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Leena Wardeh

Dr. Kirk French

Anthropology of Alcohol

26 November 2021

Understanding my Roots: Middle Eastern Drinking Culture

Introduction

I believe that various countries and drinking customs are thoroughly studied in Anthropology of

Alcohol, and my knowledge of worldly cultures has developed as a result. Yet, one subset of

countries is left out of Anthropology 140's big picture, and those countries are those that lie

within the Middle East. Several countries lie within the Middle East, such as Algeria, Iran, Iraq,

Israel, Jordan, Syria (my origin country), Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates, to name a few.

You would think that this handful of countries have rich histories and drinking cultures. During

almost every lecture, I tried to rake my brain about why this may be the case. With time, I started

to appreciate the knowledge Anthropology 140 gave me. Still, I felt personally responsible for

learning more about the Middle East's history and drinking habits since they were not included in

the course. Nevertheless, diving into the chronicles of Islam and drinking cultures in the Middle

East became the core focus for my honors report. It took me until the end of the semester to truly

realize why these countries were left out of our course curriculum, and that is solely because

their drinking cultures are severely misunderstood and underrepresented.

Two Sides to the Misunderstood Tale

In order to fully understand the gray area behind Middle Eastern drinking culture, I started with
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what I knew already. In my 19 years of living, I have considered myself Muslim and an

Arab-American. With this identity, I grew up in a relatively strict household that followed most

of the rules in the Qur'an, which is considered the origin of Islamic text. Even with the strict

rules I had throughout my childhood, I noticed a disconnect between what my parents preached

and what I was physically surrounded by.

While the Qur'an strictly prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages - like my parents

would say - I still noticed bottles of alcohol in our bar with Arabic writing on them. I would ask

myself, "How could this be so?" Indeed, there would be individuals who deviated from the

Islamic norm and consumed alcohol, but how were thousands of bottles mass-produced by

Middle Eastern companies, considering that most of their target consumers would be Muslims?

In the Qur'an, Muhammed states explicitly, "Do not drink wine; for it is the root of all evil;

abstain from vice; and when pestilence shall pervade mankind, and you shall be amongst them;

and cherish your children." These are the words that millions of Muslims live by, hence their

abstinence from alcohol. They perceive Muhammad's "wine" to be synonymous with alcoholic

beverages in general. Some Muslims even extend his saying so considerably to the point where

they do not wear perfumes with alcohol or consume any medicine with alcoholic contents.

Regardless of where a Muslim stands on the Islamic spectrum, it is safe to say that the majority

does not condone the consumption of alcohol. Yet, this leads me back to my original statement:

why is there a presence of Middle Eastern distilleries and breweries to begin with? Based on the

personal knowledge I have gathered over my years, I have concluded: Middle Eastern drinking

culture is actually two-fold, where its history is rich, but also is quite secretive and looked down

upon due to the negative stigma that comes with consumption.

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There are two sides to this misunderstood tale that we can now examine: the role of Islam and

the motives behind Middle Eastern alcohol production.

Part I: Islam's role in Drinking Culture

As previously discussed, prophet Muhammed clearly stated in the Qur'an that drinking is

strongly prohibited if you are to be a true disciple of Allah (the Arabic term used for god).

Muhammed's sayings are incredibly significant to the Middle East, considering Islam is the

presiding religion in the Middle East, where most citizens are considered Muslims (Wietz, 2015).

Prophet Muhammad is one of the most leading figures in the Qur'an and is known to be the

founder of Islam, so Muslims follow his words very closely. With most of the Middle Eastern

population being Muslims, there is not a lot of wiggle room left to experiment with alcohol, or

explicitly celebrate its creation in public settings.

The Jordan University of Science and Technology conducted a study in 2018 where 400 Muslim

participants were surveyed with questions regarding their actual alcohol consumption. It was

found that out of 400 participants, 56.8% believed that other participants would not report their

alcohol consumption truthfully due to keeping their drinking habits secretive. 92.7% of all

participants believed that reporting alcohol consumption was "haram" (the Arabic term for

forbidden), hence why they were not truthfully reporting their actions (Alhashimi, et al., 2018).

