Worktext in

PreCalculus

Prepared and Compiled by:

Ritchie P. Dalangin

SHS Faculty

June, 2020
 THE CONICS

“The Great Geometer” as his admiring friends called

him because of his great accomplishments in
Geometry, was born in Perga, a town in ancient
Greek that is now part of Turkey. He was known for
his “Conics” which explains the conic sections. From
his examinations of a solid cone, which he had cut
into sections, he noted several unusual forms, which
he termed as the ellipse, the hyperbola, and the
parabola. He was the first to recognize that these
forms, along with the circle, are all part of a cone. His
“Conics” which brought light to a puzzled and
imprecise area of Geometry, is much admired and
considered to be the greatest scientific works of the
ancient world.

Sometime between the 3rd and the 2nd century B. C., a Greek mathematician.
Appolonius of Perga who was called the Great Geometer, made a study of the
family of curves known as conic sections. He discovered many of the fundamental
properties of these curves that are widely used today and was recognized as the
one who gave them their names: parabola, ellipse and hyperbola. He wrote the
treatise on Conic Sections consisting of 8 books, which laid the foundation on the
subject. His works were so extensive that they outdated previous works on the
subject matter by Aristarchus and Euclid. Today his theory of the conic sections
and their applications are widely used in so many fields like navigation, optics,
astronomy, and engineering among others.

Conic sections or simply conics are curved formed when a plane cuts with
the surface of a right circular cone. The surface of the cone extends indefinitely far
in both directions from a point V, called the vertex of the conic. The conic surface
on either side of the vertex is called nappe of the right circular cone.

The type of conic section formed depends upon the direction of the cutting
plane. If the cutting plane cuts the cone completely across one nappe, the curved
formed is called an ellipse. If the plane cuts the cone such that it is perpendicular
to the axis of the cone but not the vertex, the curve obtained is a circle, which is
considered to be a special case of ellipse. If the plane cuts the cone such that it is
parallel to the line on the conic surface, called a generator, the result is an open
curve called the parabola. If the plane that cuts the cone parallel to the axis but
does not contain the vertex, the curved formed is a hyperbola. Consequently, the
planer cuts the cone in both nappes, such that the hyperbola consists of two
branches, which extend indefinitely in both directions.

The four types of curves above are not only possible results when a plane cuts
through a right circular cone. If the plane cuts the cone such that it goes through
the vertex, the result is called a degenerate conic, which is of three types:
1. If the plane cuts the cone perpendicular to its axis, the result is a single
point. This is called a degenerate ellipse.
2. If the plane cuts through the side of the cone, the result is a straight line.
This is called a degenerate parabola.
3. If the plane cuts both nappes of the cone through the vertex, the result is
two intersecting lines. This is called a degenerate hyperbola.

Another definition of a conic is that, it is a path of a moving point such that

the ratio of its distance from a given fixed point to its distance from a given fixed
line is a constant. The fixed point is called the focus of the conic and the fixed line
is known as the directrix. The constant ratio is called the eccentricity (e).
 FP
e
MP
The value of the eccentricity, e, determines the types of the conic section.
when e > 1, the conic is a hyperbola
e = 1, the conic is parabola
e < 1, the conic is ellipse
e = 0, the definition of the conic fails and,
e → 0, the ellipse approaches a circle.
Thus, we can say that a circle is a special case of an ellipse.
 THE CIRCLE

The circle is considered as the most perfect of all geometric figures.

Although regarded as special type of a conic, the circle nevertheless has its own
unique properties. This section deals with the circle and begins with geometric
definition of it.

Definition of a Circle
A circle is the set of all point in a plane equidistant from a fixed point.
The fixed point is called the center of the center, and the constant equal the distance
is called the radius of the circle.

radius ●

center

Figure 1

Let the center of a circle be at fixed point C (h, k) and let the radius be equal
to r. Then if P(x, y) is any point of the circle, the distance from C to P is equal to r.
(Fig. 2). This condition requires that

( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r

and by squaring both sides of the equation,

( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2

This formula exhibits the coordinates of the center and the length of the
radius and consequently, is sometimes called as the center – radius form of the
circle.
If the center of circle is at the origin, then h = 0 and k = 0; therefore its equation
is
x2  y2  r 2 .
If the radius of the circle is 1, it is called unit circle.

P(x, y)
r

●
C(h, k)
O

Figure 2

The equation ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 is called the center radius form of an

equation of the circle. If we remove the parenthesis and combine like terms, we
obtain

x 2  y 2  2hx  (h 2  k 2  r 2 )  0 .

By letting D = -2h, E = -2k and F = h2 + k2 – r2, this equation becomes

x 2  y 2  Dx  Ey  F  0

which is the general form of the equation of a circle. Because every circle has center
and radius, its equation can be put in the center – radius form, and hence into the
general form. If we start with an equation of a circle in general form, we can write
it in the center – radius form by completing the square.
Example 1. Find an equation of the circle with center at the origin and radius of 3
units. Sketch the circle.

Solution:
r=3
x2 + y2 = 32
x2 + y2 = 9

Example 2. Determine the equation of the circle which passes through the point (-
4, 2) and with the center at the origin. Sketch the graph.

Solution:
C (0, 0) and at point (-4, 2)
Solving for the radius using the distance formula;
r  ( x 2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2
r  (4  0) 2  (2  0) 2
r  16  4
r  20 units
Substituting the value of r in x2 + y2 = r2
x2  y2   20  2

x 2  y 2  20
Example 3. Change the equation 2 x 2  2 y 2  4 x  5 y  6  0 into its general form.
Sketch.

