Nondestructive Field Evaluation
of Aging Levels of Rejuvenated
Asphalt Concrete Pavements
Megan E. McGovern, William G. Buttlar, and Henrique Reis
This study used a nonlinear ultrasonic approach with noncollinear wave
mixing of subsurface longitudinal waves that was capable of evaluating
the efficacy of rejuvenators in restoring the original properties of aged
asphalt concrete (AC) pavements. AC specimens that were oven aged
for 36 h at 1358C were treated on the top surface with a rejuvenator
(10% of binder by weight) and left to dwell for prescribed periods of
time. After the dwell time, each specimen was nondestructively evaluated.
Because in the field, AC pavement acoustic properties (ultrasonic veloci-
ties and corresponding attenuations) are unknown, a predetermined
fixed-incident angle (based on the AC mixture type) was used; this use
allowed for practical implementation in the field. It was observed that
the rejuvenator had the effect of restoring the material responses of
oven-aged samples to those corresponding to virgin samples. It was also
observed that the rejuvenating action was not uniform and depended on
the samples’ porosity because of the stochastic nature of AC.
Thermal, block, and top-down cracking in asphalt concrete (AC)
pavements are major forms of distress that are highly detrimental
to pavement quality and service life (Figure 1). Repeated exposure
to environmental conditions accelerates the formation, growth, and
coalescence of microflaws, which results in the development of
damaging macrocracks. Exposure to oxygen is one of the main con-
tributors to microcrack formation in AC pavements, in which micro-
flaw population directly related to the amount of oxidative aging of
the AC. Once degradation has progressed to the point at which micro-
cracks are present, the pavement is susceptible to further damage, and
moisture and oxygen can infiltrate further into its depth (1, 2). As a
result, millions of dollars are spent annually in repair and maintenance
of AC pavements. It is more cost-effective to provide frequent main-
tenance on pavements that are still in fair condition than it is to defer
maintenance until the pavement deterioration has reached a poor state;
consequently, determining the proper time for repair and maintenance
is a critical issue (3, 4).
Rejuvenators, as the name implies, are products that aim to restore
the physical and chemical properties of aged asphalt. Rejuvenators
address the issue of oxidative hardening by restoring the original
asphaltenes-to-maltenes ratio (5–7). Some examples of rejuvenators
M. E. McGovern and H. Reis, Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems
Engineering, and W. G. Buttlar, Department of Civil and Environmental Engi­
neering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign,
104 South Mathews, Urbana, IL 61801. Corresponding author: M. E. McGovern,
meg.e.mcg@gmail.com.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2576, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2016, pp. 1–9.
DOI: 10.3141/2576-01
1
are refined tallow, waste vegetable or frying oils, waste motor oils,
lube extracts, extender oils, emulsions, soft virgin binders, and bio-
binders (5, 8, 9). Rejuvenators are generally applied to the surface
of existing pavements; therefore, it is essential for the rejuvenator to
be able to penetrate the surface and diffuse through the aged asphalt.
If the rejuvenator lacks this ability, not only will the aged asphalt be
unaffected, but the unabsorbed rejuvenator will reduce skid resistance
(7, 10). During the diffusion process, the rejuvenator first forms a
low-viscosity film around the layer of aged binder, which coats the
aggregates. Then the rejuvenator starts to diffuse into the aged binder,
thus softening it. Eventually all the rejuvenator penetrates into the
aged binder, and the inner layer becomes less viscous and the outer
layer becomes more viscous as the mixture approaches a state of
equilibrium (7–11).
There exists a need for a reliable, nondestructive method for deter-
mining the effectiveness of a rejuvenating agent. The noncollinear
wave-mixing technique, modified to employ ultrasonic transducers
mounted on angle wedges with an incident angle set to the first criti-
cal angle, has been shown to be a reliable method for assessing the
effective level of oxidative aging of AC (12–15). However, for in situ
pavement field testing, there is no prior knowledge of the oxidative
aging level of the AC, rendering the appropriate angle wedge incident
angle unknown.
McGovern et al. (13–15) developed a technique that first requires
the estimation of the appropriate incident angles; this makes the
approach cumbersome to use in the field since the incident angles
depend on the aging level. In this study, a systematic approach, termed
the fixed-angle technique, was used to circumvent the issue of the
unknown incident angles when there is access to only one side of the
AC, the top pavement surface. This approach allows practitioners to
evaluate the level of oxidative aging of pavements in the field where
the only preexisting knowledge of the pavement is its mixture type.
The use of a fixed angle reduces implementation time and makes it
more practical for field use. In this approach, the data collected from
the specimens treated with the rejuvenator are compared with a
known reference curve to determine the degree of material response
restoration caused by the rejuvenator as a function of dwell time.
Background
The noncollinear wave-mixing approach has been shown to be
capable of detecting the amount of oxidative aging of AC (12–15).
For this study, the approach was applied to estimate how much of
the aged AC properties have been restored by the rejuvenator action,
that is, rejuvenated. It was assumed that there was no knowledge
of the specimens’ ultrasonic properties before the measurements
2 Transportation Research Record 2576

