Descriptive and Inferential Statistic

Statistics and Introduction to Sampling

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Document Title Statistics and Introduction to Sampling
Author Mary Grace Amihan
Creation Date 18 February 2021
Last updated 19 February 2021

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Table of Contents
I. What is Statistics?..........................................................................................................................4
Types of Statistics in Math......................................................................................................................4
Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics................................................................................................5
Levels or Scales of Measurement............................................................................................................5
1st Level of Measurement: Nominal Scale.......................................................................................5
2nd Level of Measurement: Ordinal Scale......................................................................................6
3rd Level of Measurement: Interval Scale.......................................................................................6
4th Level of Measurement: Ratio Scale...........................................................................................6
Populations..............................................................................................................................................6
Target Population..............................................................................................................................6
Statistical Population.........................................................................................................................7
Sample.....................................................................................................................................................7
Parameter and Statistic: What is the Difference.......................................................................................7
II. Introduction to Sampling..............................................................................................................7
Census versus Sample Survey.................................................................................................................8
Reasons for Sampling..............................................................................................................................8
Errors in Survey Data..............................................................................................................................9
Methods of Sampling.............................................................................................................................10
Non-Probability Sampling..............................................................................................................10
Probability or Random Sampling...................................................................................................11
III. References................................................................................................................................12

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I. What is Statistics?

Statistics is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social
problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be
studied.

Types of Statistics in Math

Statistics have majorly categorized into two types:

1. Descriptive Statistics
In this type of statistics, the data is summarized through the given observations.
The summarization is one from a sample of the population using parameters such as
the mean or standard deviation.

Descriptive statistics is a way to organize, represent and describe a collection of data

using tables, graphs, and summary measures. For example, the collection of people in
a city using the internet or using Television.

2. Inferential Statistics
This type of statistics is used to interpret the meaning of Descriptive statistics.
That means once the data has been collected, analyzed and summarized then we
use these stats to describe the meaning of the collected data. Or we can say, it is
used to draw conclusions from the data that depends on random variations such as
observational errors, sampling variation, etc.

Inferential Statistics is a method which allows us to use information collected

from a sample to make decisions, predictions or inferences from a population. It
grants us permission to give statements which goes beyond the available data or
information. For example, deriving estimates from hypothetical research.

Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics

Parametric tests assume underlying statistical distributions in the data. Therefore, several
conditions of validity must be met so that the result of a parametric test is reliable. For

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example, Student’s t-test for two independent samples is reliable only if each sample
follows a normal distribution and if sample variances are homogeneous.

Nonparametric tests do not rely on any distribution. They can thus be applied even if
parametric conditions of validity are not met.

Levels or Scales of Measurement

To perform statistical analysis of data, it is important to first understand variables and
what should be measured using these variables. There are different levels of measurement
in statistics and data measured using them can be broadly classified into qualitative and
quantitative data.
The level of measurement of a variable decides the statistical test type to be used. The
mathematical nature of a variable or in other words, how a variable is measured is
considered as the level of measurement.

1st Level of Measurement: Nominal Scale

- is a naming scale, where variables are simply “named” or labeled, with no specific
order
- also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a scale used for labeling
variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t involve a quantitative value or order.
This scale is the simplest of the four variable measurement scales.

2nd Level of Measurement: Ordinal Scale

- has all its variables in a specific order, beyond just naming them
- can be presented in tabular or graphical formats for a researcher to conduct a
convenient analysis of collected data

3rd Level of Measurement: Interval Scale

- offers labels, order, as well as, a specific interval between each of its variable options
- defined as a numerical scale where the order of the variables is known as well as the
difference between these variables. Variables that have familiar, constant, and
computable differences are classified using the Interval scale. It is easy to remember
the primary role of this scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates ‘distance between two entities’,
which is what Interval scale helps in achieving
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4th Level of Measurement: Ratio Scale

- bears all the characteristics of an interval scale, in addition to that, it can also
accommodate the value of “zero” on any of its variables
- provides the most detailed information as researchers and statisticians can calculate
the central tendency using statistical techniques such as mean, median, mode

Populations
Population is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn. A population may
refer to an entire group of people, objects, events, hospital visits, or measurements. A population
can thus be said to be an aggregate observation of subjects grouped together by a common
feature.

Target Population
The target population is the group of individuals that the intervention intends to conduct
research in and draw conclusions from. In cost-effectiveness analysis, characteristics of
the target population and any subgroups should be described clearly.

Statistical Population
A statistical population can be a group of existing objects (e.g. the set of all stars within
the Milky Way galaxy) or a hypothetical and potentially infinite group of objects
conceived as a generalization from experience (e.g. the set of all possible hands in a game
of poker).

