Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Experimental investigation on the performance, combustion and exhaust T

emission characteristics of a compression-ignition engine fueled with
cottonseed oil biodiesel/diethyl ether/diesel fuel blends
⁎
Murat Kadir Yesilyurta, , Mustafa Aydinb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Yozgat Bozok University, 66200 Yozgat, Turkey
b
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Karabuk University, 78050 Karabuk, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The objective of the present study refers to the examination of a diesel engine characteristics for various fractions
Biodiesel of diethyl ether (DEE) as an oxygenated fuel additive in cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blends. Firstly,
Cottonseed oil several tests performed for diesel and B20 blend. Then, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% of DEE by volume was mixed
Diethyl ether with biodiesel-diesel fuel to prepare the ternary blends. All the fuel samples were run on in a single-cylinder,
Ternary blend
four-stroke, and direct-injection diesel engine at five different engine loads and fixed engine speed conditions.
Transesterification
Diesel engine characteristics
The experimental results showed that BTE was decreased by 17.39% while increasing in BSFC by 29.15% for
10% addition of DEE in the blend as compared to diesel fuel. Besides, the engine fueled with ternary blends
revealed mitigation up to 12.89%, 4.12%, and 8.84% in the HC, smoke, and NOX emissions, on an average,
respectively than those of diesel fuel. CO emission exhibited increasing trends with the diesel fuel at higher
proportions of DEE despite up to 40.09% dropdown remarked for lower concentration at the maximum load. By
the way, the CO2 also dropped under high loads. However, the combustion behaviors vaguely deteriorated when
the CI engine run on all ternary blends. As a consequence, DEE can be evaluated as an auspicious aspect to
remove the main issues with the usage of cottonseed oil biodiesel. It can be further highlighted that the addition
of DEE up to 10% (by vol.) could be considered as a promising technique for the utilization of biodiesel/diesel
blend efficiently in the CI engines without any major modifications.

