Addendum: Lateral Loads

Introduction
Lateral loads refer to horizontal loads and may result from any of the following
effects.
• Soil or water pressure.
• Snow drifting against the side of a building.
• Heavy vehicle braking.
• Wind.
• Earthquake (seismic).

Buildings must resist lateral loads.

• Structural elements (called “diaphragms”) - such as walls, roofs, and floors - can
provide resistance to lateral loads and transfer them to vertical elements (i.e.
bracing, shear walls, moment frames).

Wind and earthquake loads are assumed to come from any horizontal direction.
• A lateral wind load can create pressure on the windward wall, suction on the
leeward wall and on walls parallel to the wind, and an uplift force on a roof.
• It is customary to consider only two building axes – one transverse and one
longitudinal.
- If a structure is adequate by treating the two directions separately, the
building is considered adequate for loads from any direction.
- Under certain conditions, it may be required to consider earthquake loads
that occur simultaneously in two directions.
• Lateral loads are applied concurrently with all dead loads and with other floor
or roof live loads.
- Earthquake and wind loads are not applied at the same time.

Development of Lateral Loads

The structural scheme must transfer horizontal loads to the foundation.
• For wind loads, the exterior of the building delivers the horizontal load to each
floor level and to the roof.
• For earthquake loads, the total lateral load on the building is taken as a base
shear force acting at the base of the building.
- The base shear is distributed “back” to the vertical and horizontal elements
according to specific rules.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.1

 - The building weights are collected at each floor level and at the roof and
then converted to equivalent horizontal loads.

Horizontal and vertical structural elements transfer the lateral loads.

Horizontal elements
Horizontal elements transfer the horizontal load to vertical structural elements
that in turn transfer the load to the foundation.
• The horizontal element does not need to be on a horizontal plane.
- A sloping roof may be considered a horizontal element.

(a)Trussed floor (b) Floor diaphragm

Figure 1: Horizontal structural elements

Figure 1 illustrates horizontal elements that transfer the lateral loads to vertical
structural elements.
• Trussed floors (cross bracing) can be used to transfer lateral loads [ref. Figure
1(a)].
- The horizontal truss spans between the vertical elements at each end.
• Floor diaphragms can be used to transfer lateral loads [ref. Figure 1(b)].
- A diaphragm is an element stressed mainly in shear, but tension and
compression stresses may also be imposed.
- The entire floor acts as a deep beam lying on its side and spanning between
two vertical elements at each end.

Vertical elements
Vertical elements transfer the horizontal load downward to the foundation.
• Vertical elements may be placed anywhere within the building.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.2

 - The location of vertical elements is a prime factor in the design of the
horizontal element.
• A minimum of three vertical elements is required for the stability of any
building to resist loads that may come from two different directions.

Figure 2 illustrates vertical structural elements that provide stability.

• Two rigid frames located in the exterior walls are constructed of steel [ref.
Figure 2(a)].
• Two vertical trusses (cross bracing) placed in the exterior walls are
constructed of steel [ref. Figure 2(b)].
• Shear walls located in the exterior walls are constructed of reinforced
concrete or reinforced masonry [ref. Figure 2(c)].
- The walls of elevator shafts or stairwells within the interior of a building
may also serve as an effective vertical structural element that provides
stability.

Figure 2: Vertical structural elements

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.3

 The location of the vertical structural elements is critical and is usually
determined by architectural requirements.
• Figure 3 illustrates the use of three
vertical elements (shearwalls).
- The vertical elements provide
resistance to horizontal torsion
that may be induced by the lateral
load.

Figure 3: Building torsion

Diaphragms
Diaphragms serve as a very efficient and effective horizontal element.
• Diaphragms span horizontally and carry loads to the vertical elements.
• A diaphragm can be described as a deep beam lying on its side and spanning
between vertical elements; however, such a description can be misleading.
- Span-depth ratio is very small (in fact, the depth may be greater than the
span).
- Flexible diaphragms consist of a number of materials rather than being
homogeneous.
- The principal means of distributing forces in a diaphragm is through shear
action rather than bending.
• For design purposes, diaphragms are classified as rigid or flexible.

Common types of deck construction, classified as rigid diaphragms, include the

following.
• Reinforced concrete.
• Reinforced gypsum concrete.
• Steel decks with concrete fill.
• Precast concrete components properly attached to each other.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.4

 Common types of deck construction, classified as flexible diaphragms, include the
following.
• Steel decks without concrete fill.
• Plywood.

