Topic 5: Linear Transformations

FIN2009 Management Mathematics

Department of Finance
National Taiwan University

Dr. Sandy Lai

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 Transformations
A function, f, is a rule (usually defined by an equation) that takes
each element in a set A (called the domain) and associates it with
exactly one element in a set B (called the codomain).
• The notation that we’ll use to denote a function is f: A→B.
• It’s possible that some elements in B may not be associated
with any elements in A. The subset of elements in B that are
associated with elements in A is called the range of f.
We will focus on functions of the form, f: Rn →Rm .
• f takes elements (i.e., points or vectors) in Rn and associate
them with elements (i.e., points or vectors) in Rm .
• We say that f maps Rn into Rm .
• We can also say that f maps the element u in Rn to the
element v in Rm .
• Such kinds of functions are called transformations.

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 Linear transformations
Suppose that we have m functions of the following form,
𝑤 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥 )
𝑤 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥
…
𝑤 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥
• Each of these functions takes a point in Rn , namely (x1, x2 ,…,
xn ), and maps it to the number 𝑤 .
• We can now define a transformation T : Rn →Rm as follows,
𝑇 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥 𝑤 ,𝑤 ,…, 𝑤

Definition 1: A function T : Rn →Rm is called a linear

transformation if for all u and v in Rn and all scalars c, we have,
• 𝑇 𝐮 𝐯 𝑇 𝐮 𝑇 𝐯 , and
• 𝑇 𝑐𝐮 c𝑇 𝐮

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 Example: Transformations
Given 𝑤 3𝑥 4𝑥 , 𝑤 𝑥 2𝑥 , 𝑤 6𝑥 𝑥 ,𝑤 10𝑥
Define T : R2 →R4 as 𝑇 𝑥 , 𝑥 𝑤 ,𝑤 ,𝑤 , 𝑤

<Solution>
• If we evaluate T at x1= −5 and x2 =2, we get T (−5, 2) =
(−23,−1,−32, 20).

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 Example: Linear transformations
Determine if the following transformation is linear. Define 𝑇: ℝ →
ℝ as 𝑇 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 ,𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

<Solution>
𝑇 𝑐𝐮 𝑇 𝑐𝑢 , 𝑐𝑢 , 𝑐𝑢 4𝑐 𝑢 𝑐 𝑢 , 𝑐 𝑢 𝑐 𝑢 𝑢
𝑐 4𝑢 𝑢 , 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑐 𝑇 𝐮 𝑐𝑇 𝐮

• So T is not linear.

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 Example: Linear transformations
Determine if the following transformation is linear.
𝑤 3𝑥 4𝑥 Define 𝑇: ℝ → ℝ as
𝑤 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑇 𝑥 ,𝑥 𝑤 ,𝑤 ,𝑤 ,𝑤
𝑤 6𝑥 𝑥
𝑤 10𝑥

<Solution>
• We can write the system of linear equations in matrix form.
𝑤 3 4
𝑤 1 2 𝑥
𝑤 ⇒ 𝐰 𝐴𝐱
6 1 𝑥
𝑤 0 10
• Then, we can write the transformation as: T (x) = Ax.
• 𝑇 𝐮 𝐯 𝐴 𝐮 𝐯 𝐴𝐮 𝐴𝐯 𝑇 𝐮 𝑇 𝐯
• 𝑇 𝑐𝐮 𝐴 𝑐𝐮 𝑐 𝐴𝐮 𝑐𝑇 𝐮
• So, this transformation is a linear transformation. 6
 Matrix multiplication and linear transformation
Theorem 1: If A is an m×n matrix, then TA: Rn→Rm, defined as
TA(x)=Ax, is a linear transformation.
• TA is called the transformation induced by A.