1. Introduction agriculture, etc., it causes to emit a significant amount of oxides of

The world has been abnormally consuming energy in several forms
for its routine activities, and hence the requisition for energy has been
gradually increasing due to the apparent cases such as the development
of new technologies that are over-dependent on exterior energy
sources, enlargement in population, etc. [1,2]. At the present time, the
energy is commonly secured from fossil-based sources that are non-
renewable [3,4]. They are anticipated to last a few more years based on
the current benefits all over the world. However, they lead to release
pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbon (UHC),
and other toxic gases considering the global warming resulting in cli-
mate change and environmental pollution [5]. Moreover, on the outside
of the environmental concerns, the countries like Turkey, which is de-
pended exceedingly on the petroleum import on account of their ne-
cessity, exit compelling financial implications [6]. Although diesel fuel
has been greatly utilized in the transportation, electricity generation,
nitrogen (NOX) and particulate matter (PM) that contribute to polluting
the environment [7]. Ordinarily, it is well known that the fossil-based
fuels having non-renewable form possess a potential threat in the form
of depletion of resources [8].
In the light of the above outcomes, there is a necessity to investigate
the novel and promising alternative fuel blends which can be used for
the compression ignition (CI) engine applications. Most of the re-
searchers have indicated that the requirement of the usage of renewable
energy sources [9–12]. The majority of the renewable fuels have been
used as additives to the conventional diesel fuel with various con-
centrations so as to diminish exhaust emissions and not to exchange in
the performance of the engine. In this context, biofuels are taken to the
stage worldwide to be a popular selection that is obtained from edible
and non-edible feedstocks in nature [13]. However, the researchers
have been trying to evaluate non-edible raw materials [14] in order to
avoid food versus fuel conflict [15]. They can also help decrease the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kadir.yesilyurt@bozok.edu.tr (M.K. Yesilyurt).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112355
Received 1 October 2019; Received in revised form 28 November 2019; Accepted 29 November 2019
0196-8904/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Nomenclature
CO2 Carbon dioxide
UHC Unburned hydrocarbon
NOX Nitrogen oxides
NO Nitrogen monoxide
PM Particulate matter
CO Carbon monoxide
CI Compression ignition
SI Spark ignition
DEE Diethyl ether
DME Dimethyl ether
HCCI Homogeneous charge compression ignition
DI Direct injection
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
BMEP Brake mean effective pressure
HRR Heat release rate
cost of biodiesel production [16]. Among the biofuels, biodiesel as a
fuel exhibits similar properties to the diesel fuel and occurs from mono-
alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids which are produced from different
biological sources [17]. With this in mind, the biodiesel can be syn-
thesized from edible and non-edible oils, animal fats or algae oils [18].
According to the previous findings, biodiesel has been recognized as
one of the best choices that satisfy the energy demand of the world
[19,20].
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) belongs to the Malvaceae family and
accepts as a very important plant in the world because of taking ad-
vantage of its natural fiber in the textile industry. It can be noted that
one of the second-best probable resources after soybean for plant pro-
teins is cotton [21]. Cottonseed oil is produced from its seeds after the
separation of cotton lint. The oil content of the cottonseed is found to be
at between 17% and 24% [22,23]. In general, cottonseed oil does not
only include considerable amounts of saturated fatty acids like palmitic
acid (22–26%), stearic acid (2–5%) but also lesser amounts of myristic,
arachidic as well as behenic acids in the chemical structure [24]. It
contains smaller amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids such as oleic
acid (15–20%) and palmitoleic acid. The most dominant poly-
unsaturated fatty acid is linoleic acid (49–58%) and it accompanies by
traces of linolenic acid. Based on the physical and chemical properties
of cottonseed oil, it is similar to the major vegetable oils which com-
prise heterogeneous triglycerides as well [25,26]. In Turkey, approxi-
mately 1.5 million tons of cottonseed are annually produced. Since the
cottonseed involves toxic gossypol as well as pesticide residue, un-
refined cottonseed oil as healthy for human consumption is restricted,
and hence, its usage in the production of biodiesel as a raw material
could be an important preference [27,28]. As a matter of fact that the
consumption of cottonseed oil as a portion of food has not been ap-
propriate and this is accepted by the majority of the researchers
[29,30]. In this respect, the price of the cottonseed oil is remarkably
lower than those of vegetable oils in Turkey resulting in less preference
as edible oil by people. Among the possible feedstocks for the biodiesel
production in Turkey, cottonseed oil should be also taken into con-
sideration owing to the local marketing difficulties.
Nowadays, researchers are being drawn attention towards biodiesel
owing to its environmental advantages and the facts that it is biode-
gradable, non-hazardous, environmentally friendly and free of sulfur,
not to contain aromatics [31]. Biodiesel has also approximately
10–11% oxygen content in the structure [32]. The diesel engine oper-
ating with biodiesel can lead to decrease carbon monoxide (CO), UHC
and smoke emissions while increasing NOX [33–35]. One of the most
important parameters that affect the formation of NOX is the oxygen
content of the biodiesel. Because it leads to being higher local regional
temperatures inside the combustion chamber due to more oxidation of
2
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
BSEC Brake specific energy consumption
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
FFA Free fatty acid content
TDC Top dead center
R Dependent factor
x Independent variables
w Uncertainty value
Q Energy amount
θ, CA Crank angle
γ Polytrophic exponent
P Cylinder pressure
V Cylinder volume
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
MTBE Methyl tertiary-butyl ether
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
MEA Methoxy ethyl acetate
hydrocarbon. In other words, the increment of oxygen amount can
cause to rise the maximum temperature throughout the combustion
process and raise the NOX emissions [36]. However, biodiesel has some
shortcomings like high density, viscosity, poor low-temperature prop-
erties and lower volatility in comparison to the diesel fuel [19].
Nevertheless, the poor low-temperature properties of biodiesel are an
obstacle to its utilization in the cold weather conditions [37]. There-
fore, the addition of oxygenated additives such as diethyl ether (DEE) is
found to be a suitable choice [38].
Although alcohols have been generally preferred in the spark igni-
tion (SI) engines as fuel additives because of their high octane number,
in these days they are being experimented to be benefited as oxyge-
nated fuel additives for the CI engines as well [39]. Among the alcohols,
ethanol and butanol are the most important alcohol types that are
widely tried as additives for the CI engines [40]. Huang et al. [41], for
instance, studied the influence of the pilot injection timing and pilot
injection mass on low-temperature combustion and exhaust emission
characteristics under medium exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) (25%)
condition in a high-speed diesel engine running on n-butanol-diesel fuel
blends. Interestingly, Li et al. [42] investigated the effects of dilute gas
on combustion and exhaust emission behaviors of a common-rail diesel
engine operating with isopropanol/butanol/ethanol and diesel blends.
They concluded that 30% isopropanol/butanol/ethanol and 70% diesel
fuel blend (by volume) coupled with an appropriate EGR ratio pos-
sessed the suitability to decrease the NOX and soot emissions simulta-
neously. Huang et al. [43] performed an experimental investigation of
the particle emissions under different EGR ratios (0%, 20%, 30%, and
40%) on a diesel engine fueled with diesel/gasoline/n-butanol blends.
They indicated that the EGR≥30%, gasoline or n-butanol decreased the
total particle number concentration. On the other hand, these alcohols
have considerably lower cetane number than that of diesel fuel and so it
can be noted that these alcohols could not become the ideal alcohol
kinds which may be used as oxygenated fuel additives for the diesel
engines [44]. Accordingly, the using of DEE as an additive may be
hoped to advance the deficiencies of alcohols mentioned-above [45].
DEE is a biofuel due to the fact that it may be obtained from ethanol
through a dehydration process in the presence of acid catalysts [46].
Interestingly, DEE has a higher cetane number as compared to the
diesel fuel and larger calorific value compared to the ethanol, and bu-
tanol [47]. The chemical formula of DEE is given as C4H10O which
means that the oxygen content in the fuel equal to 21.6% by mass [48].
Consequently, the addition of DEE in the biodiesel fuel can increase the
content of oxygen results further diminish the exhaust gas emissions
[49]. The applications of DEE with any biodiesel and with diesel fuel
has been tested by various researchers in the last days. Some of these
researches have been presented in the following paragraph.
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Iranmanesh and Subrahmanyam [50] claimed that 5% of DEE ad-
dition in the diesel fuel was found to be the most influential combi-
nation according to the performance and emissions. Cinar et al. [51]
investigated the influences of premixed DEE ratios (0–40%) on the
emissions and combustion parameters of a homogeneous charge com-
pression ignition (HCCI) and direct injection (DI) engine at the engine
speed of 2200 rpm and 19 Nm operating conditions. They observed that
10% DEE of cycle-to-cycle variations were very small while audible
knocking happened with 40% DEE. Sezer [52] compared the thermo-
dynamic, performance as well as exhaust emission characteristics of a
DI diesel engine operating with dimethyl ether (DME) and DEE. The
diesel engine was simulated through a thermodynamic cycle model and
results indicated that the brake power decreased by 32.1% and 19.4%
at 4200 rpm while brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased
47.1% and 24.7% at 2200 rpm for DME and DEE, respectively when
compared to the diesel fuel. The lower CO2 emissions were observed
while CO and NOX were vaguely higher for DME and DEE under equal
equivalence ratio operating condition. In their experimental study, Qi
et al. [53] studied the effects of DEE and ethanol addition into the
biodiesel-diesel fuel blend on the combustion and exhaust emission
characteristics of a DI diesel engine. They prepared 5% DEE/25% bio-
diesel/70% diesel and %5 ethanol/25% biodiesel/70% diesel and
compared results with 30% biodiesel/70% diesel. The results showed
that BSFC was vaguely increased with the significant reduction in
smoke emission. Since the content of oxygen is superior in DEE than
that of B30, it had a favorable influence on smoke when the engine was
run on at maximum brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). In addition,
the maximum in-cylinder pressure, maximum pressure rise rate and
peak heat release rate (HRR) of DEE blend were nearly similar to those
of B30 and higher than those of ethanol blend where some of the en-
couraging characteristics of oxygen content and volatility of DEE being
higher might support to mitigate the pollutants and develop the engine
performance with no modifying the engine geometry. However, Rako-
poulos et al. [49] recommended DEE with conventional diesel fuel
which could be applied safely and advantageously in a diesel engine up
to 24% on a volume basis in the point of view of brake thermal effi-
ciency (BTE) and emission characteristics. Swaminathan and Sarangan
[54] experimentally investigated the using of fish oil biodiesel with DEE
additive on the performance and exhaust gas emissions of a diesel en-
gine. They revealed better engine performance with the lowered ex-
haust emissions in comparison to the pure fish oil biodiesel. On the
other hand, in their experimental investigation, Sivalakshmi and Ba-
lusamy [38] performed the influence of DEE as a fuel additive with
neem oil biodiesel at a constant concentration of 5% on a volume basis
in a diesel engine without modification under different engine loads
and fixed engine speed. They concluded that DEE addition led to in-
creasing the BTE, peak in-cylinder pressure and HRR with considerable
reductions in smoke and CO emissions while increasing in NOX and HC
emissions as compared to those of neat biodiesel. Górski and Przedlacki
[55] indicated that after 20% by volume DEE addition in the blend led
to deteriorate the engine performance and become difficulties in the
starting owing to the lower viscosity of DEE which caused to leakage in
the fuel supply system. Ibrahim [56] examined the usage of DEE as a
renewable oxygenated fuel additive for improving the combustion
characteristics of a single-cylinder, DI diesel engine at different engine
loads. They indicated that the 15% DEE/85% diesel fuel blend im-
proved the BTE with the reduction in BSFC by 6.7% as compared to
conventional diesel fuel. Notably, the substantial augmentations were
also observed on the peak cylinder pressure as well as HRR. However,
the beginning of the combustion process changed insignificantly while
the combustion duration and durability of the engine were deteriorated
during the experiments. An interesting experimental study was con-
ducted by Barik and Murugan [57], who investigated the influences of
DEE injection on the combustion behavior and emission patterns of a
diesel engine fueled with Karanja oil methyl ester-biogas duel fuel.
Kaimal and Vijayabalan [58] tested plastic oil and its 5%, 10% and 15%
3
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
blends with DEE in a diesel engine in the point of the performance,
combustion and exhaust emissions. The results revealed that BTE in-
creased with increasing DEE concentration in the blend while re-
markably reducing brake specific energy consumption (BSEC). The
combustion was retarded for BEE blends as compared to both the neat
plastic oil and diesel fuel. They concluded that 15% DEE addition
showed better performance and combustion behaviors with improving
the emissions. Krishnamoorthi and Malayalamurthi [59] executed an
experimental investigation the combined influence of compression ratio
and number of the nozzle holes on the performance, emission patterns
and exergy analysis of a variable compression ratio engine running on
diesel-aegle marmelos oil blends with a fixed DEE ratio of 10%. In the
end, 60% diesel/30% oil/10% DEE was found to present phenomenal
performance when compared with other fuel blends in terms of BTE,
CO, HC, and NOX emissions. Venu and Madhavan [60] researched the
effect of %5 and 10% DEE additions in the ternary fuel blends of
ethanol/biodiesel/diesel and methanol/biodiesel/diesel on the diesel
engine characteristics. Particularly, the addition of DEE with ethanol-
based ternary fuel blends caused to increase the in-cylinder pressure,
duration of combustion, BSFC with decreasing PM, NOX and smoke
emissions because of smaller ignition delay and higher latent heat of
evaporation. But, DEE addition into the methanol treated ternary fuel
blend showed higher CO, PM, CO2, and smoke emissions while reduced
in-cylinder pressure, BSFC, HRR and combustion duration. Mohan et al.
[61] analyzed numerically the spray characteristics of DME and DEE.
Consequently, the ethers exhibited superior atomization characteristics
than that of diesel. Srikanth et al. [62] conducted an experimental study
on the improving cold flow properties (cloud point, pour point, cold
filter plugging point) of dairy washed milk scum biodiesel with adding
different proportions (5%, 10%, 15%, and %20 on a volume basis) of
acetone and DEE as solvents. Jayaprabakar et al. [63] formed a kind
of blends (90% neem oil biodiesel/10% DEE, 80% biodiesel/20% DEE)
and tested in an unmodified diesel engine at a steady-state operating
condition in order to investigate the exhaust gas emissions. They noted
that the DEE addition was a promising technique in the expressions of
decreasing the emissions. Very recently, Nanthagopal et al. [13] in-
vestigated the effects of different DEE concentration (5%, 7.5%, 10%,
and 12.5% by volume) in Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel-diesel fuel
blends. Since the engine was not operating at higher engine loads, the
DEE addition was restricted by 12.5%. They reported that BTE was
decreased by 5.3% with increasing in BSFC for 12.5% DEE addition in
the fuel blend as compared to diesel fuel. The ternary blends demon-
strated 57%, 4.6%, and 84% depletion in NOX, CO and HC emissions
than that of diesel fuel at the maximum engine load while increasing
smoke emission by 80.1% with 12.5% of DEE addition in the blend. The
combustion behaviors of all ternary blends were indistinctly fallen
down. Sezer [64–66] reviewed the studies regarding the effects of using
of DEE in diesel engines on the fuel properties, injection and combus-
tion characteristics, engine performance, and CO emission. Imtenan
et al. [67] compared the fuel additives such as DEE, n-butanol and
ethanol in the B20 blend of palm oil biodiesel with diesel fuel. They
indicated that the DEE was found to be the most efficient fuel additive
because of the higher energy content among the others. Krishnamoorthi
and Malayalamurthi [68] researched the influence of the injection
pressure and injection timing on the performance, combustion and
emission characteristics of a CI engine operating with the ternary fuel
blend containing 30% aegle marmelos oil/60% neat diesel fuel/10%
DEE blends. From the findings of the comparative analysis, the ternary
blend had the potential in order to decrease the harmful air pollution
and improve diesel engine performance. In their other study, -
Krishnamoorthi and Malayalamurthi [69] examined the effect of intake
air temperature and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on the availability
analysis, performance and emission profiles of the variable compression
ratio engine running on the same fuel blend as mentioned above. As a
result, when the engine operated with 47 °C charge air temperature,
BTE was improved to 29.33%, CO and HC decreased by 8.57% and
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
4.28%, respectively at the highest engine load. In addition, 30% EGR
mode caused to reduce the NOX emission by 20.12% under the 100%
engine load. Ibrahim [70] studied the performance of a CI engine fueled
with a diesel–biodiesel blend using DEE. The researcher found that the
DEE addition caused to improve the diesel engine performance re-
markably for most engine loads as compared to other fuel samples.
Also, the addition of DEE did not considerably affect the stability of the
engine. Dinesha et al. [71] examined the combined impacts of water
emulsion and DEE addition on the combustion attributes and exhaust
emission characteristics of a CI engine using waste cooking oil biodiesel
blends. They indicated that the DEE in the blends was utilized for im-
proving the combustion efficiency of the emulsified blends. The results
revealed that BTE increased slightly with the addition of DEE as com-
pared to biodiesel operation and the maximum outcomes were obtained
at 2% of DEE while CO, HC and smoke emissions decreased. Interest-
ingly, Joshi and Thipse [72] performed a combustion analysis of a CI
engine running on algae biofuel blend with DEE as an additive by ap-
plying artificial neural networks. They showed that lower concentration
of algae biofuel blend (B20) with 5% DEE caused to be satisfactory
results and it could be considered as a moderate substitute for con-
ventional fuel. Jeevanantham et al. [73] researched the effect of the
addition of two types of ether (DEE and methyl tertiary-butyl ether
(MTBE)) additives with biodiesel produced from Calophyllum In-
ophyllum oil- high-speed diesel fuel blends on the reduction of NOX
emissions in the CI engine. While the D50B45DEE5 ternary blend led to
becoming a 5.3% increase in BTE in comparison to the other ternary
blends, the CO emission decreased by 14.8% as compared to diesel fuel.
Furthermore, D50B40MTBE10 and D50B40DEE10 blends reduced the
NOX emissions by 8.8% and 32% as compared to the diesel fuel at the
highest load. As an example of the use of DEE outside the engine, El-
najjar et al. [74] conducted an experimental study. They investigated
the use of DEE in furnace fuel by the addition of various concentrations
to a waste used lube oil fuel burned with liquefied petroleum gas at
different air–fuel ratios for enhancing the combustion behaviors and
improve the burning properties of the neat oil. The maximum efficiency
occurred with the combustion of the fuel containing 10% DEE additive
when the different DEE ratios took into consideration. Sugash et al. [75]
performed a brief study on the investigation of performance and ex-
haust emissions of DI diesel engine fueled with cottonseed oil biodiesel-
DEE-diesel fuel blends. Reang et al. [76] applied the Fuzzy-based Ta-
guchi optimization technique to accomplish the optimal fuel blend se-
lection regarding the multi-performance properties measuring some
parameters such as BSFC, BTE, CO, and NOX. As a consequence, the
B20DEE10 fuel blend exhibited much more efficient outcomes than
other blends taking the aforementioned factors into account. Rasal et al.
[77] reviewed the papers concerning the role of various fuel additives
in enhancing the engine performance characteristics and stability of
biodiesel. Chaudhary and Gakkhar [78] investigated the effect of DEE
(5%, 10%, and 15% by volume) in the waste cooking oil biodiesel on
the entropy generation, exergy performance coefficient, performance,
and exhaust emission patterns of a DI diesel engine. They found that the
addition of DEE improved the diesel engine performance in the points
of energy and exergy; moreover, lower entropy generation and en-
hances the exergy performance coefficient occurred. Also, the reduction
of NOX emissions was observed by the researchers with the usage of
DEE in the biodiesel. Nagaprasad et al. [79] conducted experiments on
a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine applying different ap-
proaches. First, baseline data generation in order to get the optimized
injection timing, injection pressure, number of holes, and combustion
chamber types. EGR was implemented at the rate of 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% to these optimized diesel engine operating parameters. Also, diesel
particulate filter and diesel oxidation catalyst were added to the system.
Secondly, trials were realized on the diesel engine by injecting 5%,
10%, 15% and 20% DEE. In the last approach, experiments were per-
formed by injecting DEE into inlet manifold at injection timings, viz.,
5°bTDC, TDC, 5°aTDC, and 10°aTDC and with injection duration of 18°,
4
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
22.5°, 27°, 31.5°, and 36° crank angle. As a result, the optimum test
conditions were found to be the diesel engine operating with 20% DEE/
diesel ratio having 80% engine load, 20% EGR adopting diesel parti-
culate filter and diesel oxidation catalyst. Gnanamoorthi and Murugan
[80] studied the effect of DEE and methoxy ethyl acetate (MEA) as
additives on a common-rail direct injection diesel engine running on
waste plastic oil blend. They concluded that the physical and chemical
properties of tested fuel samples were showed more suitable to be used
as test fuels in the diesel engine. Raja et al. [81] blended jatropha oil
biodiesel with DEE as an ignition improver to examine the performance
characteristics. The experimental results exhibited that the addition of
DEE was an effective method to improve the performance of jatropha
oil biodiesel. Hansdah et al. [82] investigated the DI diesel engine op-
erating with bioethanol with the help of DEE as an ignition improver by
the fumigation technique. DEE was fumigated along with the air in the
intake stroke at the different flow rates of 60 g/h, 120 g/h, 180 g/h, and
240 g/h. There was a simultaneous reduction of nitrogen monoxide and
smoke emissions while CO and HC were increased at the higher flow
rates of DEE. Mohebbi et al. [83] reported the influence of DEE addition
on the engine performance and exhaust emission behaviors of a re-
activity controlled compression ignition engine fueled with ethanol and
diesel fuel. As a consequence, DEE caused to improve the mean effec-
tive pressure and decrease knock tendency because of dual-phase heat
release characteristics. Besides, particle number and HC emissions were
decreased by the addition of DEE. Singh [84] recommended jatropha
biodiesel with 8% DEE as a substitute for diesel fuel for the compres-
sion-ignition engine coupled with an electric generator set. Interest-
ingly, Chourasia et al. [85] studied on tribological behavior of 20%
biodiesel/4% DEE/76% diesel fuel blend for long run tests on the
compression ignition engine. The result obtained from the tests showed
that the wear of various parts of the ternary blends fueled engine was
found to be lower as compared to the diesel-fueled engine. Longwic
et al. [86] analyzed the phase stability of rapeseed oil with the addition
of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by volume of DEE blends during 28 days of
measurements. The experimental outcomes confirmed that the fuel
samples constituted stable one phase and transparent mixtures without
any symptoms of fluids stratification. Krishnamoorthi and Malayala-
murthi [87] researched the availability, performance, combustion and
exhaust emissions of bael oil/diesel/DEE blends powered in a variable
compression ratio diesel engine under various injection timing and in-
jection pressure conditions at a fixed engine speed of 1500 rpm. 60%
diesel fuel/30% bael oil/10% DEE blend displayed the best perfor-
mance, emission and combustion characteristics. Krishnamoorthi et al.
[88] also performed response surface methodology based optimization
of performance and emissions of a diesel engine running on diesel/aegle
marmelos oil/DEE blends at different compression ratio (16, 17, and
18), injection pressure (210 bar, 230 bar and 250 bar) and injection
timing (21obTDC, 23obTDC, and 25obTDC). They observed maximum
BTE of 30.05% in the 80% diesel fuel/15% aegle marmelos oil/5% DEE
at 230 bar injection pressure and 18 compression ratio with 23obTDC
injection timing.
In the overview of the recent literature reviewed, an alternative,
non-deleterious and cleaner fuel innovation has been slowly coming in
sight as an encouraging and prospective candidate due to overall en-
vironmental anxieties are being taken into consideration. Contrary to
the edible oils, cottonseed oil can be highlighted as a promising raw
material in order to produce biodiesel implying it as an acceptable
feedstock for generating biodiesel on an industrial scale in the world.
However, the main problems with the cottonseed oil biodiesel remark
as the NOX emission, poor cold flow properties and difficulties in cold
starting of CI engine which could be amended by a lot of convenient
methods such as changing the injection pressure and injection timing,
the addition of oxygenated fuel additives in any concentration by vo-
lume, etc. By the way, the impacts of DEE with cottonseed oil biodiesel-
diesel fuel blend in the formation of ternary fuel blends have not been
investigated as far as we know. But, a limited number of results were
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

