MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y.

2021-2022

MODULE I. LIMITS
Introduction:
Calculus is a branch of mathematics which started to develop in the 17 th century.
Sir Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniz (German, 1646-1716) created
calculus dependently of each other and amazingly at about the same time. Nowadays,
calculus plays an important role in the applications of almost every field of study that uses
mathematics.
In the study of calculus, the first important concept or idea which must introduced
the concept of limit. The purpose of this module is to impart the student a thorough
knowledge and understanding of this basic concept.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, the students shall be able to learn the following:
1. Identify the functional notation
2. Identify the limit of a function
3. Distinguish the different theorems on limits
4. The different indeterminate forms
I. Functional Notation
The function concept is needed when we discuss the principles of calculus in general
terms. Recall that a function is a certain law of correspondence. It is generally associated with a
formula. For example, consider the formula for the area of a circle

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
For each value assigned for r, the corresponds a value of A. We can say that A is a function of r.
𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑟)
In general, if there is a relation between two variables x and y such that for each value of x, there
is a corresponding value of y, then we can say that y is a function of x.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
The function concept may be extended to relations between more than two variables.
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
This implies that z is determined when x and y is given and say that z is a function of x and y. it is
important with functional notation. In mathematics and the physical sciences, functional
notations play an important role. In the example below, we shall illustrate how to set up a
formula showing the functional relation between the variables.
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

Example 1: The area of a rectangle is 6 sq. in. express the perimeter P of the rectangle as a
function of the length x of one side.
6
Solution: Since the area is 6 sq.in., then the length of the other side is 𝑥 and the perimeter is

6
𝑃 = 2 (𝑥 + )
𝑥
Example 2: If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥, find a. f (-5) b. f (y2+1)
Solution: Substitution;

a. If 𝑓 (−5) = (−5)2 − 4(−5) = 45

b. If 𝑓 (𝑦 2 + 1) = (𝑦 2 + 1)2 − 4(𝑦 2 + 1)
= 𝑦 4 + 2𝑦 2 + 1 − 4𝑦 2 − 4
= 𝑦 4 − 2𝑦 2 − 3

II. Limit of a Function

Familiarity with the concept of limit is absolutely essential for deeper understanding of
the calculus. Consider the function defined by the equation
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 1
And assigned some values to x near, but not equal to a specific number, say 2. For each value x
corresponds to 2, we compute the value of y as shown below

x f (x)
1.500 5.500
1.890 6.670
1.999 6.997
2.009 7.027
2.050 7.150
2.160 7.480
2.300 7.900

The table shows that when x is near 2, whether a little less or little greater than 2, f (x) = 3x +1 is
nearer 7. In other words, “3x+1 approaches the number 7 as a limit when x approaches 2”. The
abbreviated symbolic form of the statement is

3𝑥 + 1 → 7 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 2
We may also say that “the limit of 3x+1 as x approaches to 2 is 7”. In symbol, we write as
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

lim (3𝑥 + 1) = 7
𝑥→2

DEFINITION 1.1 Let f (x) be any function and let a and L be numbers. If we can make f(x) as close
to L as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to a then we say that the limit of f(x) as x
approaches a to L or symbolically.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

III. Theorems on Limits

This section deals with different theorems by means of which we shall be able to evaluate
the limits of functions rapidly and efficiently. To evaluate
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

Means that we are to find the number L that f(x) is near whenever x is near a but not equal to a.
To evaluate,

lim (4 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→1

We need to find a number which 4 − 𝑥 2 is near whenever x is near the number 1. By

definition1.1,

lim (4 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥→1

To obtain the limits of more complicated functions, we shall use the following theorems.
L.1 lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 , c = any constant
𝑥→𝑎

L.2 lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 , a = any real number

𝑥→𝑎

L.3 lim 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

L.4 lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

L.5 lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) . 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) . lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎
L.6 lim =
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

L.7 lim 𝑛√𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) , n = any positive integer and f (x) ≥ 0 if n is even
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

𝑛
L.8 lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

In stating the theorems, we assume that f(x) and g(x) are defined for all values of x in some
interval containing a, except possibly at a itself. To illustrate the use of these theorems, we have
the following examples.