Reporting the consumption of alcohol is considered twice as sinful as physically drinking and not

telling others. When participants were asked if they would truthfully report their alcohol

consumption if they were to move to a country outside of the Middle East, two-thirds still said

no.
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This study alone shows a strong association between being Muslims and keeping drinking habits

secretive from the Islamic world, which is a result of historical Islamic teachings (Alhashimi, et

al., 2018). Nevertheless, there is a very negative stigma attached to the word "alcohol" in the

Middle East.

Another study confirms that the role alcohol plays on Islam is widely misunderstood and

understudied. It is even posed to be a social problem amongst Muslims in a majority of these

countries because some Muslims drink while others do not, even if they share the same religion.

However, the study suggests that several observers studying the problem overestimate the effect

Islamic teachings have on Muslims (Michalak and Trochi, 2006).

Although a majority of Muslims residing in the Middle East "abstain from alcohol", there are

still several alcohol-related beliefs that stem from centuries of history. After all, it is up to an

individual to make decisions for themselves based on the Qur'an's sayings. Throughout history,

several figures deviated from the social norms and created an empire of alcohol production that

still takes place to this day.

Part II: A Breakaway from Religion

After doing some thorough research, I was astonished to discover that the earliest evidence of

alcohol in the Middle East was during the same time period that the first alcoholic beverage in

the world was founded. Based on what I learned at the beginning of the semester in Dr. French's

course, the earliest evidence of alcohol production and consumption took place in a Neolithic

village found in Jiahu, China. The Chinese drink was presumed to have been created during

7000-6000 BC and was a fermented mix of rice, honey, and other fruits (Penn Museum, 2020).
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While the Neolithic villagers were brewing this concoction, fellow pre-Islamic settlers in the

Middle East were brewing the first beers and wines known to man. During 5000 BC, beer was

brewed in present-day Iran and Egypt. On the other hand, the first traces of wine were produced

by settlers in Georgia and Armenia during 6000 BC (Penn Museum, 2020). Although Georgia

and Armenian settlers are not considered core Middle Eastern countries, their proximity to other

Middle Eastern territories allowed wine and beer to infiltrate these countries. The beer that was

brewed in Iran and Egypt was commonly produced and consumed amongst everyone, including

Pharos and peasants. Beer was even used to pay ancient Egyptian workers (Moss, 2021).

The production of wines and beers continued throughout pre-Islamic countries in the Middle

East, in other countries as well such as Turkey. Drinking was an essential component of Turkish

culture at the time, where several elitists regularly consumed alcohol. Like Egypt and Iran,

Pre-Islamic Turkish culture was considered to be more liberal, especially focusing on music, the

arts, and achieving a liberated lifestyle. Hence, the production of wine, beer, and other spirits

continued.

It was not until the 7th century that Islam had finally made its way to the Middle East. It all

started in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, where Islam was born. The birth of Islam also meant that the

reign of liberal ideals and alcohol consumption would crumble. The introduction of Islam during

the 7th century was not a smooth transition and is considered the "Age of Ignorance," also

known as the "Jahiliyyah" period. During this period, Arabs were still producing and enjoying

alcoholic beverages and did not have to conform to Islamic standards (Musaev, 2017). There is

evidence of pre-Islamic Arabs enjoying alcohol in ancient poetry and even in earlier verses found

in the Qur'an, which modern-day Muslims no longer follow. There are hundreds of citations of
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the terms "wine" and "alcohol" found in these ancient texts and poems (Musaev, 2017).