noticed on DEE with neem oil biodiesel, soybean oil biodiesel and
Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel in the last decade. Besides, the pub-
lished papers have exhibited the powerful and compulsory examination
gap on the combined effects of diesel fuel, cottonseed oil biodiesel with
the different fraction of DEE. In the present study, cottonseed oil bio-
diesel was produced via a transesterification method using sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and methanol in a laboratory-scale biodiesel pro-
cessor. The biodiesel concentration was kept constant at 20% on a
volume basis and 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% of DEE has been added by
declining the diesel concentration in the remaining 80% by volume. All
prepared fuel samples were tested in a single-cylinder, four-stroke, air-
cooled, naturally-aspirated, DI diesel engine used as power sources for a
generator at different engine loads (0 W, 500 W, 750 W, 1000 W, and
1250 W) with a constant engine speed of 3000 rpm and the outcomes
were compared with both 20% of diesel fuel-cottonseed oil biodiesel
and conventional diesel fuel.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The materials and chemicals have been chosen according to the
simplicity and suitability of procurement. In the present study, cot-
tonseed oil was preferred as a feedstock in the production of biodiesel
and it was bought from a local market at which located in Ankara,
Turkey. The conventional petroleum-based diesel fuel which is com-
mercially in hand was purchased from a local company in Yozgat,
Turkey. The fuel characteristics of diesel fuel satisfy the EN 590 which
has been verified from the company. In the transesterification reaction,
methanol (99.8% purity) as short-chain alcohol and NaOH pellets (99%
purity) as an alkali catalyst were used and supplied from Isolab
(Wertheim, Germany) and Merck Chemical Company (Darmstadt,
Germany). Ethanol (> 99.5%) and reference standards of the fatty acid
methyl esters (> 99%) were procured from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical
Company (St. Louis, Missouri, USA). Lastly, DEE (≥99.5% purity), an
oxygenated fuel additive, was also taken from Isolab (Wertheim,
Germany). All used reagents were used as a received form out of im-
plementing further purifications owing to their analytical reagent
grade. The qualitative filter paper (125 mm) was supplied from S&H
Labware (Ankara, Turkey).
2.2. Methods
The test fuels have been generated in two phases in order to realize
the present research. Initially, the cottonseed oil has been subjected to
the transesterification process for the production of biodiesel and the
second stage has been the ternary fuel blend preparation with using
diesel fuel, cottonseed oil biodiesel and DEE as an oxygenated fuel
additive. The detailed fuel preparation methods have been presented in
the following sections point by point.
2.3. The production of cottonseed oil biodiesel
The cottonseed oil biodiesel was prepared by conventional trans-
esterification process in the Biofuel Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Yozgat Bozok University (Yozgat, Turkey).
The basic single-step transesterification process was used in order to
synthesize the biodiesel from the cottonseed oil where has exhibited a
reduction in the viscosity. This is due to the fact that one of the most
important properties for choosing the step size of the transesterification
process is free fatty acid content (FFA). Most of the researchers have
determined the limitation of FFA to be 1%. In the present study, the FFA
content of the cottonseed oil is lower than 1%, the single-step trans-
esterification process was preferred. Accordingly, the operation proce-
dure of the biodiesel production from cottonseed oil has been con-
ducted as given underneath.
In the single-step transesterification process, the cottonseed oil was
reacted with using NaOH as an alkali catalyst so as to mitigate the
unsaturated fatty acid content in the biodiesel. The transesterification
reaction was achieved for a few times under several concentrations and
reaction durations. Consequently, the optimum methanol to oil molar
ratio and reaction duration was found to be at 6:1 and 60 min, re-
spectively for the utmost transesterification process. The reaction
temperature was also taken into consideration as 60 °C due to the fact
that the boiling point of the methanol is 64.7 °C.
First of all, methanol was treated in the presence of 0.6% of NaOH
for 15 min at the room temperature to avoid evaporation of alcohol.
The cottonseed oil was heated up to the desired reaction temperature
and the methoxide solution was poured into the reaction flask. The
mixture was stirred at a constant speed of 600 rpm along with 60 min.
At the end of the reaction, the mixture was settled in the separation
funnel and rested 8 h for sinking glycerol. Afterward, the resultant
product has further increased the temperature up to 75 °C in order to
evaporate the alcohol that was found in the biodiesel. Next, the washing
process was applied to the crude biodiesel when the temperature of
biodiesel was decreased to 55 °C and washing biodiesel was rested
about 10 h, then it was heated up to 120 °C to remove the excess water
through evaporation process in the biodiesel at 2 h. Finally, the bio-
diesel was cooled and settled in a glass bottle at the dark medium.
The fatty acid composition of produced cottonseed oil biodiesel was
analyzed using gas chromatography combined with mass selective de-
tector and results were tabulated in Table 1. The aforesaid method has
demonstrated substantial biodiesel yield ratio of 94% which is com-
paratively larger for the production biodiesel. In addition, it was

Table 1
The fatty acid composition of cottonseed oil biodiesel.
No Fatty acid Molecular weight Structure Systematic name Formula Composition (%)

1 Myristic 228 14:0 Tetradecanoic C14H28O2 0.730

2 Palmitic 256 16:0 Hexadecanoic C16H32O2 23.213
3 Palmitoleic 254 16:1 Hexadec-9-enoic C16H30O2 0.493
4 Margaric 270 17:0 Heptadecanoic C17H34O2 0.090
5 Margaroleic 268 17:1 cis-9-Heptadecenoic C17H32O2 0.082
6 Stearic 284 18:0 Octadecanoic C18H36O2 2.805
7 Oleic 282 18:1 cis-9-Octadecenoic C18H34O2 17.444
8 Linoleic 280 18:2 cis-9-cis-12 Octadecadienoic C18H32O2 54.750
9 Linolenic 278 18:3 cis-9-cis-12 Octadecatrienoic C18H30O2 0.393
Saturated fatty acids 26.838
Monounsaturated fatty acids 18.019
Polyunsaturated fatty acids 55.143
Total fatty acids 100.00
Degree of unsaturation 128.3
Long chain saturated factor 3.72

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M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

predicted that the cost of cottonseed oil biodiesel production was ap- Table 3
proximately 1.6 times higher than the price of the diesel fuel. Types of tested fuels.
No Test fuels Diesel fuel (vol. Cottonseed oil biodiesel (vol. DEE (vol.
2.4. Preparation of the test fuels %) %) %)

1 D100 100 – –
In the present study, one binary diesel–biodiesel blend and four 2 B20 80 20 –
ternary diesel–biodiesel-DEE blends were prepared on a volume basis 3 B20DEE2.5 77.5 20 2.5
following-up different concentrations of cottonseed oil biodiesel and 4 B20DEE5 75 20 5
DEE keeping fixed biodiesel fraction as 20%. Primarily, 80% of diesel 5 B20DEE7.5 72.5 20 7.5
6 B20DEE10 70 20 10
fuel and 20% of cottonseed oil biodiesel were mixed by volume on
account of obtaining a binary fuel blend and the amount of diesel fuel
has been diminished for the preparation of ternary fuel blends. DEE was
recommended by Atabani et al. [90] and presented in Table 4. It can be
put into a binary blend of diesel fuel-cottonseed oil biodiesel at a pro-
noted that the addition of DEE in the blend has led to decrease the
portion of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% on a volume basis. Some of the
calorific values, densities and kinematic viscosities of all ternary blends.
significant physicochemical characteristics of diesel fuel, cottonseed oil
However, all prepared ternary blends could be utilized as alternative
biodiesel, and DEE were tabulated in Table 2.
fuel blends in the diesel engine applications. This is due to the similar
Diesel fuel named D100 was utilized to get the reference data. In
cetane number of ternary fuel blends to the diesel fuel.
general, the abbreviations of the ternary fuel blends were called as
DxB20DEEy at which × and y intend to the percentage of diesel fuel
and DEE of overall volume while D and B refer to the diesel fuel and 2.5. Experimental set-up
biodiesel, respectively. However, for the simple presentation solely
B20DEEy was used in the present study. In this context, all of the The influences of DEE addition into the cottonseed oil biodiesel-
prepared fuels and abbreviations used in the present research were diesel fuel blend on the compression ignition engine characteristics via
given in Table 3. the ternary fuel blends way has been investigated in a single-cylinder,
All the test fuels have been one by one settled in closed containers four-stroke, air-cooled, naturally-aspirated, and DI diesel engine. The
for the five-day duration at the dark medium in order to observe schematic layout of the experimental rig was illustrated in Fig. 1. The
whether the phase separation problems are or not. Curiously, none of technical specifications of the test engine and generator were also listed
them have been presented the phase separation. All of the test fuels in Table 5.
were more than enough consistent at the ambient status. Nonetheless, In order to vary the engine loads from 0 W to 1250 W at the fixed
all test fuel samples were agitated in the fuel tank in order to avoid any engine speed of 3000 rpm conditions, the diesel engine was coupled
phase separation as a precaution along with the test procedure. Some of with the generator throughout a series of electrical resistance unit. The
the particular fuel properties of all the binary and ternary blends were present experimental work was conducted without any engine mod-
predicted according to the polynomial curve fitting technique ification and any of unstable operating conditions were not observed

Table 2
The physicochemical characteristics of diesel fuel, cottonseed oil biodiesel and DEE.
a
No Fuel properties Units Diesel fuel Cottonseed oil biodiesel Diethyl ether

1 Chemical formula – C14H25 C17.40H32.24O2 C4H10O

2 Density at 20 °C kg/m3 816.5 880.1 718
3 Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C cSt 2.542 4.834 0.23
4 Cetane number – 53 46.8 125
5 Flash point o
C 59 170 −45
6 Latent heat of evaporation kJ/kg 270–375b – 350
7 Molecular weight g/mol 193 272.98 74.12
8 Lower heating value MJ/kg 42.9 38.5 33.9
9 Carbon wt. % 87.05 76.47 64.9
10 Hydrogen wt. % 12.95 11.81 13.5
11 Oxygen wt. % 0 11.72 21.6
12 Carbon/Hydrogen – 6.722 6.475 –
13 Water content % 0.002 0.045 ≤0.2
14 Vapor pressure at 20 °C hPa – – 587
15 Peroxides (as H2O2) % – – ≤0.0002
16 Copper strip corrosion c (3 h at 50 °C) Degree of corrosion 1a 1a –
17 pH – 7.0 6.5 –
18 Manganese ppm 0.032 3.08 –
19 Ash content ppm 0.01 0.02 –
20 Group I metals (Na + K) ppm – 2.95 –
21 Group II metals (Ca + Mg) ppm – 9.86 –
22 Total contamination d ppm 19 – –
23 Sulfur content d ppm 3 – –
24 Acid value mg KOH/g 0.18 0.45 –
25 Linolenic acid methyl ester wt. % – 0.393 –
26 Polyunsaturated (≥4 double bonds) methyl esters wt. % – 0 –
27 Iodine value g iodine/100 g – 116.50 –
28 Saponification value mg KOH/g – 204.14 –
29 Cloud point o
C −3 7.22 –
30 Cold filter plugging point o
C −19 4.04 –
31 Pour point o
C −35 1.02 –
32 Oxidation stability hours – 5.90 –
a
Data taken from Ref. [13] and Ref. [60]b The value was adopted from Ref. [89].c 3 h at 50 °C.d These values were adopted from the supplier.

