WORKSHOP ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

MOTION AND TIME STUDY

MOTION STUDY
Motion study is part of method study where analysis of the motion of an operator or work will be
studied.
Principles of Motion Study
There are a number of principles concerning the economy of movements which have been
developed as a result of experience and which forms the basis for the development of improved
methods at the workplace. These are first used by Frank Gilbreth, the founder of motion study
and further rearranged and amplified by Barnes, Maynard and others. The principles are grouped
into three headings:
a) Use of the human body.
b) Arrangement of workplace.
c) Design of tools and equipment.
Uses of the human body
When possible:
1. The two hands should begin and complete their movements at the same time.
2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during periods of rest.
3. Motions of the arms should be made simultaneously.
4. Hand and body motions should be made at the lowest classification at which it is possible
to do the work satisfactorily.
5. Momentum should be employed to help the worker, but should be reduced to a minimum
whenever it has to be overcome by muscular effort.
6. Continuous curved movements are to be preferred to straight line motions involving
sudden and changes in directions.
7. Ballistic (free swinging) movements are faster, easier and more accurate than restricted or
controlled movements.
8. Rhythm is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of a repetitive operation.
The work should be arranged to permit easy and natural rhythm wherever possible.
9. Work should be arranged so that eye movements are confined to a comfortable area,
without the need for frequent changes of focus.
Arrangement of the workplace
1. Definite and fixed stations should be provided for all tools and materials to permit habit
formation.
2. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned to reduce searching.
3. Gravity fed, bins and containers should be used to deliver the materials as close to the
point of use as possible.
4. Tools, materials and controls should be located within a maximum working area and as
near to the worker as possible.
5. Materials and tools should be arranged to permit the best sequence of motions.
6. ‘Drop deliveries’ or ejectors should be used wherever possible, so that the operative does
not have to use his hands to dispose of finished parts.
7. Provision should be made for adequate lightning, and a chair of type and height to permit
good posture should be provided. The height of the workplace and seat should be
arranged to allow alternate standing and seating.
Design of tools and equipments
1. The color of the workplace should contrast with that of work and thus reduce eye fatigue.
2. The hands should be relieved of all work of ‘holding’ the work piece where this can be
done by a jig or fixture or foot operated device.
3. Two or more tools should be combined where possible.
4. Where each finger performs some specific movement, as in typewriting, the load should
be distributed in accordance with the inherent capacities of the fingers.
5. Handles such as those used on screw drivers and cranks should be designed to permit
maximum surface of the hand to come in contact with the handle.
6. Levers, cross bars and wheel bars should be in such position that operator can manipulate
them with least body change and with greatest mechanical advantage.

Recording techniques of motion study

The techniques used in the motion study are as follows:
1. Macro Motion Study
a) Flow process chart
 b) Two handed process chart.
2. Micro Motion Study
a) Simultaneous Motion Cycle (SIMO) chart.

TIME STUDY
Time study is also called work measurement. It is essential for both planning and control of
operations.
According to British Standard Institute time study has been defined as “The application of
techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a
defined level of performance.”
Steps in making time study
Stop watch time is the basic technique for determining accurate time standards. They are
economical for repetitive type of work.
Steps in taking the time study are:
1. Select the work to be studied.
2. Obtain and record all the information available about the job, the operator and the
working conditions likely to affect the time study work.
3. Breakdown the operation into elements. An element is an instinct part of a specified
activity composed of one or more fundamental motions selected for convenience of
observation and timing.
4. Measure the time by means of a stop watch taken by the operator to perform each
element of the operation. Either continuous method or snap back method of timing could
be used.
5. At the same time, assess the operator’s effective speed of work relative to the observer’s
concept of ‘normal’ speed. This is called performance rating.
6. Adjust the observed time by rating factor to obtain normal time for each element
Normal = Observed time* Rating
100
7. Add the suitable allowances to compensate for fatigue, personal needs, contingencies etc.
to give standard time for each element.
8. Compute allowed time for the entire job by adding elemental standard times considering
frequency of occurrence of each element.
 9. Make a detailed job description describing the method for which the standard time is
established.
10. Test and review standards wherever necessary.
Standard Time
Standard time is the time allowed to an operator to carry out the specified task under specified
conditions and defined level of performance. The various allowances are added to the normal
time as applicable to get the standard time “Components standard time”.
Standard time may be defined as the, amount of time required to complete a unit of work:
(a) Under existing working conditions
(b) Using the specified method and machinery
(c) By an operator, able to the work in a proper manner
(d) At a standard pace.

