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UNIT 1

I. CHECK YOUR VOCABULARY

1. Replace the phrases in italics with a more academic phrase from the box.
is indigenous to is nocturnal is carnivorous is asexual is dominant
is feral is submissive is tame is invasive is
venomous

1.The panda is a member of the bear family and originally came from China. …………
2. When it licks its owner’s face, a dog is showing that it knows it is less powerful. …………
3. As this bat sleeps during the day and is active at night, it may only be seen after dark. …………
4. The rabbits which now inhabit Australia are a species which came from other countries,
spread quickly and is harmful to the local ecosystem. …………
5. A cat which turns into a wild animal again will prey on native birds. …………
6. Although a chimpanzee can be trained to perform specific tasks, it is debatable whether it is completely
comfortable and calm with humans. …………
7. Look at the teeth of this animal and you can clearly see it eats the flesh of other animals. …………
8. The lion which is the strongest and most powerful will be first to feed on the antelope. …………
9. The brown snake produces a poison and its bite can kill a person. …………
10. The jellyfish is an organism which is capable of reproducing by itself. …………

2. Complete each definition of an animal with a word from the box.

Mammals Hybrids Organisms Reptiles

Invertebrates Marsupials Primates Amphibians

1. ………………………….. are animals that have live young, not eggs, which drink their mother’s milk.

2. Frogs are turtles are …………………………., because they can live both on land and in water.

3. Monkeys and apes are ………………………….., a group which also includes humans.

4. 95% of animals have no skeleton, and are referred to as ………………………….. .

5. …………………… are animals or plants which have been produced from two different types of animal
or plant.

6. Koalas and kangaroos are ………………………: animals whose babies live in a pouch in the mother’s
skin on the outside of her stomach until they are fully developed.

7. ………………………….. are living things; ranging from single-celled life forms to something with
billions of cells, like a human being.

8. ………………………….. are usually cold-blooded, are covered in scales and generally lay eggs.

II. READING

PRACTICE 1

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The Impact of the Potato

Jeff Chapman relates the story of history’s most important vegetable

The potato was first cultivated in South America between three and seven thousand years ago, though
scientists believe they may have grown wild in the region as long as 13,000 years ago. The genetic patterns
of potato distribution indicate that the potato probably originated in the mountainous west-central region of
the continent.

Early Spanish chroniclers who misused the Indian word batata (sweet potato) as the name for the potato
noted the importance of the tuber to the Incan Empire. The Incas had learned to preserve the potato for
storage by dehydrating and mashing potatoes into a substance called Chuchu could be stored in a room for
up to 10 years, providing excellent insurance against possible crop failures. As well as using the food as a
staple crop, the Incas thought potatoes made childbirth easier and used it to treat injuries.

The Spanish conquistadors first encountered the potato when they arrived in Peru in 1532 in search of gold,
and noted Inca miners eating chuchu. At the time the Spaniards failed to realize that the potato represented a
far more important treasure than either silver or gold, but they did gradually begin to use potatoes as basic
rations aboard their ships. After the arrival of the potato in Spain in 1570，a few Spanish farmers began to
cultivate them on a small scale, mostly as food for livestock.

Throughout Europe, potatoes were regarded with suspicion, distaste and fear. Generally considered to be
unfit for human consumption, they were used only as animal fodder and sustenance for the starving. In
northern Europe, potatoes were primarily grown in botanical gardens as an exotic novelty. Even peasants
refused to eat from a plant that produced ugly, misshapen tubers and that had come from a heathen
civilization. Some felt that the potato plant’s resemblance to plants in the nightshade family hinted that it
was the creation of witches or devils.