6
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

Table 4
The physicochemical characteristics of test fuels.
No Fuel properties Units B20 B20DEE2.5 B20DEE5 B20DEE7.5 B20DEE10

1 Calorific value MJ/kg 42.02 41.80 41.57 41.35 41.12

2 Cetane number – 51.76 53.56 55.36 57.16 58.96
3 Density at 20 °C kg/m3 829.22 826.76 824.30 821.83 819.39
4 Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C cSt 3.000 2.943 2.885 2.827 2.769
5 Carbon wt. % 84.93 84.38 83.83 83.27 82.72
6 Hydrogen wt. % 12.72 12.74 12.75 12.76 12.78
7 Oxygen wt. % 2.344 2.884 3.424 3.964 4.504
8 Carbon/Hydrogen – 6.677 6.623 6.575 6.526 6.473

during the tests. The measurement of the engine fuel consumption was
performed with the help of electronic precision scale and a stopwatch
by noting the time taken for 15 min of fuel consumption along with a
fuel container. All of the exhaust gas emissions of smoke intensity, CO,
CO2, UHC, and NOX were deciphered using an Italo Plus-Spin type
exhaust gas analyzer and opacimeter in ppm and also in percentage.
However, the above-mentioned exhaust gas emissions were trans-
formed into g/kWh based on the standard procedure after all the tests
were completed. A K-type thermocouple was mounted to the tailpipe of
the exhaust line for measuring the exhaust gas temperature. Technical
specifications of the exhaust gas analyzer and opacimeter were tabu-
lated in Table 6.
The present experimental research was further occupied with ana-
lyzing the combustion process which has been equipped with a fiber-
optic pressure transducer (Optrand brand H32294-Q model) having a
measurement range between 0 and 3000 psi with an affectability of
1.80 mV/psi and an incremental optic rotary encoder (Opkon brand PRI
50 model). Top dead center (TDC) were also recorded thanks to the
crank encoder. The in-cylinder pressure data were taken in each work
cycle up to 720°crank angle at a resolution of 1°crank angle. The
pressure data was illustrated and recorded using a digital oscilloscope
(Rigol brand DS1064B model). In addition, an appropriate filtering
technique was enforced with the help of Matlab software taking into
account at least 20 cycles for decreasing the cycle-to-cycle variations
and eliminate the noise from the in-cylinder pressure data. The tech-
nical specifications of the pressure sensor and encoder were shown in
Table 7.
It can be noted that the present study covered errors and un-
certainties that have been led owing to the regulation, accuracies of the
test equipment, inherent circumstances, and sensation blunder and so
on. Therefore, the uncertainties of several quantities were estimated
according to the square root method recommended by Holman [91].
The equation was given underneath.
2 2 2 1/2
wR = ⎡ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎛ ∂R ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ∂x1 w1 + ∂x2 w2 +⋯+ ∂x n wn ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟

⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ (1)

Fig. 1. The schematic layout of the experimental rig.

7
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

Table 5 equation. But, the heat losses from the wall were not taken into con-
Technical specifications of the diesel power generator. sideration while the HRR was computed.
Diesel engine specifications Generator specifications dQn γ dV 1 dP
= P + V
dθ γ − 1 dθ γ − 1 dθ (2)
Manufacturer Katana Manufacturer Katana
where; dQn (J) indicates to the energy amount passing through the
Model Km 178 Fe Model KD 4500 E
Number of cylinder 1 Maximum power 4.2 cylinder wall and combustion chamber wall at the end of combustion, θ
(kVA) (o) is the crank angle, γ denotes the constant polytrophic exponent and
Number of cycles 4 Power (kVA) 3.6 is considered as 1.35, P (Pa) refers to the cylinder pressure and V (m3) is
Bore × Stroke (mm) 78 × 62 Phase 1 the cylinder volume.
Cylinder volume (cm3) 296 Voltage (V) 230
Continuous output power 6 Frequency (Hz) 50
The start of combustion corresponds to the point where the HRR
(hp) diagram crosses over the zero transition [92]. The start of injection can
Maximum output power 6.7 be found like the crank angle (CA) at which the injector opens the in-
(hp) jector pressure set at 200 bar. The ignition delay period is the difference
Engine speed (rpm) 3000
between the start of injection and the start of combustion.
Compression ratio 18:1
Fuel injection system Direct injection
Cooling system Air cooled 3. Results and discussions
Injection timing bTDC (CA) 31o
Injection pressure (bar) 200
All the test fuel blends prepared for the present experimental study
Intake system Naturally
aspirated whose performance, exhaust emissions and combustion characteristics
Injector nozzle number 4 were investigated by operating them on a fixed speed (3000 rpm)
compression ignition engine under 31°crank angle of the fuel injection
timing before the top dead center and 200 bar of the pressure of fuel
Table 6 injection at five different engine loads of 0 W, 500 W, 750 W, 1000 W,
Technical specifications of the exhaust gas analyzer and opacimeter. and 1250 W which have been presented underneath and discussed in
Parameter Unit Range Accuracy the overview of the recent literature.

CO % 0–9.99 ± 0.06
3.1. Performance characteristics
CO2 % 0–19.99 ± 0.05
UHC ppm 0–2500 ± 12
NOX ppm 0–2000 ±5 Brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust
Smoke opacity % 0–99 ±2 gas temperature as well as brake specific energy consumption were
o
Exhaust gas temperature C 0–750 ±1 given below as the performance characteristics of a diesel engine.
o
Operating temperature C 5–40
Storage temperature o
C ( −2 0)-(+60)
Feed voltage V DC 12 3.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency
The variation of brake thermal efficiency with respect to the engine
load at a constant engine speed of 3000 rpm for diesel fuel, B20, and all
where; R is the dependent factor and it is a function of independent other ternary blends can be observed in Fig. 2. When the graph was
variables x1, x2, x3,…, xn, wR is the uncertainty value of the results, w1, examined, the brake thermal efficiency figure to ascent with the in-
w2, …, wn is the uncertainties of the independent variables. crement in loads of the engine for all the tested fuel samples up to the
The uncertainty results of each type of equipment were computed 1000 W engine load operating condition, and then decrease drastically.
based on Eq. (1). As a result, the uncertainties of BSFC, and BTE were It would be anticipated that the alteration in the brake thermal effi-
found to be at ± 1.15%, and ± 0.57%, respectively. The overall un- ciency at higher engine loads of the engine has led to the accession of
certainty value of the experiment is found to be at lower ± 5%. As larger brake power for the regardful rise in the rate of fuel. At 1000 W,
known, the acceptable range for the uncertainty is below the afore- the maximum brake thermal efficiencies for diesel fuel and cottonseed
mentioned value. In this regard, the overall uncertainty of the system oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend were found to be at 18.17% and 17.62%,
was within the acceptable limits. respectively. In essence, it was figured out that all the tested fuel blends
The measured crank angle and pressure inside the cylinder were of diesel-cottonseed oil contain with and without DEE additive have
made use of receiving the heat release rate (HRR) parameter using a presented the decrements in the brake thermal efficiency. These re-
suitable software program for all tested fuel samples. According to the ductions were mainly led owing to the impact of the lower heating
first law of thermodynamics, the HRR was calculated by the following value of DEE and cottonseed oil biodiesel. Although it is given in

Table 7
The technical properties of the pressure sensor and encoder.
Pressure sensor Encoder

Brand Optrand Brand Opkon

Model H32294-Q Model PRI 50

Type AutoPSI-A Body diameter (mm) 50
Pressure range (psi) 0–3000 Shaft diameter (mm) 8
Input voltage (V DC) 5 Supply voltage (V DC) 5
Output voltage (V DC) 0.5–4.5 Pulse per rotation 1000
Sensitivity (mV/psi) 1.80 Output type Line driver
Bandwidth (Hz) 0.1–20000 Range of measurement (rpm) Max. 3500
Operating temperature (oC) ( −4 0)-(+350) Operating temperature (oC) ( −2 0)-(+80)
Storage temperature (oC) ( −3 0)-(+90)
Output signals A,B,Z or A,A’, B,B’, Z,Z’

8
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

Fig. 3. The variation of brake specific fuel consumption with respect to the
Fig. 2. The variation of brake thermal efficiency with respect to the engine
engine load.
load.

Table 2, it is useful to repeat it here that the lower heating of value of thermal efficiency. The opposite findings were revealed from the Si-
valakshmi and Balusamy [38] that the brake thermal efficiency of 5%
diesel, cottonseed oil biodiesel, and DEE was detected as 42.9 MJ/kg,
38.5 MJ/kg and 33.9 MJ/kg, respectively. Besides, higher density, DEE-95% neem oil biodiesel was observed higher than that of neat
biodiesel due to the fact that the adding DEE into the biodiesel could
viscosity and evaporation characteristics of biodiesel fuels would lead
to becoming larger droplet formation throughout the atomization of reduce the viscosity of the sample resulting in the enhancement in the
fuel spray form and atomization characteristics.
fuel in the combustion chamber resulting in the non-uniform mixture
formation of air and fuel. Hence, the brake thermal efficiencies of the
fuel samples, contain cottonseed oil biodiesel, were found to be low as
3.1.2. Brake specific fuel consumption
compared to the mineral diesel fuel [93,94]. This result was also
The brake specific fuel consumption can be described as the quan-
compatible with the study conducted by Qi et al. [95] who indicated
tity of the fuel as per unit of the generated engine brake power. In
that the brake thermal efficiency of biodiesel and its blends with diesel
addition, the accumulation of particular brake power, the measurement
fuel was slightly lower than that of diesel fuel. Nabi et al. [96] also
of the fuel amount exemplifies the brake specific fuel consumption. The
showed that the brake thermal efficiency of 10% cottonseed oil methyl
brake specific fuel consumption points out the performance at which an
ester/90% diesel fuel blend was observed lower than that of diesel fuel
engine transforms the provided energy to the beneficial work output
at all engine speed. At the same time, the utilization of DEE as an
and when considering any engine, the smaller amount of the brake
oxygenated fuel additive in the case of ternary fuel blends with bio-
specific fuel consumption is attractive at all times. For that, higher
diesel and diesel fuel has negatively influenced the brake thermal ef-
calorific value (energy content) has led to becoming lower brake spe-
ficiency. This effect was observed as higher for the higher proportion of
cific fuel consumption. The alteration of the brake specific fuel con-
DEE in the tested fuel blends. The maximum brake thermal efficiency
sumption values of the tested fuel blends across the engine loads was
was obtained as 17.53% for B20DEE2.5, 17.53% for B20DEE5, 17.27%
illustrated in Fig. 3. From the graph, it can be clearly observed that the
for B20DEE7.5, and 15.01% for B20DEE10 at the engine load of
trend for the brake specific fuel consumption for the fuel samples was
1000 W. It can be noticed form the Fig. 2 that the compression-ignition
almost close to each other. In other words, the brake specific fuel
engine running on the ternary fuel blends of cottonseed oil biodiesel-
consumption values decreased with the increase in the engine loads for
diesel fuel-DEE decreased the brake thermal efficiency and even it is
all the tested fuel samples and then reached to the minimum values. It is
commensurate with the proportion of DEE in the tested fuel blends. The
to be noted that the mean brake specific fuel consumption of biodiesel-
ground for this characterization could be the integrated effect of miti-
diesel fuel binary blend was found to be 5.76% higher than that of the
gation in the lower heating value because of the addition of DEE (see
conventional diesel fuel. It is estimated that this ratio would be higher if
Table 2) and the quenching effect of DEE at which shows an over-
pure biodiesel was used in the compression ignition engine instead of
powering role in the brake thermal efficiency. It is to emerge that the
the blend form. Because the cottonseed oil biodiesel has around 10.25%
mean brake thermal efficiency values of B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5,
lower energy content than diesel fuel, as seen in Table 2. This case is
B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10 were 3.89%, 5.31%, 8.41%, and 15.94%,
mainly due to the inherent oxygen content of the pure biodiesel re-
respectively lower than diesel fuel and 0.48%, 1.94%, 5.15%, and
sulting in a reduction in the heat capacity that boosts the fuel con-
12.94%, respectively lower than B20 binary blend. This inclination was
sumption in order to achieve the identical power output. There is no
also outdoor in the brake specific fuel consumption. However, the
doubt that the addition of DEE into the B20 fuel blend was also in-
comprehensive instructions were represented in the following section.
creased the brake specific fuel consumption. Namely, DEE addition has
The outcomes acquired from the present experimental work is a good
thoroughly and negatively affected the brake specific consumption
agreement with the result achieved by Nanthagopal et al. [13]. They
values. By the way, the minimum brake specific consumption values
reported that the addition of DEE into the Calophyllum inophyllum bio-
were obtained at the engine load of 1000 W similar to the brake thermal
diesel-diesel fuel blends caused to reducing brake thermal efficiency
efficiency results. As taken care of Fig. 3 that the minimum brake
and this decrement was also proportional with the concentration of DEE
specific consumptions of B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5, and
in the blends. Patil and Thipse [97] experimentally demonstrated that
B20DEE10 were found to be at 491.35 g/kWh, 501.61 g/kWh,
the decrements in the density of fuel owing to the addition of DEE into
531.62 g/kWh, and 583.33 g/kWh, respectively. On the other hand, the
the Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel-diesel fuel blend might dip the
addition of DEE caused to increase the brake specific fuel consumptions
amount of distributing fuel in which can significantly affect the brake
at all engine loads as compared to the B20 blend. The brake specific