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1   Examples of cracking caused by brittle asphalt pavement surface: (a) temperature-induced transverse cracking and
(b) block cracking.

were taken; only the mixture type had to be known. In this approach,
rather than generating the subsurface waves at the critically refracted
angles, a fixed-angle technique was used.
Subsurface Waves
quency f3 = f1 ± f2. This third wave will be referred to as the nonlinear
scattered wave. The polarization, direction of propagation, and fre-
quency of the scattered wave depend on the polarization, direction
of propagation, and frequency of the two interacting waves, termed
the primary waves. The primary waves may be dilatational, shear
polarized in the plane, or shear polarized outside the plane. Out of

The use of subsurface waves allows for noncollinear wave mixing

to be used when there is access only to one side. A dilatational trans-
ducer mounted on a variable angle wedge can be used to generate
a dilatational wave, which propagates close to and nearly parallel
to the surface by setting the incident angle close to the first critical
refracted angle (Figure 2). It has been shown (16, 17) that an incident
angle of 1° greater than the first critical angle is the optimal angle for
generating a wave that propagates parallel to the surface (Figure 2a).
The resulting wave is termed the subsurface dilatational wave.
Theoretical and experimental studies have discussed the depen-
dence of the beam profile on deviations of the incident angle from
the critical angle. Studies have provided detailed descriptions of
the beam pattern as a function of the incident angle (16, 17). If the
incident angle is increased beyond the first critical angle, the maxi-
mum displacement ray of the subsurface wave will move closer to (a)
the surface. However, the main lobe of the ultrasonic beam becomes
smaller in amplitude and narrower. In addition, the farther the incident
angle is moved above the first critical angle, the more the side lobes
begin to dominate. This means that any subsurface waves received
at the surface of the specimen for an incident angle set far above
the first critical angle are most likely caused by the side lobes. If the
incident angle is decreased below the first critical angle, the main
lobe will move farther from the surface. The main lobe also becomes
wider, which, combined with the already high beam spread, means
that a portion of the wave may still propagate parallel to the surface,
in effect, as a highly attenuated subsurface wave.

