Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

A GIS and remote sensing aided assessment of land use/cover changes in

resettlement areas; a case of ward 32 of Mazowe district, Zimbabwe
Mark Matsa, Oshneck Mupepi, Tatenda Musasa *, Rameck Defe
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Midlands State University, Zimbabwe

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The research assessed land use/cover changes and their socio-economic impacts on local resident farmers in ward
Land use/cover change 32 of Mazowe District. A mixed method research design that combines both qualitative and quantitative ap­
Mazowe district proaches was adopted. Questionnaires, interviews and observations were employed to gather data from the field.
Remote sensing
GIS and Remote sensing techniques were used for land use/cover change detection and calculations. Data
Resettlement
collected from the field was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 and
Microsoft excel. Arc map 10.5 was used to analyze Remote sensing data. Four major land use/covers namely
forest, grassland, water and cultivated were identified as baseline land covers of Mazowe ward 32 in 2000. The
research revealed that there has been significant loss in forest, grassland and wetland/water cover and gain in
cultivated and bare land cover between 2000 and 2018 in ward 32 of Mazowe District. Scarcity of high energy
tree species, fruit trees, construction poles and extinction of wild animals are some of the observed impacts of
forest cover loss. The study recommends that Mazowe EMA, RDC and Forestry Commission should cooperate in
monitoring natural resources in Mazowe District to ensure sustainable utilization.

1. Introduction In Latin America, approximately 70 percent of land that was previously

Globally, natural land cover is being modified into agriculture and
urban development or settlements (Agarwal et al., 2002; FAO, 2012;
Orimoloye et al., 2019). The total global reduction in forest land cover
was 9.5 million hectares per annum between 1990 and 2000 and 13.5
million hectares per annum between 2000 and 2005 (FAO, 2012). The
rate of agricultural expansion has been declining in most parts of the
world, whilst it has exponentially increased for Sub-Saharan Africa
(FAO, 2012). Research estimates indicate that, approximately 50
percent of the savanna, 70 percent of the grasslands, 27 percent of the
tropical forests and 45 percent of the temperate deciduous forests have
been cleared for agriculture respectively (Foley et al., 2011). Hansen,
Potapov, Moore, Hancher, Turubanova, Tyukavina, Townshend (2013)
posit that since the early 1980s, significant land use/cover changes have
been experienced due to anthropogenic activities.
In South America, significant forest conversion to other land uses
occurred between 1990 and 2000 (2.8 million ha per year) and between
2000 and 2005 (4.3 million ha per year). In Africa, there were statisti­
cally significant net annual forest area losses of 1.1 million ha between
1990 and 2000 and 2.7 million ha between 2000 and 2005 (FAO, 2012).
covered by the Amazon forest is used as pasture and crops. An estimated
70 percent of all grazing land in dry areas is considered degraded,
mainly due to compaction and soil erosion emanating from livestock
activities (FAO, 2006). Lambin, Geist, Lepers (2003) further stressed
that most of Africa and Latin America have increased their food pro­
duction through agricultural intensification. In USA between 1973 and
2000 a net loss of 4 percent of 1973 forest area, 33 percent increase in
developed land (residential, industrial, commercial, transportation and
parks), and 4 percent loss of agricultural land was experienced.
In West Africa the majority of countries have lost large tracts of
natural land cover which is being replaced by agriculture for food pro­
duction and income generation (Cotillon and Mathis, 2017; Megeyand
and Carole, 2013). The highest proportion of changes were observed in
Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin and Togo (Cotillon and Mathis, 2017). Rain
fed agriculture covered 10.7 percent in 1975, increasing to 22.4 percent
by 2013 (Cotillon and Mathis, 2017). Human settlement area increased
by 140 percent, especially along the coastal corridor. From 1975 to 2013
there was 24.6 percent loss of natural vegetation cover of the area in
western Africa (Cotillon and Mathis, 2017). The average rate of defor­
estation in the moist tropical forest of Central Africa was estimated at