In meat-loving England, farmers and urban workers regarded potatoes with extreme distaste. In 1662, the
Royal Society recommended the cultivation of the tuber to the English government and the nation, but this
recommendation had little impact. Potatoes did not become a staple until, during the food shortages
associated with the Revolutionary Wars, the English government began to officially encourage potato
cultivation. In 1795, the Board of Agriculture issued a pamphlet entitled “Hints Respecting the Culture and
Use of Potatoes;this was followed shortly by pro-potato editorials and potato recipes in The Times.
Gradually, the lower classes began to follow the lead of the upper classes.

A similar pattern emerged across the English Channel in the Netherlands, Belgium and France. While the
potato slowly gained ground in eastern France (where it was often the only crop remaining after marauding
soldiers plundered wheat fields and vineyards), it did not achieve widespread acceptance until the late
1700s. The peasants remained suspicious, in spite of a 1771 paper from the Facult de Paris testifying that the
potato was not harmful but beneficial. The people began to overcome their distaste when the plant received
the royal seal of approval: Louis XVI began to sport a potato flower in his buttonhole, and Marie-Antoinette
wore the purple potato blossom in her hair.

Frederick the Great of Prussia saw the potato’s potential to help feed his nation and lower the price of bread,
but faced the challenge of overcoming the people’s prejudice against the plant. When he issued a 1774 order
for his subjects to grow potatoes as protection against famine, the town of Kolberg replied: “The things have
neither smell nor taste, not even the dogs will eat them, so what use are they to us?” Trying a less direct
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approach to encourage his subjects to begin planting potatoes, Frederick used a bit of reverse psychology: he
planted a royal field of potato plants and stationed a heavy guard to protect this field from thieves. Nearby
peasants naturally assumed that anything worth guarding was worth stealing, and so snuck into the field and
snatched the plants for their home gardens. Of course, this was entirely in line with Frederick’s wishes.

Historians debate whether the potato was primarily a cause or an effect of the huge population boom in
industrial-era England and Wales. Prior to 1800 ， the English diet had consisted primarily of meat,
supplemented by bread, butter and cheese. Few vegetables were consumed, most vegetables being regarded
as nutritionally worthless and potentially harmful. This view began to change gradually in the late 1700s.
The Industrial Revolution was drawing an ever increasing percentage of the populace into crowded cities,
where only the richest could afford homes with ovens or coal storage rooms, and people were working 12-16
hour days which left them with little time or energy to prepare food. High yielding, easily prepared potato
crops were the obvious solution to England’s food problems.

Whereas most of their neighbors regarded the potato with suspicion and had to be persuaded to use it by the
upper classes, the Irish peasantry embraced the tuber more passionately than anyone since the Incas. The
potato was well suited to the Irish the soil and climate, and its high yield suited the most important concern
of most Irish farmers: to feed their families.

The most dramatic example of the potato’s potential to alter population patterns occurred in Ireland, where
the potato had become a staple by 1800. The Irish population doubled to eight million between 1780 and
1841,this without any significant expansion of industry or reform of agricultural techniques beyond the
widespread cultivation of the potato. Though Irish landholding practices were primitive in comparison with
those of England, the potato’s high yields allowed even the poorest farmers to produce more healthy food
than they needed with scarcely any investment or hard labor. Even children could easily plant, harvest and
cook potatoes, which of course required no threshing, curing or grinding. The abundance provided by
potatoes greatly decreased infant mortality and encouraged early marriage.

Questions 1-5. Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1. The early Spanish called potato as the Incan name ‘Chuno’.

2. The purpose of Spanish coming to Peru was to find potatoes.
3. The Spanish believed that the potato has the same nutrients as other vegetables.
4. Peasants at that time did not like to eat potatoes because they were ugly.
5. The popularity of potatoes in the UK was due to food shortages during the war.

Questions 6-13: Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each
answer.

6. In France, people started to overcome their disgusting about potatoes because the King put a potato
_________ in his buttonhole.
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7. Frederick realised the potential of potato but he had to handle the ___________ against potatoes from
ordinary people.