Solution:
We first divide the given equation by 2 to reduce it into its general form.
Thus
5
x 2  y 2  2x  y  3  0 .
2
By completing the squares, we have
5
x 2  2x  y 2  y  3
2
5 25 25
( x 2  2 x  1)  ( y 2  y  )  3  1 
2 16 16
5 89
( x  1) 2  ( y  ) 2 
4 16
5 89
C (1, ); r 
4 4
Example 4. What is the standard equation of a circle with the points (-1, 3) and (5,
-3) as the ends of its diameter?

Solution:

Solving for the center of the circle using the midpoint formula, with P 1 (-1, 3), P2 (5,
-3)
x x y  y1
xm  2 1 ym  2
2 2
C (xm, ym) = (2, 0)

Using the coordinates of the center and one of the given points to solve for the
radius of the circle,

r  ( xm  x1 ) 2  ( y m  y1 ) 2
r  (2  (1)) 2  (0  3) 2
r  18
r  3 2units

Substituting the values in the equation of the circle with h = 2, k = 0 and r = 3 2 .

( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2
( x  2) 2  ( y  0) 2  (3 2 ) 2
( x  2) 2  y 2  18.
Example 5. Transform ( x  7) 2  ( y  4) 2  25 into its general form.

(x + 7)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25
x2 + 14x + 49 + y2 + 8y + 16 = 25
x2 + y2 + 14x + 8y + 65 -25 = 0
x2 + y2 + 14x + 8y + 40 = 0

Note:
If in ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 ,
a. r2 = 0, the graph is a point circle.
b. r2 > 0, the graph is a circle.
c. r2 < 0, the equation has no graph.
 EXERCISES No.1

Name : _______________________ Date: ______________

Course/Yr/Sec: ________________ Score: _____________

THE CIRCLE

I. A. Directions: Write the equation of the circle which satisfies the given
conditions.

1. Center (2, -6), radius 5

2. Center (0, 4)), radius 4

3. Center (-12, 5), radius 13

4. Center (1/2, -3), radius 11

5. Center (5/3, 1/3), radius 3

6. Center (0, 0), passing through (5, -4)

7. Center (1, 1), passing through (-5, 2)

8. Center (6, 9), passing through (-1, 2)

9. With the points (4, 4) and (0, 2) as the ends of its diameter

10. With the points (7, 8) and (-1, 5) as the ends of the diameter.

B. Reduce the following equations into the center radius form and construct the
circle.

11. x2 + y2 – 4x – 12y + 36 = 0
12. x2 + y2 – 10x – 4y - 7 = 0

13. x2 + y2 + 10x + 24y = 0

14. x2 + y2 + 3x + 4y = 0

15. 3x2 + 3y2 + 6x – 5y = 0

16. x2 + y2 – 6x + 4y - 12 = 0

17. x2 + y2 + 8x + 2y + 1 = 0
18. x2 + y2 – 4x + 12y - 8 = 0

19. x2 + y2 – 8x – 6y = 0

20. 2x2 + 2y2 – 12x + 2y + 1 = 0

C. Determine whether the following equations represent a point, a circle or

have no graph.

21. 1 – x2 – y2 = 0.

22. x2 + y2 + 2x + 1 = 0

23. x2 + y2 + x – y = 0
24. x2 + y2 - 3x + 3y + 10 = 0

25. x2 + y2 + 1 = 0

26. x2 + y2 - 6y = -9

27. x2 + y2 - 8x + 15 = 0

28. x2 + y2 - 7x - 5y + 15 = 0
 PARABOLA

Dish antennas used by television and radio stations; radars aboard the
modern ships and airplanes; telescopes to gaze at the stars and the heavens: these
are just a few of many uses of the concept, the parabola.

Definition of a Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed
line, the directrix, and a fixed point, the focus, that is not on the line.

Figure 1
From the definition of parabola, FS = RS and FP =PQ. In the figure, the line passing
through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is the axis of symmetry. The
point of intersection of the parabola with its axis of symmetry is called the vertex.
The vertex is midway between the focus and the directrix.

STANDARD FORMS OF THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA

The rectangular coordinate system enables us to translate a parabola’s
geometric definition into an algebraic equation.
 Figure 2

Figure 2 is our starting point of obtaining an equation. We place the focus

on the x – axis at the point (p, 0). The directrix has an equation given by x = -
p. The vertex, located midway between the focus and the directrix is at the
origin.
What does the definition of a parabola tell us about the point (x, y) in the
Figure 2? For any point (x, y) on the parabola, the distance d 1 (distance from
point M to point P) to the directrix is equal to the distance d2 (distance from
point P to point F) to the focus. Thus, the point (x, y) is on the parabola if and
only if
d1  d 2
( x  p) 2  ( y  p) 2  ( x  p) 2  ( y  0) 2
( x  p) 2  ( x  p) 2  y 2
x 2  2 px  p 2  x 2  2 px  p 2  y 2
2 px  2 px  y 2
y 2  4 px
The last equation is called the standard form of the equation of a parabola with
its vertex at the origin. There are two such equations, one for a focus on the x –
axis and one for a focus on the y – axis.
Standard Forms of the Equations of a Parabola
The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin
is
y2 = 4px or x2 = 4py.

Figure 3 illustrates that for the equation on the left, the focus is on the x – axis,
which is the axis of symmetry.

A B
Figure 3
A. Parabola with the x – axis as the axis of symmetry. The equation of a
parabola with vertex (0, 0) and focus on the x-axis is y2 = 4px. The
coordinates of the focus are (p, 0). The equation of the directrix is x = -p. If p
> 0, the parabola opens right. If p < 0, the parabola opens left.

B. Parabola with the y – axis as the axis of symmetry. The equation of a

parabola with vertex (0, 0) and focus on the y-axis is x2 = 4py. The
coordinates of the focus are (0, p). The equation of the directrix is y = -p. If p
> 0, the parabola opens up. If p < 0, the parabola opens down.

Example 1. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola given by y 2 = 12x. Then
graph the parabola.