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tatendamus14@gmail.com (T. Musasa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111312
Received 29 April 2020; Received in revised form 2 August 2020; Accepted 24 August 2020
Available online 11 September 2020
0301-4797/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Matsa et al.
2.5% from 2000 to 2012, or mean annual rate of 0.2%, much lower than
that of surrounding dry forest countries of Africa. FAO (2010) observed
that deforestation in Cameroon was at 1.02% and 1.07% for 2000–2005
and 2005–2010 respectively. Sub-Saharan Africa experienced a gradual
increase in the area covered by agriculture from 1975 to 2000. This has
occurred at the expense of forest cover and non-forest natural vegetation
(Orimoloye et al., 2019). In total this means that sub-Saharan Africa has
lost 8% of its natural vegetation over 25 years.
In Zimbabwe undisturbed land is becoming scarce and this is hugely
attributable to increasing agricultural expansion and demographic
pressures as a result of the Fast-Track Land Reform program (FTRLP)
(Tomlinson, 2006). In Zimbabwe, the Fast-Track Land Reform and
Resettlement Program resulted in a considerable number of black
farmers taking over formerly white owned farmland which was char­
acterized by vegetation and natural ecosystems. Before resettlement,
commercial farmers reserved most of the land for cattle or livestock
grazing which enabled natural replenishment of vegetated areas. During
this period, crop cultivation was minimal hence the natural land cover
was not threatened. According to the Forestry Commission (2010)
agriculture is encroaching most of virgin land in Zimbabwe as evidenced
by forest cover being reduced by 10.46% between 1992 and 2008, bush
land by 1.9% and wooded grassland by 0.53%, while cultivated areas
have increased by 13.76% over the whole country. A study by Matsa and
Muringaniza (2010) revealed that significant land use/cover changes
were experienced in Shurugwi district with a 9.4% decrease in vegeta­
tion cover between 1991 and 2000 and an accelerated decline of 11.6%
between 2000 and 2009 while agriculture gained more land. This was
attributed to the land distribution and resettlement program that
enabled many people to have access to land which they exposed to
various use patterns. This redistribution of land marked the genesis of
land cover modifications or changes as some of the naturally vegetated
Fig. 1. Ward 32 of mazowe district.
Source: Department of Geography and Environmental Studies (Midlands State University)
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Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
portions of land were and are still being cleared for myriad of reasons.
Resultantly, the pre-existing land cover or land use patterns were sub­
jected to some changes including changes in total surface area covered
by vegetation, cultivated land and natural grasslands among others. This
has therefore resulted in the proliferation of socio-economic impacts
such as scarcity of high energy tree species, fruit trees, construction
poles and extinction of wild animal. It is against this background that
this research assesses the land use and land cover changes in Ward 32 of
Mazowe district between 2000 and 2018 and the socio-economic im­
pacts of these changes on resident settlers.
2. Study area
Mazowe District is located in Mashonaland Central Province, 58 km
North West of Harare (Fig. 1). The district is divided into twenty-nine
wards, of which 16 of them are in new resettlement areas. Mazowe
has a total surface area of almost 453 892 ha and ward 32 has 7210 ha
(Chiweshe, 2010). The altitude varies from 1000 m to 1740 m above sea
level. The geology is related to the Great Dyke which consist of layered
mafic intrusions that are usually associated with economically impor­
tant metals such as chromium, nickel, copper, platinum, titanium, iron,
vanadium, and tin. Archean granitic and gneissose rocks, Bulawayan
metasediments, Shamvaian metasediments and Mashonaland dolerites
are the rocks which characterise the geology of Mazowe. Mazowe dis­
trict is in Middle Mazowe sub-catchment (Chikozho, 2008) where
Mazowe is the major river located 14 km north of Harare. It flows in a
northerly direction until its confluence with the Murodzi River 59 km
downstream.
The soils are derived from granite rocks that are rich in potassium
and from in-situ sediments of the iron-mask series and fine-grained
quartzo-felspathic meta –volcanism. Ortho ferralitic soils are also
M. Matsa et al.
found in Mazowe and Mvurwi areas where rainfall is greater than 900
mm per annum and have high clay content and are potentially pro­
ductive. In terms of vegetation, Ward 32 of Mazowe District is domi­
nated by Miombo woodlands that comprise of Brachystegia,
Julbernadia, and Isoberlinia species (Burgess et al., 2004; Zimudzi et al.,
2013). Acacia species and Combretum species also exist in the area.
Mazowe lies in agro-ecological region 2a and its climate is classified as
subtropical dry winter by the Köppen-Geiger system. In terms of pre­