Example 1.

lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3𝑥 + lim 4 by L.4

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2
= [lim 𝑥] + 3(2) + 4 by L.8, L.3, L.1
𝑥→2

= 14 by L.2
Example 2.

lim (𝑥 + 4)√2𝑥 + 5 = lim (𝑥 + 4) lim √2𝑥 + 5 by L.5

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= ( lim 𝑥 + lim 4 ) √lim (2𝑥 + 5) by L.4, L.7

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= ( lim 𝑥 + lim 4 ) √lim 2𝑥 + lim 5 by L.4

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= ( lim 𝑥 + lim 4 ) √2 lim 𝑥 + lim 5 by L.3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (2 + 4)√2(2) + 5 by L.2, L.1

= 18
Example 3.
2
lim (3𝑥 + 4)2 = [lim (3𝑥 + 4)] by L.8
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
2
= [lim 3𝑥 + lim 4] by L.4
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
2
= [3 lim 𝑥 + lim 4] by L.3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

= [3(3) + 4]2 by L.2, L.1

= 169
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

IV. Indeterminate Forms

Consider the function defined by
𝑁(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐷(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝐷(𝑥)
Suppose at x = a, N(a) = D(a) = 0
𝑁(𝑎) 0
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = =
𝐷(𝑎) 0
0
Which is undefined. We say that at x=a, function f(x) assumes the indeterminate form 0. The
∞
other indeterminate form that we shall encountered is . Obtaining any of these forms by
∞
straight substitution does not necessarily mean that f(x) has no limit. We shall see in the examples
0
below that even if f(x) assumes to be in the indefinite form 0
at x = a, the limit of f(x) may de
definite, limit exists. This limit is usually found by changing the expression defined by f(x) into a
form to which the theorems on limits can be used. Consider the following examples.

𝑥 2 −4
Example 1. Evaluate lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Solution: this cannot be evaluated by straight substitution since x = 2, we have

𝑥 2 −4 4−4 0
= 2−2 = 0
𝑥−2
0
That is, at x = 2, the function assumes the indeterminate form 0.

However, if 𝑥 ≠ 2, then

𝑥 2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
= = 𝑥+2
𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2)
Therefore, to evaluate the limit of the given function,
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
lim = lim (𝑥−2)
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2

= lim (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→2

=2+2
=4
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

The examples above shows the fact that f(x) may have limit at a number a even though the value
f(a) of the function is undefined. Likewise, it shows the limit and value of the function are two
different concepts.

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(2)
Example 2. Evaluate lim 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

0
Solution: a straight substitution of x = 2 leads to indeterminate forms 0. Since f(x) = x2- 3x,
then f(2) = 4 – 6 = -2. Hence

𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (2) (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 ) − (−2)
lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
(𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)
= lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)
= lim
𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)

= lim (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2

=1

Activity 1: Evaluate the following

1. lim (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→2
4𝑥+2
2. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥+4
3. lim𝜋(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )
𝑥→
4
4. lim (2𝑥 + 3√𝑥 − 4)
𝑥→8
√3𝑥
5. lim 𝑥
𝑥→3 √𝑥+1
𝑥 3 −64
6. lim 𝑥2 −16
𝑥→4
𝑥 3 −13𝑥+12
7. lim 𝑥3 −14𝑥+15
𝑥→3
(𝑥+3)2 −9
8. lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥
𝑥−1
9. lim
𝑥→1 √𝑥+3−2
𝑥−3
10. lim
𝑥→3 √𝑥−2−√4−𝑥
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

V. Infinity
Let f(x) be a function. If we can make f(x) as large as we please by making x close enough,
but not equal, to a real number a, then we describe this situation by writing.
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎

Where the symbol ∞ is read “infinity”.