Noncollinear Wave Mixing of Subsurface

Dilatational Waves
Several studies are useful for reviewing noncollinear wave mixing
(12–15, 18–21). When two monochromatic, plane, sinusoidal waves,
k1 and k2, with frequencies f1 and f2, respectively, propagate in a non-
linear medium such that they intersect at an angle, φ, it is possible
that they may interact to produce a third wave, k3 = k1 ± k2, with fre-
(b)
FIGURE 2   Use of angle wedges to generate longitudinal waves
near the surface: (a) critically refracted longitudinal wave and
(b) pitch-catch assembly to measure dilatational velocities and
corresponding energy losses.
McGovern, Buttlar, and Reis
54 potential interaction cases, only eight satisfy the necessary reso-
nance and polarization conditions for interaction to take place and
a scattered wave to occur. This study considered the case in which
two dilatational waves interact to produce a shear wave polarized in
the k1-k2 plane with a difference frequency f3 = f1 − f2.
Dilatational transducers mounted on variable angle wedges can
be used to generate dilatational waves that propagate close to and
nearly parallel to the surface by setting the incident angles close
to the first critically refracted angle (16, 17); however, dilatational
waves that propagate close to the surface can also be generated and
detected well beyond this angle for asphalt concrete (16). To imple-
ment noncollinear wave mixing of subsurface dilatational waves,
two dilatational transducers mounted on angle wedges are used. They
are oriented such that they generate two subsurface dilatational waves,
k1 and k2, which intersect at an angle φ to generate a shear wave, k3.
The shear wave propagates in the k1-k2 plane in the direction γ with
respect to k1. This interaction takes place when the following conditions
are met (18):
2 need not be found again. Linear parameters (i.e., velocities and cor-
c   1 f1  cS2   f 22 
cos [ϕ ] =  L  1 −  1 − 2   2 + 1  (1)
 cS   2 f2 cL  f 1 
− f2 sin [ϕ ]
tan [ γ ] = (2)
f1 − f2 cos [ϕ ]
where cL and cS are the dilatational and shear wave velocities of the
medium, respectively. Because k1 and k2 propagate close and parallel
to the surface, k3 will also propagate close and parallel to the surface;
thus, it can be detected by mounting a receiving transducer directly
on the surface in the path of propagation.
Two parameters are of importance for assessing oxidative aging
via the noncollinear wave-mixing technique: the frequency ratio
f2/f1 at which interaction occurs, and the normalized nonlinear wave
generation parameter β/β0. Both f2 /f1 and β/β0 change with respect
to the amount of oxidative aging of the asphalt concrete (12–15),
which makes these parameters ideal for assessing aging levels. The
frequency ratio at which the interaction occurs can be determined
by holding one of the frequencies constant (e.g., f1) and monitoring
the amplitude of the nonlinear scattered wave as the other frequency
(e.g., f2) is swept. The frequency ratio at which the nonlinear scattered
wave amplitude reaches a maximum corresponds to the frequency
ratio at which the interaction takes place. The β parameter describes
the conversion efficiency at which energy is converted from the
primary waves to the scattered shear wave via the interaction and
is found as
β age A*age( k3 )
= (3)
β0 A*0 ( k3 )
where
( k3 )
Aage
A*age( k3 ) = (4)
exp − (α ( k1)
+ α ) D  exp ( −α ( k3) Dk3 )
(k 2)
and
A(kage3) = recorded amplitude of k3,
age = amount of oxidative oven aging (h),
α(kn) = experimentally determined attenuation coefficient of wave
kn, and
Dkn = distance traveled by wave kn.
3
For this study, the propagation distance of the two primary waves
was the same: D = Dk1 = Dk2. The age subscript denotes the amount
of oxidative oven aging in hours, where 0 corresponds to a virgin
specimen, that is, with no oxidative aging.
Fixed-Angle Technique
The main disadvantage of the noncollinear wave-mixing approach
to estimate levels of oxidative aging is the need for a priori knowl-
edge of velocities and attenuations, which also depend on the levels
of aging. To address this difficulty, the study introduced a new
method, the fixed-angle technique, in which the wedges were set to
a predetermined fixed-incident angle based on the AC mixture type.
In lieu of a fixed angle, the incident angle could be found experi-
mentally via an iterative process; however, iteratively finding the
suitable angle is time-consuming and tedious (14, 15), as opposed to
a fixed-angle approach, which is relatively easier to use in the field.
Once a suitable angle is found for a particular AC mixture type, it
responding attenuations) also need to be estimated to use the fixed-
angle approach. Once the linear parameters are estimated, then the
subsurface noncollinear wave-mixing technique can be employed
as usual with the predetermined fixed-incident angle.
Incident Angle
The variable angle wedges should be set to an incident angle such that
(a) the noncollinear wave mixing of subsurface dilatational waves
can take place, and (b) it produces a nonlinear scattered shear wave,
which can be detected at the surface by a receiving transducer. This
angle is referred to as θinc in this paper.
Velocities and Attenuations
The attenuation of the subsurface waves (as a function of aging and
frequency) should be used to normalize the scattered nonlinear wave
amplitude to estimate the inherent nonlinearities of the sample. From
a previous discussion on the longitudinal subsurface beam profile as
the incident angle is increased beyond the critical refracted angle, it
is apparent that normalizing the amplitudes by the actual attenuations
is an ambiguous task, unless there is a priori knowledge about the
wave path (deviation from traveling parallel to the surface), wave
field (the beam pattern changes with respect to aging), and amount
of oxidative aging in the specimen. Therefore, to assess the amount
of oxidative aging in AC with the noncollinear wave-mixing method,
the perceived attenuation (i.e., the energy loss measured at the surface)
was estimated instead.
The study considered a through-transmission setup, in which a sinu-
soidal toneburst (swept from 120 to 200 kHz) is transmitted through
the AC specimen via a dilatational transducer. The signal propagates
through the AC, and it is received by another dilatational transducer
mounted on the same side of the specimen. The sending and receiving
dilatational transducers are mounted on variable angle wedges set
to the predetermined incident angle θinc and spaced apart by a pre-
scribed distance corresponding to the distance from the center of the
wedge to the center of the region of interaction in the noncollinear
wave-mixing setup (Figure 2b). As the wave propagates through the
material, it suffers attenuation caused by beam spread and inherent
material attenuation (i.e., absorption and scattering). Because the study
considered only one incident angle across the entire sample set of aged
specimens, the beam profile changed with respect to the amount of
4 Transportation Research Record 2576

aging in the specimen. Accordingly, because the receiving transducer
was placed on the same side of the specimen as the sending transducer,
the perceived attenuation, that is, the energy attenuation, changed with
aging as well. This energy loss at the surface (µ) is a function of
the materials aging (age), the distance traveled by the wave (d), the
incident angle (θinc), and the frequency ( f ).
technique is based on the principle that the fastest arriving portion
of the wave should be the longitudinal component of the wave that
travels the most parallel to the surface (21).
Noncollinear Wave Mixing