cipitation, the area receives around 900 mm per annum from
mid-October to April. Crystalline basement rocks that typically have a
low primary permeability and low porosity characterizes the catchment.
The majority of people in Mazowe district are Shona speaking people
and are dominantly Christians. According to Zimbabwe National Sta­
tistics Agency (2012), Mazowe has a total population of 233 450 with a
distribution of 53.62/km2. Females constitute 50.2% (117 195) of the
entire population due to high male out migration as males constitute
49.8% (116 255) of the total population. Productive population
(16–64years) constitutes 55.5%, followed by a young population (0–15
years) constituting 40.8% and the elderly (65+ years) constituting 3.7%
of the population. Of the total population of the district, 97.2% are rural
and only 2.8% are urban. Economic activities carried out near Conces­
sion and Dandamera business centers include agriculture, mining and
vending. Gwebi River which flows through the district provides water
for irrigation and also an opportunity for gold panning. Chrome mining
at Caesar, Great Dyke and Muswenhede areas create opportunities for
employment (Government of Zimbabwe, 2006). Crop production and
livestock rearing are some of the economic activities practiced in
resettlement areas both at commercial and subsistence levels.
3. Materials and methods
A mixed method research design which combines both quantitative
and qualitative techniques of data collection was adopted in this study.
Qualitative data was obtained from key informant interviews and open-
ended questions of the questionnaire so as to complement the quanti­
tative approach. GIS and Remote sensing tools (raster calculator, and
attribute table statistics computation) which were used to quantify land
use/cover changes between 2000 and 2018 constituted the quantitative
techniques in this study. Closed ended questions of the questionnaire
were part of the quantitative techniques of data collection in this
research.
To determine the sample for this research, a 20% sampling frame was
adopted. A good sampling frame should provide a full range of the el­
ements of population thus sampling frames ranging between 10 and
30% provide reliable results (Frederic, 2015). A 20% sample was
extracted from 385 households in ward 32 which translates to 77
households. The researchers adopted simple random sampling to
distribute the questionnaires to 77 sampled households. Purposive
sampling technique was used to select fifteen interviewees as they had
better knowledge on the nature of land use/cover changes in the study
area. Key informant interviewees included the Mazowe RDC community
development officer, Environmental Management Agency environ­
mental officer, Forestry commission extension officer, all 10 ward 32
village heads and ward 32 Councilor.
Field observations were adopted to detect land use/cover changes in
ward 32 of Mazowe District. They assisted the researcher to confirm or
refute data collected through questionnaires, interviews and from clas­
sified Landsat images. To understand the land use/cover changes and
their effects to local resettled farmers at ward level, the researchers had
a walk around the ward to confirm the changes in the whole ward. The
impacts of changes on local settlers at ward level were confirmed
through questionnaires and interviews. Ground truthing points were
collected using a GPS during the observation exercise and were used to
assess accuracy of classified images.
Three Landsat images were downloaded for September 2000
(Landsat 5), September 2008 (Landsat 5) and October 2018 (Landsat 8).
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Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
All these images had a path of 170, row of 72 and spatial resolution of 30
square meters. Images of the same season (late spring) were chosen to
ensure comparison of images taken under uniform conditions (low hu­
midity, less cloud cover and acquired under more incident solar radia­
tion). Late spring images were chosen because they are usually
associated with low humidity and less cloud cover, hence images ac­
quired under these conditions have less distortions unlike those from
winter and late summer (Matsa and Muringaniza, 2010). Priority was
given to the magnitude of cloud cover (all images had cloud cover less
than 10%) on acquisition dates to ensure high degree of accuracy. All
these images were acquired from the USGS (United States Geological
Survey) website and were captured using the Thematic Mapper (TM).
Since the images were downloaded in a compressed.tar.gz format,
WinZip software was used to extract data from.tar.gz format (Matsa and
Muringaniza, 2010). Radiometric corrections were done to correct
radiometric errors emanating from detection variations within the
sensor. Geometric corrections (georeferencing) were also done to
remove distortions in the imagery such as mis-aligned scan lines and
non-uniform pixel sizes. Downloaded Landsat images were converted to
composite bands. Each of the 2000, 2008 and 2018 Landsat image’s (tiff