1
In particular, consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. The table below shows that x takes on
1
values successively approaching the number 0, the value of 𝑥 grows larger and larger. We can say
1
that 𝑥 becomes infinite as x approaches 0 and indicate this by writing limits.

1
→ ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 0
𝑥
In more compact form, we write
1
lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥 0.1000 0.0100 0.0010 0.0001 →0

1 10 100 1,000 10,000 →∞
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥

Bear in mind that ∞ is not a number which results from division by zero. Recall that in the
real number system, division by zero is not permissible. In fact, it can be argued that the
statement lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥→𝛼

Is not an equation at all since ∞ does not represent a number? It is merely used as a
symbol to imply that the value of f(x) increases numerically without bound as x approaches a.

VI. Limit at Infinity

A function f(x) may have a finite limit even when the independent variable x becomes
infinite. This statement ‘’x→ ∞′′ .
1 1
Consider again the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥. It can be shown that 𝑥 approaches a finite limit (the
number zero) as x increases without bound. That is,
1
→ 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞
𝑥
We shall consider this fact as an additional theorem on limits and in symbol, we write
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

1
L.9 lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

The use of L.9 is illustrated in the following examples.

1 1 1 1
Example 1. lim = lim (𝑥 . 𝑥 . 𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 𝑥→∞
1 1 1
= lim 𝑥 . lim 𝑥 . lim by L5
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

=0

4 1
Example 2. lim = 4 lim why?
𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

1 1
= 4 lim (𝑥 . 𝑥)
𝑥→∞
1 1
= 4 lim 𝑥 . lim by L5
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

=0 by L9

1
1 1 4
Example 3. lim 1 = lim (𝑥) why?
𝑥→∞ 𝑥4 𝑥→∞
1
1 4
= [ lim ] by L8
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

=0 by L9

From the examples above, we intuitively feel that if n is any positive number, then
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛

This is given as a theorem in some books. Note that when n=1, we have L9.
𝑁 (𝑥) ∞
A function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = may assume the indeterminate form when x is replaced by ∞.
𝐷 (𝑥) ∞
However, limit of f(x) as x becomes infinite may be definite. To find this limit we first divide N(x)
and D(x) by the highest power of x. then we evaluate the limit by use L9.
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2−6
Example: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 +5𝑥+3
∞
Solution: the function assumes the indeterminate from ∞ when x is replaced by ∞. Dividing the
numerator and denominator by 𝑥 3 , we get

3 6
4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 6 4+𝑥− 3
lim = lim 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 3 𝑥→∞ 5 3
2+ 2+ 3
𝑥 𝑥
4+0−0
= 2+0+0

=2

VII. Continuity
In section 1.4, we emphasized that the limit and value of a function are two different
concepts. In fact, in section 1.2, when we discussed the meaning of lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐿, we
𝑥→𝛼
Deliberately ignored the actual value of f(x) at x=a. However, in section 1.3, we made mention of
the fact that the limit of a function 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝛼 may turn out to be just the value of 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
𝑎. That is, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝛼).
𝑥→𝛼

Now when this happens, we have an event of some mathematical significance. The
function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is said to be continuity at x=a. this leads to the following definition

DEFINITION 1.2 A function f(x) is continuous at x = a if lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

Note that the condition lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) in the definition above actually implies three
𝑥→𝑎
conditions, namely
1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined
2. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐿 exists, and
𝑥→𝑎
3. 𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑎)
If any of these conditions is not satisfied, then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous in an interval is it is continuous for every value of x in the
interval. The graph of this function is “unbroken” over that interval. That is, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)
can be drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper.
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

Example 1. The 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 is continuous at 𝑥 = 2 because lim 𝑥 2 = 𝑓 (2) = 4. In fact, it is

𝑥→2
continuous for all finite values of x. the graph of the function is shown.

