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A Brief History of Science

Outline
• Antiquity to 20th Century
• Middle Ages
• The Renaissance

➢ The Scientific Method

➢ New Theories and Technologies

➢ The Scientific Revolution

• The Age of Enlightenment

Antiquity to 20th CE
• For most of human history, questions about the world were answered by religious authorities
• Mathematics was born in Egypt. The Babylonians were the first to apply it to Astronomy.
• The pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greece were the first to develop a systematic Science.

Thales of Melitus (624-546 BC)

• In the 7th Century he was dubbed “The Father of Science.”

• He was the first to posit non-supernatural explanations for earthquakes, lightnings, etc.
• He predicted solar eclipses, droughts and made a fortune doing so.
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Anaximander (610-546 BC)

• He proposed that humans evolved from lower life forms (This speculation was later vindicated by
Charles Darwin)

Pythagoras (570-495 BC)

• Started a school dedicated to Mathematics and its application to nature

Empedocles (490-430 BC)

• Believed that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth

Democritus (460-370 BC)

• First to theorize that matter is made up of “atoms.” (literally means ‘uncuttable’ in Greek)

Eratosthenes (276-194 BC)

• Accurately measured the size/circumference of the earth
• He created the first map of the world , Chemistry
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• Consisted of 5 basic elements

• Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Aether

Hippocrates & Galen

• Developed the first scientific approach to anatomy and medicine
• They used experiments and records to heal the sick

Middle Ages (5th - 14th CE)

• Science continued through the Roman Empire
• When the Empire fell and the Dark Ages ensued, Science in the West ceased to progress
• While there were some European scientist in the middle ages, they were generally isolated
and marginalized

Middle Ages (5th - 14th CE)

• Most scientific advancements from 500-1300 CE were made in the Islamic world
• Medicine, Astronomy, Chemistry developed considerably in these regions
• Avicenna (circa 1000 CE) pioneered the techniques that lead to the modern hospital
• In the 12th Century Europe, Scholasticism tried to reconcile ancient Greek thought with
biblical dogma (start of the end of The Dark Ages)

The Renaissance (AD 1400-1700)

• St. Thomas Aquinas endorsed “Natural Theology” — knowing God by studying His creation
• This lead to a social revolution - people started to think!
• Free discussion was demanded, weakening the Church’s sovereignty
• Thinkers turning away from the Church and going back to antiquity for inspiration
• Thus there was a renaissance — a rebirth (in Greek humanism)
• The universe is once again a rational, comprehensible place
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The Scientific Method

• The Scholastic world-view deferred to Aristotle as the authority on Science
• All motion and change are explained in terms of a thing’s “telos” or purpose
• He is the smartest man who ever lived, he must have gotten it right
• In the 16th century, Francis Bacon challenged this

Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626)

• “Being a genius is like being able to run fast. You travel far, but unless you have a map, you’ll be
lost”
• He provided a “map” - the first

Scientific Method
• Empirical observation and experimentation
• Rational analysis, mathematical modeling and deductive reasoning

New Theories and Technologies

• Boyle’s Theory of Gases, Laws of Electricity, Harvey’s Theory of the Circulation of the Blood
• The telescope, the microscope, thermometer, the printing press, gun powder, the compass

The Scientific Revolution

• There is a shift back to the idea that human reason, not faith, has the power to discover
ultimate truth
• The best minds flocked to Astronomy
• Nicholaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered) view of the universe
• The “Copernican Revolution” challenged the
Ptolemaic/geocentric view that dominated for
1400 years (and was a church doctrine)
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The Copernican Revolution

• We have to rethink our place in the universe
• If we’re not the center, does that mean we’re not special?
• Copernicus System could explain things that the Ptolemaic system could not
• Copernicans were deemed heretics and burned at the stake

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

• 100 years later, Galileo improved the telescope and published his findings in support of
Copernicus
• Then it became undeniable and the revolution took off
• Galileo was sentenced to house arrest for life
Galileo’s defense…

The Age of Enlightenment

• The Golden Age for “natural philosophers.” (i.e. scientists)
• They turned away from the Aristotelian model of trying to find the ‘purpose’ of motion
• Scientists started looking for laws and mechanisms in nature

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

• Epitomized the Age of Enlightenment
• His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (considered to be one of the most
important books ever written) changed everything
• Invented Calculus
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Universal Laws of Science

• Prior to Newton, science was scattered and explained scattered phenomena
• His work unified disparate fields of science (celestial mechanics and terrestrial mechanics)
• The Universal Law of Gravitation was the first truly UNIVERSAL scientific law — applicable
anywhere, no exceptions
• Not applicable to quantum level, breaks down on singularities and really massive objects,
etc.

Development of Modern Chemistry

• Newton practiced alchemy - transforming one substance into another
• Although alchemy is often portrayed as pseudoscience, it pioneered the study of the
elements which later morphed into chemistry
• Difference between Chemistry and Alchemy?
• Nothing to do with methodological processes used by chemists and alchemists.
• Has to do with social structure. Alchemy is secretive, shared only with a select few.
Chemistry is characterized by openness, where ideas are shared, tested by different people.

Modern Biology
• Carl Linnaeus developed the first biological taxonomy. This inspired the young Charles
Darwin to become a naturalist.
• While traveling, Darwin saw patterns in organisms and their environments, how they
interbred, etc.
• The competition for limited resources made him realize that only the fittest would survive to
pass on their traits

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882)

• Darwin’s was NOT the first theory of evolution. But he was the first to provide a mechanism
for it (Natural Selection) and a mountain of data to back it up
• After Mendel’s discovery of genetics was recognized, Darwinism was confirmed and the
“neo-Darwinian synthesis” cemented the theory of revolution
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Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)

• Founder of psychoanalysis (clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue
between a patient and a psychoanalyst)
• Theories had a revolutionary effect on the beliefs and morals of modern society as well as
on the arts
• Freud introduced the idea of the unconscious, divided the human mind into id, ego and
super ego, and showed that our mind is far from being transparent to itself.
The Freudian Theory

The Information Revolution

• The 4th revolution
• Radically changed the way in which human beings perceive themselves, the universe, and
the manner by which they interact with the rest of the world
• Refers to the current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial
Revolution
• Features a new era of economic globalization as geography gradually disappears as a barrier
to economic activity