A rigid diaphragm must be designed for both shear and bending due to the forces
acting in the plane of the diaphragm.
• A rigid diaphragm transmits loads to the vertical elements in proportion to
their relative stiffness.
• A rigid diaphragm may need to resist torsion to maintain lateral stability.

A flexible diaphragm transmits loads by acting as a simple or continuous beam

spanning between vertical elements.
• Flexible diaphragms cannot transmit loads by torsion.

Figure 4 shows plans of a building with a lateral load.

• Figure 4a (rigid diaphragm) – The vertical elements resist torsion.
• Figure 4b (flexible diaphragm) – The vertical elements do not develop a
resisting force and collapse of the structure is possible.

Figure 4: Rigid and flexible diaphragms

Most roof and floor constructions classify as flexible diaphragms.

• Metal decking is commonly used for roof and floor constructions.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.5

 Metal decking is produced by a number of manufacturers.
• Common dimensions:
- Panel thicknesses include 16, 18, 20 and 22-gage.
- Panels widths are 24, 30, and 36 inches.
- Lengths are available in 2” increments, up to 30 feet.
• Vertical load carrying capacity:
- Span load tables are published by the manufacturers.
- Manufacturers publish design data for use of the decking as a diaphragm
◦ Typical tables provide shear values and degree of flexibility (i.e. the
amount of deformation under load).

The design of flexible diaphragms includes the following.

• Provide adequate shear strength.
• Establish an allowable limit for maximum total deflection.

Wind
Wind creates a dynamic loading on a building.
• The load direction can change by acting from any direction.
• The load duration can last for a fraction of a second to several minutes.
• The load intensity can range from small to destructive in magnitude.

For design, this dynamic wind load is converted into an equivalent static load.
• Wind is generally treated as a horizontal load, although it may follow a variety
of paths (e.g. horizontal, inclined, and vertically upward or downward).
• Wind can cause pressures and forces on structures that act in any direction.
- Winds exert pressure against a windward wall.
- Winds create suction on the leeward wall and on walls parallel to the wind.
- Winds can create an external suction on flat roofs, on leeward slopes of
gabled roofs, and on slopes parallel to the wind.
- Wind may also subject a structure to internal pressure or suction due to
windward or leeward openings.
• It is necessary to investigate the combination of exterior forces, and either
internal pressure or internal suction, to determine the critical design load.
- External pressure + internal pressure
- External pressure + internal suction

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.6

 Design standard for the calculation of design wind pressures:
• ASCE 7-05 – Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
Chapter 6.

Types of design pressures

• Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)
- For structural elements assigned to provide support and stability for the
overall structure.
- The system generally receives wind loading from more than one surface.
• Components & Cladding (C&C)
- Elements of the building that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS.
- The system generally receives wind loading from only one surface and is
more susceptible to experiencing peak localized pressures.

Primary attention is given to determining wind-load values at the eaves, ridges, and
rakes of one-story buildings, or at the floor and roof-lines of multi-story buildings.
• The wind loads result in the horizontal-element loads that must be transferred
to vertical elements.
• Localized areas (e.g. roof and wall corners, overhangs, parapet walls, leeward
ridges, and eaves) may be subjected to peak pressures in excess of the average
pressures used in the design of the main frame.

Simplified Design Procedure

The simplified design procedure for the determination of wind loads is used for
common regular-shaped buildings.
• Simple diaphragm, regular-shaped building.
• Low-rise building (mean roof height ≤ 60 feet, mean roof height ≤ least
horizontal building dimension).
• The building is enclosed.
• The building has either a flat roof, a gable roof with θ ≤ 45°, or a hip roof with
θ ≤ 27°.

The simplified design procedure uses tables of predetermined wind pressures

based on wind speed, exposure category, roof angle, roof height, and wall area.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.7

 Analytical Design Procedure
The analytical design procedure is applicable to buildings of all heights, open and
enclosed structures, and other structures.
• Calculate wind velocity pressure.
• Determine gust effect factor, external pressure coefficients, and internal
pressure coefficients.
• Calculate design wind pressures on MWFRS (Main Wind-Force Resisting
System) and C&C (Components & Cladding) elements.