8. The King of Prussia adopted some __________ psychology to make people accept potatoes.

9. Before 1800, the English people preferred eating __________ with bread, butter and cheese.

10. The obvious way to deal with England food problems was to grow high yielding potato _________.

11. The Irish _______ and climate suited potatoes well.

12. Between 1780 and 1841, based on the ___________ of the potatoes, the Irish population doubled to
eight million.

13. The potato’s high yields helped the poorest farmers to produce more healthy food almost without
________ or hard physical work.

PRACTICE 2:

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PRACTICE 3:

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COLLECTING ANT SPECIMENS

Collecting ants can be as simple as picking up stray ones and placing them in a glass jar, or as complicated
as completing an exhaustive survey of all species present in an area and estimating their relative abundances.
The exact method used will depend on the final purpose of the collections. For taxonomy, or classification,
long series, from a single nest, which contain all castes (workers, including majors and minors, and, if
present, queens and males) are desirable, to allow the determination of variation within species. For
ecological studies, the most important factor is collecting identifiable samples of as many of the different
species present as possible. Unfortunately, these methods are not always compatible. The taxonomist
sometimes overlooks whole species in favour of those groups currently under study, while the ecologist
often collects only a limited number of specimens of each species, thus reducing their value for taxonomic
investigations.

To collect as wide a range of species as possible, several methods must be used. These include hand
collecting, using baits to attract the ants, ground litter sampling, and the use of pitfall traps. Hand collecting
consists of searching for ants everywhere they are likely to occur. This includes on the ground, under rocks,
logs or other objects on the ground, in rotten wood on the ground or on trees, in vegetation, on tree trunks
and under bark. When possible, collections should be made from nests or foraging columns and at least 20 to
25 individuals collected. This will ensure that all individuals are of the same species, and so increase their
value for detailed studies. Since some species are largely nocturnal. collecting should not be confined to
daytime. Specimens are collected using an aspirator (often called a poorer), forceps, a fine, moistened paint
brush, or fingers. if the ants are known not to sting. Individual insects are placed in plastic or glass tubes
(1.5-3.0 ml capacity for small ants, 5-8 ml for larger ants) containing 75% to 95% ethanol. Plastic tubes with
secure tops are better than glass because they are lighter, and do not break as easily if mishandled.

Baits can be used to attract and concentrate foragers. This often increases the number of individuals
collected and attracts species that are otherwise elusive. Sugars and meats or oils will attract different
species and a range should be utilized. These baits can be placed either on the ground or on the trunks of
trees or large shrubs. When placed on the ground, baits should be situated on small paper cards or other flat,
light-coloured surfaces, or in test-tubes or vials. This makes it easier to spot ants and to capture them before
they can escape into the surrounding leaf litter.

Many ants are small and forage primarily in the layer of leaves and other debris on the ground. Collecting
these species by hand can be difficult. One of the most successful ways to collect them is to gather the leaf
litter in which they are foraging and extract the ants from it. This is most commonly done by placing leaf
litter on a screen over a large funnel, often under some heat. As the leaf litter dries from above, ants (and
other animals) move downward and eventually fall out the bottom and are collected in alcohol placed below
the funnel. This method works especially well in rain forests and marshy areas. A method of improving the
catch when using a funnel is to sift the leaf litter through a coarse screen before placing it above the funnel.
This will concentrate the litter and remove larger leaves and twigs. It will also allow more litter to be
sampled when using a limited number of funnels.

The pitfall trap is another commonly used tool for collecting ants. A pitfall trap can be any small container
placed in the ground with the top level with the surrounding surface and filled with a preservative. Ants are
collected when they fall into the trap while foraging. The diameter of the traps can vary from about 18 mm
to 10 cm and the number used can vary from a few to several hundred. The size of the traps used is
influenced largely by personal preference (although larger sizes are generally better), while the number will
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be determined by the study being undertaken. The preservative used is usually ethylene glycol or propylene
glycol, as alcohol will evaporate quickly and the traps will dry out. One advantage of pitfall traps is that they
can be used to collect over a period of time with minimal maintenance and intervention. One disadvantage is
that some species are not collected as they either avoid the traps or do not commonly encounter them while
foraging.