9
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
consumptions of the aforementioned reformulated tested fuel samples
with DEE addition was in the order of 1.03%, 3.09%, 7.23%, and
17.95% higher on an average than that of B20 blend. It is still useful to
check Table 2 that the preference of DEE in the form of ternary blends
with cottonseed oil biodiesel and diesel fuel has led to reducing the
energy content owing to the lower calorific value of DEE in contrast to
both biodiesel and diesel fuel. The second reason can be the existence of
the native oxygen molecules in the chemical structure of DEE. The re-
cent literature survey showed that the compatible results were also
presented by the researchers. Das et al. [98] reported that the brake
specific fuel consumption of diesel fuel was 4.34% lower than that of
B30DEE10 under the full load condition. But, Sivalakshmi and Balu-
samy [38] found that the brake specific fuel consumption of DEE-bio-
diesel blends has fluctuated with respect to the concentration of DEE in
the blend, i.e. 5% DEE addition caused to decrease the brake specific
fuel consumption while on further addition of DEE increased indis-
tinctly. Due to the higher volatility of DEE, %5 DEE-25% soybean oil
biodiesel-70% diesel fuel blend exhibited lower brake specific fuel
consumption than that of B30 blend. Because higher volatility accel-
erates the mixing velocity of air/fuel mixture, enhances the process of
combustion and resulting in the rise of the combustion efficiency [53].
3.1.3. Brake specific energy consumption
The brake specific energy consumption can be defined as the ratio of
capacity obtained by the fuel consumption for an hour to the actual
energy achieved from the wheels in which was no dimension. In other
words, it is an important parameter that shows how the energy from the
fuel can reach the wheels. The effect of DEE addition into the biodiesel-
diesel fuel blend on the brake specific energy consumption was pre-
sented in Fig. 4. As seen in the graph, the minimum brake specific
energy consumption was observed with the usage of diesel fuel at all
engine loads. This can be principally because of the integrated impact
of the energy content and brake specific fuel consumption of the bio-
diesel fuel and DEE. It was also remarkable that the brake specific en-
ergy consumption for all tested ternary fuel blends was higher than
those of diesel fuel as well as B20 blend. Not interestingly, the
minimum brake specific energy consumptions were observed at the
engine load of 1000 W for all tested fuel samples. At the maximum
engine load, the brake specific energy consumptions of diesel fuel, B20,
B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10 were calculated as
23.87 MJ/kWh, 24.32 MJ/kWh, 24.63 MJ/kWh, 24.72 MJ/kWh,
24.74 MJ/kWh, 25.49 MJ/kWh, respectively. Paul et al. [99] have
carried out an experimental study using diesel-DEE and diesel-DEE-
ethanol blends in a single-cylinder, direct-injection diesel engine and
revealed that the brake specific energy consumption built up with
D90DEE10 binary blend with a maximum increase of 10.3% under the
low load of 0.6 kW. In their work also presented that the influence of
higher cetane number led to shortening the ignition delay period and
hence, the tested fuel sample had no time to mix with air sufficiently. As
a result, the combustibility was decreased owing to this heterogeneous
mixture and even ascended the energy need. Rakopoulos et al. [49]
highlighted that the brake specific energy consumption was im-
mediately affected by the concentration of DEE additive in the fuel
blend due to the decrement in the energy content of the blend. Nan-
thagopal et al. [13] declared that the utilization of DEE in the form of
ternary blends with diesel–biodiesel caused to becoming higher brake
specific energy consumption as compared to the diesel fuel while lower
than that of pure biodiesel.
3.1.4. Exhaust gas temperature
The variation of exhaust gas temperature (EGT) depending on the
engine load is portrayed in Fig. 5. The EGTs of all tested fuel samples
were increased with the increasing of the engine load. As a con-
sequence, the maximum EGTs were measured at the maximum engine
load of 1250 W. The maximum EGTs for B20, B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5,
B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10 were found to be at 277 °C, 304 °C, 290 °C,
10
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
265 °C, and 266 °C, respectively. The highest EGT has appeared as
352 °C in the conventional diesel fuel. However, from Fig. 5, the EGT
values of B20DEE5 and B20DEE7.5 are higher than that of diesel fuel
when the load is less than 750 W. Favorable conditions for combustion
process eventuating from the utilization of DEE as an oxygenated fuel
additive can cause an increase in EGT under low load operating con-
ditions. Besides, the addition of DEE into the cottonseed oil biodiesel-
diesel fuel blend leads to easy ignition and enhanced the combustion
process takes place inside the cylinder of the engine owing to the high
oxygen content and cetane number of DEE increasing the EGT. There is
no doubt that one of the most significant factors that influence the
exhaust emissions in the internal combustion engines is the EGT. Ac-
cordingly, the measurement of EGT accurately is important for dis-
cussing emissions. By the way, the EGT depends on the factors likewise
physicochemical characteristics of the fuel (viscosity, density, cetane
number, etc.) and engine working conditions (injection timing, injec-
tion pressure, compression ratio, etc.) [100]. If the mean EGT values for
all tested fuel samples were taken into consideration, there is no a
momentous difference between the experimental outcomes, however,
the average EGTs of the ternary fuel blends contain DEE as an oxyge-
nated fuel additive were nebulously lower than that of diesel fuel while
higher than that of B20 binary blend. This can be clarified that the DEE
caused to draw back the heat from the environment because of the
higher latent heat of evaporation as seen in Table 2 resulting in de-
crements in the EGT. In addition, the higher amount of oxygen mole-
cule in the fuel and lower energy content would lead to reducing the
combustion end temperature of the compression-ignition engine. The
second reason for the lower EGT can be the combustion rate. Because
the high oxygen content causes to improve the diffusion combustion
phase resulting in lower EGT as well as aforementioned knowledge. As
observed from Figs. 11 and 12, the cylinder pressure traces inside the
combustion chamber of the ternary fuel blends were lower than that of
conventional diesel fuel in the course of compression stroke because of
the higher latent heat of evaporation of DEE. Namely, it can cause to
becoming a cooling effect in the combustion chamber increasing in the
ignition delay period, as seen in Fig. 15. Therefore, the duration of the
combustion was observed with ternary fuel blends. Even though the
cetane number of DEE is higher than that of diesel fuel, the auto-igni-
tion temperature of DEE is lower than that of diesel fuel. From this, first
of all, DEE additive heat release was formed and this accomplished
easier the combustion of diesel fuel in the cylinder throughout the ig-
nition delay period. Afterward, the rest of the diesel fuel burned in the
diffusion combustion phase. It can be concluded that lower heat release
comprised of DEE blends in comparison to the neat diesel combustion,
Fig. 4. The variation of brake specific energy consumption with respect to the
engine load.
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Fig. 5. The variation of exhaust gas temperature with respect to the engine
load.
Fig. 6. The variation of unburned hydrocarbon emissions with respect to the
engine load.
as seen in Fig. 13. Similar results were also found by the majority of the
researchers. Namely, EGT could reduce with DEE addition in most of
the studies. Madhu et al. [101] indicated that the lower EGT was ob-
tained with DEE-diesel fuel blends according to the diesel fuel and
further decrements were also observed with increasing the fraction of
DEE in the fuel blends. Patnaik et al. [102] emphasized that the addi-
tion of DEE into the diesel fuel caused to decreasing in the EGT gra-
dually because of the low boiling point of DEE with high cetane
number. They led to decrease the ignition delay period and temperature
inside the cylinder and hence reduced the EGT as compared to the
diesel fuel. Barik and Murugan [57] reported that the biodiesel fuel
showed a higher EGT than that of diesel and dual-fuel operations. But,
DEE injection strategies with dual-fuel operations led to reducing the
EGTs. Geo et al. [103] coincided that the biodiesel fuel gave higher EGT
than that of diesel fuel due to the poor formation of the mixture re-
sulting in extended ignition delay period and hence occurred poor
combustion process took place inside the combustion chamber. On the
contrary, the DEE injection caused to decreasing in EGT values due to
the improvement of the diffusion combustion rate. Even though the
peak EGT was observed as 410 °C with biodiesel, they found that the
EGT was decreased to 389 °C under the 200 g/h flow rate of DEE.
11
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
3.2. Emissions characteristics
In this section, the exhaust emission characteristics (carbon mon-
oxide, carbon dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and
smoke opacity) of a compression-ignition engine operating with various
ternary blends contain DEE-cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel and
their comparison with diesel fuel were presented and discussed elabo-
rately in the point of the recent literature.
3.2.1. Unburned hydrocarbon emissions
The formation of the hydrocarbon emissions has primarily occurred
in the combustion chamber because of the incomplete combustion. It
might be led by inappropriate air–fuel mixture, flame cooling and being
of crevice volumes [13]. Besides that, the fuel structure, engine con-
struction, and operating conditions are influential factors in the gen-
erating for the hydrocarbon emissions [104]. The variation of unburned
hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions with respect to the engine load for dif-
ferent fuel blends with and without DEE addition was depicted in Fig. 6.
It is well known that diesel fuel generates a higher amount of UHC. In
this context, when the graph was examined, the highest amount of UHC
was produced with the utilization of diesel fuel in the compression-
ignition engine at all engine loads. The UHC emission formation is in
increasing inclination with an increase in a load of the engine. The
existence of UHC emission in the exhaust gases can be originated from
the capability for reaching the ignition temperature of the fuel to be
oxidized or absence of oxygen [105]. This can be owing to the rise in
brake power outcomes at which bestriding the values as compared to
UHC emissions. UHC increases with the engine load owing to the pre-
sence of more fuel inside the combustion chamber [106]. In other
words, the increase in the engine load causes to shorter cycle duration
of the engine and as a result, reduces the duration of combustion. It can
be concluded that the lesser combustion duration can leads not to
oxidize some of the injected fuel inside the cylinder or becoming oxi-
dized partially. The increase in UHC at the higher engine loads might be
caused by this phenomenon. A similar trend was also observed by Goga
et al. [107], who found that the utilization of biodiesel fuel in the
compression-ignition engine resulted in more UHC emission in the ex-
haust gases with increasing engine load. On the other hand, Sakhtivel
et al. [108] claimed that the UHC emission depends on the combustion
chamber geometry and fuel injection system though it is not directly
associated with the engine load and speed. However, this finding has
been contradicted by Buyukkaya et al. [109]. They reported that the HC
emissions of diesel, B10, B20, B30, B40, and B50 fuel samples were
increased with increasing the engine load. Along with this, the ex-
istence of the native oxygen molecule in the chemical structure of the
cottonseed oil biodiesel and DEE improves the combustion inside the
cylinder and decreases the UHC emissions slightly. It is to be noticed
that the mean UHC emissions of B20 was 6.35% lower than that of
unadulterated diesel fuel. This case can be explained by the more
complete combustion process inside the cylinder caused by biodiesel
due to the oxygen content. Moreover, the addition of DEE at between
2.5% and 10% on a volume basis into the biodiesel-diesel fuel blend has
substantially influenced the UHC emission formation in the exhaust
gases. As can be seen in Fig. 6, the adding of DEE decreased the UHC
emissions at 10% fraction in contrast to the 5% concentration. In other
words, with the increase of DEE ratio in the ternary fuel blend in the
UHC emissions drop up to 5% by volume and then turns away for 7.5%
and 10% fractions. Besides that, all of the ternary blends have exhibited
a lesser amount of UHC emission formation in the exhaust gases as
compared to the neat diesel fuel. When Table 2 was taken into con-
sideration, the cetane number of DEE was overly larger than those of
cottonseed oil biodiesel and diesel fuel. Furthermore, the oxygen con-
tent of the DEE is approximately 21.6% (see Table 2) that may improve
the process of combustion inside the cylinder of the compression-igni-
tion engine. Accordingly, the formation of UHC emissions was mar-
ginally dropped with the addition of DEE into the biodiesel-diesel
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
blend. Meanwhile, the increment of the extinguishing of the flame and
poor flame out regions in the combustion chamber carry out because of
the slower vaporization of DEE. As a consequence, this has caused to
releasing in a higher amount of UHC emissions in the case of the lower
fraction of DEE in the ternary blend. Jayaprabakar et al. [63] detected
that the addition of DEE into the biodiesel fuel led to reducing UHC
emissions due to the more complete combustion resulting from DEE as
an oxygenated additive. But the contradicting results were also ob-
served by different researchers. For example, Patil and Thipse [97]
observed that the addition of DEE into the diesel fuel caused to increase
the UHC emissions and even the increment ratio rose with the in-
creasing of DEE concentration in the blend.
3.2.2. Carbon dioxide emissions
The variation of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for all tested fuel
samples with respect to the different engine loads was illustrated in
Fig. 7. A piece of information concerning the complete combustion
process in the cylinder can be got from the CO2 emission results. When
Fig. 7 was analyzed elaborately, the maximum outcomes were observed
to be at the maximum engine load condition. The percentage of CO2
emission formation increased owing to the alteration in the procedure
of the ignition in the combustion chamber. The mean CO2 emissions of
diesel fuel, B20, B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10
were found to be at 400.97 g/kWh, 332.31 g/kWh, 282.44 g/kWh,
282.32 g/kWh, 336.84 g/kWh, and 380.63 g/kWh, respectively. The
addition of biodiesel, as well as DEE, have led to emitting lesser CO2
emissions than diesel fuel. Namely, the CO2 emissions of the ternary
fuel blends were not as great as that of the baseline diesel fuel. Venu
and Madhavan [60] reported that the generation of CO2 emission is
depended on the carbon atoms, C/H ratio, density of blend and total
oxygen content. In this context, when the carbon atoms number and
molecular structure were taken into consideration as mentioned above
sections, DEE possesses a lesser amount of carbon atoms those of pure
biodiesel and conventional diesel fuel. On account of this, the number
of CO2 emissions occurred throughout the burning of the tested fuel
samples was noticed to be lower than that of diesel fuel. On one hand, it
can be concluded that the reduction of CO2 emissions was mostly be-
cause of the small amount of carbon content of the DEE additive. On the
other hand, it is not forgotten that any other combustion parameters
might influence the development of CO2 emissions. The similar out-
comes were also reported by researchers. Das et al. [98] showed that,
for instance, B10DEE10 and B20DEE10 demonstrated lesser amount of
CO2 emissions than that of diesel fuel at the full engine load operating
conditions despite that B30DEE10 emitted almost the same formation
of CO2 emission. Swaminathan and Sarangan [54] found lesser CO2
formation when the diesel engine fueled with the fuel samples contain
DEE in all the engine loads.
3.2.3. Oxides of nitrogen emissions
In the condition of the lower temperature, nitrogen molecule was
consistent in which the mono-atomic decomposition of nitrogen re-
places at exceedingly elevated temperatures of above 1200 °C. This
separated nitrogen molecules have immensely reactive and want to
attain the balance. For this reason, they react with the oxygen found in
the ambient and occur oxides of nitrogen. It is well known that the
significant parameters that affect the formation of oxides of nitrogen in
the combustion chamber point out the number of oxygen molecules in
the fuel and temperature in the engine cylinder as well. For the most
part, a higher amount of oxygen content and at bring up temperature
have led to becoming a higher concentration of NOX emissions.
However, it is enounced that other factors that play a significant role in