µ = µ ( f , d , θinc, age ) (5) The noncollinear wave-mixing technique can be employed as usual
once the mixture type of the pavement is identified and θinc is known
Thus, the received amplitude for a subsurface dilatational wave sent for that mixture. The frequency ratio ( f2/f1) of the primary waves at
by a transducer mounted on an angle wedge with an incident angle which the nonlinear wave amplitude is the largest does not depend
of θinc, and received by a transducer mounted on an angle wedge with on the incident angle. Thus, f2 /f1 can be found by determining the
the same angle, propagated at a distance D with frequency f can be point at which the nonlinear wave amplitude reaches a maximum
expressed as as f2 is swept.
The amplitude of the scattered nonlinear wave is proportional to
the product of the amplitudes of the two interacting primary waves
[ A ( f , D, θ )]
age inc thr-trans
= Asent e −µ L ( f ,D,θinc,age) D
i
(6)
(18). From the experiment setup, both primary waves, k1 and k2,
travel the same distance D (measured from the center of the wedge
where to the center of interaction volume). Recalling that the energy loss at
A = wave amplitude, the surface is a function of the distance and frequency (Equation 5), the
age = subscript referring to the amount of time specimens amplitude of the nonlinear scattered wave can be written as
were oven aged,
sent = subscript indicating the generated waves (from the [ A( ) ]
k3
age θ
inc
k1) ( k 2 ) ( −µ L ( f1, D,θinc ,age )−µ L ( f2, D,θinc ,age )) D −µ S ( f3 , Dk ,θinc ,age ) Dk
= β age A(sent Asent e
i
e 3
i 3

system), (9)
thr-trans = subscript denoting waves received in a pitch-catch
configuration, and The subscripts L and S denote dilatational and shear waves, respec-
L = subscript denoting a longitudinal wave. tively. Equation 9 can be similarly written for the unaged (virgin)
Normalizing Equation 6 by the received amplitude through the virgin sample. Normalizing the amplitude of the received scattered shear
(unaged) specimen, wave with the corresponding scattered shear wave amplitude
obtained with the unaged specimen yields
 Aage ( f , D, θinc )  e −µL ( f ,D,θinc,age) D
i

 A ( f , D, θ )  = −µL ( f ,D,θinc,0) iD (7)  A(age

k 3)
 β age e−µL ( f1,D,θinc,age) iD e−µL ( f2,D,θinc,age)iD e−µS ( f3,Dk ,θinc,age) Dk 3
i 3

 0 inc  thr-trans e  A( k3)  = β e−µL ( f1,D,θinc,0) iD e−µL ( f2,D,θinc,0)iD −µS ( f3,Dk ,θinc,0)iDk
 0 θinc 0 e 3 3

Equation 7 describes the normalized energy loss at the surface in a (10)

through-transmission (thr-trans) setup for dilatational waves.
The perceived energy loss of shear waves through the material The empirical relation in Equation 8 is used as an approximation
must also be estimated. Shear subsurface waves should not be used to estimate the shear wave attenuation. This gives
to measure the shear wave attenuation because of interaction with
e−µS ( f3,Dk ,θinc,age) Dk e−αS (cL(age)) Dk
i i
the free surface. Furthermore, conventional wedges (e.g., plastic) 3 3 3

≈ (11)
cannot be used because very low wedge ultrasonic velocities would e−µS ( f3,Dk ,θinc,0) Dk e−αS (cL(0)) Dk
i i 3
3 3

be required to generate subsurface shear waves that would propa-

gate parallel to the surface. However, the shear attenuation can be
estimated via an empirical relation (13) between the longitudinal
velocity and shear attenuation coefficient:
α S (60 kHz ≤ f ≤ 90 kHz ) ≈ −0.031cL + 152.991 (8)
For the AC mixture of the sample set used in this study, this empir-
ical relationship is only valid for αs (i.e., attenuation) in a frequency
This approximation is an underestimate, a lower bound, of the per-
ceived attenuation (i.e., energy loss observed at the surface), because
the empirical relationship does not account for the beam pattern or the
fact that the shear wave does not necessarily propagate parallel to
the surface. Substituting the relationships in Equations 7 and 11 into
Equation 10 leads to:
β age  Aage ( f1, D, θinc ) Aage ( f2, D, θinc )  e−αS (cL(age)) Dk
 A(age
k 3) i
 3

range of 60 to 90 kHz (which corresponds to the range of the non-  A( k3)  ≈ β  A ( f , D, θ ) A ( f , D, θ )  −αS (cL ( 0 )) iDk
linear shear wave frequencies in this study), and for the longitudinal  0 θinc 0  0 1 inc 0 2 inc  thr-trans e 3

velocity above the frequency at which it becomes nondispersive (12)