The basic constituents of standard time are:

1. Elemental (observed time).
2. Performance rating to compensate for difference in pace of working.
3. Relaxation allowance.
4. Interference and contingency allowance.
5. Policy allowance.
ALLOWANCES
The normal time for an operation does not contain any allowances for the worker. It is
impossible to work throughout the day even though the most practicable, effective method has
been developed.
Even under the best working method situation, the job will still demand the expenditure of
human effort and some allowance must therefore be made for recovery from fatigue and for
relaxation. Allowances must also be made to enable the worker to attend to his personal needs.
The allowances are categorized as:

1. Relaxation allowance

2. Interference allowance

3. Contingency allowance.
1. Relaxation Allowance
Relaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.
Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with the
opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specified
work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. The amount of
allowance will depend on nature of the job.
Relaxation allowances are of two types: fixed allowances and variable allowances.
i. Fixed allowances constitute:
a) Personal needs allowance:
It is intended to compensate the operator for the time necessary to leave, the workplace to attend
to personal needs like drinking water, smoking, washing hands. Women require longer personal
allowance than men. A fair personal allowance is 5% for men, and 7% for women.
a) Allowances for basic fatigue:
This allowance is given to compensate for energy expended during working. A common figure
considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.
ii. Variable allowance
Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working under poor environmental
conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job. The variable
fatigue allowance is added to the fixed allowance to an operator who is engaged on medium and
heavy work and working under abnormal conditions. The amount of variable fatigue allowance
varies from organization to organization.
2. Interference Allowance
It is an allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the operator
for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous stoppage of two or more machines
being operated by him. This allowance is applicable for machine or process controlled jobs.
Interference allowance varies in proportion to number of machines assigned to the operator. The
interference of the machine increases the work content.
3. Contingency Allowance
A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a standard time
to meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays. The precise measurement of which is
uneconomical because of their infrequent or irregular occurrence.
This allowance provides for small unavoidable delays as well as for occasional minor extra
work: Some of the examples calling for contingency allowance are:

 Tool breakage involving removal of tool from the holder and all other activities to insert
new tool into the tool holder.
  Power failures of small duration.

 Obtaining the necessary tools and gauges from central tool store. Contingency allowance
should not exceed 5%.

EXAMPLE
Assuming that the total observed time for an operation of assembling an electric switch is 1.00
min. If the rating is 120%, find normal time. If an allowance of 10% is allowed for the operation,
determine the standard time.
Solution

Obsessed time or selected time = 1.00 min

Rating = 120 %
Allowance = 10 %

Normal time = Observed time * % rating

100
= 1.00 * 120/100 = 1.20 min

Allowance @ 10% = 1.20 * 10/100 = 0.12 min

Standard time = Normal time + Allowances

= 1.20 + 0.12 = 1.32 min

PRODUCTION METHODS
Production is about creating goods and services. Managers have to decide on the most efficient
way of organizing production for their particular product.