1 1 1
Example 2. The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 3 because lim 𝑥 = 𝑓(3) = 3. It is
𝑥→3
1
however, discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0 since lim 𝑥 = ∞. The graph of the function contains a “break”
𝑥→3
at 𝑥 = 0.

VIII. Asymptotes
𝑁(𝑥)
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ≠ 0, be a rational function, i.e., N(x) and D(x) are polynomials. Suppose
𝐷(𝑥)
we which to sketch the graph of a function is to find, if there is any, the asymptote of its graph.
The asymptote may be a vertical line (no slope), a horizontal line (zero slope) or a non-vertical
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

line which inclines upwards to the right (positive slope) or inclines downward to the right
(negative slope). The following definition are used to determine the vertical and horizontal
asymptotes.

DEFINITION 1.3 The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) if lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞.
𝑥→𝑎

DEFINITION 1.4 The line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x) if

lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏.
𝑥→∞

2𝑥
Example 1. Since lim 𝑥−3 = ∞, then x=3 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function
𝑥→3
2𝑥
defined by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥−3

4𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
Example 2. y=2 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥2 −6 since lim = 2.
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 2 −6

3𝑥 3𝑥
Example 3. y=0 is a horizontal asymptote of the 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥2 −1 since lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −6

4𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
Example 4. There Is no horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥−1 since lim = ∞.
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥−1
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

From definitions 1.3 and 1.4 and the examples above, we can make certain generalizations which
would facilities further the process of finding the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph
of the rational function defined by the equation

𝑁(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝐷 (𝑥 ) ≠ 0
𝐷(𝑥)
Since N(x) and D(x) are polynomials, we may let
𝑁(𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑚−1 +. . . +𝑎𝑚−1 + 𝑎𝑚
𝐷 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . +𝑏𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑛

Where m and n are positive integers and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 . . . 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑏0 , 𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑛 are constants. We now
formulate the following rules for finding the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the rational
𝑁(𝑥)
function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = :
𝐷 (𝑥 )

1. To find the vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x), we set D(x)= 0 and solve x. if x = k where
k is any real number, then the vertical asymptote is the line x= k.

2. To kind the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x), we have the following conditions to
observe:

C1: If m < n, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 0.

𝑎0
C2: If m = n, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = .
𝑏0

C3: If m>n, then there is no horizontal asymptote.

2𝑥 2
Example 5. Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥2 −4.

Solution: Note that 𝑁(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4.

I. Intercepts: x = 0 and y = 0
II. Symmetry: symmetry with respect to the y-axis.
III. Asymptotes:

(1) Setting 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0, we get 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2 as vertical asymptotes.

MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

(2) Since m = n = 2, condition C2 is satisfied and because 𝑎0 = 2 and 𝑏0 = 1, then the

horizontal asymptote is the line 𝑦 = 2

IV. Additional Information:

(1) For all𝑥 > 2, we find that 𝑦 < 0. The curve lies above the x-axis.
(2) For all−2 < 𝑥 < 2, we find𝑦 < 0. The curve lies below the x-axis.
(3) For all 𝑥 < −2, we find 𝑦 > 0. The curve lies above the x-axis.

Consider again conditions C3 where 𝑚 > 𝑛, i.e., where the degree of 𝑁(𝑥) is greater than the
degree of 𝐷(𝑥). While there is no horizontal asymptote, there may be a “slanting” asymptote.
To find the equation of this asymptote, we proceed as follows:
By long division, write
𝑁(𝑥)
𝑦=
𝐷(𝑥)
In the form
𝑅(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑄 (𝑥 ) +
𝐷(𝑥)

Where the degree of 𝑅(𝑥) is less than degree of 𝐷(𝑥). The equation of the “slanting”
asymptote is 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥).
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
Example 6. The function 𝑦 = , by long division, can be written in the form
𝑥−1

2
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 +
𝑥−1
MATH 111: CALCULUS 1 S.Y. 2021-2022

We recognize 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑅(𝑥 ) = 2. Hence the “slanting” asymptote is the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 +

3. The graph of the function is shown.