, 498, 504, 51l, 512 folds 280, 291
progradation 175, 428, 448, 449, 452, 454, structures 390, 401
456,466,494,495,498,499,504,508,509 smear samples 52
retrogradation 444, 470 snow 45
short-wave radiation 70 Snuggedy Swamp 46, 171, 341, 456, 494
Shortland Formation 362, 450, 495 sodium 139, 229, 231, 232, 240, 244, 315
Shotts Sub-Basin 575 soft brown coal 24, 52-54, 61, 60,66, 129,210-
shrubs 10, 24, 46 214
Siberia 7, 14, 16, 592 soft-tissued plants 53, 58, 195
Subject Index 713
soil 5, 10,24,47,49, 51, 75, 138, 158,265,306, sand/-stone 352, 391-394, 422
393 sheet 392, 394
sole marks 290, 293, 585 thrust 534
solid-state NMR spectroscopic analysis 204 sporangium 34, 114, 117
solitary cross-strata/megaripples 288, 289 spore 3,17,24,34,38,39,41,46,47,49,70-72,
soluble coal extract 246-249, 257 82, 87, 107, 108, 113-117, 120, 136, 137,
solvent extraction 247, 249 163-166, 168, 170, 172-176, 184, 193,
Son-Mahanadi Valley 351 198-200,209,222,245,249,254,255,322,
sonic log/velocity 300, 303 324,485,572
Sonnenschein Seam 82, 399 spore-bearing plants 34, 38, 70, 195
Soos 212 sporinite 2, 3, 89, 97, 113-117, 126, 130, 135,
South 154,155,161,164,166,168,172,184,188,
Gippsland 28 195,197,211,223,311,379,485,488,492
Mrica/-n 32, 33, 38, 310, 424, 437, 455, 501, sporite 195
507,594 sporoclarite 125, 157, 194, 195,200
America/-n/Andes 2,17,32,38,354,518,560 sporophyte 38
Atlantic 52 sporopollenin 113
Australia 17,33, 120,242 spreading centre 468, 527, 570, 581
Bar Formation 368 Springsure Shelf 27
Carolina 46, 171, 341, 387, 456, 494, 575 squalene 254
China Sea 565 squeeze method 51
Clifton Colliery 292 Sr facies 360
Saskatchewan/type 359, 371 Ss facies 360, 368
Southeast Asia/-n 7, 9, 15, 44, 263 St Elias BasinjTrough 547, 563
Southern Alps 591 St facies 360, 368, 369, 371
Coalfield 28, 200 stability series 18, 49, 53, 268
Continents 38, 517 stagnant water 46-48
Ocean 586 stalactite/stalagmite 280
Southland 205 Star Point Sandstone 442, 448, 454
Soxhlet apparatus/extraction 225, 247, 248 starved ripples 423
Sp facies 360 steam explosion 318-320, 326
Spain/Spanish 361 Steinbruch Rauen 415
Spartina marsh 443, 444 Stemonurus 42
specific energy (MJ/Kg) 7, 74, 75, 77, 82, 131, step-faulting 519
477 Stephanian 27, 561
spectral fluorometry 80 steranes 254
Spermaphyta 38 Sterculia 43
Sphagnum 5,6,16,41-45,256 sterenes 254
bog 6, 11, 44, 46 stereogram (Schmidt Net) 277-279, 328, 334,
coal 213 341
moss 21, 41 steroid 252, 254
peat 11, 41, 45, 174 sterol 254
Sphenophyllales 33 stigmaria/-n 35, 307
Sphenophyllum 39, 43 Stikinia Terrane 547, 562
Sphenopsida 35, 38 Stockrington Tuff 313
Sphenopteris 43 Stockton Ridge 574
spherical geometry 564 stone bands 16, 169, 176,209,258,259,262,311,
sphericity 271 404
spit 13,430 stone-rolls 309
platform 430, 436, 441, 442, 449, 451 Stopes-Heerlen classification system 87, 88
Spitzbergen 35 storm 169, 430, 432, 443, 450, 473
splay 411, 440, 350 straight-crested dunes/ripples 285, 319
bedding 393 Strait of Malacca 528-530
channel 422 strandline 10, 17,32,293,442,503,508,512,517
deposit/sediment 150, 391-393,402-404, 416, strand plain 4, 10, 164, 169,350,427-429,443,
419-422 444,451,456,463,498,504-506,511,512,
faults 564, 565 550
714 Subject Index
stratification/planes 280, 281, 291, 311 successor basin 559