Wind Velocity Pressure

Wind velocity pressure, q, at any height above ground and at mean roof height is
obtained by the following equation.
qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I (psf)
where
q = effective velocity pressure:
qz = the effective velocity pressure at any height, z, above the ground
qh = the effective velocity pressure at the mean roof height, h
Kz = exposure velocity pressure coefficient which reflects the change in wind
speed with height and terrain roughness
Kzt = topographic factor which accounts for wind speed-up over hills and
escarpments
Kd = directionality factor
V = basic wind speed which is the 3-second gust speed at a height of 33 feet
above the ground for Exposure Category C and is associated with an annual
probability of 0.02 (50-yr mean recurrence interval)
I = importance factor which adjusts wind speed associated with annual
probability of 0.02 (50-yr annual recurrence interval) to other probabilities
(25-yr or 100-yr MRI – “mean reoccurrence interval”); critical facilities
(hospitals, power stations) have higher importance factors

Wind Speed
Wind speeds can reach 200 to 250 mph.
• It is unrealistic to design structures to resist winds of this magnitude.
• Extreme winds are usually associated with cyclonic disturbances (hurricanes and
tornadoes).
- Designing for tornadoes is not covered in most building codes.
- Hurricane-prone communities may have special building code requirements.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.8

 Wind-speed records are used to produce a US map of wind-speed contours (ASCE
7-05, Figure 6-1).
• Contour values are equivalent to reasonably smooth terrain (Exposure C) at a
height of 33 feet above the ground.
• With this map as a base, equations and coefficients are applied to account for
changing heights, other exposures, gusts, and building configurations.

Coefficients
Wind speeds that are taken from a map must be adjusted for height and terrain
exposure.
• Importance Factor, I (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-1)
- The importance factor (I) is based on the building occupancy and hurricane-
prone locations (hurricane-prone regions w/ V > 100 mph)
Category I 0.87 (0.77) Low hazard to human life in event of failure
Category II 1.00 (1.00) All buildings except those in Category I, III, & IV
Category III 1.15 (1.15) Substantial hazard to human life
Category IV 1.15 (1.15) Essential facilities

• Exposure Velocity Pressure Coefficient, Kz (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-3)

- Reflects change in wind speed with height and terrain roughness
A brief description of the exposure categories.
- Exposure A: Not used.
- Exposure B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, and rolling terrain.
- Exposure C: Flat, open country, grassland, water surfaces in hurricane prone
areas.
- Exposure D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside hurricane-
prone areas.

• Topographic Factor, Kzt (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-4)

- An adjustment is made to account for wind speed-up over hills and
escarpments.
- Hill or escarpment must be isolated and unobstructed upwind for 100 x
height of hill or 2 miles, whichever is less.
- Hill or escarpment must protrude above surrounding features by a factor of
two or more.
• Directionality Factor, Kd (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-4)
- 0.85 for buildings, signs, arched roofs, lattice framework
- 0.85 for triangular, square or rectangular trussed towers
- 0.90 for square chimneys, tanks

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.9

 - 0.95 for round and hexagonal chimneys, tanks
- 0.95 for all other trussed towers, excluding triangular, square or rectangular

Design Wind Pressure – Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)

The design wind pressure for main wind-force resisting systems (MWFRS) is
determined from the following equation.
p = q G Cp ± qh (GCpi) (psf)
where
q = effective velocity pressure (previously defined):
qz = the effective velocity pressure at any height, z, above the ground
qh = the effective velocity pressure at the mean roof height, h
G = gust effect factor (0.85 for rigid structures)
Cp = external pressure coefficient (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-6)
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-5)
= ± 0.18 for enclosed buildings
Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward or away from the surface,
respectively.

Design Wind Pressure – Components & Cladding (C & C)

The design wind pressures for components and cladding (C & C) are determined
from the following equations.
p = qh [(GCp) – (GCpi)] (psf) for h ≤ 60 ft.
p = q (GCp) – qh (GCpi) (psf) for h > 60 ft.
where
q = effective velocity pressure:
qz = the effective velocity pressure at any height, z, above the ground
qh = the effective velocity pressure at the mean roof height, h
(GCp) = external pressure coefficient (ASCE 7-05, Figures 6-11 thru 6-16)
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient (± 0.18 for enclosed buildings)

Wind Pressure Calculation Procedure

1. Establish the basic wind speed (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-1).
2. Determine the importance factor (I) based on the building occupancy and hurricane
exposure (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-1).
3. Select Exposure Category B, C or D.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.10