<Proof>
• 𝑇 𝐮 𝐯 𝐴 𝐮 𝐯 𝐴𝐮 𝐴𝐯 𝑇 𝐮 𝑇 𝐯 .
• 𝑇 𝑐𝐮 𝐴 𝑐𝐮 𝑐𝐴𝐮 𝑐𝑇 𝐮 .

Theorem 2: Let T: Rn→Rm be a linear transformation. Then,

there exists an m×n matrix A such that T = TA.
• The matrix A is called the matrix induced by T.
• Sometimes we write A = [T].

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 Proof of Theorem 2
Let 𝐞 1,0,0, … , 0 , 𝐞 0,1,0, … , 0 , ⋯ ,𝐞 0,0,0, … , 1 be the
standard basis vectors for ℝ .
Define 𝐴 to be the 𝑚 𝑛 matrix whose 𝑖 th column is 𝑇 𝐞 . In other
words, 𝐴 is given by: 𝐴 𝑇 𝐞 𝑇 𝐞 ⋯ ∣𝑇 𝐞 .
Let 𝐱 be any vector from ℝ . We know that we can write 𝐱 in terms of the
standard basis vectors as follows,
𝑥
𝑥
𝐱 ⋮ 𝑥 𝐞 𝑥 𝐞 ⋯ 𝑥 𝐞
𝑥
𝑇 𝐱 𝑇 𝑥 𝐞 𝑇 𝑥 𝐞 ⋯ 𝑇 𝑥 𝐞
𝑇 𝐱 𝑥 𝑇 𝒆𝟏 𝑥 𝑇 𝐞 ⋯ 𝑥 𝑇 𝐞

𝑥
𝑥
𝑇 𝐱 𝑇 𝐞 𝑇 𝐞 ⋯ ∣𝑇 𝐞 ⋮
𝑥
𝑇 𝐱 𝐴𝐱 𝑇 𝐱
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 Zero and identity transformation
Zero transformation: It is the transformation T: Rn→Rm that
maps every vector x in Rn to the zero vector in Rm.
• T0(x)= 0m×n x = 0.
• To make it clear we’re using the zero transformation we
usually denote it by T0(x) .
• The matrix induced by this transformation is 0m×n.
• The second zero matrix in the equation has a size of 𝑚 1.

Identity transformation: It is the transformation T: Rn→Rn that

maps every x in Rn to itself.
• TI(x)= In x = x.
• We usually denote the identity transformation as TI(x).
• The matrix induced by the identity transformation is In.

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 Example: Reflection
Example: Determine the matrix induced by the following
reflections.
• (a) Reflection about the x-axis.
• (b) Reflection about the y-axis.
• (c) Reflection about the line y=x.
<Solution> 𝑦
𝑥, 𝑦
• (a) 𝐱
𝑥

𝐰 𝑇 𝐱 𝑥, 𝑦
The transformation will map x=(x, y) into w=(w1, w2). The system
of equations needed for this transformation are as follows:
• w1 = x
• w2 = y
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 • We can write the system of equations in matrix form as:
𝑤 1 0 𝑥
𝑤 0 1 𝑦

1 0
• So the matrix induced by this reflection is, .
0 1
𝑦
(b) 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦

𝐰 𝑇 𝐱 𝐱
𝑥

• The transformation will map x=(x, y) into w=(w1, w2).

• w1 =  x
• w2 = y
1 0
So the matrix induced by this reflection is, .
0 1 11
 𝑦
(c) 𝑦, 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

𝐰 𝑇 𝐱

𝑥, 𝑦

𝐱
𝑥

• The transformation will map x=(x, y) into w=(w1, w2).

