PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

What is management? This is the application of planning, organization, staffing, directing

and controlling functions in the most efficient manner possible to accomplish meaningful
organizational objectives. Principles of management therefore are the activities that plan,
organize and control the operations of the basic elements of people, materials and giving
leadership to human efforts so as to achieve the sought objectives of a company.

Henri Fayol is referred to as the father of principles of management. This came about
after a company he was working for almost became bankrupt due to heavy losses that it
experienced during the year 1888. During his long and successful career, Fayol tried to
probe into the bottom of principles of administration and management. He also analyzed
the process of management as he observed it first-hand and his conclusion was that all the
work that was done in any business enterprise can be divided into six groups namely:
1. Technical activities. (Production, manufacture and adaptation)
2. Commercial activities. (Buying, selling, exchange)
3. Financial activities. (Search for optimum use of capital)
4. Security activities. (Protection of property and persons)
5. Managerial (administrative) activities. (Planning, organization, coordination)
6. Accounting activities. (Balance sheet, costs, statistics)
He believed that a company would work very well with the above six without neglecting
any of them. Fayol then devoted most of his attention to the managerial activities. He
came up with some principles which are known and used to date by managers as a
guideline to do their job according to their responsibility and they include:
1. Division of work.
2. Authority and responsibilities.
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of command.
5. Units of direction.
6. Subordination of individuals to general interests.
7. Remuneration.

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 8. Centralization of authority.
9. Scalar chain.
10. Order.
11. Equity of treatment.
12. Stability.
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de corpus.
1. Division of work.
Employees are specialized in different areas and they all have different skills. Different
levels of expertise can be distinguished within the knowledge areas, from generalist to
specialist. According to Henri Fayol, specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce
and increases productivity. Specialization of the workforce also increases their accuracy
and speed. This principle is applicable to both technical and managerial activities.
2. Authority and responsibilities.
According to Henri Fayol, there should be a balance between authority (power) and
responsibilities (duties.). The right to give orders should not be considered without
reference to responsibility.
3. Discipline.
This is the outward mark in accordance with formal and informal agreement between a
firm and its employees. It is the respect for rules and regulations of an organization and it
may be self-discipline or it may be enforced discipline. This principle of management is
essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine of an organization run smoothly.
4. Unity of command.
According to this principle, an employee should receive orders from only one superior,
who is the boss or the manager and is answerable to them. If tasks and related
responsibilities are given to the employee by more than one manager, this may lead to
confusion which may lead to possible conflicts for employees.
5. Units of direction.
This is when we have one head and one plan for a group of activities with the same
objective. All activities which have the same objective must be directed by one manager,

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and he must use one plan. Unity of direction means activities aimed at the same objective
should be organized so that there is one plan and one person in charge.
6. Subordination of individuals to general interests.
This is where the interest of one individual or one group should not prevail over the
general good. The individual interest should be given less importance, while the general
interest should be given the most importance. If this does not happen, it is most likely that
the company will collapse. The interest of the organizational goal should not be
compromised so as the interest of an individual or a group to be given consideration.
7. Remuneration.
Remuneration is the price for services received. Pay should be fair to both the employee
and the firm. If an organization wants efficient employees and best performance, then it
should have a good remuneration policy. This principle also argues the remuneration
should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive. There are two types of
remuneration which are: non-monetary which is a compliment, more responsibilities,
credits and monetary which involves compensation, bonus or other financial
compensation.
8. Centralization of authority
Centralization refers to the concentration of decision-making authority at the top
management. Sharing of authorities for the decision-making process with lower levels is
referred to as decentralization. Henri Fayol indicated that an organization should strive
for a good balance in this. In centralization, the authority is concentrated only in a few
hands unlike in decentralization where the authority is distributed to all levels of
management. If there is complete centralization, then the leaders will have no authority to
carry out their responsibility. Similarly, if there is complete decentralization, then the
superior will have no authority to control the organization. There should be a balance
between centralization and decentralization.
9. Scalar chain.
This is the chain of command. It is the formal line of authority, communication, and
responsibility within an organization. The chain of command helps to identify the
superior and subordinate relationships in the organizational structure. This chain
implements the unity-of-command principle and allows the orderly flow of information.

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 10. Order.
There should be an order for materials and people in an organization. According to this
principle, employees in an organization must have the right resources at their disposal so
that they can function properly in an organization.
11. Equity of treatment.
Equity is a combination of kindness and justice. Equity creates loyalty and devotion in
the employees toward the organization. The equity principle suggests that the managers
must be kind as well as equally fair to the subordinates.
12. Stability.
An employee needs to be given fair enough time to settle into their jobs. They need time
to learn their job and to become efficient. The employee should have job security because
instability leads to inefficiency. Successful firms usually have a stable group of
employees.
13. Initiative.
The employees should be encouraged to make their own plans and express new ideas.
This is because an initiative gives satisfaction to the employees and brings success to the
organization. Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization according
to Henri Fayol. This encourages the employees to be involved and interested.
14. Esprit de corpus
Esprit de Corps means “Team Spirit”. The management should create unity, co-operation,
and team-spirit among the employees. They should avoid dividing and rule policy.

HUMAN AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIP

Human and industrial relationship is the correlation between human and the industry,
it deals with how humans have relationship with the industry.

Industry- is defined as any systematic activity carried on by cooperation between an

employer and his workmen for the production supply or distribution of goods or services
with a view to satisfy human wants or wishes whether or not any capital has been
invented for the purpose of carrying on with a motive to make any gain or profit.

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It is therefore a whole gamut of activities that are carried on by an employer with the help
of his employees and labors for production and distribution of goods to earn profits.
Human relation with the industry, includes the employees, employers and how they
coordinate to make the working in the industry a success, this therefore brings about their
human relation with the industry.

Industrial relation has become one of the most delicate and complex problems of modern
times. Industrial progress is impossible without cooperation of labors and harmonious
relationship (human relation).
The term industrial relations comprise of two terms industry and relations. Industry refers
to any productive activity in which an individual or a group of individuals is (are)
engaged. By relation, we talk of relationship between Management and workers,
particularly group of workers represented by a union.