There are four different types of production methods:

1. Job or unit production.
3. Batch production
3. Flow or mass production.
4. Continuous or process production.
The selection of the type of production to be used is determined by various factors or various
reason which are; the type of commodity being manufactured, the supply of the raw material and
the demand of the product.
1. JOB OR UNIT PRODUCTION
This type of production process is mainly used for small scale production. Each item or unit is
produced at a time. In this production process, one item has to be fully processed before the start
of the next item. A typical example of the same will be tailored outfits which are made just for
you or a cake which is made just like you want it. Generally, this kind of production is used to
satisfy individual’s needs.
Example of job production process
1. Making of a dress by a tailor.
In most cases tailors makes dresses according to the preference of the customer. This preference
may be due to the size of the customer, colour preference and also the material preference. The
tailor has to complete this dress before taking or before he or she starts making the next dress.
2. Production of laptops in DELL companies.
In DELL companies, individuals are given the chance of designing their laptops on the dell
website (based on their preference) with the given specifications.
Features of Job Production Processes
1. Dependency is more on manual work more than mechanical work.
2. Customer care and customer management plays a major and important role.
3. This production process requires or depends a lot on skills

2. BATCH PRODUCTION PROCESS

Batch production process is completely different from job production. As the name suggests,
items in batch production are produced in batches. One batch has to be completed before the
production of the next batch commences. This type of production takes place in places where
large demand of a product is required and there is presence of a shortage. Example, a sanitizer
manufacturer might notice that there is in 250 ml amount sanitizers and the amount required is a
1000 sanitizers. The manufacturer will go back to the process and make the 1000 250-ml
sanitizers.
Examples of batch production process
Samsung is a big company of which produces a large number of appliances which include,
fridges, phones, microwaves and many other appliances. After a sale they can recognize that they
are deficient of 20 microwaves of which they need to manufacture. For them to satisfy the
customer or the market demands, they need to manufacture these 20 microwaves. The batch of
20 microwaves will be manufactured before moving to the next batch. So in batch production,
products of the same type are produced at the same time before moving to the next batch of
products for example fridges. The major factor which is consider in this type of production is the
demand of a commodity.
Features of batch type of production
1. Production is done in batches.
2. Total number of products to be manufactured is decided before the process starts.
3. Once the production of one batch commences, stopping midway may cost the company
greatly.
4. Demand plays a major role in batch production.
Advantages of Batch Production
1. Low initial investment.
In batch production a single machine is enough for production and hence there is no need to
purchase many machines for production.
2. There is risk reduction when using batch production.
3. It saves on time since commodities are processed or made as batches.
4. Through batch production time is also saved.

3. FLOW OR MASS PRODUCTION

This type of production is also called assembly point production. It is mainly adopted or used in
the automobile industries. It generally involves production of a mass or large number of
products. There are multiple workstations installed and the assembly line goes through all the
workstations turn by turn. The work is done in a specialized manner and each workstation is
responsible for one single type of work. As a result, these workstations are very efficient and
production due to which the whole assembly line becomes productive and efficient.
Commodities manufactured using this method are exactly the same.
Features of Flow Production
1. Flow production is generally used to produce large quantity of products.
2. It is only used if the products are standardized.
3. Demand does not play a major part in this kind of production but the quantity produced
determines the success of the company.
4. This kind of production requires high initial investment.
GROUP TECHNOLOGY (GT)
Introduction
Group technology is an approach in which similar parts are identified and grouped together in
order to take advantage of the similarities in design and production.
Group technology is also an approach to organizing manufacture which can be applied in any
industry (machining, welding, foundry, press work, forging, plastic molding, etc.) where small-
batch variety production is used. Grouping the production equipment into machine cells where
each cell specializes in the production of apart family is called cellular manufacturing.
Why implement Group Technology?
In a typical factory organized for small batch production, the machines are usually arranged
according to their function. For example, in a metal cutting industry, there may be a turning
section having lathes, a milling section having various types and sizes of milling machines and
so on. A component during manufacture may need to visit some or all of these sections, this
results in heavy loses of time due to the resetting of machines, as largely dissimilar parts may be
loaded successively, causing large queues of parts awaiting processing on each machine. This
may result in excessively high levels of work-in-progress and of stocks of finished goods kept in
an effort to insure against non-delivery which are very costly. It is therefore these problems with
which group technology is concerned to bring a solution.
GT is the realization that many problems are similar, and that by grouping similar problems, a
single solution can be found to a set of problems thus saving time and effort.
Objectives of Group Technology
1. To reduce tooling.
2. To increase equipment capitalization.
3. To increase part variety.
4. Material handling is reduced.
5. To improve scheduling.
6. To achieve close tolerance.
7. To increase variety of materials.
Key Characteristics of GT

 Components are classified into families.