format) bands were imported to ArcMap 10.5 and its no data value re­
gion was removed (cleaning). Composite band image for each Landsat
image was created using the data analysis tool. The Mazowe ward 32
shape file was extracted from the Mazowe district shape file that was
created using the Zimbabwe districts and wards datasets.
Supervised classification method was used in this research and pixel-
wise classification technique was adopted as it assumes each pixel is
pure and typically labeled to represent a single land use/cover type (Xu
et al., 2005). User defined land cover classes (training data) derived
from the visual interpretation of the color composites achieved from the
bands and the spectral signatures obtained from training samples were
also used as regions of interests (ROI). ArcMap 10.5 was used to perform
supervised image classification whereby land-use/cover classes were
extracted from a multiband raster image by classifying the images ac­
cording to their digital numbers (DNs). Training sites of the chosen
classes were selected using prior knowledge of the study area and Google
Earth. The training sites were distributed throughout the study area
taking sub-classes of the main categories. The sub-classes include
densely forested areas, sparsely forested areas, grasslands, cultivation,
bare lands and water bodies. Spectral signatures of individual land
use/cover classes were developed based on selected training sites that
were merged. To perform supervised image classification and assess
classification accuracy, the authors had to use their knowledge about the
landscape under scrutiny to complement aerial photography interpre­
tation. After supervised classification by maximum likelihood the clas­
sified images were then masked using the shape-file of the study area to
produce raster images.
Post classification was done through accuracy assessment and
computation of class statistics and changes in ArcMap 10.5. Ground
truth regions of interest were used to assess the classified maps accuracy
using the confusion matrix. The regions of interest for each classified
image were exported and saved as shape-files which were then used to
create maps in ArcGIS 10.5. Calculation of the percentage area coverage
of each class was conducted by adding 2 fields in the ArcMap 10.5
attribute table of the classified images, showing number of pixels
belonging to each class. For percentage calculation the attribute table
was exported to Microsoft excel where area covered by each class was
determined by multiplying the number of pixels belonging to that class
by area of a single pixel (30 m by 30 m spatial resolution of Landsat
image).
Qualitative data on socio-economic impacts of land use/cover
changes were coded using the string and numeric options of the SPSS
25.0 version. Qualitative data in the form of responses from interviewed
key informants from EMA, Forestry commission and others were
grouped into similar categories and labeled in order to analyze com­
ments which showed data that was not numerical in nature. The SPSS
M. Matsa et al.
was used to generate percentages and variables which were vitally used
during creation of graphs and charts using Microsoft Excel Package.
Data on socio-economic impacts of changes in each individual land use/
cover obtained through questionnaires, interviews and observations
were presented using graphs and tables created using Microsoft Excel
Package. Pictures taken during field observations were used to explain
variables where they were necessary. Quantitative data on land use/
cover changes generated using GIS and Remote Sensing tools were
exported to Microsoft excel for further analysis and to calculate per­
centage changes. Microsoft excel was used to create pie charts showing
percentage cover for each land cover, bar graphs showing changes in
each land use/cover from 2000 to 2018 and tabulation of the results.
Thematic maps of classified Landsat images generated using ArcMap
10.5 were used to present the changes in land use/cover changes be­
tween 2000 and 2008 and between 2008 and 2018.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Mazowe ward 32 land cover in 2000
Four major land use/cover categories were identified in ward 32 of
Mazowe district and they include forested land, cultivated land + bare,
grassland, and water (Table 1). GIS and remote sensing measurements
confirmed that, prior to the Fast Track Land Reform program, cultivated
and bare land cover was the largest constituting 46% of total land cover
of Mazowe ward 32, followed by forested land constituting 32% of total
land cover, grassland covering 21% and water being the smallest land
cover constituting 1% of total land cover in 2000. Interviews with EMA
Environmental Officer, Forestry extension officer and RDC community
development officer confirmed the existence of these four land covers
before resettlement in 2001. Village heads from all 10 villages in
Mazowe ward 32 confirmed that grasslands, forests, water bodies and
cultivated + bare lands existed at the time of settlement.