stratigraphic Sudan 17, 168
column 461 Sudetian tectonic phase 524
range of coal formation 27, 32 sulphate 13, 173,223,224,241,242,478-481
section 395 reducing bacteria 217, 232, 408, 424, 477, 480,
stress patterns in coal seams 298 481,485
strike-slip sulphide 13, 123, 424
faults 521, 564 bacterially concentrated 478
flower structures 564 minerals 154, 158
movement 564-566 oxidation 158,242
strontium 231, 239 sulphur 12, 14,73,75, 138, 139, 154-156, 170,
Stroud-Gloucester Trough 27 173,222,223,227,229,231,232,239-243,
structure contour maps 298, 306 255,262,264,265,350,361,377,408,425,
Strzelecki Group/Strzelecki-Otway Rift phase 427,452,456,459,478-481,490,493,494,
586-588 499, 501, 502, 508, 511, 512, 525, 526, 539,
stunted tree growth 329 559, 563, 574, 578, 581, 591
Styx 28 SumatrafTrench 9, 148,378,528-530,534
subaerial 46, 293, 380,430,437,468 Sunda Trench 527-530
subalpine molasse 543, 559 superterrane/Superterrane I, II 547,548,561-
Subalpine Molasse Basin/Foredeep 520, 556- 563
559 supra-aqueous 120
subaquatic ooze 137 supracrustal
subaqueous/deposit/sediment 174, 176, 185, erosion 589
199,353,378,401,406,476,511 thinning 592
sub-bituminous coal 5, 60, 72, 74, 75, 77, 80, 81, thrust wedges 469
83, 101, 102, 109, 120, 129, 131, 177,209- supratidal
212,253,256,257,552,559,563,574,582, backshore 430
590 flats 458
subdelta 333, 419-423 Surat Basin 468
subduction 519-522, 526-530, 535, 543, 545, surf zone 429, 430, 432, 435
555-557 surface water 7, 9, 25, 50, 63
suberin/suberinite 89, 102, 120, 130, 197, 249 surge velocity 319
suberinoc1arite 197 Susan Gilmore Beach 385, 403
suberite 197 suspended load/channels/streams 169,349,385
submacerals 88, 89, 92, 102 suspension transportation 288
submarine canyon/fan 466 Sustut Basin/Group 547, 562
submicrinite 109, 190 suture belt 556
subsidence 7, 9, 10, 35, 48, 53, 71, 82-84, 166, swale 437, 441, 444, 499
176,181-185,190,191,211,258,264,311, swaly cross-stratification (SCS) 431, 432, 437,
335,339,341,344,345,348,377-380,406, 440,451
408,413,422,423,444,454,456,463,465- swamp 6, 7, 10-17,24,30,32,34,48,62, 169,
469,471,474,475,499, 509, 510, 512, 518, 170,192,197,200,232,346,348,350,383,
519,523-526,531,535,548,561,565,566, 404,419,424,451,455,458,475,493
570,571, 579, 583, 584, 589, 592, 594 drainage 258
rate 84,176,177,182,191,264,341,405,468, ecology 164
469,523,559,570-572,591 flora 41
subsidence/sedimentation ratio 244, 343, 346, Swansea/ClaystonejHead 313, 342, 356, 373,
377, 519, 535, 570 376
subsidiary rift 574 swash zone 429, 430, 432, 435
substratum 66 swell zone 429
subsurface organs 66 swillies 309
subterranean watercourses 374 Switzerland 520, 556, 558
subtidal channel/flat/zone 414, 430, 449, 458 Sydney (New South Wales) 446
subtropical climate/plants/region 10, 13, 30 Basin 28, 34, 36-38,48,54,58,59,97, 102,
sub-volcanic 105,106, 108-110, 114, 116, 133, 146, 147,
activity 557 149,188,190-192,196,200,201,216,220,
rocks 575 221,236-239,243,244,310,313,340,349,
Subject Index 715
355,361,378,391,405,424,426,437,445- Telkwa Coalfield 547, 562