Solution:
The given equation is standard from y2 = 4px; so 4p =12.
4p = 12
p=3
Because p is positive, the parabola, with its x – axis symmetry, opens to the right.
The focus is 3 units to the right of the vertex, (0, 0).
Focus: (p, 0) = (3, 0)
Directrix: x = -p; x = -3
To graph the parabola, we will use two points on the graph that lie directly
above and below the focus. Because the focus is at (3, 0), substitute 3 for x in the
parabola’s equation y2 = 12x.
y2 = 12(3)
y2 = 36
y   36
y  6
The points on the parabola above and below the focus are (3, 6) and (3, -6).

In general, the points on a parabola y2 = 4px that lie above and below the
focus, (p, 0), are each at a distance 2 p from the focus. This is because if x = p, then
y2 = 4px = 4p2, so y =  2 p . The line segment joining these two points is called the
latus rectum; its length is 4 p .
Example 2. Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola given by x 2 = -8y. Then
graph the parabola.

Solution:
The given equation is in the standard from x2 = 4py, so 4p = -8
4p = -8
p = -2
Because p is negative, the parabola, with its y – axis symmetry, opens
downward. The focus is 2 units below the vertex (0, 0).
Focus: (0, p) = (0, -2)
Directrix: y = -p; y = 2
To graph the parabola, we will use the vertex, (0, 0), and the two
endpoints of the latus rectum. The length of the latus rectum is
4 p  4(2)   8  8
Because the graph has y –axis, the latus rectum extends 4 units to the left and 4
units to the right of the focus, (0, 2). The endpoints of the latus rectum are (-4, -2)
and (4, -2).

PARABOLA WITH VERTEX AT (h, k)

The graph of a parabola can have its vertex at (h, k) rather than the origin.
Horizontal and vertical translations are accomplished by replacing x with x – h
and y with y – k in the standard form of the parabola’s equation.
 The table below gives the standard forms of the equation of the parabolas
with vertex at (h, k).

Standard Forms of the Equations of Parabolas with Vertex at (h, k)

Equation Vertex Axis of Focus Directrix Description
Symmetry
If p > 0, opens
(y – k) = 4p(x – h) (h, k)
2
horizontal (h+p, k) x = h - p to the right.
If p < 0, opens
to the left
If p > 0, opens
(x – h) = 4p(y – k) h, k)
2
vertical (h,k+ p) y = k - p upward.
If p < 0, opens
downward

Example 3. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola given by
(x – 3)2 = 8(y + 1).
Then graph the parabola.

Solution:
In order to find focus and directrix, we need to know the vertex. In the
standard forms of the equations with vertex at (h, k), h is the number subtracted
from x and k is the number subtracted from y.
(x – 3)2 = 8 (y – (-1))
We see that h = 3 and k = -1. Thus, the vertex of the parabola is (h, k) = (3, -1).
Now that we have the vertex, we can find both the focus and directrix by
finding p. Because 4p = 8, p = 2. Based on the standard form of the equation, the
axis of symmetry is vertical. With a positive value for p and a vertical axis of
symmetry, the parabola opens upward. Because p = 2, the foci is located 2 units
above the vertex, (3. -1). Likewise, the directrix is located 2 units below the vertex.
Focus: (h, k + p) = (3, -1 + 2) = (3, 1)
Directrix: y = k – p = -1 – 2 = -3

Thus, the focus is (3, 1) and the directrix is y = -3.

To graph the parabola, we will use the vertex, (3, -1) and the two endpoints
of the latus rectum. The length of the latus rectum is
4 p  4(2)  8  8
Because the graph has vertical symmetry, the latus rectum extends 4 units to the
left and 4 units to the right of the focus, (3, 1). The endpoints of the latus rectum
are (-1, 1) and (7, 1).

Example 4. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola given by
y2 + 2y + 12x – 23 = 0.
Then graph the parabola.

Solution:
We convert the given equation to standard from by completing the square
on the variable y. We isolate the terms involving y on the left side.
y2 + 2y + 12x – 23 = 0
y2 + 2y = -12x + 23
y2 + 2y + 1 = -12x + 23 + 1
(y + 1)2 = -12x + 24
To express this equation in the standard form (y –k)2 = 4p(x – h), we factor -12 on
the right. The standard of the parabola’s equation is
(y + 1)2 = -12(x -2)
We use this form to identify the vertex, (h, k), and the value of p needed to locate
the focus and the directrix.
(y – (-1))2 = -12(x – 2)
We see that h = 2 and k = -1. Thus the vertex of the parabola is (h, k) = (2 , -1).
Because 4p = -12, p = -3. Based on the standard form of the equation, the axis of
symmetry is horizontal. With a negative value p and a horizontal axis of
symmetry, the parabola opens to the left. Because p = -3, the focus is located 3 units
to the left of the vertex, (2, -1). Likewise, the directrix is located 3 units to the right
of the vertex.
Focus: (h + p, k) = (2 + (-3), -1) = (-1, -1)
Directrix: x = h – p = 2 – (-3) = 5
Thus, the focus is (-1, -1) and the directrix is x = 5.
To graph the parabola, we will use the vertex (2, -1), and the two endpoints
of the latus rectum. The length of the latus rectum is
4 p  4(3)   12  12 .
Because the graph has horizontal symmetry, the latus rectum extends 6 units
above and 6 units below the focus, (-1, -1). The endpoints of the latus rectum are (-
1, 5) and (-1, -7).
 EXERCISES No.2

Name : _______________________ Date: ______________

Course/Yr/Sec: ________________ Score: _____________

PARABOLA

I. A. Directions: For the following equations of parabola, find the coordinates

of the focus, the length of the latus rectum and the coordinates of its endpoints,
and the equation of the directrix. Attach a graphing paper for the graph.