the development of NOX emissions in the exhaust gas could be sorted to
be as the cylinder geometry, temperature and pressure of the intake air,
physicochemical specifications of the test fuels, compression ratio, in-
jection timing, injection pressure, etc. The variety of oxides of nitrogen
emissions across the engine loads for the tested fuel samples were
12
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
portrayed in Fig. 8. It has appeared that the NOX emissions hiked
progressively with the rising in a load of the engine. This can be mainly
due to the temperature of the combustion chamber getting at elevated
levels of the aforementioned ground as the engine load raised and they
are suitable for the generation of NOX emissions in the cylinder of the
engine. In this context, the oxides of nitrogen ascended by approxi-
mately between 30% and 60% when the test engine running on the
cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend in comparison with the un-
modified diesel fuel. Although B20 blend fuel has almost similar cetane
number as compared to diesel fuel, it involves inherent oxygen mole-
cule in the chemical structure resulting in better combustion efficiency
in the cylinder and hence increase the NOX emissions. No doubt that
there is a need to decrease in the oxides of nitrogen significantly with
using DEE treated diesel-cottonseed oil biodiesel blend and these dips
were strengthened by the concentration of DEE in the ternary blend. In
fact, it could be estimated that the higher concentration of oxygen
content of DEE and extremely higher cetane number might speed up the
formation of NOX emissions along the process of combustion. Which is
why the former investigations were set out compatible outcomes. The
average NOX emission values were found to be at 1.392 g/kWh for
B20DEE2.5, 1.354 g/kWh for B20DEE5, 1.347 g/kWh for B20DEE7.5,
and 1.342 g/kWh for B20DEE10. In contrast to the pure diesel fuel, the
mean NOX emissions were 5.41%, 8.03%, 8.48%, and 8.84% lower for
2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% of DEE in the blend, respectively. At the same
time, the aforementioned tested ternary fuel blends were 35.21%,
37.00%, 37.31%, and 37.55% lower than B20 blend, respectively. As
stated previously, the cetane number of the fuel blends would increase
by adding DEE and this case might influence the diesel aromatics which
are really important for diesel combustion. Moreover, the latent heat of
vaporization of DEE (as seen in Table 2) is high and hence it has caused
to observe too much amount of heat where deceleration of the process
of combustion and thus occurs lower NOX emissions in the combustion
chamber. The combustion behaviors of the all tested fuel samples
pronounced with poor gas pressure inside the engine cylinder and heat
release rate growing which has been elaborately discussed in the fol-
lowing part of this paper as well. Rakopoulos et al. [49] declared that
the NOX emissions of DEE-diesel fuel blends were reduced against to the
diesel fuel and also the fraction increments of the DEE in the blend led
to a higher reduction in the NOX emissions. Patil and Thipse [97] re-
ported that the nitrogen monoxide (NO) emission released by DEE-
diesel blends was dramatically decreased than the conventional diesel
fuel and even the reduction ratio was increased with the increasing of
the proportion of DEE in the blend. Das et al. [98] found that B10DEE10
and B20DEE10 emitted 653 ppm and 718 ppm of NOX emissions which
were 10.54% and 1.6% lower than that of neat diesel fuel, respectively.
Fig. 7. The variation of carbon dioxide emissions with respect to the engine
load.
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Fig. 8. The variation of oxides of nitrogen emissions with respect to the engine
load.
Qi et al. [53] detected that the 5% DEE-25% soybean oil biodiesel-70%
diesel fuel blend presented very slight variations in the NOX emissions
as compared to the B30 blend. Jayaprabakar et al. [63] indicated that
the addition of DEE caused to becoming lower NOX emissions in the
exhaust gases.
3.2.4. Carbon monoxide emissions
The carbon monoxide (CO) emission, an indicator of incomplete
combustion, forms whenever the fuel burns within an inadequate air
and at a low temperature in the internal combustion engine. Fig. 9 il-
lustrates the alteration of CO emissions across the engine loads for all
tested fuel samples. I can be made out that the CO emission monitored
an increasing inclination with an increase in a load of the engine. The
cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend took places 18.87% lower CO
emission than pure diesel fuel at the maximum engine load. This is
mainly due to the higher oxygen content of biodiesel fuel resulting in
more complete combustion process in the engine cylinder and this
outcome is a common finding in the compression-ignition engine fueled
with biodiesel. By all means, the diesel engine would release less CO
emission in the exhaust gases if the neat cottonseed oil biodiesel has
used. However, the addition of DEE as an oxygenated fuel additive into
the biodiesel-diesel fuel blend has not exhibited a substantial reduction
in CO emission as anticipated except for lower concentrations. The
mean CO emissions of B20DEE2.5 and B20DEE5 were found to be
31.86% and 32.29%, respectively lower than that of diesel fuel while
21.79% and 22.47%, respectively lower than that of B20 blend.
Whereas, the mean CO emissions of B20DEE7.5 and B20DEE10 were
observed 39.13% and 26.08%, respectively higher that of diesel fuel.
Accordingly, it is noted to be that the low quantity of DEE addition has
caused to decreasing trend in the CO emission at all engine load con-
ditions. This can be predicated to the integrated impact of native
oxygen content and higher cetane number in the tested fuel blends
because of the fact that the addition of DEE and cottonseed oil biodiesel
has led to accumulating the combustion process and drops the gen-
eration of CO emission. On the other hand, the increasing DEE con-
centration in the case of ternary fuel blends promotes the formation of
more CO emission in the exhaust gases. Besides that, the boosting ratio
is immediately affected by the fraction of DEE in the fuel blend. Even
though it would be estimated that the addition of DEE into the bio-
diesel-diesel fuel blends might show less formation of CO emission, the
present experimental research revealed partially opposite outcomes.
This can be based on the mutual effect of DEE with diesel aromatics
would retard the auto-ignition occurrence of fuel. Also, the quenching
effect brought about by DEE addition owing to the higher latent heat of
13
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
vaporization resulting in preventing of the complete combustion pro-
cess and hence forms higher CO emission. Sivalakshmi and Balusamy
[38] reported that the CO emission reduced by 25% for 5% DEE-neem
oil biodiesel in contrast to that of pure biodiesel at the maximum engine
load. But, they also indicated that the CO emission increased when the
concentration of DEE was increased in the blend. Although Iranmanesh
[110] exhibited that at low load operating conditions, there was no
substantial variation between diesel fuel and DEE added blends, the
higher concentration of DEE caused to increase the formation of CO
emission in the exhaust gases at higher engine loads.
3.2.5. Smoke emissions
One of the most meritorious indicators for understanding the in-
complete combustion process inside the engine cylinder is the smoke
formation. It mostly happens by virtue of the case of high fuel viscosity,
insufficient oxygen molecules around the rich mixture region, poor
atomization characteristics and a backlog of oversupply fuel in the
cylinder. The variation of smoke emissions with respect to the different
engine loads for the tested fuel blends were shown in Fig. 10. Actually,
for the fixed engine speed, the maximum smoke emissions for diesel
fuel and B20 were obtained at the maximum engine load of 1250 W
while the ternary fuel blends which contain DEE exhibited maximum
smoke emissions under the medium engine load operating conditions
except for B20DEE7.5. As observed, the maximum smoke of B20DEE7.5
is exhibited at full engine load rather than at the medium engine load.
Curiously, the larger smoke emission values were obtained for diesel
fuel than that of all tested fuel blends at all engine loads. When the
graph was analyzed meticulously, it is to be noticed that the com-
pression-ignition engine running on the unmodified diesel fuel has
emitted 75.6% smoke emission and otherwise, the cottonseed oil bio-
diesel addition into the diesel fuel has led to decreasing trend and solely
73.2% smoke emission released at the maximum engine load. It would
be expected that the smoke emission outcomes could be reduced even
more if using neat cottonseed oil biodiesel in the diesel engine. The
basic reason is to be that the presence of the oxygen molecule in the
chemical structure of biodiesel fuel concludes more complete combus-
tion in the cylinder and resulting in a lower percentage of smoke
emission in the exhaust. It was an evidence that the mean smoke
emissions were found to be at 68.51%, 68.72%, 68.58%, and 69.88%
for 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% of DEE addition into the cottonseed oil
biodiesel-diesel fuel blend. Interestingly, the biodiesel-DEE-diesel fuel
ternary blends portrayed an adverse disposition of reduction in its
smoke emissions at the maximum engine load operating conditions
with lower fractions of DEE. In this manner, the minimum smoke
Fig. 9. The variation of carbon monoxide emissions with respect to the engine
load.
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Fig. 10. The variation of smoke emissions with respect to the engine load.
opacity value was observed with B20DEE2.5 at the highest engine load
and it was 8.07% lower than that of diesel fuel as well as 5.06% lower
than that of B20 blend. As far as we know, however, that the opposite
findings were revealed by the researchers. They have pointed out that
in the case of the addition of DEE has caused to becoming higher smoke
opacity emissions because of the poor spray behaviors, lower tem-
perature of combustion and lesser time for the oxidation process. On the
other hand, this can be explained as the intramolecular oxygen which
could act as an oxygen improver in the rich mixture regions where the
OH radical generation occurs by the oxygen molecule with the ex-
penditure of soot pioneers finally bearing to the whole decrement of
smoke emission in the exhaust [111]. One by one, the oxygenate in-
terfered sample which has a lower intensity, its higher imbalance and
its boiling point might such as canalize higher spray momentum of the
fuel which infers the mixed fuel sample possessing a higher con-
centration of DEE effectuates even more monotony in the fuel–air
mixture than the basic sample [13]. In this context, the process of the
combustion and the distribution of combustion stage where was the key
Fig. 11. The variation of in-cylinder pressure with respect to the crank angle at different engine loads.
14
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
reaction ground of the smoke development could be enhanced with the
rise in the mixing proportion that was the outdoor parameters in order
to reduction of soot formation. In the experimental study conducted by
Sivalakshmi and Balusamy [38] presented that the smoke intensity was
observed lower than those of diesel fuel and neat biodiesel at full load
when the diesel engine operating with DEE-biodiesel blends.
3.3. Combustion behaviors
The combustion behaviors have found out the operations and the
process of reactions happening in the combustion chamber where the
fuel was combusted for generating heat energy on which depending
principally the physicochemical characteristics and intermolecular
structures. These parameters have been meticulously investigated and
discussed taking into consideration at the point of the recent literature
in the following subsections.
3.3.1. In-cylinder gas pressure
Fig. 11 depicts the variation of in-cylinder pressure with respect to
the crank angle at different engine loads for all the tested fuel samples.
It can be evidently monitored from Fig. 11 that all of the fuel samples
regardless of the DEE addition has exhibited an identical figure. This
trend is also a common shape of the combustion process takes place in
the compression-ignition engines. Besides that Fig. 12 illustrates the
variation of the peak in-cylinder pressure at different engine loads.
Normally, the combusted mass fraction mostly assigns the maximum
gas pressures generated in the cylinder of the compression-ignition
engines in which primarily it is attached to the rate that the combustion
process occurs and the fuel that was being burnt in the stage of un-
controlled combustion [6]. In addition, it is well known that the gas
pressure generated rises progressively inside the cylinder of the engine
owing to the oversupply quantity of fuel being extinguished when the
engine load augments. As can be seen in Fig. 11, the peak in-cylinder
pressures of all tested fuel samples were found to be at the maximum
engine load of 1250 W operating condition under a constant engine
speed of 3000 rpm. The maximum in-cylinder pressures of diesel fuel,
B20, B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10 was obtained
as 80.30 bar, 79.72 bar, 79.61 bar, 77.30 bar, 72.36 bar, and 71.21 bar,
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Fig. 12. The variation of the peak in-cylinder pressure at different engine loads.
respectively. Meanwhile, the crank angle of peak in-cylinder pressures
for the tested fuel samples moved away from the top dead center. But, it
could be anticipated that the peak pressures inside the cylinder could
move back to the top dead center with the addition of DEE generally
owing to the fact that the cetane number of the DEE is higher than those
of diesel fuel and biodiesel fuel and hence decreases the ignition delay
period. Moreover, the ignition period and the quantity of fuel at which
the uncontrolled combustion phase starts influenced inconceivably the
achievement of maximum in-cylinder pressure. The ignition inside the
cylinder occurs earlier provided the diesel engine running on the bio-
diesel fuels because of their significant characteristics likewise higher
cetane number and oxygen content. On the other hand, the cetane
number of cottonseed oil biodiesel is lower than that of unmodified
diesel fuel as seen in Table 2. In this context, the ignition would take
place later than that of diesel fuel. The maximum in-cylinder pressure
occurred with B20 blend in comparison with the diesel fuel at all engine
loads despite the fact that it can be hoped that the higher maximum in-
cylinder pressure was measured for diesel fuel because of the higher
Fig. 13. The variation of heat release rate with respect to the crank angle at different engine loads.
15
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
energy content than cottonseed oil biodiesel. This can be explained as
the higher oxygen content of the biodiesel resulting in more complete
combustion process takes place inside the combustion chamber.
Nevertheless, it was remarkable that the addition of DEE as an oxyge-
nated fuel additive into the cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend to
get ternary fuel samples has not changed the combustion characteristics
significantly. But, it could play a crucial role in the developing of peak
gas pressure and the ignition delay period. One of the most important
parameters that affects the ignition delay period is the cetane number of
the fuel. The cetane number of DEE is extremely higher than those of
diesel and biodiesel as seen in Table 2. Therefore, the ignition delay
period could gradually reduce with the increasing concentration of DEE
in the ternary blend. However, DEE addition caused to wane the igni-
tion delay period of the blends because of being prolonged fuel injec-
tion duration [112]. Moreover, Mohan et al. [113] declared that the
additive having low viscosity, density and bulk modulus might augment
the ignition delay duration and dip the maximum in-cylinder pressure
inside the engine cylinder. Qi et al. [53] showed that the peak in-cy-
linder pressure of B30 was almost close to that of 5% DEE-25% soybean
oil biodiesel-70% diesel fuel blend. By the way, Nanthagopal et al. [13]
recognized almost the same reasons with the aforementioned studies. In
addition, the ignition delay period was also presented and discussed in
the light of the recent literature in the following subsection. Conse-
quently, the development of maximum gas pressure inside the cylinder
was dropped by DEE in the blend. However, 2.5% addition of DEE has
caused to increase the peak in-cylinder pressure owing to the combined
effect of cetane number, oxygen content and latent heat of evaporation.
On the other hand, the opposite outcomes were also presented by
various researchers in the literature. Selvaraj and Thangavel [114]
found that the peak in-cylinder pressure values increased slightly when
the 5% and 10% (by vol.) of DEE added into the blend due to the higher
oxygen content of DEE.
3.3.2. Heat release rate
The heat release rate (HRR) can be estimated from the gas pressures
takes place in the cylinder during the combustion process in accordance
with the first law of thermodynamic. Equation (2) was used so as to
calculate the HRR at all engine loads. The variation of heat release rate
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