4. Select the exposure velocity-pressure coefficients (Kz) for each height range
(ASCE 7-05, Table 6-3).
5. Determine the topographic factor (Kzt) (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-4).
6. Select the wind directionality factor (Kd) (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-4).
7. Calculate the wind velocity pressure (qz) for each height range up to the mean roof
height using the following formula.
qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I (psf)
• Insert the wind pressure at the eaves (or median roof) elevation (qh) into the
designated cell.
• Use the wind velocity pressure (qz) from the top height range as the value for
the wind velocity pressure (qh) at the eaves (or median roof) elevation.
8. Select gust response factor (G).
• Use G = 0.85 for rigid structures.
9. Select the appropriate external pressure coefficients (Cp) for MWFRS pressures
for the windward wall, side walls, leeward wall, and roof (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-6).
• The external pressure coefficients (Cp) for the windward wall and the side walls
are the same for the transverse and longitudinal winds.
• The external pressure coefficient (Cp) for the leeward wall is based on the
length-span ratio L/B, where L is the building dimension parallel to the wind and
B is the building dimension perpendicular to the wind.
• The external pressure coefficient (Cp) for the roof is based on the roof slope.
10. Select the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-5).
• Use GCpi = ± 0.18 for enclosed buildings.
11. Calculate MWFRS wind pressures for the windward wall, leeward wall, side walls,
and roof for a longitudinal wind or for a transverse wind using the following
formula.
p = q GCp ± qh (GCpi) (psf)
• A longitudinal wind is a wind blowing perpendicular to the span and parallel with
the length of the building.
• A transverse wind is a wind blowing perpendicular to the length and parallel with
the span of the building.
12. Calculate the wind loadings at the windward eaves (or median roof) elevation and
the leeward eaves (or median roof) elevation.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.11

The spreadsheet determines the following.
1. Wind velocity pressures (qz) for each height range (in Step 7).
2. The MWFRS wind pressures for windward wall, leeward wall, side walls, and roof
for both the external pressure plus internal suction and for the external pressure
plus internal pressure (in Step 11).
3. The MWFRS loadings at the windward eaves (or median roof) elevation and the
leeward eaves (or median roof) elevation (in Step 12).

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.12

Example Problem – Wind Loadings

Given: A gymnasium intended for public assembly of more than 300 people is
constructed of steel columns, continuous from floor to eaves, and steel trusses.
These truss-column bents are 30 feet apart and span 120 feet.

The eave height is 35 feet (the clear height is 28 feet and the truss depth
is 7 feet). The roof deck and purlins are not shown, but the horizontal element
is in the plane of the roof deck. All exterior sides have vertical girts extending
from the floor to eaves.
Cross bracing occurs between two bents on each long side of the building.
The building is located in Tampa, FL and has site exposure of Category C and
minimal exterior openings.

Find: MWFRS wind pressures for the windward wall, leeward wall, side walls, and
roof and the loading along the windward eaves and leeward eaves for the
transverse wind direction.

Solution (ASCE 7-05)

1. Establish the basic wind speed (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-1).
V = 130 mph

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.13

 2. Determine the importance factor (I) based on the building occupancy and
hurricane exposure (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-1).
Use Occupancy Category III. Hurricane-prone region with V > 100 mph.
I = 1.15
3. Select the Exposure Category.
Select Exposure Category C (water surfaces in hurricane-prone areas)
4. Select the exposure velocity-pressure coefficients (Kz) for each height range
(ASCE 7-05, Table 6-3).
For Exposure Category C:
0 – 15 feet Kz = 0.85
15 - 20 feet Kz = 0.90
20 - 25 feet Kz = 0.94
25 - 30 feet Kh = 0.98
30 – 35 feet Kh = 1.04
5. Determine topographic factor (Kzt). (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-4)
Kzt = 1.0 (There are no abrupt changes in the general topography.)
6. Select the wind directionality factor (Kd). (ASCE 7-05, Table 6-4)
Use Kd = 0.85 (Buildings – Main wind force resisting system.)
7. Calculate the wind velocity pressure (qz) for each height range up to the mean
roof height.
qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I = 0.00256 Kz (1.0) (0.85) (130)2 (1.15) = 42.29 Kz
0 – 15 feet qz = 42.29 (0.85) = 35.95 psf
15 - 20 feet qz = 42.29 (0.90) = 38.06 psf
20 - 25 feet qz = 42.29 (0.94) = 39.75 psf
25 - 30 feet qz = 42.29 (0.98) = 41.44 psf
30 - 35 feet qz = qh = 42.29 (1.04) = 43.98 psf
8. Select the gust response factor (G).
Use G = 0.85 (Rigid structure)
9. Select the appropriate external pressure coefficients (Cp) for MWFRS
pressures for the windward wall, side walls, leeward wall, and roof (ASCE 7-05,
Figure 6-6).
• For the windward wall and side walls:
Windward wall Cp = + 0.8 (inward)
Side walls Cp = - 0.7 (outward)