 Work-loads are balanced between production groups.
 Production groups are clearly identifiable on the shop floor.
 Each group works with a significant degree of autonomy.
Group Technology involves the machining of parts in families. A component family, for
example type A, is a collection of similar or related geometrical shapes and/or size, all requiring
similar machining operations. Alternatively, a type B family may be dissimilar is shape though
related by having some machining operations in common and possibly other similarities such as
materials and accuracy limits.
GT may be implemented in three different ways:
1. The machining of an A type family on a group of different conventional machines.
2. The machining of A type and/or B type families on one or several similar conventional
machines.
3. The machining of a B type family on a group of different machines.
Note: A group of machines is an arrangement which enables that particular sequence of
operations to be performed within the confines of that group.
Advantage of GT manufacturing

 Involves less manufacturing flexibility.

 Increases the machine down time as machines are grouped as cells which may not be
functional throughout the whole process.
 There is more effective design and high-quality work done.
 There are less stock and fewer purchases.
 There is simplified production, planning and control.
 There is optimum sequencing and loading.
 Reduces tooling and set up times since similar parts are brought together on the same.
 There are reduced in-process inventories.
 There are shorter throughput times.
 Allows more utilization of expensive machines.
 Standardization of tooling, fixtures and setups is encouraged.
 Material handling is reduced.
 There is improved worker satisfaction within a cell.
 Improved plant replacement decision.
 Work in progress and finished stock levels are reduced.
 The output is improved due to improved resource utilization.
Disadvantages of Group Technology

 The cost of implementation is generally high. It requires a long set up and painful
debugging.
 May not be suitable for a large variety of products.
 There might be difficulties with out-of-cell operations.
 The range of product mix in a plant may be under constant change in which case the GT
cells may need a constant revision which is impractical.
 The entire production of the company cannot be put under the GT and hence GT will
have to coexist with the conventional layouts.
 Too many GT codes are used since no one code suits all applications.
QUALITY GONTROL (SPC)
Introduction
Statistical process control is a method of measuring and controlling quality by monitoring the
manufacturing process.
Statistical process control (SPC) can also be defined as a scientific, data-driven methodology for
monitoring, controlling and improving procedures and products.
This method involves collection of quality data. This quality data is collected in various form. It
can be in form of process, measurements, product or reading from various instrumentations.
This data can be used in evaluating, monitoring or controlling a process.
Importance of using statistical process control.
1. Monitors product quality in real time and spots variation.
2. Creates product of more uniform quality.
3.improves productivity and efficiency
4. Reduces costs of products, also the cost in handling customer's warranty claims.
5. Saves on time
6. Reduces variability and scrap.

How to use SPC

1. Determine Measurement Method.
Statistical Process Control is based on the analysis of data, so the first step is to decide what data
to collect. The data is then recorded on various types of control charts, based on the type of data
being collected. The data can be in form of a continuous variable data or attribute data.
Variable data comes from measurements on a continuous scale, such as: temperature, time etc.
Attribute data is based on upon discrete distinctions such as good/bad, percentage defective, or
number defective per hundred.
One of the most widely used control charts for variable data is the X-bar and R chart. X-bar
represents the average or “mean” value of the variable x. The X-bar chart displays the variation
in the sample means or averages. The Range chart shows the variation within the subgroup. The
range is simply the difference between the highest and lowest value.
The control charts used for attribute data is the P chart – For recording the number of defective
parts in a group of parts
U chart – For recording the number of defects in each part.
2. Qualify the Measurement System.
No measurement system is without measurement error. If that error exceeds an acceptable level,
the data cannot be acted upon reliably.
3. Initiate Data Collection and SPC Charting.
Develop a sampling plan to collect data (subgroups) in a random fashion at a determined
frequency.
4. Develop and Document Reaction Plan.
Each process charted should have a defined reaction plan to guide the actions to those using the
chart in the event of an out-of-control or out-of-specification condition. One simple way to
express the reaction plan is to create a flow chart with a reference number, and reference the flow
chart on the SPC chart.
5. Add Chart to Control Plan.
A control plan should be maintained that contains all pertinent information on each chart that is
maintained.
6. Calculate Control Limits.
7. Assess Control.
After establishing control limits, assess whether or not the process is in control (statistically
stable over time).
8. Analyze Data to Identify Root Cause and Correct.
If an out-of-control condition is noted, collect and analyze data to identify the root cause.
9. Design and Implement Actions to Improve Process Capability.
After identifying the root cause, you will want to design and implement actions to eliminate
special causes and improve the stability of the process.