Industrial relations are therefore basically the interrelations between employers,

employees and the government, and the institutions and associates through which such
interactions are mediated.

Industrial relations have a broad as well as a narrow outlook; originally it is defined to

include the relationships and interactions between employers and employees, from this
perspective industrial relation covers all aspects of human relation.
In the narrower view, industrial relation has become more specific and restricted,
accordingly it pertains the study and practice of collective bargaining, trade unionism and
labor management relations.

It also includes the processes through which collective bargaining, workers participation
in decision making and grievances and dispute settlement, and the management of
conflict between employers, workers and trade unions are expressed when they arise.

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An industrial relationship system consistent of the whole gamut of relationship between
employers and employees which are managed by the means of conflict and cooperation.
A sound industrial relations system is one in which relationships between management
and employees (and their representatives) on one hand and between them and the state on
the other, are more harmonious and cooperative than conflicting and creates an
environment conducive to economic efficiency and the motivation, production and
development of the employees and generates employees loyalty and mutual trust.

ACTORS IN THE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS SYSTEM

There are three main parties directly involved:
i. Employer(s)- is a person/business that pays a wage or fixed payment to the
person(s) it employs in exchange for the services of such persons.
-they possess certain rights vis-ã-vis labors. They have the right to hire and fire
them. Management can also affect workers interests by exercising their right to
relocate, close or merge the factory or to introduce technology changes.
ii. Employee(s)- is a person hired by another person or business for a wage or fixed
payment in exchange for personal services and who does not provide the services
as part of an independent business.
- Workers seek to improve the terms and conditions of their employment. They
exchange views with management and voice their grievances. They also want to
share decision making powers of management. Workers generally united to form
unions against the management and get support from these unions.
iii. Government-The central and state government influences and regulate industrial
relations through laws, rules, agreement awards of courts and the likes.it also
includes third parties and labor and tribunal.

SCOPE
The concept of industrial relations has a very wide meaning and connotation.in the
narrower sense, it means that the employer, employee relationship confines itself to the
relationship that emerges out of the day to say association of the management and the
labor.

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In its wider sense, industrial relations include the relationship between an employer and
an employee in the course of the running of an industry and may project it to spheres
which may transgress to the areas of quality control, marketing, price fixation and
disposition of profit among others. The scope or industrial relation is quite vast. The main
issues involved here included the following:
i. Collective bargaining
ii. Machinery for settlement of industrial dispute.
iii. Standing orders.
iv. Workers participation in management
v. Unfair labor practices.

Importance of industrial relations

The healthy industrial relations are key to the progress and success.
i. uninterrupted production- it ensures continuity of production. This means,
continuously employment for all from manager to worker, the resources become
as well fully utilized, resulting in the maximum possible production. This this
result to uninterrupted flow of income for all.
ii. Reduction in industrial disputes- dispute are reflections of the failure of
basically human urges or motivation to secure adequate satisfaction or expression
which are fully cured by good industrial relations.
Strikes, lockouts, go-slow tactics, gherao and grievances are some of the
reflections of industrial un rest which do not spring up in an atmosphere of
industrial peace, it this helps promoting cooperation and increasing production.

iii. High morale- good industrial relations improved moral of the employees.
Employees work with great seal with the feeling in mind that the interest of
employer and employee is one and the same i.e. to increase production.
Every worker feels that he is a co-owner of the gains of the industry. The
employer in his turn must realize that the gains of industry are not for him alone
but they should be shared equally and generously with the workers.

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 High morale naturally affects production because mighty cooperative efforts
alone can produce great results.
iv. Mental revolution- the main objective of industrial relations is a complete mental
revolution of workers and employers. The industrial peace lies ultimately in a
transformed outlook on the part of both. It is the business of leadership in the
ranks of workers, employees and government to work out a new relationship in
consonance with a spirit of true democracy.
-Both should think themselves as partners of the industry and the role of workers
in such a partnership should be recognized on the other hand, workers must
recognize employee’s authority.
v. Reduced wastage- good industrial relations are maintained on the basis of
cooperation and recognition on the basis of cooperation and recognition of each
other.
It also helps increase production, wastage of man, material and machines are
reduced to the minimum this national interest is protected.
In conclusion, it is evident that good industrial relations are the basis of higher
production with minimum cost and higher profits.
It also results in increased efficiency of workers; new and new projects may be
introduced for the welfare of the workers and to promote the morale of the people
at work.
An economy organized for planned production and distribution, aiming at the
realization of social justice and welfare of the message can function effectively
only in an atmosphere of industrial peace.
If the twin objectives of rapid national development and increased social justice
are to be achieved, there must be harmonious relationship between management
and labor.

Objectives of industrial relations system

i. To improve the economic conditions of workers in the existing state of industrial

management and political management.
ii. Socialization of industries by making the state itself a major employer.

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 iii. To establish and promote the growth of an industrial democracy based on labor
partnership in the sharing of profits and of managerial decisions, so that band
individual’s personality may grow its full stature for the benefit of the industry
and of the country as well.
iv. To safeguard the interest of labor and management by security the highest level of
mutual understanding and good will among all those sections in the industry
which participate in the process of production.
v. To avoid industrial conflict or strife and develop harmonious relationship, which
are an essential factor in the productivity of workers and the industrial progress of
a country.
vi. To raise productivity to a higher level in an era of full employment by lessening
the tendency to high turnover and frequency absenteeism.