4.1.1. Changes in land use/cover between year 2000 and 2018
Before 2000, forests were protected under commercial farmers
whose dependence on wood was not significant hence forest land cover
was large covering 2352.06 ha. Cultivated + bare land (3288.96 ha) was
the largest with commercial farms dominating (Fig. 2).
Grassland (1509.75) occupied significant portion of land since some
portions of it were set aside for grazing by white commercial farmers.
Before resettlement, water bodies constituted 55.62 ha of 2000 land
cover probably because most of the wetlands were not yet converted to
agriculture and were being protected by commercial farmers.
In 2008, cultivation (3990.69 ha) was the largest land cover (Fig. 3).
This was after land reform program when small scale farmers were given
plots on once commercially owned farms. In an interview, the RDC
Community development officer mentioned that, an increase in culti­
vated and bare land and decrease in forests and grassland is attributed to
clearing of virgin land for settlements and farming by newly resettled
farmers. Grassland cover in 2008 had declined to 845.91 ha. The EMA
officer stressed that most of the grasslands were invaded by cultivation
and settlements, a phenomenon which resulted in decrease in grassland
and increase in cultivation land cover. Water cover has also declined,
most probably due to climate change and cultivation of wetlands.
1n 2018, cultivated + bare land had increased to 5059.89 ha, forest
had declined to 1320.57 ha, grassland had decreased to 791.91 and
Table 1
Land cover class of Mazowe ward 32 in 2000.
Land cover class Percentage of area cover (%)
Cultivated + bare 46
Forested 32
Grassland 21
Water 1
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Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
water cover had declined to 34.02 ha (Fig. 4). Farmers had increased in
numbers, most of them had expanded their plots which contributed to
increase in cultivated + bare land and decrease in grassland and forested
land cover. In an interview, the Crops and Livestock Officer confirmed
that cattle population outweighed the available grazing lands (over­
grazing) which contributed to an increase in bare land and decline in
grasslands due to overgrazing. Water had dropped to 34.02 ha by 2018
due to drying up of wetlands as a result of a combination of climate
change and human activities including brick moulding especially at
Sable peak and cultivation of wetlands as confirmed through
observation.
Map calculations confirmed significant changes in all land covers
during the studied two time periods, 2000 to 2008 and 2008 to 2018
(Fig. 5). Only cultivated and bare land cover experienced a positive
change. Cultivated + bare land covered an area of 2288.96 ha in 2000
and an area of 3990.69 ha in 2008 which was a 21.3% gain in cultivated
+ bare land over this period. Forested land cover was initially 2352.06
ha in 2000 and 2330.73 ha in 2008 representing a 0.9% decrease in
forest cover during the same period. Grassland cover experienced a
decrease from 1509.75 ha in 2000 to 845.91 ha in 2008 representing
44% decrease in grassland cover over the same period (Table 2). In
2000, water bodies covered 55.62 ha but in 2008 the cover decreased to
39.06 corresponding to 29.8% loss in water cover Table 2.
Between 2008 and 2018, cultivated + bare land increased from
3990.69 to 5059.89 respectively representing a 26.8% increase in
cultivated + bare land. Forest cover declined from 2330.73 ha in 2008 to
1320.57 ha in 2018, a 43.3% loss in forest cover over that period
(Table 2). Grassland cover also experienced loss from 845.91 ha in 2008
to 791.91 ha in 2018 which is 6.4% loss in grassland between these two
time periods. Water cover declined from 39.06 ha in 2008 to 34.02 ha in
2018 which represents 12.6% loss in water cover between 2008 and
2018 (Table 2).
4.2. Nature of land use/cover changes in ward 32 between 2000 and
2010
All questionnaire respondents supported land cover trend results of
classified images, confirming an increase in cultivated and bare land
cover at the expense of grasslands, forest and water land covers. Fifty-six
percent of farmers increased their plot size by between 0.5 and 4 ha in an
effort to boost their yields whereas 44% of the farmers kept their plot
size unchanged from time of plot allocation to 2018 (Table 3).
Of all farmers who have increased their plot sizes, 45.5% increased
their plot sizes into grasslands, 27.2% increased their plot sizes into
forested land and the remaining 27.3% increased their plots at the
expense of both grassland and forested land covers. As signified by some
famers expanding their farmlands into grasslands and forested land,
cultivated land increased at the expense of grassland and forest land
cover. However due to degradation of wetlands as a result of agricultural
activities and climate change, water cover experienced a decline. An
interview with EMA environmental officer confirmed that 137 out of
157 mapped wetlands (87%) were degraded in Mashonaland Central
Province, with 17% of the degraded wetlands located in Mazowe dis­