• w1 = y
• w2 = x
So the matrix induced by this reflection is,
0 1
1 0

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 Linear transformation: Reflection
Reflections
Reflections Equations Induced Matrix
Reflection about 𝑥-axis in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1
Reflection about 𝑦-axis in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1
Reflection about line 𝑥 𝑦 in ℝ 𝑤 𝑦 0 1
𝑤 𝑥 1 0
Reflection about origin in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1
Reflection about 𝑥𝑦−plane in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1 0
𝑤 𝑧 0 0 1
Reflection about 𝑦𝑧-plane in ℝ

Reflection about 𝑥𝑧-plane in ℝ

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Linear transformation: Orthogonal projections
Orthogonal projection on x-axis Orthogonal projection on y-axis
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥, 𝑦
0, 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦
𝐱
𝐰
𝑥 𝐱
𝑥
𝐰 𝑥, 0

Orthogonal Projection Equations Induced Matrix

Projection on 𝑥-axis in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0
𝑤 0 0 0
Projection on 𝑦-axis in ℝ 𝑤 0 0 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1

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 Orthogonal Projection Equations Induced Matrix
Projection on 𝑥-axis in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0 0
𝑤 0 0 0 0
𝑤 0 0 0 0
Projection on y-axis in ℝ 𝑤 0 0 0 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1 0
𝑤 0 0 0 0
Projection on z-axis in ℝ 𝑤 0 0 0 0
𝑤 0 0 0 0
𝑤 𝑧 0 0 1
Projection on 𝑥𝑦−plane in ℝ 𝑤 𝑥 1 0 0
𝑤 𝑦 0 1 0
𝑤 0 0 0 0
Projection on 𝑦𝑧-plane in ℝ

Projection on 𝑥𝑧-plane in ℝ
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Linear transformation: Contractions & dilations
Contractions & Dilations: These transformations are really just
fancy names for scalar multiplication, w = c x, where c is a
nonnegative scalar. The transformation is called a contraction if
0 ≤ c ≤1 and a dilation if c ≥1.

Contraction/Dilation Equations Induced Matrix

Contraction/ Dilation in 𝑤 𝑐𝑥 c 0
ℝ 𝑤 𝑐𝑦 0 c
Contraction/ Dilation in 𝑤 𝑐𝑥 c 0 0
ℝ 𝑤 𝑐𝑦 0 c 0
𝑤 𝑐𝑧 0 0 𝑐

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 Linear transformation: Rotation
Rotations: Let’s start with a vector x in R2. We want to rotate x
through an angle  in the counter-clockwise manner as follows.
𝑦
𝐰 𝑤 ,𝑤

𝐫
𝐱 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜃
𝐫
𝛼 𝑥
From our basic knowledge of trigonometry, we know that
𝑥 𝑟cos𝛼 ; 𝑦 𝑟sin𝛼
𝑤 𝑟cos 𝛼 𝜃 ; 𝑤 𝑟sin 𝛼 𝜃
𝑤 𝑟 cos𝛼 cos𝜃 𝑟 sin𝛼 sin𝜃 𝑥cos𝜃 𝑦sin𝜃
𝑤 𝑟 sin𝛼 cos𝜃 𝑟 cos𝛼 sin𝜃 𝑥sin𝜃 𝑦cos𝜃
The induced matrix is,
cos𝜃 sin𝜃
sin𝜃 cos𝜃

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 Clockwise rotation
We want to rotate x through an angle  in the clockwise manner
as follows.
𝑦 𝐱 𝑥, 𝑦

𝐫 𝐰 𝑤 ,𝑤
𝜃 𝐫
𝛼 𝑥

From trigonometry, we know that

𝑥 𝑟cos𝛼 ; 𝑦 𝑟sin𝛼
𝑤 𝑟cos 𝛼 𝜃 ; 𝑤 𝑟sin 𝛼 𝜃
𝑤 𝑟 cos𝛼 cos𝜃 𝑟 sin𝛼 sin𝜃 𝑥cos𝜃 𝑦sin𝜃
𝑤 𝑟 sin𝛼 cos𝜃 𝑟 cos𝛼 sin𝜃 𝑥 sin𝜃 𝑦cos𝜃
The induced matrix is,
cos𝜃 sin𝜃
sin𝜃 cos𝜃
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 Direction of positive x-, y-, and z-axes
The direction of the z-axis is determined by the right-hand rule
as illustrated in Figure 2:
If you curl the fingers of your right hand around the z-axis in the
direction of a 90° counterclockwise rotation from the positive x-
axis to the positive y-axis, then your thumb points in the positive
direction of the z-axis.