Sample
A sample is a smaller group taken from the population. The sample is the group of
elements that you will collect data from. It is a set of individuals or objects collected or
selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure.
The best way to avoid a biased or unrepresentative sample is to select a random sample,
also known as a probability sample. A random sample is defined as a sample where each
individual member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected as
part of the sample.

Parameter and Statistic: What is the Difference

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A parameter is a number describing a whole population (e.g., population mean), while a

statistic is a number describing a sample (e.g., sample mean.

II. Introduction to Sampling

Sampling is a statistical procedure that is concerned with the selection of the individual
observation; it helps us to make statistical inferences about the population. In sampling,
we assume that samples are drawn from the population and sample means and population
means are equal.

Census versus Sample Survey

In a census, data about all individual units (e.g. people or households) are collected in the
population. In a survey, data are only collected for a sub-part of the population; this part
is called a sample. Both data are then used to estimate the characteristics of the whole
population.

Reasons for Sampling

 Saves Time - Contacting everyone in a population takes time. And,

invariably, some people will not respond to the first effort at contacting them,
meaning researchers must invest more time for follow-up. Thus, sampling
saves researchers lots of time.

 Saves Money - The number of people a researcher contacts is directly

related to the cost of a study. Sampling saves money by allowing researchers
to gather the same answers from a sample that they would receive from the
population. Because all research is conducted on a budget, saving money is
important.

 Collect Richer Data - Sometimes, the goal of research is to collect a

little bit of data from a lot of people (e.g., an opinion poll). At other times, the
goal is to collect a lot of information from just a few people (e.g., a user study
or ethnographic interview). Either way, sampling allows researchers to ask
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participants more questions and to gather richer data than does contacting
everyone in a population.

Errors in Survey Data

 Sampling Variability
 Since the sample does not include all members of the population,
statistics of the sample (often known as estimators), such as means and
quartiles, generally differ from the statistics of the entire population
(known as parameters)

 Interviewer Effects
 Also called interviewer variance or interviewer error. It is the
distortion of response to a personal or telephone interview which
results from differential reactions to the social style and personality of
interviewers or to their presentation of questions.

 Frame Errors 
 In many practical situations the frame is a matter of choice to the
survey planner, and sometimes a critical one. Some very worthwhile
investigations are not undertaken at all because of the lack of an
apparent frame; others, because of faulty frames, have ended in a
disaster or in cloud of doubt.

 Response Bias
 It is a general term for a wide range of tendencies for participants to
respond inaccurately or falsely to questions.

 Non-Response Bias
 Also called as participation bias. It is a phenomenon in which the
results of a survey become non-representative because the participants
disproportionately possess certain traits which affect the outcome.

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Methods of Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
- involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you
to easily collect data

 Convenience Sampling - A convenience sample simply includes the

individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
 Judgement Sampling - Judgmental or Expert sampling is usually used
in situations where the target population comprises of highly intellectual
individuals who cannot be chosen by using any other probability or non-
probability sampling technique.
 Purposive Sampling - This type of sampling, also known as judgement
sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that
is most useful to the purposes of the research.
 Quota Sampling - Quota sampling is defined as a method in which
researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a population.
Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities.
They decide and create quotas so that the market research samples can be
useful in collecting data.

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Probability or Random Sampling

involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group

 Simple Random Sampling - In a simple random sample, every

member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population. Sampling based entirely
on chance.
 Systematic Random Sampling – This is like simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
 Stratified Random Sampling - Stratified sampling involves dividing
the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows
you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample. To use this sampling method, you divide
the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
 Multi-stage - Multistage sampling is defined as a sampling method that
divides the population into groups (or clusters) for conducting research. It is a
complex form of cluster sampling, sometimes, also known as multistage
cluster sampling. During this sampling method, significant clusters of the
selected people are split into sub-groups at various stages to make it simpler
for primary data collection.
 Cluster Random Sampling - Cluster sampling also involves dividing
the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

III. References

https://www.stat.uci.edu/what-is-statistics/

https://byjus.com/maths/types-of-statistics/

https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/research-methods/1b-statistical-methods/parametric-
nonparametric-tests#:~:text=Parametric%20tests%20are%20those%20that,used%20for%20non%2DNormal
%20variables.

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https://help.xlstat.com/s/article/what-is-the-difference-between-a-parametric-and-a-nonparametric-test?
language=en_US

https://www.questionpro.com/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/#:~:text=Nominal%20scale%20is%20a
%20naming,each%20of%20its%20variable%20options

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/population.asp

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128104910000242

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