trict. A research by EMA in 2014, established that human interference is
the major cause of wetland degradation in Mazowe though some
climatological factors are playing a role. Observations confirmed silta­
tion of some rivers and small dams and conversion of some wetlands to
brick moulding grounds as the case on Sable Peak farm. The researchers
also observed expansion of cultivated land into grasslands at Wormwood
village and into forested lands at Hermistone village. All these have
contribution to increase in cultivated and bare land as well as shrinking
of water bodies, forests and grasslands as confirmed by calculations on
classified images.
M. Matsa et al.
Fig. 2. Classified map of Mazowe ward 32 in 2000.
Source: Remote sensing data (2019)
4.3. Socio-economic impacts of land cover changes on local farmers in
mazowe ward 32
All questionnaire respondents indicated that they derive socio-
economic benefits from grasslands, water bodies, forests and crop
cultivation. However, due to some changes in these land use/covers
some socio-economic benefits have been and are still being affected
except for benefits accruing to expansion of cultivated land for crop
production. Though 100% of farmers have increased their plot size for
the reason of increasing yields fulfilled their desires, all questionnaire
respondents showed that some grassland and forest benefits have been
sacrificed largely to expansion of area under cultivation.
4.3.1. Benefits of increase in area under cultivation
Of the 56% questionnaire respondents who have contributed to in­
crease in area under cultivation by increasing their plot sizes, 10%, 40%
and 50% increased their maize yields by between 1 and 15%, 16–30%
and over 31% respectively between 2001 and 2018 (Table 4). For those
who have extended their soya bean hectares, 31%, 30% and 39%
managed to increase their yields by 1–15%, 16–30% and above 30%
respectively. For tobacco, 3%, 75% and 22% of questionnaire re­
spondents boosted their yields by between 1 and 15%, 16–30% and
above 30% respectively. The majority (76%) of ground nuts growers
increased their yields by 1–15% followed by 22% who increased their
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Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
yields by 16–30% and a few (2%) who boosted ground nut yields by over
30%. Of the round nut growers, 55%, 10% and 5% increased their yields
by 1–15%, 16–30% and over 30% respectively. Yields for maize, tobacco
and soya beans increased more significantly due to expansion of culti­
vated land compared to yields for ground nuts and round nuts (Table 2)
(see Table 4). This signifies significant socio-economic benefits for those
who have increased their plot sizes despite encroachment into grassland
cover.
4.3.2. Impacts of forest cover decrease on farmers in ward 32 of mazowe
district
Scarcity of high energy tree species is the major impact of forest
cover decrease as confirmed by 100% of questionnaire respondents
Fig. 6. Interviews with village heads for Ndiri East, Sable Peak and
Hemistone villages confirmed severe challenges of firewood for tobacco
curing and other domestic uses in their villages as a result of
deforestation.
Ninety-five percent (95%) of the respondents highlighted scarcity of
meat providing animals. Interviews with Village heads in Mazowe ward
32 showed that some of the animals which used to provide meat to
villagers are becoming extinct. In an interview, Wormwood village head
remarked: “Tichangosvika kuno hataimbofamba kuenda kure tichivhima
kuti tisangane nemhuka asi ikozvino mhuka dzakatama, nhoro (Kudus),
mabimha (Duikers) nenguruve (wild pigs) hazvichawanika sekare kana
M. Matsa et al.
Fig. 3. Classified map of Mazowe ward 32 in 2008.
Source: Remote sensing data (2019)
nevana vatava kubereka havachaziva kuzviona”. This statement from
wormwood village head supports that animals for provisioning of meat
have become extinct in ward 32 of Mazowe district.
Questionnaire respondents (96.1%) showed that wild fruit trees are
now fewer than in the previous years (Fig. 6). Therefore, a decrease in
fruit trees has socio-economic impacts on resettled farmers in ward 32 of
Mazowe district. The Ward councilor, also concurred that most of the
people who used to sell mazhanje (Mahobohobo), have been affected by a
decline in these tree species in the ward.
Ninety-one percent (91%) and eighty four percent (84%) of the re­
spondents reported extinction of Mikonono (Terminalia velutina) and
Mupembere (Combretum arbuscula) tree species that they used to make
yokes, skeis and good quality construction poles. Ndiri East village head
explained that people from his village travel almost 5 km to obtain
roofing and kraal construction poles at Meadows farm in ward 25 which
was not the case in the previous years. Moreover, 6.5% and 19.5% of
respondents who derive economic benefits from selling construction
poles and yokes respectively are being affected by forest cover decline
attributed to deforestation.
Seventy nine percent (79%) of respondents highlighted loss of some