(i.e., frequency independent) (21). The longitudinal velocity was
related to the shear attenuation instead of the longitudinal attenua- Thus,
tion, because although αL is proportional to αs, the proportionality
constant is not the same across the entire sample set of aged speci-
mens. The longitudinal velocities can be estimated by measuring the β age   A(age
k 3)
   A ( f , D, θinc ) A0 ( f2, D, θinc ) 
≈   ( k 3)    0 1
time-of-flight of the through-transmission subsurface wave. Since this β 0   A0 θinc   Aage ( f1, D, θinc ) Aage ( f2, D, θinc )  thr-trans
method only uses one incident angle θinc across the entire sample set,
 e−αS (cL(0)) Dk 
i
there may be relatively larger errors in the longitudinal wave velocity
3

×  −αS (cL(age)) iDk  (13)

estimate caused by a change in the beam profile. The validity of this e  3
McGovern, Buttlar, and Reis
Because of the approximations, βage/β0 is only an estimate of
the actual normalized nonlinear wave generation parameter. The
values f1 and f2 are known, as the f2/f1 peak is found during the
use of the noncollinear wave-mixing process. Therefore, the pri-
mary wave attenuation estimates should be used at the appropriate
frequencies.
Prior to taking field measurements, it was assumed that the
parameters for unaged AC in the equations were known, whether by
laboratory measurements performed on specimens of the same mix
type, or measurements performed on test samples made of the pro-
tected bottom layer from extracted field cores. These values should
be found with the same testing setup as used in the field so as to be
consistent with the equations.
Sample Preparation
A set of gyratory-compacted asphalt specimens was created with a
mix design of 5.9% (by weight) PG 64-22 binder with a 4% air void
content. Following Superpave® guidelines, the aggregate structure
had a nominal maximum aggregate size of 9.5 mm and consisted
of aggregates from four different stockpiles (Illinois Department
of Transportation aggregate designations were used: CM = course
material; FM = fine material): 65% coarse aggregate (CM16), 23%
manufactured sand (FM20), 10.5% manufactured sand (FM02), and
1.5% mineral filler.
Before compaction, the loose mixture was oven aged for 36 h at
135°C. To encourage uniform aging throughout the specimen, the
loose mixture was hand stirred every 12 h. A Superpave gyratory
compactor was used to compact the loose mixture into cylinders with
a nominal height of 175 mm and radius of 150 mm. Rectangular spec-
imens were then cut from the gyratory specimens with dimensions
of 135 × 175 × 50 mm (Figure 3). The rejuvenator was applied
to one face of each specimen (10% of the binder by weight). Each
coated specimen was left to dwell for a prescribed amount of time:
3 to 6 days in 1-day increments, 1 to 8 weeks in 1-week increments,
and 12 weeks. Once the dwell time reached the desired amount, the
specimen was wiped of any excess rejuvenator and immediately
ultrasonically tested. The specimens were weighed before and after
Ritec
Krohn-Hite
Pulser
Function
Receiver
Generator Trigger RPR-4000
Ritec
Gated RF
Amplifier
Krohn-Hite
Filter or Amplifier
A/D
(a)
FIGURE 3   Schematic diagram of data acquisition system and specimen geometry: (a) flowchart of transducer assembly
and volume of interaction, (b) photo of the system, and (c) extraction of specimen from gyratory compacted cylinder
(RF = radio frequency; A/D = analog-to-digital converter).
5
wiping the rejuvenator to determine how much rejuvenator was
removed during the process (Table 1).
Experiment Setup
Two dilatational transducers (Panametrics V413, with a center fre-
quency of 500 kHz) were mounted on variable angle wedges ori-
ented such that they transmitted waves, k1 and k2, that propagated a
distance of 8.2 cm (from the center of the wedge to the point of inter-
section) and intersected at an angle of φ = 47°. The angle wedges
(Panametrics ABWX-2001, longitudinal velocity = 2,720 m/s) were
set to an incident angle of 73°, which was determined as suitable
for this mixture type. A third dilatational transducer (V1011, with a
center frequency of 100 kHz) was incidentally mounted on the same
face of the asphalt specimen such that it was positioned 4 cm from
the center of the intersection of the two waves (to the center of the
transducer) at an angle of γ = −37° with respect to k1 (Figure 3a).
A pulser receiver (Ritec RPR 4000) was used to generate and
amplify k1, a 15-burst sinusoidal signal at f1 = 200 kHz. A function
generator (Krohn-Hite 5920) and a gated amplifier (Ritec GA-2500A)
were used to generate and amplify k2, an eight-burst sinusoidal sig-
nal, which was swept from f2 = 100 to 180 kHz in 1-kHz increments.
The number of cycles in the tonebursts was chosen to guarantee
intersection between the two waves. A second-order Butterworth
filter-amplifier (Krohn-Hite 3945) was used to apply a gain to the
received signal, as well as to filter out any low frequencies. Each
received signal was averaged 300 times.
The experiment was carried out as follows: (a) data were collected
when the two transducers were operated simultaneously, (b) data
were collected when only one transducer was operated individually,
and (c) data were collected when the other transducer was operated
individually. To obtain the nonlinear signal, the time domain records
obtained in steps (b) and (c) were subtracted from the time domain
record obtained in step (a). The resulting signal is termed the differ-
ence signal and primarily consists of the nonlinear scattered wave
resulting from the primary wave interaction.
It is essential to check that the difference signal satisfies the
selection criteria proposed by Johnson et al. (19) and Johnson and
k2
k1
k3
Volume
of
Interaction
(c)
(b)
6 Transportation Research Record 2576

