15.

10 I METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL

Practically all equipments used in power system is rated for a certain voltage
with a permissible band of voltage variations. Voltage at various buses must,
therefore, be controlled within a specified regulation figure. This article will
discuss the two methods by means of which voltage at a bus can be controlled.
Consider the two-bus system shown in Fig. 5.26 (already exemplified in
Sec. 5.9). For the sake of simplicity let the line be characterized by a series
reactance (i.e. it has negligible resistance). ~urther, since the torque atlgie 8 is ··
small under practical conditions, real and reactive powers delivered by the line
for fixed sending-end .~oltage_ l Vsl_ a~~ a specified receivin~-end voltage 1Vk 1 ·
can be written as below troJn EqS(3.7lJ3nd{573J, · . ~
·- - - - - - - - --- /

(5.82)

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 IVsiLo
Po+ JOo

Ps+ jOs

Load

IFig. 5.261 A two-bus system

Qk = I v; I <I Vs 1-1 v; I) (5.83)

X
Equation (5.83) upon quadratic solution • can also be written as

(5.84)

Since-the real power demanded by the load must be delivered by the line,
PR=PD
Varying real power demand P 0 is met by consequent changes in the torque
angle &
It is, however, to be noted that the received reactive power of the line must
remain fixed at Qk as given by Eq. (5.83) for ftxed IVs I and specified IV~l · The
line would, therefore, operate with specified receiving-end voltage for only one
value of QD given by
QD=Q~ -.
Practical loads are generally lagging in nature and are such that the VAR
demand QD may exceed Q~. It easily follows from Eq. (5.83) that for QD > ~
the receiving-end voltage must change from the specified value 1Vkl to some
value IVRI to meet the demanded VARs. Thus

QD = QR = I VR I (IVsi - IVRI) for (QD > Q~)

X

The modified IVRI is then given by

IVRI = ~ IVsl + ~ IVsl {I - 4XQR11Vsl

2 112
) (5.85)

Comparison of Eqs (5.84) and (5.85) reveals that for Q0 = QR = Q~, the
receiving-end voltage is IV ~I, but for QD = QR > Q ~~

\_
IVR I < IV~I I

------------------~
• Negative sign in the quadratic solution is rejected because otherwise the solution w~uld
not match the specified receiving-end voltage which is only slightly less than the sendtng-
end voltage (the difference is Jess than 12%).

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 '-..IIIO.ICIVU;:::II~lH,,~ diJU r C I I U I I I H.AI1Vl.J VI 1 '-'••-• • • - ··- · ··-- ·

_Thus a VAR demand larger than Q~ is met by a consequent fall in receiving- .

end volta e from the s ecifi.e_d a[ue. Similarly, if the VAR demand is less than
Q~, it foiJows that

IVRI > IV~I

Indeed, under light load conditions, the charging capacitance of the line may -
cause the VAR demand to become negative resulting .in the receiving-end
voltage exceeding the sending-end voltage (this is the Ferranti effect already
illustrated in Subsection 5.7).
In order to regulate the line voltage under varying demands of VARs, the
two methods discussed below are employed. ·
Reactive Power Injection ·

It follows from the above discussion that in order to keep the receiving-end
voltage at _a s~ecified value 1v-~1, a fixed amount of VARs (Q~) must be drawn
from the hne. To accomplish this under conditions of a varying VAR demand
Qo, .a local VAR generator (controlled reactive source/compensating equip-
ment) must be used as shown in Fig. 5.27. The VAR balance equation at
the receiving-end is now
Q~ + Qc= Qo
Fluctuations in Q0 are absorbed by the local VAR generator Qc such that the
VARs drawn from the line remain fixed at~· The receiving-end voltage would
thus remain fixed at IV~l (this of course assumed a fixed sending-end voltage
IVsD· Local VAR compensation can, in fact, be made automatic. by using the
signal from the VAR meter installed at the receiving-end of the line.
VR
PR+ jQ~ Po+ jQD
,/·

tjoc
Local VAR
Load
generator

jFig. 5.27) Use of local VAR generator at the load bus

Two types of VAR generators are employed in practice- s/a_tic type and
rotating type. These are discussed belo~: .
Static VAR g~nerator ~ h lA n r C.oftHA+tl 'Yl (£ .
-
It is nothing but a bank of three-phase· static capacitors and/or inductors. With
reference to Fig. 5.28, if IVRI is in line kV, and Xc is the per phase capacitive

* Of course, since 1V ~I is specified within a band, Q~~ may vary within a corresp~nding
band.

