TOPIC 5

EQUATIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

The Graph of an Equation involving x and y as its only variables consists of all points (x, y)
satisfying the equation.

Example:

1. What is the graph of the equation 2x — y = 3?

The equation is equivalent to y=2x-3, which we know is the slope-intercept equation of the
line with slope 2 and y intercept -3 .

2. What is the graph of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 4 = 0?

Completing the square shows that the given equation is equivalent to the equation (𝑥 −
1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 9. Hence, its graph is the circle with center (1, - 2) and radius 3.

Parabolas
Consider the equation y = x2. lf we substitute a few values for x and calculate the
associated values of y, we obtain the results tabulated in Fig. 5-1. We can plot the corresponding
points, as shown in the figure. These points suggest the heavy curve, which belongs to a family
of curves called parabolas. In particular, the graphs of equations of the form y = cx2, where c is
a nonzero constant, are parabolas, as are any other curves obtained from them by translations
and rotations.

Figure 5-1

In Fig. 5-1, we note that the graph of y = x2 contains the origin (0, 0) but all its other points lie
above the x-axis, since x2 is positive except when x = 0. When x is positive and increasing, y
increases without bound. Hence, in the first quadrant, the graph moves up without bound as it
Math 101A – Differential Calculus | Instructor: Engr. Novel Keith T. Solis 1
moves right. Since (- x )2 = x 2, it follows that, if any point (x, y) lies on the graph in the first
quadrant, then the point (- x , y) also lies on the graph in the second quadrant. Thus, the graph
is symmetric with respect to the y axis. The y axis is called the axis of symmetry of this parabola.

Ellipses
𝑥2 𝑦2
To construct the graph of the equation + = 1, we again compute a few values and
9 4
plot the corresponding points, as shown in Fig. 5-2. The graph suggested by these points is also

Figure 5-2

drawn in the figure; it is a member of a family of curves called ellipses. In particular, the graph
𝑥2 𝑦2
of an equation of the form + 𝑏2 = 1 is an ellipse, as is any curve obtained from it by
𝑎2
translation or rotation.

Note that, in contrast to parabolas, ellipses are bounded. In fact, if (x, y) is on the graph
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑦2
of + = 1, then ≤ + = 1, and, therefore, 𝑥 2 ≤ 9. Hence, −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. So, the graph
9 4 9 9 4
lies between the vertical lines x = - 3 and x = 3. Its right most point is (3, 0), and its leftmost
point is (— 3, 0). A similar argument shows that the graph lies between the horizontal lines y
= — 2 and y = 2. and that its lowest point is (0, — 2) and its highest point is (0, 2). In the first
quadrant, as x increases from 0 to 3, y decreases from 2 to 0. If (x, y) is any point on the graph,
then (-x , y) also is on the graph. Hence, the graph is symmetric with respect to the y axis.
Similarly, if (x, y) is on the graph, so is (x, - y), and therefore the graph is symmetric with respect
to the axis.
𝑥2 𝑦2
When a = b , the ellipse 2 + = 1 is the circle with the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , that is a
𝑎 𝑏2
circle with center at the origin and radius a. Thus, circles are special cases of ellipse.

Hyperbolas
𝑥2 𝑦2
Consider the graph of the equation − = 1. Some of the points on this graph are
9 4
tabulated and plotted in Fig. 5-3. These points suggest the curve shown in the figure, which is a

Math 101A – Differential Calculus | Instructor: Engr. Novel Keith T. Solis 2

 𝑥2 𝑦2
member of a family of curves called hyperbolas. The graphs of equations of the form 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 =
1 are hyperbolas, as are any curves obtained from them by translations and rotations.
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
Let us look at the hyperbola − = 1 in more detail. Since =1+ ≥ 1, it follows
9 4 9 4
that 𝑥 2 ≥ 9, and therefore, |𝑥 | ≥ 3. Hence, there are no points on the graph between the the
vertical lines x = -3 and x =3. If (x, y) is on the graph, so is (— x, y); thus, the graph is symmetric
with respect to the y axis. Similarly, the graph is symmetric with respect to the z axis. In the first
quadrant, as z increases, increases without bound.
2 2
Note the dashed lines in Figure 5-3; they are the lines 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥, and they are
called the asymptotes of the hyperbola: Points on the the hyperbola get closer and closer to
these asymptotes as they recede from the origin. In general, the asymptotes of the hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑏 𝑏
9
− 4
= 1 are the lines 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 𝑎 𝑥.

Figure 5-3

Conic Sections
Parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas together make up a class of curves called conic
sections. They can be defined geometrically as the intersections of planes with the surface of a
right circular cone, as shown.

Math 101A – Differential Calculus | Instructor: Engr. Novel Keith T. Solis 3

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

1. Sketch the graph of the cubic curve 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 .

The graph passes through the origin (0, 0). Also, for any point (x, y) on the graph, z and
y have the same sign ; hence, the graph lies in the first and third quadrants. In the first
quadrant, as i increases, J' increases without bound. Moreover, if (x , y) lies on the graph,
then ( -x , -y ) also lies on the graph . Since the origin is the midpoint of the segment
connecting the points (x , y) and ( -x , -y), the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Some points on the graph are tabulated and shown in Fig. 5-5; these points suggest the heavy
curve in the figure.

2. Identify the graph of the equation 9x 2 + 16y 2 = 144.

The given equation is equivalent to x 2 /16 + y 2/9 = 1. Hence , the graph is an ellipse
with semimajor axis of length a = 4 and semiminor axis of length b = 3. The vertices are ( —
4, 0) and (4, 0). Since c = √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = √16 − 9 = √7 , the eccentricity e is c/a = √7/4 =
0.6614 .

Math 101A – Differential Calculus | Instructor: Engr. Novel Keith T. Solis 4

3. Let L be a line, and let F be a point not on L. Show that the set of all points equidistant from F
and L is a parabola.

Construct a coordinate system such that F lies on the positive y axis, and the x axis is
parallel to L and halfway between F and L. (See Fig. 5-9.) Let 2p be the distance between F
and L. Then L has the equation y = - p, and the coordinates of F are (0, p).

Consider an arbitrary point Pax, y). Its distance from & is |y + p| , and its distance from F is
√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑝)2 .Thus, for the point to be equidistant from F and L we must have |y + p|=

√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑝)2 . Squaring yields (𝑦 + 𝑝)2 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑝)2 , from which we find that 4py =
𝑥 2 . This is the equation of a parabola with the y axis as its axis of symmetry. The point F is
called the focus of the parabola, and the line L is called its directrix. The chord AB through
the focus and parallel to L is called the latus rectum. The “nose” of the parabola at (0, 0) is
called its vertex.

Figure 5.9

4. Find the length of the latus rectum of a parabola 4py = x 2.

The y coordinate of the endpoints A and B of the lat us rectum (see Fig. 5-9) is p.
Hence, at these points, 4p2 = x2 and, therefore, x = ±2p. Thus, the length AB of the latus
rectum is 4p.

5. Find the focus, directrix, and the length of the latus rectum of the parabola y = ½ x2. and
draw its graph.

The equation of the parabola can be written as 2y = x2. Hence, 4p = 2 and p =1/2
. Therefore, the focus is at (0, 1/2 ), the equation of the directix is y = -1/2 , and the
length of the latus rectum is 2.

Math 101A – Differential Calculus | Instructor: Engr. Novel Keith T. Solis 5