1. y2 = 8x 2. x2 = -12y

3. 2y2 = 9x 4. x2 =8y

5. x2 + 10y = 0 6. 2y2 = -5x

7. y2 = -12x 8. 5x + 4y2 = 0

9. x2 – 9y = 0 10 . 8y2 + 4x = 0
B. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of each parabola with the given equation. Use
graphing paper to sketch the graph.
11. (x – 2)2 = 8(y – 1)

12. (x + 1)2 = -8(y + 1)

13. (y + 3)2 = 12(x + 1)

14. (y + 1)2 = -8x

15. (y + 4)2 = 12(x + 2)

C. Convert each equation to standard form by completing the square on x or y. Then
find the vertex, focus, and the directrix of the parabola.

16. x2 – 2x – 4y + 9 = 0

17. y2 – 2y + 12x – 35 = 0

18. x2 + 6x – 4y + 1 = 0

19. x2 + 6x + 8y + 1 = 0

20. y2 – 2y – 8x + 1 = 0
 THE ELLIPSE

The ancients believe that the planets and the other heavenly bodies revolve around
the sun in perfect circular orbits. Why? Mainly because they believe that all these celestial
bodies must move like the most perfect geometric figure, the circle. In reality, they all
move in elliptical orbits. This was proven by a German astronomer, Johannes Kepler
(1571 – 1630). He showed that the planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits with
the sun at one of the foci.

Definition of an Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points, F1 and F2 is a constant. These two fixed points are called the foci (plural of
focus). The midpoint of the segment connecting the foci is the center of the ellipse.

Figure 1
Figure 2 illustrates that an ellipse can be elongated horizontally or vertically. The
line through the foci intersects the ellipse at two points called vertices. The line segment
that joins the vertices is the major axis. Notice that the midpoint of the major axis is the
center of the ellipse. The line segment whose endpoints are on the ellipse and that I
perpendicular to the major axis is called the minor axis of the ellipse.

Figure 2(a). Ellipse with x – axis as the major axis, y – axis as the minor axis
 Figure 2(b). Ellipse with y – axis as the major axis, x – axis as the minor axis

STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE

The rectangular coordinate system gives us a unique way of describing an ellipse.
It enables us to translate an ellipses geometric definition into algebraic equation.
Figure 3 is our starting point of obtaining an equation. We’ve placed an ellipse that
is elongated horizontally into a rectangular coordinate system. The foci are on the x – axis
at (-c, 0) and (c, 0). In this way, the center of the ellipse is at the origin. We let (x, y)
represent the coordinates of any point on the ellipse.
What does the definition of an ellipse tell us about the point (x, y) in the Figure 3?
For any point (x, y) on the ellipse, the sum of the distances to the two foci, d 1 + d2 must be
constant. As we shall see, it is convenient to denote this constant by 2a. Thus, the point
(x, y) is on the ellipse if and only if
d1  d 2  2a
( x  c ) 2  y 2  ( x  c ) 2  y 2  2a
After eliminating radicals and simplifying, we obtain
(a 2  c 2 ) x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2 (a 2  c 2 )
Looking at the triangle in the figure, it can be noticed that the distance from F 1 and F2 is
2c. Because the length of any side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the
other two sides, 2c < d1 + d2. Equivalently, 2c < 2a and c < a. Consequently, a2 – c2 > 0. For
convenience, let b2 = a2 – c2. Substituting b2 for a2 – c2 in the preceeding equation, we obtain
b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2
Dividing both sides by a2b2,
b 2 x 2 a 2 y 2 a 2b 2
 
a 2b 2 a 2b 2 a 2b 2
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
This last equation is the standard form of the equation of an ellipse centered at the
origin. There are two such equations, one for a horizontal major axis and the one for a
vertical major axis.

d1
P (x, y)d2

F1 (-c, 0) F2 (c, 0)

Figure 3

Standard Forms of the Equation of an Ellipse

The standard from of the equation of an ellipse with center at the origin, and the
major and minor axes of lengths 2a and 2b (where and b are positive, and a 2 > b2) is
x2 y2 x2 y2
 1 or  1
a2 b2 b2 a2
Figure 4 illustrates that the vertices are on the major axis, a units from the center. The foci
are on the major axis, c units from the center. For both equations, b2 = a2 – c2. Equivalently,
c2 = a2 – b2.

Figure 4a. Major axis is horizontal with length 2a

 Figure 4a. Major axis is vertical with length 2a

Equations of Ellipses with Center at Origin (Summary)

Standard Form x2 y2 x2 y2
  1  1
Of Equation a2 b2 b2 a2
Major Axis Horizontal Vertical
Foci (c, 0), (-c, 0) (0, c), (0, -c)
Length of 2a units 2a units
Major Axis
Length of Minor Axis 2b units 2b units
Vertices (Major Axis) (a, 0), (-a, 0) (0, a), (0, -a)
Vertices (Minor Axis) (0, b), (0, -b) (b, 0), (-b, 0)
2 2
x y
Example 1. Graph and locate the foci:   1.
9 4

Solution:
The given equation is the standard form of an ellipses equation with a 2 = 9 and b2
= 4.
x2 y2
 1
9 4
Because the denominator of the x2 term is greater than the denominator of the y2 term,
the major axis is horizontal. Based on the standard form of the equation, we know that
the vertices are (a, 0) and (-a, 0). Because a2 = 9, a = 3. Thus, the vertices are (3, 0) and (-3,
0).
 Now let us find the endpoints of the vertical minor axis. According to the standard
form of the equation, these endpoints are (0, -b) and (0, b). Because b2 = 4, b = 2. Thus, the
endpoints of the minor axis are at (0, -2) and (0, 2).
Finally, we find the foci, which are located at (-c, 0) and (c, 0). We can use the
formula c2 = a2 – b2 to do so. We know that a2 = 9 and b2 = 4. Thus,
c2 = a2 – b2 = 9 – 4 = 5.
Because c2 = 5, c = 5 . The foci, (-c, 0) and (c, 0) are located at (- 5 , 0) and ( 5 , 0).