Questions 27-30 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?

In boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

27. Taxonomic research involves comparing members of one group of ants.

28. New species of ant are frequently identified by taxonomists.

29. Range is the key criterion for ecological collections.

30. A single collection of ants can generally be used for both taxonomic and ecological purposes.

Questions 31-36

Classify the following statements as referring to

A hand collecting

B using bait

C sampling ground litter

D using a pitfall trap

Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet.

31. It is preferable to take specimens from groups of ants.

32. It is particularly effective for wet habitats.

33. It is a good method for species which are hard to find.

34. Little time and effort is required.

35. Separate containers are used for individual specimens.

36. Non-alcoholic preservative should be used.

Questions 37-40 Label the diagram below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

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HOMEWORK

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PRACTICE 2:

Questions 27-33: Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the List of headings below.

27. Paragraph A List of headings

28. Paragraph B i. 165 million years
29. Paragraph C ii. The body plan of archosaurs
30. Paragraph D iii. Dinosaurs - terrible lizards
31. Paragraph E iv. Classification according to pelvic anatomy
32. Paragraph F v. The suborders of Saurischia
33. Paragraph G vi. Lizards and dinosaurs - two distinct superorders
Example: Paragraph H Answer: x vii. Unique body plan helps identify dinosaurs from other
animals
viii. Herbivore dinosaurs
ix. Lepidosaurs
x. Frills and shelves
xi. The origins of dinosaurs and lizards
xii. Bird-hipped dinosaurs
xiii. Skull bones distinguish dinosaurs from other archosaurs
WHAT IS A DINOSAUR?

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A. Although the name dinosaur is derived from the Greek for "terrible lizard", dinosaurs were not, in fact,
lizards at all. Like lizards, dinosaurs are included in the class Reptilia, or reptiles, one of the five main
classes of Vertebrata, animals with backbones. However, at the next level of classification, within reptiles,
significant differences in the skeletal anatomy of lizards and dinosaurs have led scientists to place these
groups of animals into two different superorders: Lepidosauria, or lepidosaurs, and Archosauria, or
archosaurs.

B. Classified as lepidosaurs are lizards and snakes and their prehistoric ancestors. Included among the
archosaurs, or "ruling reptiles", are prehistoric and modern crocodiles, and the now extinct thecodonts,
pterosaurs and dinosaurs. Palaeontologists believe that both dinosaurs and crocodiles evolved, in the later
years of the Triassic Period (c. 248-208 million years ago), from creatures called pseudosuchian thecodonts.
Lizards, snakes and different types of thecodont are believed to have evolved earlier in the Triassic Period
from reptiles known as eosuchians.

C. The most important skeletal differences between dinosaurs and other archosaurs are in the bones of the
skull, pelvis and limbs. Dinosaur skulls are found in a great range of shapes and sizes, reflecting the
different eating habits and lifestyles of a large and varied group of animals that dominated life on Earth for
an extraordinary 165 million years. However, unlike the skulls of any other known animals, the skulls of
dinosaurs had two long bones known as vomers. These bones extended on either side of the head, from the
front of the snout to the level of the holes on the skull known as the antorbital fenestra, situated in front of
the dinosaur's orbits or eye sockets.

D. All dinosaurs, whether large or small, quadrupedal or bidepal, fleet-footed or slow-moving, shared a
common body plan. Identification of this plan makes it possible to differentiate dinosaurs from any other
types of animal, even other archosaurs. Most significantly, in dinosaurs, the pelvis and femur had evolved so
that the hind limbs were held vertically beneath the body, rather than sprawling out to the sides like the
limbs of a lizard. The femur of a dinosaur had a sharply in-turned neck and a ball-shaped head, which slotted
into a fully open acetabulum or hip socket. A supra-acetabular crest helped prevent dislocation of the femur.
The position of the knee joint, aligned below the acetabulum, made it possible for the whole hind limb to
swing backwards and forwards. This unique combination of features gave dinosaurs what is known as a
"fully improved gait". Evolution of this highly efficient method of walking also developed in mammals, but
among reptiles, it occurred only in dinosaurs.