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.14

 • For the roof:
Roof (flat) Cp = - 0.9 (outward) Horizontal distance 0 to h
- 0.5 (outward) Horizontal distance h to 2h
- 0.3 (outward) Horizontal distance > 2h
• For the leeward wall:
For a transverse wind load (i.e. a wind blowing perpendicular to the length
and parallel with the span of the building):
L/B = 120/150 = 0.80
Leeward wall Cp = - 0.5 (outward)
10. Select the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) (ASCE 7-05, Figure 6-5).
Use GCpi = ± 0.18 (for enclosed buildings)
11. Calculate MWFRS wind pressures for windward wall, leeward wall, side walls,
and roof for a transverse wind (i.e. a wind blowing perpendicular to the length
and parallel with the span of the building).
p = q GCp ± qh (GCpi)
Windward wall:
0 – 15 feet p= 35.95 (0.85)(0.8) ± 43.98(0.18) = 24.45 ± 7.92 psf
15 - 20 feet p= 38.06 (0.85)(0.8) ± 43.98(0.18) = 25.88 ± 7.92 psf
20 - 25 feet p= 39.75 (0.85)(0.8) ± 43.98(0.18) = 27.03 ± 7.92 psf
25 - 30 feet p= 41.44 (0.85)(0.8) ± 43.98(0.18) = 28.18 ± 7.92 psf
30 - 35 feet p= 43.98 (0.85)(0.8) ± 43.98(0.18) = 29.91 ± 7.92 psf
Leeward wall: p = 43.98 (0.85)(- 0.5) ± 7.92 = - 18.69 ± 7.92 psf
Side walls: p = 43.98 (0.85)(- 0.7) ± 7.92 = - 26.17 ± 7.92 psf
Roof: p = 43.98(0.85)(- 0.9) ± 7.92 = - 33.64 ± 7.92 psf (0’ to 35’)
43.98(0.85)(-0.5) ± 7.92 = -18.69 ± 7.92 psf (35’ to 70’)
43.98(0.85)(-0.3) ± 7.92 = -11.21 ± 7.92 psf (70’ to 120’)

External pressure External pressure

Design pressures: + internal suction + internal pressure
Windward wall:
0 – 15 feet 24.45 + 7.92 = 32.37 24.45 – 7.92 = 16.53 psf
15 - 20 feet 25.88 + 7.92 = 33.80 25.88 – 7.92 = 17.96 psf
20 - 25 feet 27.03 + 7.92 = 34.95 27.03 – 7.92 = 19.11 psf
25 - 30 feet 28.18 + 7.92 = 36.10 28.18 – 7.92 = 20.26 psf
30 - 35 feet 29.91 + 7.92 = 37.83 29.91 – 7.92 = 21.99 psf

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.15

 Leeward wall: - 18.69 + 7.92 = - 10.77 - 18.69 – 7.92 = - 26.61 psf
Side walls: - 26.17 + 7.92 = - 18.25 - 26.17 – 7.92 = - 34.09 psf
Roof:
0’ to 35’ - 33.64 + 7.92 = - 25.72 - 33.64 – 7.92 = - 41.56 psf
35’ to 70’ - 18.69 + 7.92 = -10.77 - 18.69 – 7.92 = - 26.61 psf
70’ to 120’ - 11.21 + 7.92 = -3.29 - 11.21 – 7.92 = - 19.13 psf

Diagrams of the MWFRS design pressures:

25.72 psf
10.77 psf 3.29 psf
37.83 35 ‘ 70’
36.10
34.95 Wind
33.80 10.77 psf

32.37 psf

External pressure plus internal suction

41.56 psf
26.61 psf 19.13 psf
21.99 35’ 70’
20.26
19.11 Wind
17.96 26.61 psf

16.53 psf

External pressure plus internal pressure

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.16

 12. Calculate the wind loadings at the windward eaves (or median roof) elevation
and the leeward eaves (or median roof) elevation.
Windward eave (external pressure and internal suction):
0 – 15 feet 32.37 (15) (7.5/35) = 104.05 lb/ft
15 - 20 feet 33.80 (5) (17.5/35) = 84.50 lb/ft
20 - 25 feet 34.95 (5) (22.5/35) = 112.34 lb/ft
25 - 30 feet 36.10 (5) (27.5/35) = 141.82 lb/ft
30 - 35 feet 37.83 (5) (32.5/35) = 175.64 lb/ft
Total = 618.35 lb/ft
Leeward eave (external pressure and internal suction):
Loading = pressure (constant) x tributary height (i.e. h/2)
= - 10.77 (35/2) = - 188.5 lb/ft