Example 2. Graph and locate the foci: 25x2 + 16y2 = 400.

Solution:
We begin by expressing the equation in standard form. Because we want 1 on the
right side, we divide both sides by 400.
25 x 2 16 y 2 400
 
400 400 400
x2 y2
 1
16 25
The equation is the standard form of an ellipse’s equation with a 2 = 25 and b2 = 16. Because
the denominator of the y2 – term is greater than the denominator of the x2 – term, the
major axis is vertical. Based on the standard form of the equation, we know that the
vertices are at (0, -a) and (0, a). Because a2 = 25, a = 5. Thus the vertices are (0, -5) and (0,
5).
 Now let us find the endpoints of the horizontal minor axis. According to the
standard form of the equation, these endpoints are (-b, 0) and (b, 0). Because b2 = 16, b =
4. Thus, the endpoints of the minor axis are (-4, 0) and (4, 0).
Finally, we find the foci, which are located at (0, -c) and (0, c). We can use the
formula c2 = a2 – b2 to do so. We know that a2 = 25 and b2 = 16. Thus,
c2 = a2 – b2 = 25 – 16 = 9.
Because c2 = 9, c = 3. The foci, (0, -c) and (0, c) are located at (0, -3) and (0, 3).

Example 3. Find the equation of an ellipse with foci at (0, -4) and (0, 4) and a vertex at (0,
6).

Solution:
The location of the foci shows that the center of the ellipse is at the origin, that c =
x2 y2
4, and that the desired equation maybe expressed in the form of 2  2  1 . The given
b a
vertex, 6 units from the origin make a = 6. Using the relation b2 = a2 – c2, we find b2 = 20.
Hence, we obtain the equation
x2 y2
  1.
20 36
ELLIPSE WITH CENTER AT (h, k)
Suppose the axes of the ellipse are parallel to the coordinate axes but its center is
not at the origin but at point (h, k). To derive its equation, let us apply translation
formulas. Translation to its new axes, with x = (x – h) and y = (y – k), the equation of an
ellipse with center at (h, k) becomes

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
  1.
a2 b2
This is its equation if the principal axis is parallel to the x – axis. Similarly, if its principal
axis is parallel to y – axis, we have its equation as,

( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2
  1.
a2 b2

These two equations above are also known as the standard forms of the equations of the
ellipse. It should be remembered that the meaning of the variable a, b and c are the same
regardless of where the center of the ellipse is. The graphs of the ellipses are shown below.

Figure 5a.
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
 1
a2 b2
 Figure 5b.
( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2
 1
a2 b2

Standard Forms of Equations of Ellipses Centered at (h, k)

Equation Center Major Axis Foci Vertices

( x  h) 2
( y  k) 2
(h, k) Parallel to x – (h – c, k) (h – a, k)
 1
a 2
b 2 axis, horizontal (h + c, k) (h + a, k)
a > b and c = a2 – b2
2 2 2

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2 (h, k) Parallel to y – (h, k – c) (h, k– a)

 1
b 2
a 2 axis, vertical (h, k + c) (h, k+ a)
a2 > b2 and c2 = a2 – b2

Example 4. Find the center, vertices, foci, endpoints of the minor axis and sketch the
( x  2) 2 ( y  2) 2
graph of the ellipse   1.
9 4

Solution:
( x  2) 2 ( y  2) 2
The given equation is   1,
9 4
( x  2) 2 ( y  2) 2
 1
32 22
hence a = 3, b = 2, the principal axis is parallel to the x – axis.
Solving for c,
c2 = a2 – b2
= (3) 2  (2) 2
= 5
Thus,
Center : (2, -2)
Foci: (2 + 5 , -2) and (2 - 5 , 2)
Vertices: (5, -2) and (-1, -2)
Endpoints of Minor Axis: (2, 0) and (2, -4)

Example 5. Find the center, vertices, foci, endpoints of the minor axis and sketch the
( y  3) 2 ( x  4) 2
graph of the ellipse   1.
25 15

Solution:
( y  3) 2 ( x  4) 2
The given equation is   1,
25 15
( y  3) 2 ( x  4) 2
 1
52 42
hence a = 5, b = 4, the principal axis is parallel to the y – axis.
Solving for c,
c2 = a2 – b2
= (5) 2  (4) 2
=3
Thus,
Center : (-4, -3)
Foci: (-4, 0) and (-4, -6)
Vertices: (-4, 2) and (-4, -8)
Endpoints of Minor Axis: (-8, -3) and (0, -3)
Example 6. Determine the equation of an ellipse with center at (-1, -2), a focus at (3, -2)
and a vertex at (5, -2).

Here, a = 6, c = 4, with the principal axis parallel to the x – axis. Solving for b:
 b2 = a2 – c2
b= (6) 2  (4) 2
b = 36  16
= 2 5
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is

( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
 1
a2 b2
( x  (1)) 2 ( y  (2)) 2
 1
(6) 2 (2 5 ) 2
( x  1) 2 ( y  2) 2
 1
36 20

GENERAL EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE

The general equation of the second degree in two variables is in the form Ax2 + Bxy
+ Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0. When B = 0 and A = C, we learned that the equation will yield a
graph of a circle, a point or no graph at all. Presently, when B = 0 and A ≠ C, the equation
will become,

Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

This is the general equation of an ellipse. Given the equation of an ellipse in its standard
form, we can put it in general form by expanding, clearing of fractions and combining
like terms. Conversely, we can write the equation of an ellipse given in its general form
to the desired standard form by transposing the constant to the right and completing the
squares.

Example 7. Write each of the following equations in general forms.

( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2
a.  1
10 6
( y  3) 2 ( x  2) 2
b.  1
25 16
Solution:
( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2
a.  1
10 6
6(x + 3)2 +10(y – 1)2 = 60
6(x2 + 6x + 9) + 10(y2 – 2y + 1) = 60
6x2 + 36x + 54 + 10y2 – 20y + 10 = 60
6x2 + 10y2 + 36x – 20y + 54 + 10 – 60 = 0
6x2 + 10y2 + 36x – 20y – 4 = 0

( y  3) 2 ( x  2) 2
b.  1
25 16
16(y + 3)2 + 25(x – 2)2 = 400
16(y2 + 6y + 9) + 25(x2 – 4x + 4) = 400
16y2 + 96y + 144 + 25x2 – 100x + 100 = 400
25x2 + 16y2 – 100x + 96y + 144 + 100 – 400 = 0
25x2 + 16y2 – 100x + 96y – 156 = 0
 EXERCISES No.3

Name : _______________________ Date: ______________

Course/Yr/Sec: ________________ Score: _____________

THE ELLIPSE

I. A. Directions: In each of the following equations, graph each ellipse using the
graphing paper and locate the foci, the endpoints of the minor and major axes.

x2 y2 x2 y2
1.  1 2.  1
16 4 9 36

x2 y2 x2 y2
3.  1 4.  1
25 64 49 81

x2 y2
5.  1 6. x 2  1  4 y 2
9 25
4 4
7. 25 x 2  4 y 2  100 8. 4 x 2  16 y 2  64

9. 7 x 2  35  5 y 2 10. 6 x 2  30  5 y 2

( x  2) 2 ( y  1) 2 ( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2
11.  1 12.  1
9 4 9 16

( y  5) 2 ( x  5) 2
13.  1 14. 9( x  1) 2  4( y  3) 2  36
169 49

15. 36( x  4) 2  ( y  3) 2  36
B. In the each of the following, find the standard form of the equation of each ellipse
satisfying the given conditions.

16. Foci: (-5, 0), (5, 0); vertices: (-8, 0), (8, 0)

17. Foci: (0, -4), (0, 4); vertices: (0, -7), (0, 7)

18. Major axis horizontal with length 8; length of minor axis = 4, center: (0, 0)

19. Major axis vertical with length 10; length of minor axis = 4; center: (-2, 3)

20. Endpoints of major axis: (7, 9), (7, 3)

C. Reduce the following equations into its standard forms. In each find, the
coordinates of the center, the foci, and the endpoints of the major and minor axes.
Sketch the ellipse using the graphing paper.

21. 16x2 + 25y2 – 160x – 200y + 400 = 0.

22. 16x2 + 4y2 – 32x + 16y – 32 = 0

23. 225(x + 2)2 + 289(y + 3)2 = 65, 025

24. 9x2 + 16y2 – 18x + 64y – 71 = 0.

25. 4x2 + 25y2 – 24x + 100y + 36 = 0

 THE HYPERBOLA

Try to switch on atypical lampshade in a darkened room. What you might see as
its reflection on the wall is a kind of conic section, the hyperbola. In your chemistry class
you must have discussed the perfect gas laws. If you graph the equation of the laws, the
Boyle’s Law, the shape of the curve is also a hyperbola. The same shape o9f the graph
will result when you sketch the graph of the equation defined by Ohm’s Law for constant
voltage.

Definition of a Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane the difference of whose distances from
two fixed points called the foci is constant.

Figure illustrates the two branches of hyperbola. The line through the foci
intersects the hyperbola at two points, called the vertices. The line segment that joints the
vertices is the transverse axis. The midpoint of the transverse axis is the center of the
hyperbola. Notice that the center lies midway between the vertices, as well as midway
between the foci.

Transverse
Axis
Foci

Vertex

Center

Figure 1. The two branches of a hyperbola

STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF HYPERBOLA
The rectangular coordinate system enables us to translate a hyperbola’s geometric
definition into an algebraic equation. Figure 2 is our starting point for obtaining the
equation. We place the foci, F1 and F2 on the x – axis at the points (-c, 0) and (c, 0). Note
that the center of this hyperbola is at the origin. We let (x, y) represent the coordinates of
any point P, on the hyperbola.

Figure 2
What does the definition of hyperbola tell us about the point (x, y) in Figure 2. For
nay point (x, y) on the hyperbola, the absolute value of the difference of the distances
(F1P, the d2 and PF1 the d1) from the two foci, d 2  d1 must be constant. We denote this
constant by 2a, just as we did for the ellipse. Thus, the point (x, y) is on the hyperbola if
and only if
d 1  d 2  2a

( x  c) 2  ( y  0) 2  ( x  c) 2  ( y  0) 2  2a
After eliminating the radicals and simplifying, we obtain
( c 2  a 2 ) x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2 (c 2  a 2 )
For convenience, let b2 = c2 – a2. Substituting b2 for c2 – a2 in the preceding equation, we
obtain
b 2 x 2 a 2 y 2  a 2 b 2
b 2 x 2 a 2 y 2 a 2b 2
 
a 2b 2 a 2b 2 a 2b 2
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
 This last equation is called the standard form of the equation of a hyperbola
centered at the origin. There are two such equations. The first one is for a hyperbola in
which the transverse axis lies on the x – axis. The second is for a hyperbola in which the
transverse axis lies on the y – axis.

Standard Form of the Equation of a Hyperbola

The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center at the origin is
x2 y2 y2 x2
  1 or   1.
a2 b2 a2 b2

Figure 3 illustrates that for the equation (a), the transverse axis lies on the x – axis. For the
equation (b), the transverse axis lies on the y – axis. The vertices are a units from the center
and the foci are c units from the center. For both equations, b2 = c2 – a2. Equivalently, c2 =
a2 + b2.