with respect to the crank angle at different engine loads for the distinct opposite outcomes were found by some of the researchers. In the recent
fuel samples was illustrated in Fig. 13. In addition, for better observa- report of Venu and Madhavan [60] showed that 20% ethanol/40%
tions, the peak HRR values of the tested fuel samples at different engine biodiesel/40% diesel fuel with 5% DEE blend formed higher by 8.3%
loads were separately redrawn in Fig. 14. At the beginning, a negative HRR values than that of without DEE addition blend. Ibrahim [56]
HRR was observed with all of the fuel samples in the compression-ig- exhibited that the addition of DEE into the diesel fuel has led to increase
nition engine since the accumulated fuel in the ignition delay period the peak HRR values as compared to the neat diesel fuel due to the fact
and initiates suddenly to evaporate by withdraw the circumambient that the DEE has higher volatility property resulting in the improve-
heat from the combustion chamber. Afterwards, the combustion takes ment of the air–fuel mixing ratio. Lastly, Das et al. [98] declared that
place inside the cylinder and the inclination of the HRR figure turns out the peak HRR values of diesel fuel, B10DEE10 and B20DEE10 blends
to be positive for all the fuel samples. It can be plotted from the graph were measured as 30.45 J/degree, 46.88 J/degree, and 43.89 J/degree,
that the start of the combustion occurs get along for the DEE blends in respectively. They also indicated that the increasing of the concentra-
contrast to the pure diesel fuel [114]. The heat eventuated in the pre- tion of biodiesel fuel in the blend caused to reducing the HRR values
mixed combustion period becomes elevated for the baseline diesel fuel because of the calorific value of the blends.
owing to the influence of lower viscosity and attentive mixing of fuel
and air. In turn, the HRR figures for all the tested fuel samples observed
3.3.3. Ignition delay
almost the same trend and they increased with the increasing of engine
It is useful to redefine here that the ignition delay is the duration in
load conditions. Namely, when the Fig. 13 was analyzed, the maximum
between the onset of the fuel spray injection and the start of the com-
HRR for all of the fuel samples were appeared at the maximum engine
bustion takes place inside the engine cylinder in terms of degree crank
load of 1250 W. From the Fig. 13 that the peak HRR of 26.29 J/degree
angle [119]. There are a lot of underlying parameters that affect the
for the cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel blend (B20) was measured and
ignition delay period of the engine and these are as follows: physico-
even it is slightly higher than the number of heat released of 24.83 J/
chemical specifications of the fuel especially the cetane number, tem-
degree in the premixed combustion stage for the diesel fuel. This is
perature of the combustion chamber, in-cylinder pressure, fuel injection
mainly due to the higher oxygen content of the biodiesel (as seen in
timing, etc. [60]. Since the graph area limitations of Fig. 13, the igni-
Table 2) because they result in high quality fuel–air mixture prepara-
tion delay periods of all the tested fuel samples could not be observed
tion existing for combustion process. Meanwhile, the increasing of the
accurately in their heat release rate figures. Therefore another graph
biodiesel concentration in the blends has led to drop the heat released
was drawn for the ignition delays in order to better understanding.
throughout the premixed combustion stage. A marginal declining trend
Fig. 15 plots the variation of ignition delay period with respect to the
in the peak HRR could be noticed by using higher biodiesel con-
crank angle at different engine loads for all the tested fuel samples. As
centrations in the blend. This phenomenon can be related to the energy
far as we observe that the ignition delay period reduced when the en-
content of biodiesel fuel, as shown in Table 2 and hereby the total
gine load was increased gradually owing to the fact that the maximum
amount of heat release at the premixed combustion stage could be
in-cylinder pressures and larger temperatures occurred in the maximum
decreased. Another explanation is that it may be due to lower volatility
engine load operating condition. It can be verified when the Fig. 5 and
and higher viscosity values of the neat biodiesel can lead to the des-
Fig. 11 were discussed elaborately. In this context, the ignition delay
cending of HRR. Because larger viscosity of biodiesel fuels can cause
periods for the unreformed diesel fuel and B20 blend exhibited almost
slow vaporization and consequently it can decrease the releasing of
similar inclinations and determined to be at 2.37° and 1.02° crank
heat throughout the premixed combustion phase. The similar ob-
angle, respectively at the maximum engine load of 1250 W. As ex-
servations were also reported by the majority of the researchers, i.e.,
pected, the ignition delay period of B20 were lower than that of diesel
How et al. [115] and Kinoshita et al. [116]. Ashok et al. [117], for
fuel because of the excess oxygen content in the cottonseed oil biodiesel
instance, indicated that the HRR of neat biodiesel fuel was found to be
as seen in Table 2 which was satisfactory for the improving the more
very less and the HRR increased with the increase in the percentage of
complete combustion process of the fuel blend throughout the main
diesel fuel in the binary blends of biodiesel-diesel fuel. Karthickeyan
combustion than the unmodified diesel fuel. No one can claim the op-
et al. [118] exhibited that at full-load operating conditions, the HRR
posite that the ignition delay period of the blend contains DEE as a
values for diesel fuel, B20, B40, B50, and B100 were obtained as
cetane improver (see Table 2) should reduce because of the decrements
66.71 J/degree, 62.38 J/degree, 61.03 J/degree, 58.14 J/degree, and
in the premixed fragment of the combustion process. The cetane
54.57 J/degree, respectively. What is more, the DEE addition into the
number is a key property for smoother engine working. However, the
biodiesel-diesel fuel blend can slightly deteriorate the HRR. The max-
imum heat release rate of 26.06 J/degree, 23.67 J/degree, 21.21 J/
degree, and 19.35 J/degree were observed with the ternary blends of
B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10, respectively. For
better understanding, the variation ratios could be given.
The above indications presented that the HRR values of the fuel
blends dipped 0.89% for B20DEE2.5, 9.95% for B20DEE5, 14.59% for
B20DEE7.5, and 26.38% for B20DEE10 in contrast to the B20 blend at
the maximum engine load. In the consequence, HRR values have de-
creased because of almost identical reasons aforementioned in the in-
cylinder pressure section. According to the paper of Nanthagopal et al.
[13], for instance, pointed out that the maximum HRR was sub-
stantially decreased owing to the higher latent of vaporization of DEE
though the ignition delay period was extended for all DEE treated
ternary blends. Because the higher latent of vaporization caused to
decelerate the process of combustion resulting in lesser in-cylinder
pressure and hence drops the HRR values. Another study conducted by
Górski and Przedlacki [55] who also observed lower HRR values when
the compression-ignition engine fueled with DEE contains blends due to
the aforementioned reason as well as the bulk effect of DEE leading the
reduction in the HRR during the combustion process. However, the Fig. 14. The variation of the peak HRR values at different engine loads.