CONTROL CHARTS
History of Control Charts
Control charts are simply statistical process control tool used to determine if a manufacturing or
business process is in a state of control. Control charts were first utilized in 1924 by Walter
Shewhart to aid the world of manufacturing. When total quality management (TQM) was
explored, W. Edwards Deming added elements to control charts to assess every area of a process
or organization. Walter Shewhart’s thought was that, “no matter how well the process is
designed, there exists a certain amount of nature variability in output measurements.”
Definition in the Modern World
In other words, these charts are graphical device for statistical process monitoring. They have
long been used in manufacturing, stock trading algorithms, and process improvement
methodologies like Six Sigma and Total Quality Management (TQM). They are also used for
setting upper and lower bounds of acceptable performance given normal variation.
They act as an alarm or, for instance a machine suddenly breaking on a factory floor or if
someone has a breakthrough that needs to be documented and standardized across the larger
organization. These helps the person in charge to know when something needs to be fixed or if
one is below the lower control limit or above the control limit.
Why use control charts?
According to KnowWare, the maker of QI Macros SPC Excel Software for Six Sigma “A control
chart tells you how much variation the process causes. A stable process produces predictable
results consistently.” An example of a control chart that shows an unstable process means
variables affected must be analyzed and controlled before the improvement process can begin.

Most examples of control charts consider two causes of fluctuation; common causes and special
causes. We could take baking a cake as an example of a common cause in a control chart. Even
though a recipe is followed to the letter, elements considered common causes might be types of
oven utilized or high elevation cooking—those items would be considered a common mishap if
the cake baking process failed. Essentially, if you don’t know the exact temperature of an older
oven or high elevation directions are not offered, it’s acceptable. Special causes in baking that
same cake might be a recipe that forgets the baking powder as a needed ingredient. The lack of
baking powder is a special cause as it “causes” the cake baking process to fail. Therefore, why
the cake baking process failed must first be discovered (lack of baking powder) and then
corrected.

Features of a Chart
1) Points representing a statistic (e.g. mean, range, proportion) of measurements of quality
characteristics in samples taken from the process at different times.
2) Calculation of the data. The calculation of the means is displayed
3) A cell center line drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic
4) Standard deviation of the statistic calculated using all the samples
5) Upper and lower control limits. They are used to indicate the threshold at which the
process output is considered statistically.
Types of Control Charts

i) U Chart – These variable types of control charts utilize an upper and lower range.
Elements falling in the upper range need attention and analysis in order for the
problem to be corrected.
ii) X-Bar & R Charts – These variable charts utilize the X-Bar or the Mean to determine
subgroups. The R or Range plots the subgroups based on upper and lower control
limits. X-Bar & R Charts are the most widely utilized charts in project management,
however, are only successful if 5 or less subgroups are analyzed.

iii) X-Bar & S Charts – Using this example of a variable control chart is effective for 5 or
more subgroups and the S or Standard Deviations are considered in both upper and
lower control limits based on the X-Bar or Mean.
 iv) p Control Charts – This attribute-type chart is effective when elements are not equal.
A p Control Chart might be used to determine how many accidents occur each day at a
chosen intersection.

