Chapter (2)

Statistical Concepts

Chapter # 2
2.1. Arithmetic and Measurement Numbers
➢ Arithmetic numbers are exact numbers; 3, 1/3, e, or π.
approximation may have to be used, thus π may be written as
3.14 or 3.1416.

Engineering Metrology
➢ Measurement numbers are not approximations to exact
numbers.
For example: Three measurements on the diameter of a steel
shaft with a micrometer, with the following results;
0.396, 0.392, and 0.401 cm.
- There is no rounding off here. The last digit in the measured
value depends on the instrument used and the ability to read it.
- If a coarser instrument had used, the obtained values might
be 0.4, 0.4, and 0.4 cm. 1
- If a finer instrument, the fifth digit after decimal point might
be recorded.
2.2. Properties of Measurement Numbers

Chapter # 2
2.2.1. The limiting mean

If numerical values of measurements are denoted by;

x1 , x2 , x3 , ……., xn (where: n is the no. of measurements)
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Their arithmetic mean is 𝑥ҧ =

Engineering Metrology
.
𝑛

➢ According to statistical postulate:

𝑥ҧ m as n 
m is called limiting mean.
If the true value is , there is usually difference between m and
 or  = m - 
where;  is defined as the bias or systematic error of the
measurements. 2
2.2. Properties of Measurement Numbers

Chapter # 2
2.2.2. Dispersion (Scattering) measurements

➢ Range
Only the largest and the smallest values enter into its
calculation. So, the additional information provided by the
measurements in between is lost.

Engineering Metrology
➢ Variance
Is the average of the squares of the deviations of individual
measurement from the mean.

➢ Standard deviation
Is the positive square root of the variance.
3
2.3. Estimates of Population Characteristics

Chapter # 2
If a random sample of size n is extracted from a population, then:

Sample Population
Arithmetic Mean (𝑥):
ҧ Limiting Mean (m):
σ𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊 σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊
ഥ=
𝒙 ഥ=
m=𝒙

Engineering Metrology
𝒏 𝒏

Standard deviation (S): Population (Estimated)

standard deviation () or (Se):
σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊 − ഥ
𝒙 𝟐
S= 𝒏 σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊 − ഥ
𝒙 𝟐
 = Se = 𝒏−𝟏

𝒏 4
 = Se = 𝒏−𝟏
S
2.4. Standard Normal and Student’s – t distributions

Chapter # 2
• Standard Normal z • Student’s t-distribution
– X1, … , Xn are – Applies to the case
independently where the true standard
distributed (m, σ), and deviation σ is unknown

Engineering Metrology
and is replaced by its
sample estimate Sn

m
m
– then
is normally distributed
with mean 0 and std. dev. 5
1
➢ Increasing the

Chapter # 2
degrees of freedom
and sample size will
make the t
distribution approach
a normal distribution.

Engineering Metrology
➢ Actually if n  60,
readings
(measurements)
follow the normal
distribution.

6
 Chapter # 2
➢ is the number of
degrees of freedom = n
(sample size) - 1
➢  is calculated as the

Engineering Metrology
number of measurements
(sample size) minus the
number of constants
established from the data
to compute the standard
deviation.

7
2.5. Applications of the Least Squares Principle
The least squares principle states that: “The most probable value of

Chapter # 2
observed quantities is that renders the sum of the squares of residual errors
a minimum”.

2.5.1. A series of observed values

Let;
x (x1 , x2 , ….., xn) are the observed values, and the most

Engineering Metrology
probable value to be X.
➢ From the least squares principle;
σ 𝑥 − 𝑋 2 is minimum, i.e.;

𝑑 σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥−𝑋
2

𝑑𝑋
=0
−2 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥 − 𝑋 = 0
Therefore;
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥 – nX = 0 8

X =σ𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒙/ n = arithmetic mean (ഥ

𝒙).