MOTIVATION
Motivation in the workplace environment explains the willingness to exert higher effort
levels towards the goals of the company.
Locke (as cited by Saari and Judge, 2004, p396) defined motivation as “a pleasurable or
positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job experiences”. This
definition draws attention to two aspects, in particular, namely the emotional attachment
an employee has to their job, and the deliberate review of an employee’s work by the
employer. According to David and Anderzej (2010), motivation can be understood as
cognitive decision making in which the intension is to make the behavior that is aimed at
achieving a certain goal through initiation and monitoring. At work places, reviews are
done using appraisals and appraisals at work have predetermined standards, and their
outcome may provoke an emotional reaction in the employee, and this reaction will
determine how satisfied or dissatisfied an employee is. Good marks in reviews may
reflect that an employee is satisfied and bad marks may reflect the opposite. In every
employee, motivation maybe because outside factors (extrinsic) such as rewards or within
an individual (intrinsic), desire to do better.
Job Satisfaction

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For us to help understand underpinnings to motivation, we must first explore what job
satisfaction means because motivated employees will have a job satisfaction. According
to Kumar and Singh (2011, p.12), job satisfaction (or the lack thereof) depended on the
employee’s perception of the degree to which his work delivers those things that he
desires – how well outcomes are met or expectations perhaps even exceeded. Regardless
of the actual circumstances and situation, job satisfaction is an emotional response that
cannot be seen, only inferred. Jehanzeb, Rasheed, Rasheed and Aamir (2012, p.274) held
a similar view, defined job satisfaction as “a sensation employees have about their work
environment and their expectations toward work”. Depending on the rewards and
incentives employees receive and management’s motives for giving them, employees will
respond to their work environment by being productive. Organisations must be seen to
support employees in their daily work in order to bring about loyalty and improve
retention by removing elements that may create dissatisfaction, while bearing in mind
that in a heterogeneous environment, with male and female employees from different age
groups, generations, and (to a certain extent) backgrounds, and with varying
qualifications or experience, no single element will produce either universal approbation
or collective disapproval. theories of motivation
Theories of Motivation
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Smith & Cronje (1992), the way Maslow’s theory is explained relies on the
fact that people want to increase what they want to achieve in life and their needs are
prioritized according to their importance. Deriving from the hierarchy of needs by
Maslow, content theories of job satisfaction revolve around employees’ needs and the
factors that bring them a reasonable degree of satisfaction (Saif et al., 2012). Based on the
basic physical, biological, social and psychological needs of human beings, Maslow came
up with a five-stage theory that places the needs of the individual in different categories
and prioritizes their attainment. These categories, in order of decreasing priority, are:

• Physiological needs (food, shelter, clothing);

• Safety and security needs (physical protection);
• Social needs (association with others);

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• Esteem needs (receiving acknowledgement from others); and
• Self-actualisation needs (the desire for accomplishment or to leave behind a legacy).

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs forms the basis of theories that try to explain job
satisfaction. Teachers, like all people, have needs that have to be satisfied. Besides the
basic needs for food, shelter and clothing, safety from physical, harm, and social
interaction, they also need the recognition and appreciation of students, colleagues, and
parents.theories of motivation
2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory/Motivator-Hygiene
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory, also known as Motivator-Hygiene, emanated from a study
conducted among accounts and engineers to determine what makes an individual feel
good or bad about their job (Saif et al., 2012). Regarding ‘satisfiers’, Herzberg noted that
there were five features of work that bring about satisfaction, namely achievement,
recognition, the job itself, responsibility and advancement. At the other end of the
spectrum, Herzberg identified institutional politics, the management approach,
supervision, pay, relationships at work and working conditions as factors that may
demoralize employees. Golshan, Kaswuri, Agashahi and Ismail (2011:12) assert that
organizations are increasingly applying Herzberg’s theory to create opportunities for
“personal growth, enrichment and recognition” among their employees. Employees
should be promoted after completing certain stages of their career and should receive
recognition for special achievements – for example, when they produce exceptional
results in their subject areas; on a more basic level, they should also be given
responsibility to determine how to handle tasks that relate to their jobs. The Two-factor
theory has however drawn its share of criticism. Golshan et al. (2011) point out that it
fails to distinguish between physical and psychological aspects and to precisely explain
what motivators are and how they differ from hygiene factors; it also fails to express the
degrees of satisfaction and dissatisfaction as a measure instead of using numbers.
Another criticism leveled against it is that it makes assumptions that every individual will
react in the same way in the similar situation.
3. McGregor’s X and Y Theories

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McGregor’s (1960) Theory X and Y models categorize employees as belonging to one of
two groups based on two sets of assumptions. Theory X assumptions take a negative
perspective of people: People can have “an inherent dislike for work and avoid it if
possible; because of this, they must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with
punishment to make them work. They prefer to be directed, avoid responsibility, have
little ambition, and want security” (Saif et al. 2012, p.138). Theory Y assumptions take
the opposite view: the mental and physical inputs expended at the workplace are equated
and par with those rest or play. External factors or any threats from outside may not be
the sole influence for exerting effort. Workers or people can exercise caution and
discipline to have objectives achieved, but the hunger in their desire to commit to
objectives is dependent on how big are the rewards as assigned to that kind of
achievement. Under normal circumstances, people can adapt to seek responsibility and
not only accept it (Saif et al., 2012, p.1357). Applying these assumptions to a school
environment, one could argue that two of the main causes of dissatisfaction among
teachers are having to deal with problem students and a strict and inconsiderate
management, for example a principal who is coercive and does not appreciate the efforts
of teachers, or an overly directive principal who never delegates or allows teachers to
make independent decisions. Conversely, a supportive principal may be a source of job
satisfaction to teachers (Alavi & Askaripur, 2003, p.312).
4. McClelland’s Need Achievement Theory
McClelland’s need achievement theory postulates that some people are driven to success
through seeking “personal achievement rather than rewards themselves” (Saif et al.,
2012, p.1387). This theory is readily applicable to academic environments and explains
why some teachers are high achievers, despite the difficulties they face: they set
themselves high goals and achieving these goals is what drives them. Alderfer’s ERG
theory is related to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs but reduces Maslow’s five categories of
a need to three; namely, relatedness being (esteem/social needs), then growth being (self-
actualization) and existence which is (security/physiological needs).
5. The Equity Theory
Process theories explain ‘how’ satisfaction comes about, as opposed to ‘what’ causes
motivation. The equity theory postulates that employees will weigh their input into a job