448,452,456,473,474,480,485,491,497, telmatic/zone 11, 46, 170, 195, 197, 261, 344,
499,500,502-506,514,524,530-533,535- 346,378,406,425,511
540, 542, 543 telo-inertinite 89, 104, 108, 130, 135, 149, 179-
Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin 520, 526, 532 182,189-191,201,205,206,208,252,264,
Sydney (Nova Scotia) 403, 422 380, 405
Basin 361, 368, 403, 422 telo-inertinite/inertodetrinite ratio 187
Coalfield 567 telocollinite 53, 54, 78, 89, 95, 97, 98, 181, 184,
Mines Formation 403, 490 200,205,214,216,224,226,380,391,405
symmetrical ripples 431 telogelinite 89, 102
syncline/synclinorium 534, 594 telovitrinite 2, 3, 53, 55, 89, 92, 94-97, 99, 114,
syngenetic 180, 212, 487 118, 119, 130, 135, 149, 152, 156, 166, 170,
precipitates 269 180-185,188,191,197,205,206,208,210,
synorogenic flysch/molasse 516 216,219,220,264,327,328,379,380,391,
405-407,484-486,503,512
Tengchong Basin 218
Tablelands Complex 535 Tennessee 265, 455
tabular tenuispore/tenuisporinite 114, 116, 163, 164,
cross-bedding 319, 387, 420, 421 166, 188
foresets 387 tephra 146, 312-315
tabulated coding sheets 306 Teralba Conglomerate 338, 359, 361, 365, 372,
Tallong 27 376, 378, 513, 514
Tamworth Belt/Synclinorium 532, 534, 535 termite 60, 91, 92
tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) 248 terpene/terpenoid 117, 252
Tango Formation 547, 563 terrane 515, 516, 521, 526, 527, 535, 547, 548,
tannin 92, 103, 257 561, 562, 564, 598
Tantalus Formation 547 accretion 515, 523, 548, 561, 562, 598
Tanzania 17 amalgamation 548, 561, 562, 598
Tarai 557 analysis 515, 561, 598
Tarong Basin 520, 593 composite 548, 555, 562, 564
Tartarian 28, 536-538 development 563, 564
Tasman Sea/Drift-/Rift Phase 446, 490, 577, dispersion 535
581, 586, 588, 590 docking 515, 530, 548, 562, 564, 598
Tasmania/-n 28, 34, 55,63,111,116,117,120 post-accretionary
tasmanite/-s 33, 43, 119, 120 granitic intrusion 535
Taupo eruption 327 molasse 515
Taxodium 23, 178 overlap assemblage 548, 562, 563
distichum 42, 43 phase 548
mexicanum 43 post-amalgamation overlap assemblage 561,
peat 25, 179, 206, 207 562
Teche Delta 470 terrestrial 12, 46, 48, 344, 378,406,425,511,541,
tectonic/-s 340, 343, 516, 517, 520, 522, 524, 525, 581
535, 544, 548, 556, 559, 593, 594, 598 deposits 37, 530, 535, 538, 584
concepts 545, 598 flora/plants/vegetation 163, 249, 251, 255,
deformation 526, 534, 543, 548, 553, 561 458
discontinuities 298 zone 195-197,346
setting 36, 83, 518, 521 terrestrialisation 10, 11, 17, 37, 176,512,518,
stacking 523, 548 539,594
tectonism 81, 516, 526, 527, 550, 553 terrigenous debris/minerals 265, 524
tectono-eustatic sea-level changes 468, 469 Tertiary 26, 30, 33, 53, 83, 101, 107, 202, 211,
tectono-stratigraphic/assemblage/provenance 255,345,351,389,402,409,426,470,516,
515, 545, 561, 588 517,522,529,530,544,548,551,552,557,
tecto-orogenesis 515 562, 563, 565, 568, 572, 574, 576, 577, 582,
telalginite 120, 162, 163, 186 594, 595
teleutospore 101 Tethys 476, 557
telinite 53, 61, 66-67, 82, 88, 89, 92, 95-97, 99, tetracyclic steroid 254
181, 184, 205, 380, 391, 405 -hydroretene 257
716 Subject Index
-pyrrolic nucleus 255 creek 386, 423, 440