TABLE 1   Linear Acoustic Measurements of Velocities and Attenuations Obtained via Through-Transmission
Subsurface Waves and Experimentally Observed Nonlinear Parameters

Frequency Ratio at Normalized

Normalized Dilatational Shear Which Maximum Nonlinear Wave-
Energy Loss at Surfaceb Attenuationc Nonlinear Wave Generation
Dwell Time Dilatational (Np/m) Amplitude Occurs Parameter
(weeks) Velocitya (m/s) k1 (Np/m) k2 (Np/m) k3 f2 /f1 β/β0

0.50 (≈ 3 days) 3,298 0.57 0.64 50.8 0.685 0.77

0.64 (≈ 4 days) 3,372 0.68 0.78 48.5 0.680 0.99
0.78 (≈ 5 days) 3,370 1.15 1.06 48.5 0.675 0.38
0.93 (≈ 6 days) 3,222 0.95 1.11 53.1 0.680 0.45
1 3,372 0.53 0.58 48.5 0.635 0.71
2 3,371 0.26 0.34 48.5 0.620 1.43
3 3,531 1.79 2.02 43.5 0.525 0.03
4 3,323 0.87 0.92 50.0 0.640 0.26
5 3,726 0.47 0.57 37.5 0.630 0.50
6 3,517 0.42 0.45 44.0 0.595 5.39
7 3,644 0.65 0.94 40.0 0.580 0.71
8 3,649 0.50 1.07 39.9 0.525 0.21
12 3,675 0.57 0.62 39.1 0.515 0.85

Note: For all dwell times, the percentage of rejuvenator lost was <1.0%. Np/m = nepers per meter; a neper is a logarithmic unit for ratios of
measurements on the natural log scale, similar to decibels, which instead are on a log base 10 scale.
a
The dilatational velocity was measured experimentally via subsurface waves in a through-transmission configuration.
b
The dilatational energy loss was measured experimentally via subsurface waves in a through-transmission configuration and normalized by
measurements through the virgin specimen (Equation 7).
c
The sheer attenuation was estimated with an empirical relationship between the shear attenuation and dilatational velocity (Equation 8).