As the Muslim community grew over time, they received information from prophet Muhammed

that guided their present values and intuition. This aligns with why alcohol was not initially

banned from the Muslim community; there were no real reasons to deny its use. However, when

Muslims overshadowed the positive effects of wine and other alcoholic drinks by becoming

increasingly intoxicated and dangerous, prophet Muhammed began to warn the community of

alcohol's negative impact. Muhammed's scribes wrote several verses on the abstinence and

prohibition of alcohol due to its sinful effects. Drinking alcohol then became forbidden by all

followers of Islam. After the prophet's death, the jurists constituting the Islamic territories

decided that all alcoholic drinks were entirely prohibited and haram.

While Muhammed's words were followed for several years by dedicated Muslims, there were

still traces of evidence suggesting that there were individuals drinking alcohol. Adam Mez, a

writer who studied the ways of Islam, wrote, "despite the Qur'an's prohibition, wine drinking was

prevalent" leading up to the late 1800s and early 1900s (Musaev, 2017). Despite there being an

overarching idea of alcohol consumption being "negative," there were still Muslims regularly

doing so, so much so to the point that there were needs for distilleries and brewers, even if it

meant smuggling certain items into certain countries. For example, Saudi Arabians have found

clever ways to smuggle booze into their country despite the alcohol ban that has been in place

since the 1950's. In Saudi Arabia, there is even a physical "black market" where alcohol is

purchased for hundreds of dollars by the bottle in illegal trades. In other countries such as Iran,

vodka from Russia is smuggled through the borders. Although some alcoholic beverages are

available in Iran, they are exuberantly expensive to the point where they are unattainable by the
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vast majority. Usually, Iranians - like several other Muslims found in other countries - drink non

alcoholic beer because it is legal, follows their religious standards, is easily purchasable, and

apparently "tasty" (something I may have to disagree on personally).

However, there are countries included in the Middle East where alcohol production is legal and

exists. Countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan, and Syria are still legally allowed to

produce and consume alcohol, especially in tourist-rich areas. "Sakra" is an example of a trendy

Egyptian beer that is consumed widely by tourists and Muslims, either in secret or in public - if

the Muslim is more "liberal" than others. Turkey also has a rich history of wine production,

where several delicious red and white wines are produced and exported to countries around the

globe. Yet, the most popular drink amongst all Middle Easterners - including Muslim consumers

- is Arak.

The National Drink of the Middle East: Arak

Now that discrepancy behind Islamic teachings and variations in practicing Muslims is better

understood, we can dive into the history of Arak, which is considered to be the most popular

drink amongst all Muslims.

Arak was postulated to have been created as early as the 12th century in the "Levant," which is a

group of countries comprising of modern-day Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and surrounding countries.

Arak is typically made from two ingredients: grapes and anise seeds (also known as aniseed).

Anise seeds give Arak its strong licorice smell and taste.

To begin the process of producing Arak, grapes are harvested and crushed. The crushed grape

mixture is then allowed to ferment. Once the grapes have fully fermented, a pressing machine
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removes the remaining grape skins from the overall mix. The second mixture, which is

considerably smoother, goes through a second fermentation process. After the second

fermentation has concluded, the first distillation begins. The mixture is heated over a flame and

refined using a copper still. The temperature of the still is constantly monitored and remains at

80 degrees celsius during the first distillation. The mixture is distilled for a second time, where

aniseed is first added. A third and final distillation occurs, where the smallest amount of aniseed

is added but is necessary to enhance the drink's taste and produce its strong licorice notes. Most

Arak is distilled in a copper still to produce a richer taste, but it is also produced in stainless steel

stills as well.

Below is a video by Anthony Rahayel, a Lebanese Youtuber that visits a popular Lebanese

restaurant in Beirut known as "Al Khan Al Maksoud." This restaurant prepares "mezze" - an

array of small Middle Eastern dishes - and brews their own Arak to compliment their dishes. The

restaurant's methods during distillation are relatively standard procedures, but the unique spices

that are added throughout gives it that unforgettable taste.