-terpene 254 current 411, 414, 416, 418, 439-442, 448, 451,
Texas 404 456
textinite 53, 54, 61, 66, 82, 89, 92-95, 97, 129, delta 430, 439, 440, 442, 449, 457, 458
130, 179 deposits/sediments 440, 442, 456, 458, 581
text6-ulminite 53, 54, 89, 92-95, 97, 129, 130 flat, 409, 428, 440, 456, 458
texture 46, 57 flow separation 416, 440, 449
aphanitic 144,268 fluctuation 13,416,452
microcrystalline 268 indicator 424
trachytic 144 influence 199,440, 541
Thailand 565 inlet 13, 350, 430, 439-442, 449,451,452
thallium 239 inundation 380
Thallophyta 32 range 410, 413, 439
thallus 32 tide 12, 13, 169,380,414,416,430,432-434,439,
Thalweg 350, 382, 386, 387 440
The tide-
Entrance 373 affected
Great Serpentine Belt 534 channel 415, 418
Narrows Beds 572 interdistributary laminite 423
Netherlands 345, 523 dominated shoreline 440, 449
thermal influenced barrier beach 495
analysis (DTA, DTG) 159, 306-308 Tighes Hill Formation 357, 496
bulging 592 Tigris Valley 9
cracking 24, 73, 75, 82 tillite 574
decay 583, 586, 592 time marker 148, 499, 505
degradation 258 time-
doming 571, 583, 586 transgressive lithofacies 496
expansion of the crust 519 trend diagram 466, 467
metamorphism 82 tin 240
tumescence 468, 519, 567, 583 Tingira Conglomerate 364
uplift 568 Tintina Fault/Trench 520, 547, 563, 565, 592
upwelling of a mantle plume 583 tissue 3, 4,19-21,24,26,28,31,48,49,52-68,72,
Theta (0) and Iota (I) cross-bedding 290 88-103,105, 107, 108, 117, 129, 130, 155,
thick-shelled benthos 411 166,178-182,184,207,210,216,217,219,
thiol 154 264, 380, 484
thiophene 154 breakdown/collapse/decay/degradation/
thiopyrone 154 destruction/disintegration etc. 13, 25, 56,
third order cycles 468, 507 94, 95, 103, 166, 180, 181, 202, 509
Thomson Fold Belt 531 fragments 41, 178, 212
thorium 240, 301 preservation 7, 21, 41, 44,58,90,92,98, 103,
Thornton Brick Pit/Claystone 362, 420 105,107,108,130,174,179,181-186,207,
Three Sisters 554 210,211,214,217,248,264,328,405,408,
three-dimensional seismic technique 298 484, 491, 492, 498, 503, 539
thrust/-ing 533, 534, 555, 556, 565, 566 tissue-derived macerals 58, 90, 129, 181
belt/zone 543, 558, 559, 565 titanium 231, 239
sheet 469, 519, 523, 525, 534, 548, 551-553, toe trough 523
. 558 Tomago
system 523 Coal Measures 28, 36, 284, 297, 342, 345, 348,
wedge 469 361,362,413,414,418-420,423,425,536-
thucholite 32 542
Tiaro 28 Thin Seam 362
Tibet 565 tomographic imaging 298
tidal 12, 13, 166, 415-417, 423, 427, 429, 430, Tonga 523
439, 440, 455, 456, 458 Tongking Basin 4
bundles 414-416, 458 Tongue River Member 409, 410
channel 284, 289, 385,416,418,419,423,440- tonige Fazies 169
442, 449, 451, 456, 458, 462 tonstein 133, 140-149,313,378
Subject Index 717
tool marks 280, 291 upperflower flow regimes 387, 388

Topfer Member 578 zone 429
toplap 464 translucency 70, 111, 112
topogenous 9, 10, 168, 197, 209, 214, 236, 237, minerals 484
261, 407 transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 90,
coal 471 218, 246, 322
marsh 194 transmitted light microscopy 78, 101, 157
mire 46, 173, 182, 207, 218, 263, 264, 353 transport/-ation 276, 336, 466
model 176, 202 macerals 490
nutrient supply 214 vegetation 391
peat/-land 3, 5, 6, 9,17,46,147,169,407,490 transpression 564, 565, 577
swamp 7,16 transtension/-al 564, 565
topotelmite 6-9, 174 movements 593
torbanite 32, 47, 87 pull-apart basins 563
torispore 116 zone 565
torisporinite 163, 188 Transvaal 594
Torlesse Terrane 590, 591 transverse bar 356, 387
Torrens Member 511 tree 10, 12, 22, 24, 30, 38, 47, 62, 390, 391
tortoise shells 572 casts 390
total cover 6, 46
extractable organic matter (TEOM) 225 density 378, 406, 425, 511
organic carbon (TOC) 248 islands 10,24
Toukley Seam 313, 365 seam roof 328
TPI (tissue preservation index) 178, 181-191, stump 12, 322, 326-328, 388, 391,401,420
198,206,207,227,252,264,328,350,362, trunk 17, 29, 50, 51, 63, 292, 326-328, 361,
377-380,405,406,424,425,447,452,453, 368,389,390,393,401,414
456,459,491-493,497,500,504,507,509- tree-less uplands 543
511, 513, 524, 539-541 treed swamps 194
trace trench/axis 528, 535
elements 228-230, 232 Triassic 2, 26-28, 33, 39, 116, 355,408,533,535,
fossils 455 536, 538, 543, 549, 557, 562, 575, 588, 592,
tracheids 19 593, 595
traction tributary 355
carpet 387, 443, 449 tricyclic diterpenoids 257
transportation 278, 284, 288, 386, 388, 414 trilete spores 193
tranquil flow 279 trimaceralf-alic, microlithotype 123, 127, 137,
Trans-Canada Highway 554 197
transcurrent 582 trimacerite 123, 126, 127, 137, 162, 169, 170, 173,
fault 564, 565, 593 193,195,488
transfer fault 585 Tristan Seam 395
flowers 564, 593 Tristania 42
transform triterpane 253, 254
fault 520, 564, 565 triterpene 219, 254
plate edge 521 triterpenic hopanes 254
transgression 11, 14, 17, 175, 345,464,474,491, triterpenoid 253
493,500,505,510,511,581,583 tropical 7, 10, 13, 19,25,26,30,41,45,46, 148,
transgression-immersion-regression 343, 348 174,407
transgression-regression trough 288, 432, 435, 449, 523, 561, 563, 572,
couple 510 577, 581
models 472 cross-bedding/stratification 331, 333, 352,
transgressive 496, 507, 543 353,357,361,366,368,369,387,413,420-
surface 466 422,430,440,442
tract 174 migrating axis 525
transition/-al trunk stream 15, 374, 391,402,405,413,423, 525
anastomosing/meandering channels 351 tuff/-aceous 142, 146-148, 150, 301, 313-328,
mires 7 378, 447, 473, 496, 538
telinite/semifusinite 66, 67 ashstone 314
718 Subject Index
tutT/-aceous (cant.) up-slope dipping foresets 457