herbal tree species. In an interview, Kilma village head reported that
mutiti (Erythrina gibbsae) and mubvamaropa (Pterocarpus erinaceus) tree
species which they traditionally use to cure livestock diarrhea are now
scarce. Eighty four percent (84%) of the respondents reported increased
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Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
conflicts on access to forest resources. In an interview, Ndiri East village
head complained that “Vanhu veku Wormwood vanouya kuno vachitsvaka
huswa asi havadi kuti tinotemawo huni kwavo”. The village head made it
clear that firewood and construction poles are no longer readily avail­
able at Ndiri East and they are always in conflict with Wormwood village
residents when they try to obtain forest resources at Wormwood village
forest. However, Wormwood village head in an interview retorted:
“vakaparadza kwavo ikozvino vanoda kuparadza kweduwo”. This village
head insisted that they are trying to conserve the remaining trees in their
forest but people from other villages are coming to destroy thus leading
to conflicts.
Moreover, 72.7% of respondents have shown that quality of cured
tobacco is declining due to use of low energy tree species as an alter­
native to scarcity of high energy tree species. Village heads for Sable
peak and Ardura villages reported that they no longer have Brachystegia
Spiciformis and Julbernardia Globiflora tree species good for tobacco
curing so they are resorting to the remaining Ficus and Acacia trees
which are of lower energy value. This points out that deforestation has
affected agriculture activities especially tobacco curing as farmers resort
to low value wood trees.
4.3.3. Impacts of grassland cover decline
All questionnaire respondents highlighted that there is inadequate
grazing land to support livestock production. Ninety-one percent (91%)
M. Matsa et al.
Fig. 4. Classified map of Mazowe ward 32 in 2018.
Source: Remote sensing data (2019)
of the questionnaire respondents reported a decline in meat quality
when they sell cattle at abattoirs since their livestock only depend on
natural grazing land (Table 5). About 44.2% pointed out that livestock
loss has been experienced since resettlement, a phenomenon they
attributed to inadequate food, livestock diseases, especially during dry
the period.
Since the majority of farmers use grass for roofing their huts and
sheds, 83.3% of respondents highlighted that there is now scarcity of
quality thatch grass which they used to find in areas which are now
overgrazed or cultivated. This clearly shows that grassland cover loss,
has significantly affected the livelihoods of communities in ward 32 of
Mazowe district due reduction in benefits derived from grassland. Forty-
seven percent of the respondents highlighted that there is limited grass
for mulching in gardens. In an interview, Roanflats village head
explained that the tsinde grass species which they usually use to mulch
their tobacco seedbeds is now scarce in the ward so they travel to
Makumbiri Mountain which is in ward 25 to collect this grass. Over
sixty-eight percent of the respondents who benefit from selling thatch
grass have been dealt an economic blow due to grassland shrinking. This
demonstrates that human-environmental interaction has been compro­
mised due to reduced spectrum of goods and services.
Grazing land access related conflicts were reported by 76.6% of the
questionnaire respondents. In an interview, the Crops and Livestock
7
Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312
Officer revealed that; grazing land access conflicts have been experi­
enced between Sable peak villagers and the neighboring Mozgrand
village. More so, 83.3% of the questionnaire respondents reported cases
of crop raiding by livestock as most of the fields are now closer to
grazing lands while some are now within the grazing lands.
4.3.4. Impacts of land cover changes on traditions and norms
Interviews conducted with Village heads revealed that; land cover
changes experienced had a significant bearing on water sustainability
and forest cover. Ndiri East village head reported that ancestral spirits in
the Ndiri Mountain were complaining through masvikiro (spirit me­
diums) since their habitat (densely forested areas of the mountain) was
under threat due to deforestation. During an interview, he remarked;
“Varidzi venzvimbo vakatsamwa nekuti zunde ramambo raparara. Gomo iri
rinoera asi vave kurima mujinga maro vachibvisa ruvanzo rwemasimboti”.
In his statement the village head highlighted that traditional norms and
systems of the area are being affected by forest decline in Ndiri Moun­
tain. Wormwood village head also complained that “madziva atairasira
shato aoma ikozvino dzave kuurawa dzichiiswa pakaoma saka mvura hai­
naye zvakanaka”.
Sable peak village head also highlighted that some tree species such
as muhacha (Parinari mobola Oliv),mitowa (Grewia cordata) and mutara
(Gardenia asperula Stapf & Hutch)which people of Masowe Echishanu use
M. Matsa et al. Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312