16
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

value of ethanol by 1300 MPa [121]. In this manner, in spite of the fact
that pump spill timing is maintained at fixed, the dynamic injection
timing is influenced depended on these properties.

4. Comparative examination with previous studies

The findings obtained from the present experimental research were

compared with some of the earlier studies and it has been briefly ta-
bulated in Table 8. In order to better understanding this objective, the
research works on the diesel engine operating with binary blends of
DEE-biodiesel fuel as well as the ternary blend of DEE-biodiesel-diesel
fuel were presented. By all means, various combinations of fuel samples
contain DEE as an oxygenated fuel additive have been examined,
however, some part of these studies could be taken into account for this
comparison. All of the prior studies, as well as this present work,
showed up that the fuel reformulation by adding DEE with die-
sel–biodiesel blend has caused to drop the oxides of nitrogen formation
especially and other emission patterns with substantial alter in the
Fig. 15. The variation of ignition delay with respect to the crank angle at dif- characteristics of the engine. The other significant reductions were
ferent engine loads. observed in the CO2, CO, UHC, and smoke emission when using DEE as
an additive. However, combustion characteristics were appeared dis-
similar. Moreover, the outcomes have revealed the compatibility of DEE
ignition delay periods for the ternary blends were ascended as the
as an oxygenated additive as well as cetane improver for the com-
fraction of DEE increases in the tested ternary fuel samples than that of
pression-ignition engine out of any significant modifications. On the
the diesel fuel in the course of the load of the engine despite of the fact
other hand, it can be emphasized that a lot of investigations should be
that the DEE has higher cetane number. The ignition delay periods of
conducted by researchers before adopting the DEE as a fractional re-
B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5, B20DEE7.5 and B20DEE10 were found to be at
placement for diesel engine thanks to the convenient technology re-
2.13°, 7.09°, 11.81°, and 16.99°, respectively at the highest engine load.
garding the DEE production, storage, and other subjects.
This is a good agreement in accordance with earlier research outcomes
[60]. On the other hand, the opposite outcomes also found by the re-
5. Conclusion
searchers. Barik and Murugan [57], for instance, the injection of DEE in
the dual fuel operation caused to decrease the ignition delay because of
In the present study, a single-cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled,
the higher cetane number of DEE. The ignition delay can be classified
naturally-aspirated, DI diesel engine coupled with a generator was
by two subcategories likewise physical delay and chemical delay. This
operated with diesel fuel, cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend
present case would be explained with the physical delay. The physical
(B20), and ternary blends of diesel fuel-biodiesel-DEE. The operating
delay is the time between the starting of the injection process and ac-
conditions of the cottonseed oil biodiesel production for the transes-
cession of the chemical reaction conditions [120]. Because it could be
terification process has been implemented as 6:1 of methanol to oil
estimated that the addition of DEE in different concentration into the
molar ratio, 0.6 wt% of catalyst concentration, 60 min of reaction
ternary blends has brought about the varying physical characteristics
duration, 60 °C of reaction temperature and 600 rpm of stirring speed.
resulting in an important attached influence on the physical delay
As the biodiesel concentration was kept constant by 20% by volume,
duration connected with the formation of spray droplet and also eva-
the DEE as an oxygenated fuel additive was mixed at different con-
poration at which extended ignition delay period causes to grand pre-
centrations such as 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% with the biodiesel-diesel
mixed burning fragment and lesser controlled combustion stage [13].
fuel blend providing the decreasing of diesel fraction. However, the
DEE having lower viscosity value than those of biodiesel and diesel fuel
concentration of DEE was restricted with 10% since the engine could
(see Table 2) would anticipate physically in order to put out changed
not operate at higher loads. The engine performance, exhaust emissions
spray geometry which has a short breakup length and results in the
and combustion characteristics of all the tested fuel samples have been
improvement of mixing quality. What is more, the generation of the
investigated and the outcomes have been elaborately analyzed in
premixed gaseous mixture can take place with the help of the DEE
comparison with the unadulterated diesel fuel and B20 blend. The
addition into the blends because of high volatility properties. After-
significant findings of this experimental work have been meticulously
ward, it was taken into consideration that the vaporization of diesel fuel
presented as follows step by step:
droplets limits the blending. In the case of this assumption, the sig-
nificant factor becomes the enthalpy of vaporization rather than the
volatility of the fuel sample resulting in the extended physical delay. • When the BTE outcomes were examined, the tested binary and
ternary fuel blends showed lesser results as compared to the neat
The similar sort of findings was also highlighted by some of the re-
diesel fuel. The mean BTEs of the ternary blends were between
searchers at the point of the present aforementioned assertions. Patil
3.89% and 15.94% lower than the diesel fuel and between 0.48%
and Thipse [97], for instance, reported that the beginning of the com-
and 12.94% lower than the B20 blend. Indeed, the addition of DEE
bustion process inside the cylinder could be substantially affected from
into the blend caused to decrease in the BTE due to the energy
the DEE having a lower density, viscosity, and bulk modulus in the
content of the overall blend sample.
blend. Rakopoulos et al. [49] and Rakopoulos et al. [112] indicated that
the increasing concentration of DEE in the blends led to reduction in the • The almost similar inclinations were observed in the BSFC and
BSEC. It is noted to be that the increase of the concentration of DEE
dynamic injection timing and hence the process of fuel injection was
in the blend has led to increasing both the BSFC and BSEC in order
extended resulting in an increase the ignition delay period. Mohan et al.
to provide the fixed power output.
[113] put into words that the distinct densities and elasticity bulk
modulus of the samples effect the overall injection process. Un- • The mean EGTs of the ternary fuel blends were slightly lower than
that of diesel fuel while higher than that of the B20 binary blend.
fortunately, elasticity bulk modulus could not know and thus, it is
However, there is no momentous difference between the experi-
predicted to be at lesser than that of the diesel fuel and close to the
mental outcomes. This could be because of the fact that the DEE led

17
 Table 8
Comparative examination of DEE-cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel with earlier works.
Parameters Present study Swaminathan and Jagotra et al. Selvaraj and Jayaprabakar Nanthagopal et al. Senthil et al. Das et al. [98] Devaraj et al. Sivalakshmi and Venu and
Sarangan [54] [122] Thangavel et al. [63] [13] [123] [124] Balusamy [38] Madhavan [60]
[114]

Reference fuel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Neat biodiesel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Diesel fuel Neat biodiesel Diesel fuel
Biodiesel Cottonseed oil Fish oil Waste cooking Frying oil Neem oil Calophyllum Pongamia oil Karanja oil Mustard oil Neem oil Jatropha oil
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin

feedstock oil inophyllum oil

Form of blends Ternary blends Ternary blends Ternary Ternary blends Binary blends Ternary blends Ternary blends Ternary blends Binary blends Binary blends Quaternary
blends blends
The kind of DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE DEE, ethanol,
additive methanol
Composition of DEE-biodiesel- DEE-biodiesel-diesel DEE- DEE-biodiesel- DEE-biodiesel DEE-biodiesel-diesel DEE-biodiesel- DEE-biodiesel- DEE-biodiesel DEE-biodiesel DEE-ethanol-
blend diesel fuel fuel biodiesel- diesel fuel fuel eucalyptus oil diesel fuel biodiesel-diesel
diesel fuel fuel, DEE-
methanol-
biodiesel-diesel
fuel1
Concentrations 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3% 5% 5%, and 10% 10%, and 20% 5%, 7.5%, 10%, and 10% 10%, 20% and 10%, and 5%, 10%, and 5% and 10%
and 10% 12.5% 30% 20% 15%
Type of test Single-cylinder, Single-cylinder, four- Single- Single-cylinder, Single-cylinder, Single-cylinder, four- Single-cylinder, Single-cylinder, Single- Single-cylinder, Single-cylinder,
engine four-stroke, air- stroke, water-cooled, cylinder, four- four-stroke, four-stroke, air- stroke, water-cooled, four-stroke, four-stroke, cylinder, four-stroke, four-stroke, DI
cooled, naturally- DI diesel engine stroke, water- water-cooled, DI cooled, DI diesel DI diesel engine water-cooled, naturally- four-stroke, naturally- diesel engine
aspirated, DI diesel cooled, IDI diesel engine engine DI diesel engine aspirated, DI diesel engine aspirated, DI
engine diesel engine diesel engine diesel engine
Test conditions -Various engine -Various engine loads -Various -Various engine -Various engine -Various brake mean -Various loads -Various engine -Various -Various engine -Various engine
loads of 0 W, of 0%, 20%, 40%, engine loads loads of loads effective pressures of of 0 kg, 3 kg, loads of 20%, engine loads loads of 0 kW, loads of 0%, 25%,
500 W, 750 W, 60%, and 80%−15% of 20%, 40%, 0.95 kW, -At constant 0 bar, 1 bar, 2 bar, 6 kg, 9 kg, and 40%, 60%, 80% of 25%, 50%, 1 kW, 2 kW, 50%, 75%, and

18
1000 W, and of exhaust gas 60%, 80% and 1.8 kW, engine speed of 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar, 12 kg and 100% 75%, and 3 kW, and 3.5 kW 100%
1250 W recirculation 100% 2.63 kW, and 1500 rpm and 6 bar -At constant -At constant 100% -At constant -At constant
-At constant engine condition 3.74 kW -At constant engine engine speed of engine speed of engine speed of engine speed of
speed of 3000 rpm -At constant engine -At constant speed 1500 rpm 1500 rpm 1500 rpm 1500 rpm
speed of 1500 rpm engine speed of
1500 rpm
BTE ↓ ↔ ↑ ↓ – ↓ ↔ ↑ – ↑ –
BSFC ↑ ↑ ↔ ↑ – ↑ ↓ ↔ – ↓ For ethanol
blends ↑, for
methanol blends
↓
BSEC ↑ – – – – ↑ ↓ – – – –
EGT ↓ at high load – ↓ – – – ↓ – – – –
NOX emission ↓ ↓ ↔ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ For all blends ↓
CO2 emission ↓ at high load ↓ ↔ – – ↔ – ↓ ↓ – For all blends ↑
CO emission ↓ at low ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ – ↓ ↓ For all blends ↑
concentration
UHC emission ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ For all blends ↑
Smoke opacity ↓ – ↓ – ↓ at low loads ↑ ↓ – ↓ ↓ For ethanol
blends ↓, for
methanol blends
↑
In-cylinder ↓ at high loads – – ↓ – ↓ ↑ ↑ at lower – ↑ For ethanol
pressure blends blends ↑, for
methanol blends
↓
Heat release rate ↓ at high loads – – ↓ – ↓ ↑ ↑ – ↑ For ethanol
blends ↑, for
(continued on next page)
Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin Energy Conversion and Management 205 (2020) 112355

to withdraw the heat from the ambient due to the higher latent heat

methanol blends

methanol blends
Madhavan [60] of evaporation of DEE.
•

blends ↓, for
For ethanol
The mean CO2 emissions of diesel fuel, B20, B20DEE2.5, B20DEE5,
Venu and

B20DEE7.5, and B20DEE10 were found to be at 400.97 g/kWh,

↓ 332.31 g/kWh, 282.44 g/kWh, 282.32 g/kWh, 336.84 g/kWh, and

↑
380.63 g/kWh, respectively. This could be explained that the small
amount of carbon content and a higher amount of the oxygen con-
Sivalakshmi and
Balusamy [38]

tent of the DEE caused to mitigate the CO2 formation in the exhaust
gases.
• The average CO emissions of B20DEE2.5 and B20DEE5 were ob-
tained to be 31.86% and 32.29%, respectively lesser than that of
↓

diesel fuel while 21.79% and 22.47%, respectively lower than that
Devaraj et al.

of B20 blend. This is due to the combined influence of the inherent

oxygen content and the higher cetane number of the tested fuel
[124]

blends because the addition of biodiesel and DEE has caused to

–

improve the process of the combustion inside the cylinder and de-
Das et al. [98]

clines the formation of CO emission.

• The average oxides of nitrogen emissions of the tested ternary
blends were lower up to 8.84% than that of the pure diesel fuel. This
is mainly owing to the quenching effect of the DEE having high-
–

er latent heat of vaporization resulting in the temperature of com-

bustion.
•
Senthil et al.

The UHC emissions were decreased for all the ternary blends where
the peak reduction were calculated as 41.67% at the maximum
[123]

engine load for 2.5% of DEE fraction. This is due to the excess
–

oxygen molecule of the DEE structure because it could improve the

combustion process occurred inside the engine cylinder.
Nanthagopal et al.

• The least smoke opacity value was observed with B20DEE2.5 at the
maximum engine load operating condition and it was found to be at
10% DEE-methanol-biodiesel-diesel fuel was not tested in the engine at higher engine loads because of the viscosity.

8.07% lower than that of pure diesel fuel as well as 5.06% lower
than that of B20 blend.
[13]

• The combustion behaviors have been considered, the addition of

↑

DEE into the biodiesel-diesel fuel blend caused to reduce the in-
cylinder pressure and heat release rate at the highest engine load of
Jayaprabakar

1250 W. It can be noticed that the lesser density, viscosity, and bulk
et al. [63]

modulus of DEE have led to extending the combustion process. In

addition the higher latent heat of vaporization of DEE could de-
–

crease the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate.

• The ignition delay periods for the ternary blends increased when the
Selvaraj and

DEE concentration increased in the tested ternary blends according

Thangavel

to the diesel fuel despite the fact that the DEE has a higher cetane
[114]

number. This is mainly due to physical delay where it was expected

↓

that the altering of DEE concentration in the ternary blends would

result in varying physical properties
Jagotra et al.

Based on the whole outcomes of the present experimental study,

[122]

both the cottonseed oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blend and DEE-biodiesel-

–

diesel fuel blends could be evaluated for the compression-ignition en-

gine applications out of any modifications on the engine. It can be
Swaminathan and

concluded that the DEE could be an effective and inexpensive oxyge-

Sarangan [54]

nated additive owing to the aforementioned many substantial benefits.

The engine test results showed that the DEE can be used to decrease
exhaust emissions particularly the formation of NOX. However, these
tested fuel blends ought to be tried under several engine operating
–

conditions in further experiments. Besides that, thermodynamic, eco-

nomic and environmental analysis can be conducted to obtain accurate
results.
Present study

Declaration of Competing Interest

↑
Table 8 (continued)

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

Ignition delay
Parameters

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-

ence the work reported in this paper.
1

19
M.K. Yesilyurt and M. Aydin
Acknowledgements
The authors thank to Yozgat Bozok University (Turkey), and
Karabuk University (Turkey) for supporting this experimental study.
The authors would like to pay special thankfulness, warmth and ap-
preciation to Assoc. Professor M. ARSLAN, Head of Thermodynamic
Division, Mechanical Engineering, Yozgat Bozok University, Turkey, for
support, technical suggestions and continuous motivation during the
course of this work.
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