Shankland (20) to ensure that the nonlinearities result from the pri-
mary wave interaction and not from the testing apparatus. These
selection criteria include (a) amplitude criterion, that the nonlin-
ear scattered wave should have an amplitude that is proportional
to the product of the primary wave amplitudes; (b) frequency crite-
rion, that the nonlinear scattered wave should have a frequency f3 that
matches that predicted by theory (e.g., f3 = f1 − f2); and (c) directionality
criterion, that the nonlinear scattered wave should propagate in the
direction predicted by theory (i.e., γ with respect to k1). A time-of-
flight criterion can also be used with which the predicted time of flight
(assuming a straight ray path) should coincide with the observed
time of flight.
Prior to implementing the fixed-angle technique, the f2/f1 ver-
sus β/β0 reference curve needs to be generated for a specific AC
mixture (Figure 4). These two parameters are independent from
each other. The frequency ratio f2/f1 depends only on the shear-
to-dilatational velocity ratio for a prescribed angle of interaction
(Equation 1), and the parameter β/β0 represents the material non-
linear response. Figure 4, a and b, shows the frequency ratio f2/f1
and normalized nonlinear generation parameter β/β0 for increasing
levels of aging, respectively. None of these parameters alone can
uniquely identify the level of aging for the mixture. However, as
shown in Figure 4c, together they can uniquely characterize the
level of aging. In Figure 4c, the solid line shows the reference
curve. The reference curve represents the evolution of the AC state-
of-damage with increased levels of oven aging, that is, volatiliza-
tion and oxidative hardening of the asphalt binder. In Figure 4, the
solid dots represent the average of 10 measurements, and the error
bars represent the maximum and minimum of the measurements.
Field measurements, points ( f2/f1, β/β0), can be plotted on the refer-
ence curve, on which a point's relative location allows estimation
of the pavement top layer oxidative aging level.
Once the reference curve is generated, it need not be generated
again as long as the testing setup and mixture type remain the
same. The procedure to generate the reference curve is as follows:
(a) identify the mixture type for the AC to be assessed; (b) set
the angle wedges to the predetermined angle θinc for this mixture
type; (c) determine the energy loss at the surface with the technique
described in the previous section, across a range of frequencies
with the wedges set to θinc; (d) obtain an estimate of the dilata-
tional velocity with through-transmission of the wedges set to θinc,
and use Equation 9 to obtain an estimate of the shear attenuation;
(e) perform the noncollinear wave-mixing technique with the test-
ing setup described, with the wedges set to θinc; ( f ) determine f2/f1
at which the maximum nonlinear wave amplitude occurs; and
(g) correct the nonlinear wave amplitude for the attenuation at
the appropriate frequencies with Equation 14 and the attenuation-
energy loss estimates obtained in Steps (c) and (d) to obtain β/β0.
The β0 is known; it was previously determined from a virgin
(unaged) specimen in the laboratory for this known mixture type
with the same testing setup.
Experiment Results
Through-transmission measurements (Figure 2b) were taken on each
specimen to obtain dilatational velocity and amplitude measurements
prior to carrying out nonlinear measurements (Table 1). Although the
linear acoustic parameters (the velocities and corresponding attenu-
ations) will be affected by the aging level of the AC specimen (21),
McGovern, Buttlar, and Reis 7

Frequency Ratio at Which Maximum Nonlinear

Normalized Nonlinear Parameter, a/a0

Wave Amplitude Occurs, f2/f1 (kHz/kHz)
36 h
36 h
28 h

32 h

32 h 12 h 24 h
0h
28 h
0h 12 h 24 h

Amount Aged (h) Amount Aged (h)

(a) (b)

0.75
f2/f1 Ratio at Which Maximum Nonlinear Wave

28 h 32 h
36 h
0.7 3 days
6 days
5 days 4 days
Amplitude Occurs

0.65
4 weeks 1 week
5 weeks 2 weeks
0.6 24 h Solid line denotes the evolution of damage with
increased oxidation.
7 weeks 6 weeksSolid dots denote the average of 10
measurements.
0h
0.55 Crosses denote the average of 5 measurements
12 h taken on specimens aged 36 h, exposed to
rejuvenator after the corresponding dwell time in
3 weeks 8 weeks 12 weeks weeks.
0.5
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Normalized Nonlinear Wave-Generation Parameter, / 0
(c)

FIGURE 4   Damage evolution caused by increased levels of oxidative oven aging and the effect of rejuvenator on
specimens with 36 h of oven aging for increasing dwell times: (a) frequency ratio versus increasing levels of aging,
(b) normalized nonlinear wave-generation parameter versus increasing levels of aging, and (c) damage evolution
path for increasing levels of aging (solid line and solid dots), as well as the average of five measurements
taken on specimens aged 36 h and exposed to rejuvenator for increasing dwell times (crosses) (a + b = c).