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against the output they receive from it – the more the rewards, the greater their
satisfaction. This resonates with Naveed et al. (2011, p.302) definition of job satisfaction
as the difference between employee input and job output. Regarding this theory,
employees who perceive that they receive more output from their jobs than what they put
into them will experience job satisfaction. Certain aspects of the job itself also shape how
an employee perceives it. Tasks that are clarified bring a better job satisfaction since a
clear role breeds a work force that is happy, committed and shows much involvement in
work that is done. Authors identified five major job characteristics that impact on the
psychological state of an employee and influence their motivation and job satisfaction, as
well as their levels of absenteeism, namely the variety of skills involved in a task, the
identity and significance of the task, autonomy, and feedback. Employees compare their
input-outcome ratio with that of other employees and if they perceive it to be fair,
employees will experience satisfaction (Robbins, 2007). If employees perceive an
inequity in their input-outcome ratio compared to other employees, they become
dissatisfied and less motivated. theories of motivation
6. Value – Percept Theory
Individual’s values determine their satisfaction on their job because employees in
organizations hold different value systems, therefore based on this theory, their
satisfaction levels will also differ. Having a look at Value – Percept theory, the
assumption is that the difference between expectations and what is received can bring
dissatisfaction depending on how important the job is to the individual (Anderson, Ones,
Sinangil & Viswesvaran, 2001, p.32). The potential problem with this theory is that there
is a possibility of a relationship between what people desire and what they consider
important. These concepts can be separable theoretically but practically hard to
differentiate.
7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Vrooms’s expectancy theory stipulates that behavior is a product of choices that are
available for to be prioritized. The idea is to derive satisfaction and minimize
dissatisfaction in employees. Individual factors such as personality and skills determine
performance (Wagner and Hollenburg, 2007). This theory also explains that performance,
motivation, and effort are within an individual’s motivation and variables such as

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valence, instrumentality, and expectancy verifies this. The higher the effort in work
relates to the higher the performance.
8. Porter-Lawler Model
This is a comprehensive and more complete theory of motivation which is inclusive of
diverse aspects. This model can give details of the fiber relation that exists between job
performance and attitudes which perfectly defines managers. The model also touches on
the assumptions of human behavior. The deductions of the model assume that individual
behavior is influenced by both internal and external factors, rational and make own
choices about their behavior, have different goals, desires and needs. Finally, individuals
decide between alternative behaviors (Wagner and Hollenburg, 2007). theories of
motivation
Risk Analysis of De-Motivated Employees in Organizations
Employees who lack motivation in the work places are a risk factor when it comes to
executing day to day operations of the business. Some employees are engaged in
company equipment and tools on a daily basis, some of which need maximum attention
and safety when using. So it is the responsibility of the organization to have a well-
balanced workforce of employees and their emotions as far as work issues are
concerned. theories of motivation
1. Operational Risks
Absenteeism: Van der Merwe and Miller (1988,) cite a definition used by the United
States Department of Labour which defines absenteeism as the failure of workers to
report on the job when they are scheduled to work. Regarding this definition, non-
attendance such as vacation leave, military service, block release leave and suspension do
not qualify as absenteeism and should be completely excluded from the ensuing
absenteeism analysis process. Levy (2006, p.412) provides a more comprehensive
definition in describing absenteeism as the chronic or continued failure of the employees
to attend for duty, especially when the pattern of absenteeism suggests that either the
absence is avoidable, or that the employees failed in their duty to the employer in
accordance with their contract of employment or common law duty to attend the place of
work regularly and reliably theories of motivation

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• Poor quality work: In terms of quality outputs and results, disgruntled employees will
not perform at their best hence produce shoddy products or services that will not be
competitive in the market thereby costing an organization.
• Toxic Work environment: Cordial and mutual relationship among employees will be
disrupted. Employee’s behaviour and attitudes will be affected since their moral is down.
2. Personnel Risks
It is the desire of organization to keep their staff for longer periods of time. Organisations
spend a lot of money and time in training their employees. High staff turnover due to
unhappy employees will cost the organization of all the spent resources. This will result
in disruptions of organization’s operations as replacement of staff will be needed as well
as more costs of another training for new employees. Strategic leadership is the critical
point in achieving companies objectives. The negative side of leaders can jeopardize the
firm’s operations (Hogan and Hogan 2001).
3. Reputational Risks
Dissatisfaction: The morale of the entire office can be brought down when one employee
lacks motivation. Employees who are not satisfied with their job might resort to quitting;
therefore, this scenario should be avoided. The employees are to perform to their abilities
in order to satisfy their customers and to retain them all the time. It is very easy for
customers to spread word of mouth about a company that they are not satisfied with its
performance, and the information can be spread very rapidly which can ruin the
company’s reputation. Leadership is very vital because according to Stankiewicz-Mroz
(2015), change in human resources will be expected, as well as re-evaluating the
paradigms. A managerial skill will be needed to pull people together for the reputation of
the company.
4. Environmental Risks
Employees who are not happy with the organization will manifest their dissatisfaction to
the outside world. Customers are bound to experience unwelcoming acts of aggression
and bitterness emanating from unhappy employees. Poor customer service will be the
order of the day among employees which will end up tarnishing the name of the business.
A company is bound to even follow international regulations not only it domestic laws