Figure 3 (a). Transverse axis lies on the x – axis

 Figure 3 (b). Transverse axis lies on the y – axis

We can use the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola to find its vertices
and locate its foci. Because the vertices are a units from the center, begin by identifying a2
in the equation. In the standard form of a hyperbola’s equation, a2 is the number under
the variable whose term is preceded by a plus sign (+). If the x2 – term is preceded by a
plus sign, the transverse axis lies along the x – axis. Thus, the vertices are a units to the
left and right of the origin. If the y2 – term is preceded by a plus sign, the transverse axis
lies along the y – axis. Thus, the vertices are a units above and below the origin.
We know that the foci are c units from the center. The substitution that is used to
derive the hyperbola’s equation, c2 = a2 + b2, is needed to locate the foci when a2 and b2 are
known.

Example 1. Find the vertices and locate the foci for each of the following hyperbolas with
the given equation
x2 y2 y2 x2
a.  1 b.  1
16 9 9 16

Solution: Both equations are in standard form. Identify first a2 and b2 in each equation.

x2 y2
a. The first equation is given in the form   1.
a2 b2
 x2 y2
  1 ; a2 = 16; b2 = 9.
16 9
Since the x2 - term is preceded by a plus sign, the transverse axis lies along the x-
axis. Thus, the vertices are a units to the left and right of the origin. Since a2 = 16, a = 4 and
b2 = 9, b = 3.Vertices therefore are at (-4,0) and (4,0). The foci with are located at (-c, 0) and
(c, 0) will be computed from c2 = a2 + b2. Since c2 = 16 + 9 = 25, c = 5. Because c = 5, therefore
the foci are at (-5, 0) and (5, 0).

y2 x2
b. The second equation is given in the form   1.
a2 b2
y2 x2
  1 ; a2 = 9, b2 = 16.
9 16
Since the y2 - term is preceded by a plus sign, the transverse axis lies along the y-
axis. Thus, the vertices are a units to the above and below of the origin. Since a 2 = 9, a =
3and b2 = 16, b = 4.Vertices therefore are at (0, -3) and (0, 3). The foci with are located at (0,
-c) and (0, c) will be computed from c2 = a2 + b2. Since c2 = 9 + 16 = 25, c = 5. Because c = 5,
therefore the foci are at (0, -5) and (0, 5).
Example 2. Find the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola with foci at (0, -3)
and (0, 3) and vertices at (0, -2) and (0, 2).

Solution: Because the foci are located at (0, -3) and (0, 3) on the y-axis, the transverse axis
lies on the y-axis. The center of the hyperbola is midway between the foci, located at (0,
y2 x2
0). The equation then is of the form 2  2  1 . The distance from the center (0, 0), to
a b
either vertex, (0, 2) and (0, -2) is 2, so a = 2, thus a2 = 4. The distance from the center (0, 0),
to either focus (0,3) and (0, -3) is 3. Thus c = 3. Using c2 = a2 + b2; 9 = 4 + b2, making b equals
y2 x2
to 5. Substituting all the values in the given form of the equation results to   1.
2 5
THE ASYMPTOTES OF THE HYPERBOLA
As x and y get larger, the two branches of the hyperbola approach a pair of
intersecting straight lines called asymptotes. These asymptotes pass the center of the
hyperbola and are helpful in graphing the hyperbolas.

The Asymptotes of a Hyperbola Centered at the Origin

x2 y2
The hyperbola 2  2  1 has a horizontal transverse axis and two asymptotes
a b
b b
y x and y   x.
a a
2 2
y x
The hyperbola 2  2  1 has a vertical transverse axis and two asymptotes
a b
a a
y x and y   x.
b b

Graphing Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin

Hyperbolas are graphed using vertices and asymptotes.

Graphing Hyperbolas
1. Locate the vertices.
2. Use dashed lines to draw rectangle at the origin with sides parallel to the axes,
crossing one axis at ± a and the other at ± b.
3. Used dashed line to draw the diagonals of this rectangle and extend them to
obtain the asymptotes.
4. Draw two branches of the hyperbola starting at each vertex and approaching
the asymptotes.

x2 y2
Example 3. Graph and locate the foci:   1 . What are the equations of the
25 16
asymptotes?

Solution:
1. Locate the vertices. Based on the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola,
the transverse axis is the x-axis. The vertices are at (-5, 0) and (5, 0).
2. Draw the rectangle. Since a2 = 25 and b2 = 16, a = 5, b = 4. The rectangle is
constructed using -5 and 5 on the x-axis and -4 and 4 on the y-axis.
3. Draw the extended diagonals for the rectangle to obtain the asymptotes. The
4
equations of the asymptotes are y   x .
5
 4. Draw the branches of the hyperbola starting at each vertex and approaching
the asymptotes. The foci are located at (- 41 , 0) and ( 41 , 0).

Example 4. Graph and locate the foci: 9y2 – 4x2 = 36. Give also the equations of the
asymptotes.

Solution:
First, we write the given equation first into its standard form.
9y2 – 4x2 = 36
9 2 4 2 36
y  x 
36 36 36
2 2
y x
 1
4 9
1. Locate the vertices. Based on the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola,
the transverse axis is the y-axis. The vertices are at (0, -2) and (0, 2).
2. Draw the rectangle. Since a2 = 4 and b2 = 9, a = 2, b = 3. The rectangle is
constructed using -3 and 3 on the x-axis and -2 and 2 on the y-axis.
3. Draw the extended diagonals for the rectangle to obtain the asymptotes. The
2
equations of the asymptotes are y   x .
3
4. Draw the branches of the hyperbola starting at each vertex and approaching
the asymptotes. The foci are located at (0, - 13 ) and (0, 13 ).
HYPERBOLA WITH CENTER AT (h, k)
The graph of the hyperbola can be centered at (h, k) rather than the origin.
Horizontal and vertical translations are accomplished by replacing x with x – h and y
with y – k in the standard form of the hyperbola’s equation.
Equation Center Transverse Axis Foci Vertices
( x  h) 2
( y  k) 2
(h, k) Parallel to x-axis; (h – c, k) (h – a, k)
 1
a 2
b 2 horizontal (h + c, k) (h + a, k)
c  a b
2 2 2

( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2 (h, k) Parallel to y – axis; (h, k – c) (h, k– a)

 1
a 2
b 2 vertical (h, k + c) (h, k + a)
c  a b
2 2 2
 Figure 4(a). Graph of the
hyperbola centered at (h, k);
transverse axis is x – axis.