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 Linear transformation: Rotation
Rotation Equations Induced Matrix
Counter-clockwise 𝑤 𝑥cos𝜃 𝑦sin𝜃 cos𝜃 sin𝜃
rotation through an 𝑤 𝑥sin𝜃 𝑦cos𝜃 sin𝜃 cos𝜃
angle 𝜃 in ℝ
Counter-clockwise 𝑤 𝑥 1 0 0
rotation through an 𝑤 𝑦cos𝜃 𝑧sin𝜃 0 cos𝜃 sin𝜃
angle 𝜃 about the 𝑤 𝑦sin𝜃 𝑧cos𝜃 0 sin𝜃 cos𝜃
positive x-axis in ℝ
Counter-clockwise
rotation through an
angle 𝜃 about the
positive y-axis in ℝ
Counter-clockwise
rotation through an
angle 𝜃 about the
positive z-axis in ℝ
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 Composition of linear transformations
Suppose that we have two linear transformations induced by the
matrices A and B, TA: Rn→Rk and TB: Rk→Rm. If we take any x out
of Rn and first apply TA to x and then apply TB to the result, we
will have a transformation from Rn to Rm . This process is called
composition of transformations.
• It is denoted as 𝑇 ∘ 𝑇 : Rn→ Rm.
• 𝑇 ∘𝑇 𝐱 𝑇 𝑇 𝐱 𝑇 𝐴𝐱 𝐵𝐴𝐱 𝐵𝐴 𝐱.
• That is, 𝑇 ∘ 𝑇 𝐱 𝐵𝐴 𝐱.
• So, the composition (i.e., 𝑇 ∘ 𝑇 ) of two linear transformations
is also a linear transformation.
• The matrix induced by this transformation is 𝐵𝐴.
Suppose we have another linear transformation TC: Rm→Rp. Then,
the composition, 𝑇 ∘ 𝑇 ∘ 𝑇 , will also be linear.

• 𝑇 ∘𝑇 ∘𝑇 𝐱 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐱 𝐶𝐵𝐴 𝐱
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 Example: Composition of linear transformations
Determine the matrix inducted by the composition of reflection
about the y-axis followed by reflection about the x-axis.

<Solution>
1 0
𝑇 :ℝ → ℝ 𝐴 reflection about 𝑦-axis
0 1

1 0
𝑇 :ℝ → ℝ 𝐵 reflection about 𝑥-axis
0 1

1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑇 ∘𝑇 𝐵𝐴
0 1 0 1 0 1

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 Example: Reflection and projection
Example: Determine the new point after applying the
transformation to the given point.
• (a) x = (2,−4,1) reflected about the xz-plane.
• (b) x = (10,7,−9) projected on the x-axis.
• (c) x = (10,7,−9) projected on the yz-plane.
<Solution>

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 Example: Rotation
Example: Determine the new point after applying the
transformation to the given point.
(a) x 2, 6 rotated 30∘ in the counter-clockwise direction.
(b) x 0,5,1 rotated 90∘ in the counter-clockwise direction about the 𝑦-axis.
(c) Rotate x = (4, 2) 45° counter-clockwise and then project on the x-axis.
<Solution>

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 Example: Dilation and projection
Example: Determine the new point after applying the
transformation to the given point.
(a) Dilate x = (4,−1,−3) by 2 (i.e. 2x) and then project on the y-axis.
(b) Project x = (4,−1,−3) on the y-axis and then dilate by 2.
(c) Project x = (4, 2) on the x-axis and the rotate by 45° counter-
clockwise.
<Solution>

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