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(Darroux & Xixiang, 2013), even those that impact on the environment. theories of
motivation
5. Health Risks
Employees who are not entirely happy at work can have health problems including stress.
Stress related illnesses will jeopardize wellness efforts in the work place of keeping
healthy employees. Stressed and de-motivated employees may cause accidents at work
when using machineries and other dangerous tools. Work stress and other psychosocial
factors are recognized worldwide as a major challenge to workers’ health and the health
of organizations. All levels in the organization are be responsible for the safety of risks in
the company and help with avoidance of such risks (Tasmin and Salehudin,
2016). theories of motivation
6. Financial Risks
Employees who are highly motivated will always put their best efforts in their work and
help the company to be productive. Production at work will bear more output in which it
will be able to generate much needed income. If employees are happy absenteeism’s will
be reduced thereby saving costs for their organisations. Taylor (2009 & 2012) agree that
financial crisis can be because of economic circumstances, making it extremely difficult
for business to operate. This then will extend to difficulties in acquisitions. Again
according to Peter and Daniel (2013), Political influence, outside the context of deficit
accommodation, can also provide accommodation for specific fiscal policy
initiatives.theories of motivation
Importance of Motivation in the Workplace
Motivation can emanate from with an employee with a passion and desire to work and
produce results. This kind of motivation is self-driven by an employee in order to elevate
his feelings to accomplish. However, in extrinsic motivation, an external factor such as a
reward is used to boost the employee’s moral and desire to work. As is a normal case,
employees work in exchange for compensation for their hard labour but how far they go
depends on how motivated they are. According to Perry and Hondeghem (1999), the
individuals desire to perform, and provide services to customers, with the mandate to do
good is enough factor to motivate. Performance at work is related to the employees pay
of which the employee may not have control of that reward as it is external. Apart from

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rewards, there are other factors that are external such as promotion at work, security of
the job, salary increment that may give meaning to employees motivation. Therefore, for
organizations to continue existing and retaining its workforce, they must keep on working
on strategies that can help in motivating its employees. Motivated employees have a
sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization and always work hard to be associated
with the results of their labour. Motivation have effect on employees as individuals to
achieve and as well as ability to be innovative because they believe in themselves which
will benefit the organization to succeed (Yang Jie, 2010). A motivated worker is easy to
be retained hence saving the organization finances of replacing workers, also it
encourages workers to always achieve more on daily productions as they are having a
sense of security of their work. Management will have time to attend to other important
issues because their motivated workforce can build teams that can help with the
supervision and production of work.

Motivating factory workers

1. Encourage Bottom-Up Communication (and learn from it)
2. Find New Ways to Streamline Processes and Save Time 
3. Providing Ongoing Training and Upskill Support
4. Make Health and Safety Information More Accessible
5. Facilitate Fast Knowledge Transfer Through Digital Enablement

Conclusion
Motivation is very much needed for employees in an organisation to be productive, and
management or leadership style has an important role to play. Motivation is not always
based on financial rewards, but non-financial rewards methods can also be used to derive
the best out of employees. Although individuals have their expectations, it is the
leadership’s responsibility to develop and align with theories that are suitable to bring job
satisfaction to their employees. However, there is no single reliable theory to be used, a
mixture of them can be utilized. In terms of empowering workforce, employees should be
encouraged and given a platform to voice out their concerns on how they can be
motivated. Rewards and promotions following performance appraisals maybe used to

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boost employee’s moral as well as feedback. All employees should understand the
company’s vision and goals and work together towards those. In some organizations,
workers perform their duties in an assembly whereby if a certain section of employees is
affected it will affect the whole plant. Employees perform their duties diligently if they
are inspired and motivated as the results will always be positive with efficient production.
Organizations which are results oriented will go all the way to motivate their employees
for them to reach their goals. A further qualitative research on motivation strategies and
theories is recommended theories of motivation

LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act toward achieving a common
goal. In a business setting it can mean directing workers and colleagues with a strategy to
meet company needs. Leaders enable themselves and others to do the right things. They
set direction and build an inspiring vision.
Qualities of a Good Leader

1. He or she should have a positive attitude.

This can be done by remaining positive when things go wrong and by creating a relaxed
and happy atmosphere in the workplace. Even some simple things like providing snacks
or organizing a team Happy Hour can make a world of difference. An added perk is that
team members are likely to work harder and do overtime when needed if they’re happy
and appreciated.
2. Confidence

All great leaders have to exhibit an air of confidence if they’re going to succeed. Please
don’t confuse this with self-satisfaction and arrogance. You want people to look up to
you for inspiration, not so they can punch you in the face. Confidence is important
because people will be looking to you on how to behave, particularly if things aren’t
going 100% right. If you remain calm and poised, team members are far more likely to as
well. As a result, morale and productivity will remain high, and the problem will be

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solved more quickly. If you panic and give up, they will know immediately and things
will simply go downhill from there.
3. A Sense of Humor

It’s imperative for any kind of leader to have a sense of humor, particularly when things
go wrong. And they will. Your team members are going to be looking to you for how to
react in a seemingly dire situation. It would probably be best if you weren’t stringing up a
noose for yourself in the corner. You need to be able to laugh things off because if staff
morale goes down, so will productivity. Establish this environment prior to any kind of
meltdown by encouraging humor and personal discussions in the workplace.
4. Ability to Embrace Failure

Great leaders take them in strides. They remain calm and logically think through the
situation and utilize their resources. What they don’t do is fall apart and reveal to their
team how worried they are, which leads to negative morale, fear, and binge-drinking
under desks. Great leaders do, in fact, lead, even when they’re faced with setbacks.
5. Careful Listening and Feedback

Good communication skills are essential for a great leader. You may very well
understand the cave of crazy that is your brain, but that doesn’t mean that you can
adequately take the ideas out of it and explain them to someone else. The best leaders
need to be able to communicate clearly with the people around them. They also need to
be able to interpret other people properly and not take what they say personally.
6. Knowing How and When to Delegate

No matter how much you might want to, you can’t actually do everything yourself. Even
if you could, in a team environment that would be a terrible idea anyway. Good leaders
recognize that delegation does more than simply alleviate their own stress levels.
Delegating to others shows that you have confidence in their abilities, which
subsequently results in higher morale in the workplace, as well as loyalty from your staff.
They want to feel appreciated and trusted.
7. Growth Mindset

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Any good leader knows how important it is to develop the skills of those around them.
The best can recognize those skills early on. Not only will development make work easier
as they improve and grow, it will also foster morale. In addition, they may develop some
skills that you don’t possess that will be beneficial to the workplace. Great leaders share
their knowledge with the team and give them the opportunity to achieve. This is how
leaders gain their respect and loyalty.
8. Responsibility