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 reactance of the capacitor bank on an equivalent star basis, the expression for
the VARs fed into the line can be derived as under.

I - . I VR I kA
c-J J3xc
JOe

jQc(three-phase) = 3IAI (-~ 1)

/
/
/ /
'

!Fig. 5.281 Static capacitor bank

1 vR ,2 Ta.t~c-~
c_a__J?c:'u h"~
r
:. Qc (three-phase)=
Xc
MVAR
. -,
If inductors are employed instead, VARs fed into the line are q

QL(three-phase) =-
I v 12
R MVAR
Yl?
tn
r,
v A-R86)

f.,
u<--h~
(5.87)
XL
Under heavy load conditions, when positive VARs are needed, capacitor banks
are employed; while under light load conditions, when negative VARs are
needed, in~uctor banks are switched· on.
The following observations can be made for static VAR generators:
(i) Capacitor and inductor banks can be switched on in steps. However,
stepless (smooth) VAR control can now be achieved using SCR (Silicon
Controlled Rectifier) circuitry.
(ii) Since Qc is proportional to the square of terminal vo!tage, for a given
capacitor bank, their effectiveness tends to decrease as the voltage sags
under full load conditions.
(iii) If the system voltage contains appreciable harmonics, the fifth being the
most troublesome, the capacitors may be overloaded considerably.
(iv) Capacitors act as short circuit when switched 'on'.
(v) There is a possibility of series resonance with the line inductance
particularly at harmonic frequencies.
Rotating VAR generator

It is nothing but a synchronous motor running at no-load and having excitation

adjustable over a wide range. It feeds positive VARs into the line under
overexcited conditions and feeds negative VARs when underexcited. A machine
thus running is called a synchronous condenser. .
Figure 5.29 shows a synchronous motor connected to the receiving-end b_us
bars and running at no load. Since the motor draws negligible real power from
the bus bars, Ec and VR are nearly in phase. Xs is the synchronous reactance of
the motor which is assumed to have negligible resistance. If !Eel and 1VRI are in
Jine kV, we have

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 }Ocf ~ Ic

Adjustable ~
excitation ~
= jiVRI<IEci-IVRI)IXs MVA
:. Qc = IVRI (IEci-IVRI)IXs MVAR .
(5.88)
IFig. 5.29j Rotating VAR generation

It immediately follows from the above relationship that' the machine · feeds
positive VARs into the line when IE 1 > 1V 1 (overexcited case) and inJects
. ~~TI~~G~~~R~--~~Tn~~~~~~~
negative VARs if !Eel < IVRI (underexc1ted case). VARs are easily and
contmuously adJustable by adjustmg machine excttation which controls !Eel·
In con.trast to static VAR generators, the following observations are made in
-. respect of rotat~ng ' VAR.'generators.
v{i) These·'can pr~vide both positive and negative VARs which are continu-
ously adjustable. - ' ~
L.Jfi) VAR injection at a given excitation is less sensitive to changes in b~
voltage. As IVRI decreases and (I Eel - IVRI) increases with consequent
smaller reduction in Qc compared to the case of static capacitors.
From the observations made above in respect of static and rotating VAR
generators, it seems that rotating VAR generators would be preferred. However,
economic considerations, installation and maintenance problems limit their
practical use to such buses in the system where a large amount ofVAR injection
is needed.

Control by Transformers
The VAR injection method discussed above lacks the flexibility and..economy
of voltage control by\tdmsfonner ·tap changing. Tl!_e transfonner tap changing}
is obviously limited to a narrow ran e of voltage control. If the voltage
correct 10 ~ ne~ eo exceeds this range, tap changing is used in conjunction with
the VAR injection method.
Receiving-end voltage which tends to sag owing to VARs demanded by the
load, can be raised by simultaneously changing the taps of sending- and
receiving-end transformers. Such tap changes must be made 'on-load' and canl
be done either manually or automatically, the transfonner being called a Tap
Changing Under Load .(TCU L) tr~nsformer.. .
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