claystone 146, 301, 321, 496 updomed continental margins 583
coal 498, 504 uplift 82, 83, 555, 558
devitrification 314, 348 Upper
marker 320, 498, 499, 503 Clarion coal, 509
rhyolitic to rhyodacitic 146, 313 Donaldson Seam 540
shale 498 Foot Seam 346
tonstein 146, 378 Fresh-water Molasse 559
tuffite 590 Hance Seam 377
tungsten 239 Homeville Seam 279
Tunguska Basin 520, 592 Marine Molasse 559
turbidite 282, 285, 432, 516, 529, 535, 544, 545 Pilot Seam 313, 315, 364, 365, 368
turbidity current 274 Rhine Graben 17, 85, 520, 568, 572
turbulence 270 Silesia 143
turbulent ash uprooted trees 391
cloud surge 319 upward
flow 321 changing environments 550
tussock grass 52 coarsening deposits 416, 454, 547, 551
twigs 24, 25 fining sandstone 387, 422
Tynemouth 309 upwelling magma 519
type I, II, III sandstones 413, 419 uranium 231, 239, 301
Typha latifolia 42 shale 305
uranyl glass 80
ursane 254
U.K./United Kingdom 132, 156, 163, 175, 179, Uruguay 14
309, 346, 403, 424, 476, 510 Utah 18,242,413,419,424,442,448,454,506-
u.S./U.S.A./United States 14,23,33,42,58,154, 508,512
174,178,179,241,242,244,265,310,337, U.S.S.R. 520
350,351,353,387,389,391,402,404,409, U trieularia 42
413,419,424,426,442,448,451,455,457,
458,461,477,479,505-507,520,566,585
UV radiation 215 Vaecinium 42
Udden-Wentworth Scale 270 Vales Point Seam, 313, 376
Uganda 17 Vallisneria 42
Uinta region 256 vanadium 229, 231, 239, 244
Ulan Seam 28, 446 Vancouver Island 520, 544, 547, 562
ulminite 89, 92, 179, 180 Vane Formation 445, 446
ultimate analysis 77, 131 Variscan (Hercynian)
Ultra-Helvetic limestone 557 basins 476, 489,524,530, 517
uncompacted peat 323-325, 335 Fold Belt 560
unconformity 221-223, 468, 495, 533, 545 Orogen/-y 476, 557
underclay 265, 309 system 560
undergrowth 10, 328 varved shales 282
underthrusting 558, 559, 565 vascular
Undine Seam 395 (circulatory) system 19, 32, 34, 35
unequal loading 330 cryptogams 35
uniaxial negative 79 plants 49, 117, 256
unicellular algae 120 strands 35
Union Seam 346 Vasyuganskoye Swamp 16
universal gas constant 83 Vaux Seam 445, 503
unsaturated vegetable/vegetal matter 11, 13, 17, 19, 21-25,
aliphatic molecules (e.g. n-alkenes) 248 35,41,46-53,60,61,65, 71, 140, 190,254
aromatics 215 vegetation 2, 7, 10-12,24,25, 36, 37, 45, 46, 51,
hydrocarbons 215 52,66,70,163,168-170,194-197,249,251,
pentacyclic triterpene 253 255,264,351,375,390,391,458
polycyclic isoprenoids 256 burning 58, 171
unstable minerals 268, 449 rooted 46, 172, 197
Subject Index 719
Vergelungsquotient 179 source 320