E. For the purpose of further classification, dinosaurs are divided into two orders: Saurischia, or saurischian
dinosaurs, and Ornithischia, or ornithischian dinosaurs. This division is made on the basis of their pelvic
anatomy. All dinosaurs had a pelvic girdle with each side comprised of three bones: the pubis, ilium and
ischium. However, the orientation of these bones follows one of two patterns. In saurischian dinosaurs, also
known as lizard-hipped dinosaurs, the pubis points forwards, as is usual in most types of reptile. By contrast,
in ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs, the pubis points backwards towards the rear of the animal, which
is also true of birds.

F. Of the two orders of dinosaurs, the Saurischia was the larger and the first to evolve. It is divided into two
suborders: Therapoda, or therapods, and Sauropodomorpha, or sauropodomorphs. The therapods, or "beast
feet", were bipedal, predatory carnivores. They ranged in size from the mighty Tyrannosaurus rex, 12m
long, 5.6m tall and weighing an estimated 6.4 tonnes, to the smallest known dinosaur, Compsognathus, a
mere 1.4m long and estimated 3kg in weight when fully grown. The sauropodomorphs, or "lizard feet
forms", included both bipedal and quadrupedal dinosaurs. Some sauropodomorphs were carnivorous or
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omnivorous but later species were typically herbivorous. They included some of the largest and best-known
of all dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus, a huge quadruped with an elephant-like body, a long, thin tail and neck
that gave it a total length of 27m, and a tiny head.

G. Ornithischian dinosaurs were bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores. They are now usually divided into three
suborders: Ornithipoda, Thyreophora and Marginocephalia. The ornithopods, or "bird feet", both large and
small, could walk or run on their long hind legs, balancing their body by holding their tails stiffly off the
ground behind them. An example is Iguanodon, up to 9m long, 5m tall and weighing 4.5 tonnes. The
thyreophorans, or "shield bearers", also known as armoured dinosaurs, were quadrupeds with rows of
protective bony spikes, studs, or plates along their backs and tails. They included Stegosaurus, 9m long and
weighing 2 tonnes.

H. The marginocephalians, or "margined heads", were bipedal or quadrupedal ornithschians with a deep
bony frill or narrow shelf at the back of the skull. An example is Triceratops, a rhinoceros-like dinosaur, 9m
long, weighing 5.4 tonnes and bearing a prominent neck frill and three large horns.

Questions 34-36 Complete the sentences below. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage
for each blank space.

34. Lizards and dinosaurs are classified into two different superorders because of the difference in
their ......................

35. In the Triassic Period, ...................... evolved into thecodonts, for example, lizards and snakes.

36. Dinosaur skulls differed from those of any other known animals because of the presence of
vomers: ......................

Questions 37-40 Choose one phrase (A-H) from the List of features to match with the Dinosaurs listed
below.

NB. There are more phrases than sentences, so you will not need to use them all. You may use each phrase
once only.

Dinosaurs List of features

37. Dinosaurs differed from lizards,
because ......................
38. Saurischian and ornithischian
dinosaurs ......................
39. Unlike therapods,
sauropodomorphs ......................
40. Some dinosaurs used their tails to balance,
others ......................
A. are both divided into two orders.
B. the former had a "fully improved gait".
C. were not usually very heavy.
D. could walk or run on their back legs.
E. their hind limbs sprawled out to the side.
F. walked or ran on four legs, rather than two.
G. both had a pelvic girdle comprising six bones.
H. did not always eat meat.

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