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xw-V6BnXmQ

Arak flavors can vary from country to country, where dates, sugar cane, plums, figs, and

molasses are added during distillation for distinct flavors. After the drink is properly distilled, its

alcohol content can lie anywhere from 40 to 60% ABV, making it a potent drink.

Since Arak has a very high alcohol content, it is always served on water and ice. While being

served on water and ice, it changes in color, from a clear liquid to a milky-white color. This

opaque color is what makes Arak so special, and signifies that it was appropriately distilled. It is

important to note that the ice and water need to be added to the glass before Arak is poured, or
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else an odd film of residue forms. This film of residue is a result of the oils in the anise rising to

the surface and solidifying.

Arak is typically consumed in social settings and gatherings with Muslims who are lenient with

public drinking. Muslims love to enjoy this drink with their "mezze" that takes place during the

hours of brunch. I have personally seen several of my aunts and uncles enjoy this drink with their

own mezzes comprised of plain yogurt with olive oil, eggs, goat cheese, and stuffed pickled

eggplants.

Here is a video of the Arak that my own family has collected. Our Arak bottles are from Syria

and Lebanon and are usually brought to large family gatherings to consume with other aunts and

uncles while eating our mezze spreads. In this short video, you can see the color of the drink

change color while it comes into contact with the ice.

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wy9L-yp8oOg

Concluding Thoughts

As I conclude my search to resolve the gray area between Islam and drinking habits, I come to

terms with acceptance. I have accepted that drinking culture in the Middle East will forever

remain a mystery because of its secretive and forbidden beginnings that Middle Eastern

historians never highlighted. There are so many pieces to this puzzle, but none of them fit

together. The history of drinking culture in the Middle East will forever remain a mystery, but

this is not to say that we cannot learn a thing or two from its present-day remains. Wine, beer,

Arak, and other alcoholic beverages are created and enjoyed by Muslims worldwide. The biggest

takeaway from this is that every Muslim has a different relationship with Allah, and those who
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consume alcohol are not doing so out of sin, but rather for their personal well-being. We can

thank the Muslims who have a healthy relationship with alcohol and have created centuries of

precious history and concoctions that Muslims all around the globe can share with one another.

As we say in Syria, "!‫("صحة‬Saha); "To good health!"

Works Cited

Alhashimi, F. H., Khabour, O. F., Alzoubi, K. H., & Al-Shatnawi, S. F. (2018, October 09).

Attitudes and beliefs related to reporting alcohol consumption in research studies: A case

from Jordan. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6190630/

Arak (drink). (2021, November 21). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arak_(drink)

The Earliest Alcoholic Beverage in the World. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.penn.museum/research/project.php?pid=12

Fayed, S. (2020, January 15). Arak: The Middle Eastern Drink. Retrieved from

https://www.thespruceeats.com/arak-Middle Eastern-alcoholic-beverage-2355492

Hays, J. (n.d.). DRINKS AND ALCOHOL IN THE MUSLIM-ARAB WORLD. Retrieved from

https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat55/sub359/entry-5914.html

Laurence Michalak, K. T. (n.d.). Alcohol and Islam: An Overview - Laurence Michalak, Karen

Trocki, 2006. Retrieved from

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009145090603300401

Moss, C. (2021, March 06). How Beer Ruled the Ancient World. Retrieved from
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https://www.thedailybeast.com/how-beer-ruled-the-ancient-world

Musaev, M. (n.d.). The Prohibition of Alcohol in Islam:Religious Imperatives and Practices in

Seventeenth-to Nineteenth-Century Dagestan. Retrieved from

http://srch.ranepa.ru/node/536

Religious Minorities in the Modern Middle East. (2016, January 11). Retrieved from

https://www.fpri.org/article/2015/11/religious-minorities-in-the-modern-Middle East/

Teclemariam, T. (2021, March 31). Understanding Arak, an Ancient Spirit with Modern Appeal.

Retrieved from https://www.winemag.com/2020/03/09/arak-Middle

Eastern-spirit-modern-appeal/