vermicular kaolinite 141 volcanics 522, 548, 587, 588
Vermoderung 47 volcanism 568, 592
Vertebraria roots 36, 307 explosive 146
vertical profile 14, 349 peralkaline 568
Vertorfung 47 Volker Seam 395
Verwesung 47 Vosges Mountains 568
Victoria/-n 4,90,94,96,101,102, 117, 130,131, Vossia cuspidata grass/marsh 17
180,198,203,210-213,237,251,254,310, Vryheid Formation 437, 454
591 vulcanicity 312, 313
Victoria Seam 398,417
Victoria Tunnel Seam 134, 147, 192, 313, 321,
343, 364, 371, 540 W.A.573
Vienna Basin 565 Waalian 469
Vietnam 4 wacke 268, 273, 274, 523
vitamins 251 Waihire Bay Group 591
vitrain 132, 150, 166, 169, 170, 172, 191,207, Waiomo Mudstone 578, 579
235, 405, 510 Wakefield Formation 450, 451, 454, 493, 495,
ash 236 496
vitric tuff 314, 315 Wales 599
vitrinertite 123, 125, 137, 162, 193, 196, 197,488 Walkomiella,43
vitrinertocutite 197 Walkiire Seam 395
vitrinerto-algite 197 Wallarah Seam 134, 191, 192,308,313,328,365,
vitrinertodetrite 197 372, 376, 540
vitrinertoliptite 196, 197 Wallis Creek Formation 358, 420
vitrinertoresite 197 Walloon Coal Measures 28
vitrinertosuberite 197 Walshville Channel 337, 339,479
vitrinite 2,3,30,37,38,48,49,53,55-57,59,60, Wambo Seam 445
65,71-74,77-112,114,123,125-127,135, want 321, 405
136, 141, 149, 154, 155, 157, 169, 170, 172, Waratah Sandstone 284, 363, 431, 436-438,
178,181-201,203,205,214-216,218,221, 441-443,449,451,453-455,474,493,495,
223-227,235,239,243,244,256-257,264, 496, 537, 542
303,328,344,346,377,408,425,485,488, Warners Bay Formation 371
489,491-493,498,501-504,508,510-515, Warsaw 476
524, 526, 539-541, 550, 575, 578, 582, 598 Wartburg Basin 265
vitrinite-fusinite facies 167, 169-176,202,406 Warwickshire
vitrinite/inertinite ratio 164, 190 Coalfield 175
vitrinitisation 4, 49 Thick Coal 175, 176, 490
path 37, 49, 58, 90, 190 washed coal 183, 237, 263
vitrinitised root 309 washery fractions 235-238
vitrite 123, 125, 127, 130, 137, 164, 166, 169, 170, washout 46, 294, 298, 336, 339, 393, 499, 513
193, 196, 197, 202, 409, 518, 488 washover
vitrodetrinite 89 deposits 13
vitroplast 323 fan 440, 443, 462, 473, 499
volatile matter (VM) 74-76, 80, 82-84, 131, water 437
226-228, 251, 262, 264, 477, 490, Wasserbank Seam 221, 222, 400, 440
volcanic 274,313-317 Wasserfall Seam 221, 399
activity 147, 320, 555, 557, 579, 583 waste products 19
arc 522, 526-535, 544, 556 water 6, 9, 10, 19,25,33,42,46-50,67, 73, 79,
ash 7,142,146-148,308,315,317-322,324- 166,168-170,172,185,202,219,220,230-
326,368,375,378,391,447,514 232,239,241,244,265,302,353-356,374,
chain 526 391,406,408,419,424,437,440,443,452,
glass 142, 146-148,268, 308, 314, 315, 318, 457,466,481,495,501
323 . availability 163, 492
island arc 528, 564 budget 171, 377
rocks 144, 147, 313, 317, 321, 534, 544, 575, catchment 258
584 circulation 225, 408, 476, 479
720 Subject Index
water (cont.) wax 19, 39,72, 101, 117, 197,249,250