Great leaders know that when it comes to their company, work place or whatever
situation they’re in, they need to take personal responsibility for failure. How can they
expect employees to hold themselves accountable if they themselves don’t? The best
leaders don’t make excuses; they take the blame and then work out how to fix the
problem as soon as possible. This proves that they’re trustworthy and possess integrity.
9. A Desire to Learn

It’s safe to say that all great leaders will have to enter unchartered waters at some point
during their career. Because of this, they have to be able to trust their intuition and draw
on past experiences to guide them. Great leaders know that there’s always something to
learn from everything they have experienced before. They are able to connect the present
challenges with the lessons learned in the past to make decisions and take actions
promptly.
Types of leadership
1. Democratic Leadership
Commonly Effective
Democratic leadership is exactly what it sounds like -- the leader makes decisions based
on the input of each team member. Although he or she makes the final call, each
employee has an equal say on a project's direction.
Democratic leadership is one of the most effective leadership styles because it allows
lower-level employees to exercise authority they'll need to use wisely in future positions
they might hold. It also resembles how decisions can be made in company board
meetings.

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For example, in a company board meeting, a democratic leader might give the team a few
decision-related options. They could then open a discussion about each option. After a
discussion, this leader might take the board's thoughts and feedback into consideration, or
they might open this decision up to a vote.
2. Autocratic Leadership
Rarely Effective
Autocratic leadership is the inverse of democratic leadership. In this leadership style, the
leader makes decisions without taking input from anyone who reports to them.
Employees are neither considered nor consulted prior to a direction, and are expected to
adhere to the decision at a time and pace stipulated by the leader.
An example of this could be when a manager changes the hours of work shifts for
multiple employees without consulting anyone -- especially the effected employees.
Frankly, this leadership style stinks. Most organizations today can't sustain such a
hegemonic culture without losing employees. It's best to keep leadership more open to
the intellect and perspective of the rest of the team.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Sometimes Effective
If you remember your high-school French, you'll accurately assume that laissez-faire
leadership is the least intrusive form of leadership. The French term "laissez faire"
literally translates to "let them do," and leaders who embrace it afford nearly all authority
to their employees.
In a young startup, for example, you might see a laissez-faire company founder who
makes no major office policies around work hours or deadlines. They might put full trust
into their employees while they focus on the overall workings of running the company.
Although laissez-faire leadership can empower employees by trusting them to work
however they'd like, it can limit their development and overlook critical company growth
opportunities. Therefore, it's important that this leadership style is kept in check.
4. Strategic Leadership
Commonly Effective

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Strategic leaders sit at the intersection between a company's main operations and its
growth opportunities. He or she accepts the burden of executive interests while ensuring
that current working conditions remain stable for everyone else.
This is a desirable leadership style in many companies because strategic thinking
supports multiple types of employees at once. However, leaders who operate this way can
set a dangerous precedent with respect to how many people they can support at once, and
what the best direction for the company really is if everyone is getting their way at all
times.
5. Transformational Leadership
Sometimes Effective
Transformational leadership is always "transforming" and improving upon the company's
conventions. Employees might have a basic set of tasks and goals that they complete
every week or month, but the leader is constantly pushing them outside of their comfort
zone.
When starting a job with this type of leader, all employees might get a list of goals to
reach, as well as deadlines for reaching them. While the goals might seem simple at first,
this manager might pick up the pace of deadlines or give you more and more challenging
goals as you grow with the company.
This is a highly encouraged form of leadership among growth-minded companies
because it motivates employees to see what they're capable of. But transformational
leaders can risk losing sight of everyone's individual learning curves if direct reports don't
receive the right coaching to guide them through new responsibilities.
6. Transactional Leadership
Sometimes Effective
Transactional leaders are fairly common today. These managers reward their employees
for precisely the work they do. A marketing team that receives a scheduled bonus for
helping generate a certain number of leads by the end of the quarter is a common
example of transactional leadership.
When starting a job with a transactional boss, you might receive an incentive plan that
motivates you to quickly master your regular job duties. For example, if you work in
marketing, you might receive a bonus for sending 10 marketing emails. On the other

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hand, a transformational leader might only offer you a bonus if your work results in a
large amount of newsletter subscriptions.
Transactional leadership helps establish roles and responsibilities for each employee, but
it can also encourage bare-minimum work if employees know how much their effort is
worth all the time. This leadership style can use incentive programs to motivate
employees, but they should be consistent with the company's goals and used in addition
to unscheduled gestures of appreciation.
7. Coach-Style Leadership
Commonly Effective
Similarly to a sports team's coach, this leader focuses on identifying and nurturing the
individual strengths of each member on his or her team. They also focus on strategies that
will enable their team work better together. This style offers strong similarities to
strategic and democratic leadership, but puts more emphasis on the growth and success
of individual employees.
Rather than forcing all employees to focus on similar skills and goals, this leader might
build a team where each employee has an expertise or skillset in something different. In
the longrun, this leader focuses on creating strong teams that can communicate well and
embrace each other's unique skillsets in order to get work done.
A manager with this leadership style might help employees improve on their strengths by
giving them new tasks to try, offering them guidance, or meeting to discuss constructive
feedback. They might also encourage one or more team members to expand on
their strengths by learning new skills from other teammates.
8. Bureaucratic Leadership
Rarely Effective
Bureaucratic leaders go by the books. This style of leadership might listen and consider
the input of employees -- unlike autocratic leadership -- but the leader tends to reject an
employee's input if it conflicts with company policy or past practices.
You may run into a bureaucratic leader at a larger, older, or traditional company. At these
companies, when a colleague or employee proposes a strong strategy that seems new or
non-traditional, bureaucratic leaders may reject it. Their resistance might be because the

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company has already been successful with current processes and trying something new
could waste time or resources if it doesn't work. 
Employees under this leadership style might not feel as controlled as they would under
autocratic leadership, but there is still a lack of freedom in how much people are able to
do in their roles. This can quickly shut down innovation, and is definitely not encouraged
for companies who are chasing ambitious goals and quick growth.