Fig. 5. Trends in land cover changes in ward 32 between 2000 and 2018.
Source: Remote sensing data (2019)

Table 2
Trends and rates of land cover changes in Mazowe ward 32 between 2000 and 2018.
Land cover Area cover Area cover Change (Ha) Percentage change Area cover Change (Ha) Percentage change
Class (Ha) for 2000 (Ha) for 2008 between 2000 and between 2000 and 2008 (Ha) for 2018 between 2008 and between 2008 and 2018
2008 2018

Water 55.62 39.06 − 16.56 − 29.8 34.02 5.04 − 12.9

Forested 2352.06 2330.73 − 21.33 − 0.9 1320.57 − 1000 − 43.3
Grassland 1509.75 845.91 − 663.84 − 44.0 791.91 − 54 − 6.4
cultivated + 2288.96 3990.69 701.73 21.3 5059.89 1069.2 26.8
Bare

Source: Primary data (2019)

Table 3 Table 4
Hectare increase between 2000 and 2018. Percentage increase in crop yields for Mazowe ward 32 farmers.
Plot size increase in hectares Percentage of respondents (%) Maize

0.5 23.3 Category of percentage yield increment 1–15% 16–30% 31% and above
1 27.9
Percentage of questionnaire 10% 40% 50%
1.5 14
respondents
2 20.9
Soya beans
2.5 2.3
Category of percentage yield 1–15% 16–30% 31% and
3 7
increment above
4 4.7
Percentage of questionnaire 31% 31% 39%
respondents
Tobacco
for healing are going extinct and some pools which they used to dip each Category of percentage yield 1–15% 16–30% 31% and
other for cleansing are no longer conducive because they are now increment above
shallow. The above information from village heads supports that land Percentage of questionnaire 3% 75% 22%
cover changes have impacts on norms and traditions of local people. respondents
Ground nuts
Category of percentage yield 1–15% 16–30% 31% and
5. Conclusion increment above
Percentage of questionnaire 76% 22% 2%
The research assessed land use/cover changes and their socio- respondents
Round nuts
economic impacts on local resident farmers in ward 32 of Mazowe
Category of percentage yield 1–15% 16–30% 31% and
District. Results show that four major land covers were identified in increment above
Mazowe ward 32 prior to the Fast Track Land Reform Program (FTLRP) Percentage of questionnaire 85% 10% 5%
in 2000. Cultivated land represented the greatest proportion, followed respondents
by forest, grassland and water. Before the FTLRP, forests covered Source: Field data (2019)

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M. Matsa et al. Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312

Fig. 6. Impacts of forest cover decline.

Source: Field data (2019)

District with resources (transport and human resources) that allow

Table 5
constant monitoring of resource use in resettlement areas.
Impacts of grassland cover decline in Mazowe ward 32.
✓ Mazowe EMA should enforce prescribed laws to ensure protection of
Impacts of grassland cover decline Percentage of respondents (%) water and forest resources especially the 30-m rule. This has po­
Inadequate food for livestock 100 tential to ensure sustainable utilization of wetlands rather than being
Scarcity of quality thatch grass 88 deteriorated by stream bank cultivation and other human activities
Crop raiding by livestock 88
like brick moulding.
Grazing land access related conflicts 77
Limited grass for mulching 47
✓ Mazowe Forestry commission should have a well-established office
Decreased livestock number 44 with adequate resources (human, financial and transport resources)
Poor quality livestock meat 91 that promotes adequate monitoring of forest resources in Mazowe
district.
✓ ZINWA Mazowe should establish a sub-catchment council and water
extensive areas as they were under commercial farmers’ stewardship.
boards in Mazowe wards for protection and management of available
Water which occupied the smallest proportion of the land cover classes
water sources. This instills water resource ownership to local people
before FTLRP, experienced significant losses between 2000 and 2018.
which makes them use water sustainably and give value to available
The study emphasizes that ward 32 of Mazowe presented socio-
wetland resources.
economic benefits to communities. Therefore, land use in ward 32 has
✓ The government of Zimbabwe should facilitate frequent audits in
been contributing to attainment of the United Nations Sustainable
resettlement areas to check if livestock number per farmer conforms
Development Goals 1 and 2 on poverty reduction and zero hunger
to the prescribed criteria. This will ensure sustainable utilization of
respectively. However, the potential to provide benefits has been
available grazing lands and avoid their degradation.
compromised by reduced grassland and forest cover. This resulted in
✓ The Mazowe RDC should integrate spatial planning policy and
extinction of significant tree species which provide high energy fire­
practice since they are vital in land use and resettlement programs
wood, herbs, fruits, construction poles and bee hives among others. Wild
trajectories
animals’ extinction was also among significant impacts of forest cover
decline on local farmers of Mazowe ward 32. Grassland cover decline led
Author contributions
to loss of quality thatch grass, livestock pastures, and grass for mulching
among other grassland benefits. Decrease in water cover affected both
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material
small- and large-scale irrigation, availability of water for livestock and
preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [Mark
reduced fish catches in ward 32 of Mazowe district. Conflicts on access
Matsa], [Oshneck Mupepi], [Tatenda Musasa] and [Rameck Defe]. The
to scarce forest, grassland and water resources were also confirmed in
first draft of the manuscript was written by [Tatenda Musasa and Osh­
ward 32 of Mazowe district.
neck Mupepi] and all authors commented on previous versions of the
manuscript. Supervision was conducted by Mark Matsa who is the lead
5.1. Recommendations
author. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

In light of the findings of this research, the following recommenda­

Declaration of competing interest
tions are made:
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
✓ Mazowe RDC should monitor land uses in the district to ensure legal
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
land use and sustainable utilization of available natural resources in
the work reported in this paper.
the district. The Council should also equip its sub offices in Mazowe

9
M. Matsa et al. Journal of Environmental Management 276 (2020) 111312

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