courses 353 waxy material 88
cushioning effect 271 Wealden 390
depth 177, 195,286,287,403,430,440,443, weather marks 280
449, 456, 458, 464 weathered derivative
discharge 356,.383, 419 claystones 263
movement 173, 282 minerals 148,268
pools 437 weathering 221, 267, 268
salinity 168, 232, 303, 306, 443, 457 Weichbraunkohle 129 .
saturation 46 Weichselian 469, 470
supply 171, 280 well logs 465
tableJlevel 12, 41, 45-49, 61, 173, 176, 263, Werris Creek 28
351,.406, 407, 474, 507 Weser River 456
temperature 232 West
transportation 271, 319 African craton 566
turbulence 292 Borehole Seam 344, 345, 363, 540
velocity 270, 287 Canadian Cordilleras 526, 545
water- Coast (N.Z.) 226-228, 236, 576, 577, 579
filled depressions on the bog surface 7, 174 Virginia 375, 386, 390, 454, 457
formed current ripples 286 Wallsend, N.S.W. 372
insoluble compound 231 Siberian Basin 16
lily 11,24 Western
logged mud 295 Australia 102, 572, 573
saturated peat 63, 335 Canada Sedimentary Basin 545
worn sand grains 17 Coalfield 28
Watson Lake 547 Cordilleran Fold Belt 544, 545
Watt Sandstone 437 Westerschelde 440
Wave Hill Seam 313, 364 Westland graben belt 581
wave 169, 286, 428, 440. 456 Westphalian 27, 224, 225, 381, 392, 403, 476,
action/activity 199, 380, 411, 412, 427, 432 477, 508, 561, 567
448, 451, 455, 458 A 395, 398,400,440,477
alignment 431 B 38, 396, 398,407,477
base 430, 432, 451, 464, 471, 473 C 38,221, 396,407
build-up 432 D 361
diffraction 410 Westport 576, 578, 581, 582
energy 413, 427, 432, 440, 456 Westralian Shield 544
fetch 403 wet peat-forming conditions 166, 189
pattern 440 wetland 9, 16, 35, 36, 168
ripples 411 ecology 3
spectrum 215 White Nile 17, 168
wave- Whitehorse Trough 547, 563
affected shoreline 430 Whybrow Seam 391, 392, 445
cut scarp 445 Wianamatta Group 536
dominated wildfire 200
coast 443 Wilga
delta 410, 427, 457 Basin 574
shoreline 12,429,430,449, 510 Coalfield 28
shoal 458 Wilhelm Seam 398
strandline 512 Williston Basin 389, 426
driven wind
bedforms 422, 432 energy 427
megaripples 422, 437 formed oscillation ripples 282, 283
formed oscillation ripples 282, 283 Winton Formation 28
generated bedforms 451 Wisconsinan 470
influenced barrier beach 495 Witten Beds 440
length 80, 430 Wittingham Coal Measures 331, 347, 391, 392,
wavy bedding 284 406,408,445,446,504,542
Subject Index 721
Witwatersrand 32 movement 593

Wollombi Coal Measures 437 tectonism 564, 565
Wollongong 536 Wiirm Glacial 469
Wongawilli Wybung Head 373
Colliery 200, 201 Wynn Seam 191, 445-448, 452-454, 464, 473,
Seam 135-137 497,499-503, 509-511, 514
Wonthaggi 310 Wynn/Bayswater/Broonie Seam 470
Coal Measures 28,586,591 Wyoming 18,402,409,426,461
wood 19-24,44,51,53,55,58-67,71,72,82,91,
92,94,95,100,105,107,128,131,149,171,
181,184,191,197,203,204,207,256,257, X-ray
322, 327, 328, 392, 493, 509 (EDX) analysis 139
biodegradation 328 diffraction (XRD) 80, 159
cells 20, 68, 149, 181, 256 Xanten Seam 395
decomposition/destruction 51, 184 xeromorphic 15
fragments 44, 54, 92, 207 plants of raised bogs 172, 173
structure 92 xerophytic
tissue 19,21,53,55,60,61,66,92,95,155, 166, forest 46
179,207,210,379 plants 163
roots 179 xylem 18-20, 35, 117, 184,204
vitrinitic/vitrinitised 55 xylite 90, 94, 128,203-205,207,214
wood- Xyris 42
bearing vegetation 170
derived macerals 66, 67, 105, 107, 153, 196,
425 Yakoun Formation 561, 547
wooded YalIourn Seam 203, 210, 214
berm crest (beach ridge) 444 Yard Seam 134, 147,285, 313, 344, 363
peatlands 24, 166, 209 Yarraman Block 593
wetland 9 Yarrol Basin 27
Woodland Hill Seam 445 Yilgarn Block 574
Woods GulIy Claystone 363 Yorkshire 163, 599
W oodwardia 23, 43, 178 Young Wallsend 540
peat 25, 179,206, 207 Seam 343-345
virginica 22 Young's modulus 300
woody yttrium 231, 239
cell tissue 48, 53, 90 Yukon
forest peat 339 River 376, 393
lignite 127 Territory 359, 520, 547, 563, 565, 592
peat 22, 23, 225 Yunnan Province 213, 218
plants 58
precursors of brown coal 204
structure 129 Z-scale 83, 84
tissue 22, 166, 379 Zandvoort 433, 434, 438
topotelmite 9 Zechstein 223
vegetation 196 Zeolite 315
Woonona Seam 446 Zersetzungsfusinit 105
world zig-zag seam splits 388
climate 469 Zinc 229, 231, 240
coal reserves 516, 583 zircon/zircon placers 146,231,308,448
worm burrows 221, 297, 401, 416, 421, 422, 427, zirconium 239
541 Zollverein Seam 223, 397, 417, 476
Wrangellia Terrane 547, 562 zone of welding 318
wrench Zostera marina 495
fault/faulting 558, 563, 564 Zwickauer RuBkohle 107