Leadership Style Assessment

Leaders can carry a mix of the above leadership styles depending on their industry and
the obstacles they face. At the root of these styles, according to leadership experts Bill
Torbert and David Rooke, are what are called "action logics."
These action logics assess "how [leaders] interpret their surroundings and react when
their power or safety is challenged."
That's the idea behind a popular management survey tool called the Leadership
Development Profile. Created by professor Torbert and psychologist Susanne Cook-
Greuter -- and featured in the book, Personal and Organizational Transformations --
the survey relies on a set of 36 open-ended sentence completion tasks to help researchers
better understand how leaders develop and grow.
Below, we've outlined six action logics using open-ended sentences that help describe
each one. See how much you agree with each sentence and, at the bottom, find out which
leadership style you uphold based on the action logics you most agreed with.
1. Individualist
The individualist, according to Rooke and Tolbert, is self-aware, creative, and
primarily focused on their own actions and development as opposed to overall
organizational performance. This action logic is exceptionally driven by the desire to
exceed personal goals and constantly improve their skills.
Here are some things an individualist might say:
I1. "A good leader should always trust their own intuition over established organizational
processes."
I2. "It's important to be able to relate to others so I can easily communicate complex
ideas to them."

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I3. "I'm more comfortable with progress than sustained success."
2. Strategist
Strategists are acutely aware of the environments in which they operate. They have a
deep understanding of the structures and processes that make their businesses tick, but
they're also able to consider these frameworks critically and evaluate what could be
improved.
Here are some things a strategist might say:
S1. "A good leader should always be able to build a consensus in divided groups."
S2. "It's important to help develop the organization as a whole, as well as the growth and
individual achievements of my direct reports."
S3. "Conflict is inevitable, but I'm knowledgeable enough about my team's personal and
professional relationships to handle the friction."
3. Alchemist
Rooke and Tolbert describe this charismatic action logic as the most highly evolved
and effective at managing organizational change. What distinguishes alchemists from
other action logics is their unique ability to see the big picture in everything, but also
fully understand the need to take details seriously. Under an alchemist leader, no
department or employee is overlooked.
Here are some things an alchemist might say:
A1. "A good leader helps their employees reach their highest potential, and possesses the
necessary empathy and moral awareness to get there."
A2. "It's important to make a profound and positive impact on whatever I'm working on."
A3. "I have a unique ability to balance short-term needs and long-term goals."
4. Opportunist
Opportunist are guided by a certain level of mistrust of others, relying on a facade of
control to keep their employees in line. "Opportunists tend to regard their bad behavior as
legitimate in the cut and thrust of an eye-for-an-eye world," Rooke and Tolbert write.
Here are some things an opportunist might say:
O1. "A good leader should always view others as potential competition to be bested, even
if it's at the expense of their professional development."
O2. "I reserve the right to reject the input of those who question or criticize my ideas."

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 5. Diplomat
Unlike the opportunist, the diplomat isn't concerned with competition or assuming
control over situations. Instead, this action logic seeks to cause minimal impact on their
organization by conforming to existing norms and completing their daily tasks with as
little friction as possible.
Here are some things a diplomat might say:
D1. "A good leader should always resist change since it risks causing instability among
their direct reports."
D2. "It's important to provide the 'social glue' in team situations, safely away from
conflict."
D3. "I tend to thrive in more team-oriented or supporting leadership roles."
6. Expert
The expert is a pro in their given field, constantly striving to perfect their knowledge of a
subject and perform to meet their own high expectations. Rooke and Tolbert
describe the expert as a talented individual contributor and a source of knowledge for the
team. But this action logic does lack something central to many good leaders: emotional
intelligence.
Here are some things a diplomat might say:
E1. "A good leader should prioritize their own pursuit of knowledge over the needs of the
organization and their direct reports."
E2. "When problem solving with others in the company, my opinion tends to be the
correct one."
Which Leader Are You?

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COMMUNICATION
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another, whether or
not it elicits confidence; but the information transferred must be understandable to the
receiver.
Types of communication
There are two types of communication based on channel;
1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
1. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is
transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and writing. Objective of
every communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey
Verbal Communication is further divided into two:
1. oral /spoken communication
2. written communication.
3. Oral/Spoken Communication

1. In oral communication,

Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic

conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. Examples of spoken
communication that is used in the workplace include conversations, interviews,
counseling/helping colleagues, meetings, conferences and so on (Wending Nah, 2008). In
oral communication, communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.

Advantages of Oral/spoken communication

i. Oral communication allows for immediate feedback such as the opportunity to

ask questions when the meaning is not entirely clear.

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 ii. The sender is able to check and see whether if the instruction is clear or has
created confusion.
iii. There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it
is interpersonal.
iv. There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for
allowing changes in the decisions previously taken.
v. Spoken instructions are flexible and easily adaptable to many diverse situations.
vi. The feedback is spontaneous in oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made
quickly without any delay.
vii. Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and
efforts.
viii. Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes
and many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
ix. Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
x. Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among
organizational employees

Disadvantages of Oral/spoken communication

i. Poor presentation of the message or the instruction can result in misunderstanding

and wrong responses.
ii. Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business
communication is formal and very organized.
iii. Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are
informal and not as organized as written communication.
iv. Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but
in case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at
times.
v. Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
vi. There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack
essentials.

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vii. It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
viii. Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal
records except in investigation work.
viii. Spoken communication is influenced by both verbal and non-verbal
communication such as tone or body language which may twist the meaning of
your message in the mind of the receiver.

b. Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written
message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be
transmitted via, letter, report, memo, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee
manuals, and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal
communication. For communicating with external environment in writing, electronic
mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts,
advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication

i. Written communication is good for complicated and vital instructions, which can
be given in a precise and uniform manner.
ii. Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and
rules for running of an organization.
iii. It is a permanent means of communication: written instructions can be used for
future references. Therefore, important where record maintenance is required
iv. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities.
v. Written communication is more precise and explicit
vi. It provides ready records and references.
vii. Legal defenses depend upon written communication as it provides valid records
viii. There is a lesser chance for the message to be misunderstood.
ix. Authority is transmitted more effectively with a written order than with an oral
one.