Figure 4(b). Graph of the

hyperbola centered at (h, k);
transverse axis is y – axis.

Example 5. Identify the foci and equations of the asymptotes of the equation
( x  2) 2 ( y  3) 2
  1.
16 9

Solution: Identify first the center of the hyperbola. From the given equation, h = 2, k = 3,
thus, center is at (2, 3).

1. Locate the vertices. Based on the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola,
the transverse axis is parallel to x - axis. The vertices are a units to the left and
right of the center. The coordinates of the vertices are at (h – a, k) and (h + a,
k). Since a2 = 16, a = 4; b2 = 9, b = 4; h = 2 and k =3, vertices are at (2 - 4, 3) and (2
+ 4, 3).
2. Draw the rectangle. Since a2 = 16 and b2 = 9, a = 4, b = 3. The rectangle passes
through the points that are 4 units to the right and left of the center and 3 units
above ad below the center.
3. Draw the extended diagonals for the rectangle to obtain the asymptotes. The
3
equations of the asymptotes are y  3   ( x  2) .
4
4. Draw the branches of the hyperbola starting at each vertex and approaching
the asymptotes. The foci are located c units to the right and left of the center,
thus it has the coordinates (h – c, k), (h + c, k). From c2 = a2 + b2, with a2 = 16, b2
= 9, c2 = 25, so c = 5. Therefore, the foci are located at (2 – 5, 3) and (2 + 5, 3).
 EXERCISES No.4

Name : _______________________ Date: ______________

Course/Yr/Sec: ________________ Score: _____________

THE HYPERBOLA

I. A. Determine the center, foci, vertices for each of the following hyperbolas. Plot the
graph in the graphing paper.

y2 x2 x2
1.  1 2. y 2  1
81 16 4

3. 4 y 2  x 2  16 4. x 2  9 y 2  9

( y  4) 2 ( x  7) 2 ( x  5) 2
5.  1 6.  ( y  1) 2  1
64 25 16
 ( x  11) 2 ( y  12) 2 ( y  4) 2 ( x  13) 2
7.  1 8.  1
81 36 45 20

B. Find the standard form of the equation of each hyperbola satisfying the given
conditions.

9. Foci: (0, 3), (0, -3); vertices: (0, -1), (0, 1)

10. Foci: (-4, 0), (4, 0); vertices: (-3, 0), (3, 0)

11. Endpoints of the transverse axis: (0, -6), (0, 6); asymptote : y = 2x

12. Center: (4, -2); Focus: (7, -2); vertex: (6, -2)
13. Center: (2, 1); Focus: (-2, 6); vertex: (-2, 4)

C. Convert each equation to standard form by completing the square on x and y. Graph
the hyperbola using graphing paper, locate the foci and find the equations of the
asymptotes.

14. 6 x 2  81 y 2  72 x  270  0

15. 2 x 2  144 y 2  1152 x  2592  0

16. 2 x 2  3 y 2  28 x  54 y  151  0
17. 16 x 2  11 y 2  32 x  66 y  243

18. 3x 2  4 y 2  36 x  32 y  28

19. 4 x 2  9 y 2  16 x  54 y  101  0

20. 9 y 2  4 x 2  18 y  24 x  63  0
IDENTIFYING CONICS

Definition
A general second degree equation in x and y is of the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx +
Ey + F = 0, where A, B, C, D, E and F are constants in which not all A, B and C are zero.

Theorem
The graph of the equation
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Is, excluding degenerate cases
a. if B2 - 4AC > 0, the graph is a hyperbola,
b. if B2 - 4AC = 0, the graph is a parabola,
c. if B2 - 4AC < 0, the graph is an ellipse.

Example 1. Identify the following conics,

a. x2 – xy + y2 = 5
b. x2 – xy – y2 = 5
c. x2 – 4xy + 4y2 + x = 5

Solution:
a. B2 - 4AC = -3 < 0, an ellipse
b. B2 - 4AC = 5 > 0, a hyperbola
c. B2 - 4AC = 0, a parabola
 EXERCISES No. 5
Name : _______________________ Date: ______________
Course/Yr/Sec: ________________ Score: _____________

IDENTIFYING CONICS

A. Identify each of the following equation without completing the square.

1. y 2  4 x  2 y  21  0

2. 4 x 2  9 y 2  8 x  36 y  68  0

3. 9 x 2  25 y 2  54 x  200 y  256  0

4. 4 x 2  4 y 2  12 x  4 y  1  0
5. 100 x 2  7 y 2  90 y  368  0

B. Write each of the following in standard form by completing the square and
identify the graph of the equation.

6. 3x 2  2 y 2  24 x  12 y  60  0

7. 2 x 2  3 y 2  4 x  24 y  50  0

8. 9 x 2  16 y 2  54 x  64 y  127  0
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ELECTRONIC REFERENCES

www.goramblers.org/Upload/1941/WS%203.2%20-%20Area%20...

www.stewartcalculus.com/data/CALCULUS%206E%20Early%20...

http://jamesbrennan.org/algebra/lines/rectangular_coordinates.htm

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http://www.tutorvista.com/content/math/geometry/straightlines/angle-between-two-
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http://www.homeschoolmath.net/teaching/g/parallel_and_perpendicular.php

http://www.purplemath.com/modules/strtlneq3.htm

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