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Claus F. K.

With 356 Figures and 40 Tables

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Coal- Geology. 2: Facies (Geology) - Analysis. I. Title. TNS02.D47

This monograph is neither a textbook nor a research report

Newcastle, NSW, June 1992 Claus F. K. Diessel

2 The Conditions of Peat Formation 5

3 The Coalification Process 41

4 Coal Petrographic Entities 87

5 Coal Facies and Depositional Environment . . . . . .. 161

5.2 Microlithotypes as Tools in Palaeo-Environmental

6 The Relationship Between Coal

6.1.4.2 Density (Gamma-Gamma) Log 302

7 Coal-Producing Sedimentary Environments . . . . . . . 349

7.4.7 Marine Transgression (Barrier Retrogradation) 444

8 CoarFormation and Sequence Stratigraphy . . . . . . 461

9 Coal-Producing Tectonic Environments . . . 515

9.4.2 Coal Formation in Rift Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 597

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

Group MaceraljSubgr. Permian (n = 67) Carboniferous (n = 40)

Mean % Range Std. Error Mean % Range Std. Error

Telovitrinite 23.5 38.6 1.242 31.8 33.6 1.102

Sporinite 3.2 11.2 0.671 6.7 13.1 0.504

Micrinite 2.1 5.6 0.l36 5.1 19.1 0.621

Minerals 3.9 10.0 0.228 3.3 7.3 0.279

Coal is an organic sediment which consists of coalifield vegetal matter. A broad

2.1 Peatland Ecology

ombrogenous _ _ _ _....._ _ _ topogenous

Peat type Ombrotelmite Transitional mires - Topotelmites

Sphagnum Herbaceous Woody Woody Herbaceous

examples of coal formation in nearshore environments. They are not favoured by

The vegetation of topogenous peatlands is either rooted in a soil from which

1. A marsh is a wetland periodically inundated by either fresh or salt water. It is

1. terrestrialisation which is the replacement, due to silting-up, of a body of water

Figure 2.2 illustrates examples of both processes. Paludification, for example, as

Fresh-water peat fmrnation byterrestrialisatian

Young forest ~$~~~~'~~~

case of a slower rise in water level, peat accumulation could be terminated by

2.1.1 Coastal Marshes and Swamps

Coastal lowlands offer a number of environments in which a variety of plants can

2.1.1.1 The Marine Influence on Peat Accumulation

2.1.1.2 The Influence of Marine Transgressions and Regressions

The world-wide post-glacial, Holocene marine transgression has, in many places,

2.1.2 Fresh-Water Peatlands

2.1.2.2 Limnic Environments

Topogenous peatlands without any hydrological connection to the sea occur in

2.2 Peat Composition and Peat-Forming Plants

Fig. 2.3. Transverse section through a

The phloem is surrounded by the cortex, which consists of an irregular

Based on a quantitative analysis of 94 thin sections of dolomite nodules,

Depositional Leading Colour Texture Plant F/M N/S

Open water Nymphaea Reddish Light Fine Leaves 0.79 3.00

Tree Cyrilla As above Light Coarse Leaves, 1.94 0.54

2. Pseudo-fibrous peat, in spite of its fibrous appearance, is soft, non-coherent

2.3 Climate and Peat Accretion

- - ' " Namurian _ • .." KazaRian

UPPER MESOZ ole ,-------59

.., Tialsic ~ II ~ Crtto"ous 45

Lower to Middle Permian:

there is sufficient independent evidence to suggest that most Gondwana coal

Fig. 2.9. (Caption continued from page 27)

Fig. 2.12. Photomicrograph showing

Young forest ~$~~'~