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Disadvantages of written communication

i. People may not always read them.

ii. Written communication takes time.
iii. It is impersonal or unfriendly.
iv. Written communication is expensive. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the
manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
v. Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The
encoding and sending of message takes time
vi. Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in
language and
vii. Too much paper work
viii. It does not answer questions and there is no immediate feedback.

Non-verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is behavior, other than spoken or written communication, that
creates or represents meaning. In other words, it includes facial expressions, body
movements, and gestures. Nonverbal communication is talking without speaking a word.
It is very effective, maybe even more so than speech.
Nonverbal communication has the following three elements: -
Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics Surrounding: room size, lighting,
decorations, furnishings
Body Language
Facial expressions, gestures, postures and how one stands is an important element of non-
verbal communication. For example, leaning towards a speaker indicates intense interest.
Frequently looking away from the speaker indicates disinterest or impatience

Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

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Functions of nonverbal communication
According to Argyle et al (1970) spoken language is normally used for communicating
information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish
and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to
communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally in order to avoid
embarrassing. Situations (Rosenthal, Robert and Bella (1979). Argyle (1988) concluded
that there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human
communication namely: -

i. Express emotions
ii. Express interpersonal attitudes
iii. To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and
listeners
iv. Self-evaluation
v. Rituals (greetings)

In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes, humans communicate interpersonal

closeness through a series of nonverbal actions known as immediacy behaviors.
Examples of immediacy behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye
contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact
cultures.

Advantages of non-verbal communication

I. You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.
ii. You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.
iii. You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being
communicated.
iv. You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you (for
example,
by gesturing)
v. Non-verbal communication makes conversation short and brief.
vi. Non-verbal communication saves on time and can be used as a tool to communicate

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with
people who don't understand your language

Disadvantages of non-verbal communication

i. Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.

ii. Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.
iii. Particulars of messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in
detail.
iv. It is not useful as a public tool for communication
v. It cannot be used everywhere and is less influential than verbal communication.

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they
both bears their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose
are:

i. Formal Communication
ii. Informal Communication

1. Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergo in formal pattern.
Informal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.

2. Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal

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communication organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted.
Usually informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal
communication, unlike formal grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

Factors to consider when choosing a communication media

There are many factors that the speaker has to consider before he/she chooses the media
for communication. Here are some of the factors to consider: -

i. Reliability

Reliability is of fundamental importance; it considers whether the message will get to the
intended destination. It is also important to consider how reliable it is in getting across the
ideas/message contained.

ii. The receiver

The medium selected should be one that can serve the communication needs of the
audience in terms of age, education background.

iii. Relationship with the receiver

The exact nature of relationship the sender has with the receiver influences the kind of
communication media to use.

iv. Confidentiality

Some messages are confidential and should be read or heard by the intended recipient
while others are less private. A letter for instance would be used for confidential
messages while memos, notices and oral messages can be used for less confidential
messages.

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 v. Cost

The channel selected should be cost effective in terms of time and money.

vi. Speed

The urgency of the message is important. The channel selected should be appropriate to
deliver the message within the expected time span. Speed is usually linked with cost too.

vii. Availability

The channel selected should be available both to the sender and the receiver.

Stages in the communication process

Communication Process can be defined as a procedure that is used to impart a message or
information from a sender to a receiver by using a medium of communication. The
message goes through five stages when it is sent by the sender to the receiver. These
stages are as follows: -

i. Sender -the sender is the entity that conveys or sends the message. At this stage,
an idea, thought or feeling is formulated in the mind of the sender as a result of an
external of internal stimulus or motivation.
ii. Message - is what is being transmitted from sender to receiver.
iii. Encoding - encoding is a process through which the message is symbolized. It
involves giving the message a communication form.
iv. Channel - channel is the medium through which message is being sent. The
sender selects the most appropriate and effective vehicle that will deliver the
message to the receiver. Communication channels may include websites, letters,
email, phone conversations.
v. Receiver - is the entity that receives the message.
vi. Decoding - decoding is the process in which the message is translated and
meaning is generated out of it.

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vii. Feedback - is the process through which receiver sends his response.

Communication cycle
Communication cycle is a process on how a message flows from one person to another.
Berglund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication indicating that
individuals are all together engaged in the sending and receiving of messages. At the
same time, Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) structured
model based on the following elements:
i. An information source, which produces a message.
ii. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
iii. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
iv. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
v. A destination, where the message arrives.

Barriers to communication

Communication is the answer to the success of any organization and if there are barriers
to its effectiveness, there will be frustration to the concerned parties. Communication
barriers can arise at every stage of the communication process that is from the sender, the
message, the channel, the receiver, the feedback and the context.

Meaning barriers exist between all people, making communication much more difficult
than most people seem to realize. It is false to assume that if one can talk, he can
communicate.
Barriers to communication are discussed here under: -

i. Physical barriers - Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the
environment. Example poor or outdated equipment, distractions, noise, poor
lighting etc.

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 ii. System design: System design faults refer to problems with the structures or
systems in place in an organization.
iii. Semantic barriers - semantic refers to meaning of language used. Often the same
word is interpreted by different people in different ways according to their mental
attitude and understanding. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can
result in confusion (J. Scott Armstrong, 1980).
iv. Physiological barriers -poor eye sight, hearing difficulties etc.
v. Socio-psychological barrier- Certain attitudes can also make communication
difficult. For instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus
on the present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper
effective communication
vi. Presentation of information- it is important to aid understanding. The
communicator should consider the audience before making the presentation by
simplifying them vocabulary so that the majority may understand.
vii. Environmental barrier - Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as
standing next to loud speakers at a party, pulling and moving of seats in a lecture
room, working in a factory etc.
viii. Physiological-Impairment barrier - Physical maladies that prevent effective
communication, such as deafness or blindness.
ix. Syntactical barrier - Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such
subject verb agreement, abrupt change in tense etc.
x. Organizational barriers - Poorly structured communication can prevent the
receiver from accurate interpretation.
xi. Cultural barrier: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings.

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