v) c Control Charts – Another attribute-type control chart, the c Control Chart explores
elements that are nonconforming. A c Control Chart might be used to explore mass-
production of one similar product where the elements per unit do not conform to the
norm

JOB/WORK EVALUATION
Job evaluation is an activity carried out to compare jobs for assessment of their relative worth for
the purposes of establishing a rational pay structure. Reducing the dependence of arbitrary
methods of determining pay is the aim of job evaluation, this is done by introducing an element
of objectivity in the comparison methods of jobs. The relative worth produced are assumed to be
affected by variables such as; skill, responsibility, working conditions and effort. Most job
evaluation methods depend on subjective judgements such as justice, logic and equity, the
progressive refinement of job evaluation attempts to minimize the subjective element.
Important Features of Job Evaluation
Job evaluation has a purpose of producing a ranking of jobs which is defensible and a rational
and accepted pay structure can be built on.
The features of job evaluation include:
1. It attempts to assess jobs and not people.
2. Its standards are relative and not absolute.
3. Job evaluations are made based on information retrieved from job analysis.
4. They are out by groups of people as opposed to individuals.
5. Its committees utilize concepts such as fairness, logic and consistency in carrying out the
assessments.
6. It has an element of subjective judgement.
7. It does not determine pay scales, rather it provides evidences on which pay scales can be
devised.
Objectives of Job Evaluation
The main objective of job evaluation is determining relative worth of different jobs in a plant as
a basis of developing an equitable salary structure.
The objectives of job evaluation are to:
1. Provide standard procedure for determining relative worth of each job in a plant.
2. Determine equitable wage differentials between jobs in the plant.
3. Remove wage inequalities.
4. Ensure like wages are paid to employees that are qualified for like work.
 5. Provide information for work organization, selection of employees, training and
placement.

Methods of Job Evaluation

Job evaluation methods can be divided into two basic categories:
a. Non-analytical methods
b. Analytical methods.
Non-analytical methods take jobs and rank them as wholes whereas analytical methods break
jobs down and analyze them factor by factor. Analytical methods therefore provide more refined
measurement means compared to non-analytical methods.
a. Non-analytical Methods
There are two non-analytical methods that are widely used, these are job ranking and job
grading.
Job Ranking
Job ranking process includes selecting a representative of the sample of jobs, preparing their
basic descriptions, comparing them on the basis of the information in the description and ranking
them in order of their perceived importance.
The advantage of job ranking is that it is simple and cheap to operate while its disadvantage is
that it heavily relies on the subjective assessments of the evaluators.
Job Grading
This form of evaluation attempts to distinguish between work levels by establishing a small
number of general criteria by which specific jobs may be compared.
b. Analytical Methods
The most widely used analytical methods are the Points Rating Method and the Hay-MSL guide
chart system. These methods enable fairly subtle differences between job to be identified and
measured.
Advantages of Job Evaluation
1. It helps in developing an equitable and consistent wage and salary structure based on the
relative worth of jobs in a plant.
2. Job evaluation helps minimize conflict between labour unions and management since wage
differentials within the plant are eliminated in turn promoting harmonious relations between
the unions.
3. It makes wage administrations easier by establishing uniform wage rates.
4. It provides logical basis for wage negotiations and collective bargaining.
5. The information that job evaluation generates can be used for improvement of selection,
promotion and transfer procedures on the basis of comparative job requirements.
6. It helps rate jobs and determine the wages and salary at the same time removing ambiguity
in the jobs.
Drawbacks of Job Evaluation
1. It is susceptible to subjective judgement and human error.
2. There is a variation between wages fixed with job evaluation and market forces.
3. Job evaluation creates doubt in workers’ mind when introduced for the first time in the
organization
4. Job evaluation methods lack a scientific basis and this creates suspicion about the
efficacy of the methods of job evaluation.
5. Changes in the job contents and work conditions require frequent job evaluation which is
hard.
6. Job evaluation brings financial burden on an organization due to the frequent and
substantial changes in wage and salary structures.