these properties are also affected by the lack of parallelism in the The shape of the difference signal amplitude as a function of f2/f1
propagation path when the subsurface wave is generated away from is worth noting. Theoretically, the nonlinear scattered signal should
the first critical refracted angle. Thus, for the fixed-angle method, only exist for f2/f1 according to the relationships in Equations 1 and 2.
these linear acoustic measurements are not very accurate and are only In reality, velocity dispersion and beam spread are present, which
used as an estimate for the parameters in Equation 13. broaden the peak. In this study, the results are further complicated
Noncollinear wave-mixing measurements were carried out for by the fact that there is nonuniform aging in the test specimens. This
each specimen with a fixed angle of θinc = 73°, which was selected lack of uniformity in aging is a result of the oven-aging process and
for this particular AC mixture. Once the nonlinear parameters, f2/f1 and the nonuniform penetration of the rejuvenator. The loose mixes that
β/β0, of the AC specimens were recorded, they were plotted against were used to create the specimens were hand stirred every 12 h during
a reference plot to determine the effective level of oxidative aging. the aging process to promote uniformity of aging in the mixture;
Figure 4c and Table 1 contain the averages of five ( f2/f1, β/β0) mea- however, it is impossible to ensure that all portions of the mixture
surements for the samples exposed to rejuvenator for a prescribed will be exposed to the same level of aging. The nonuniformity in
dwell time. The measurements (denoted by crosses in the figure) are rejuvenator penetration caused by variability in porosity and tortu-
superimposed on the corresponding reference plot for the mixture used osity will also cause portions of the binder to remain unaffected. As
in this study, which is denoted by the solid black lines in the figure. a result, there can be pockets of aged binder that are not exposed to
The reference plot is valid only for the particular AC mix design for the rejuvenator, and thus, remain untreated. These isolated pockets
which it was generated. of untreated binder along with the nonuniform aging have the effect
8
Shear to Dilatational Velocity
Ratio, cS /cL
36 h aged
Virgin
(no rejuvenator)
(no rejuvenator)
Dwell Time (weeks)
FIGURE 5   Velocity ratio, c S /c L, for each dwell time as determined
by the experimentally measured frequency ratio, f 2 /f 1 . Solid
lines denote values for specimens with no rejuvenator aged 0 h
(virgin) and 36 h, respectively; velocities were calculated by using
experimental values of f 2 /f 1 in Equation 1.
of causing multiple peaks to appear for the amplitude versus f2/f1
plots. To circumvent this, the lowest f2/f1 peak was recorded, as it
corresponded to the binder most affected by the rejuvenator.
For specimens with a dwell time of 0 to 7 weeks, it was generally
observed that the specimen exhibited nonlinear properties ( f2/f1, β/β0)
increasingly closer to that of virgin specimens with an increase in
dwell time. Beyond 7 weeks, the specimen properties also exhibited
properties that correspond to a binder with a lower stiffness than the
virgin binder. This can be seen in Figure 5, which shows the velocity
ratio, cS/cL, as a function of the dwell time. The velocity ratios were
computed by plugging the experimentally obtained frequency ratios
into Equation 1 and solving for the positive root. The softening of
the binder has a stronger effect on the dilatational velocity, because
the stiffness associated with the shear velocity also depends on the
aggregates interlocking.
A study by Braham et al. (22) showed that 24 h of oven aging
represented approximately 7 years of field aging. From observed
field cracking (22), it appears that the level of 24 h of oven aging
also represents an aging level threshold after which permanent
damage may be retained in the mixture, that is, the mixture loses its
self-healing ability. This seems to correspond to the shift observed
in Figure 4c between 24 and 28 h of aging when plotted in the f2/f1
versus β/β0 space. Measurements taken on samples aged at 0, 12, and
up to 24 h fall in the lower plateau range, with 24 h of oven aging
representing a breakpoint between the lower and upper plateau regions
in Figure 4c. A possible application of this technique might involve
the assessment and treatment of asphalt pavement surfaces with pen-
etrating rejuvenators to retain material behavior safely in the right-
hand side of the lower plateau (self-healing region), in the 0 to 12 h
equivalent of oven-aging regime. This would prevent the pavement
surface from aging to a condition in which permanent damage and
vulnerability to large, discrete crack formation (e.g., thermal and block
cracks) occur.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated the validity of the use of the fixed-angle
technique as a practical way to implement the noncollinear wave-
mixing technique in the field. AC specimens, subjected to 36 h of
Transportation Research Record 2576
laboratory-induced oxidative oven aging and coated with a rejuvena-
tor (10% by weight of the binder), were left to dwell for a prescribed
amount of time. After the prescribed dwell time, each specimen
was tested with a modified noncollinear wave mixing of subsurface
longitudinal waves. The frequency ratio, f2/f1, at which the interaction
took place and the normalized nonlinear wave generation parameter,
β/β0, were recorded and compared against a reference plot for that
mixture. It was observed that with increasing levels of dwell times, the
material response of the aged asphalt approaches that of the unaged
samples. It was also observed that the ability of the rejuvenator to
penetrate and act on the binder depends on the stochastic nature of
asphalt concrete, that is, its variability in porosity and tortuosity. To
overcome this variability, it is recommended that an average of sev-
eral measurements be taken at different locations on the pavement. In
addition to field testing, the approach may be utilized to characterize
reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled asphalt shingle mixtures
with and without recycling agents.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the partial support of the U.S. Air Force
Civil Engineering Center, which included the assistance of tech-
nical contact George Vansteenburg. The authors are also grateful
for the technical support of Jeb S. Tingle of the Engineer Research
and Development Center and Gerald A. Huber and Herb Wissel of
the Heritage Group for technical support and for the donation of
rejuvenator materials.
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Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
sponsoring agency.
The Standing Committee on Characteristics of Asphalt Paving Mixtures to Meet
Structural Requirements peer-reviewed this paper.