Windward eave (external pressure and internal pressure):

0 – 15 feet 16.53 (15) (7.5/35) = 53.13 lb/ft
15 - 20 feet 17.96 (5) (17.5/35) = 44.90 lb/ft
20 - 25 feet 19.11 (5) (22.5/35) = 61.43 lb/ft
25 - 30 feet 20.26 (5) (27.5/35) = 79.59 lb/ft
30 - 35 feet 21.99 (5) (32.5/35) = 102.10 lb/ft
Total = 341.15 lb/ft
Leeward eave (external pressure and internal pressure):
Loading = pressure (constant) x tributary height (i.e. h/2)
= - 26.61 (35/2) = - 465.7 lb/ft

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.17

Earthquakes - Introduction
Earthquakes cause ground vibrations that have a dynamic effect on buildings.
• Unlike wind, there are no externally imposed forces.
• The weight of the building provides static inertia that must be overcome before
motion of the building follows the motion of the ground.
• Distortions from the “racking” forces can be severe enough to overstress
portions, or the whole, of a structure, resulting in permanent damage or total
collapse.

Methods of analysis include the following procedures.

• Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure (static analysis)
- The practice is to determine static lateral forces that would cause the same
distortion that is caused by the ground vibrations from the earthquake.
- The ground holds the base of the building, with the rest of the building
cantilevering out of the ground.
- The ground vibration from the earthquake shakes the base, and the
cantilevered portion of the building above responds by distorting
accordingly.
• Modal Response Spectrum Analysis (dynamic analysis)
- Determination of natural modes of vibration of the structure.
- A dynamic analysis is usually made only under special circumstances.
• Seismic Response History Procedure (dynamic analysis)
- Determination of structure response to sets of ground motion acceleration
histories for the site.
- A dynamic analysis is usually made only under special circumstances.

ASCE 7-05 (Chapters 11 thru 23) present seismic design provisions based primarily
on the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) “Recommended
Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and
Other Structures.”

The general procedure in earthquake design is outlined as follows.

• Calculate the overall base shear (i.e. the basic total lateral load on the building).
• The base shear is distributed “back” to the vertical and horizontal elements
according to specific rules.
• The design of the structural elements is then accomplished following prescribed
procedures (e.g. LRFD, ASD, special detailing rules).

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.18

 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure (ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8)
The basis for establishing the equivalent static lateral load is Newton’s second law
of motion, that is
F=ma
The mass can be obtained by dividing the weight by the acceleration due to gravity.
So the equation becomes
F = (W/g) a = (a/g) W
where
F is the equivalent static lateral load of a building or building element having a
weight of W
a/g is referred to as the seismic load factor
g is the acceleration due to gravity (32 feet per sec2)

Seismic Base Shear

The seismic base shear, V, in a given direction is determined in accordance with the
following equation.
V = Cs W ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-1
where
V = the total design lateral force or shear at the base of a building
Cs = the seismic response coefficient (ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.1.1)
W = the effective seismic weight of the building (ASCE 7-05, Section 12.7.2)
The effective seismic weight W includes the dead load plus the weight of
permanent equipment.
• For storage and warehouse facilities, include 25% of the live load.
• No live load is included unless partitions are part of the load, then a
minimum live load allowance of 10 psf may be made for partitions.
• Certain locations with consistent heavy snow cover for extended periods
of time may allow all or part of the snow load to be included in the weight.

Seismic Response Coefficient Cs

In arriving at the seismic factor (Cs) the following are considered.
• The degree of probability of a large earthquake.
• The type of building occupancy.
• The flexibility of the structure.
• The type of structural system.
• The physical site characteristics.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.19

 The seismic response coefficient (Cs) is determined in accordance with the
following equation.
Cs = SDS /(R/I) ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-2
where
SDS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter in the short
period range (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.4)
R = response modification factor based on the type of seismic-force
resisting system used (ASCE 7-05, Table 12.2-1)
I = occupancy importance factor (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.5.1)

The maximum value of Cs computed in accordance with Equation 12.8-2 need not
exceed the following.
(Cs)max = SD1 /[T(R/I)], for T ≤ TL ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-3
(Cs)max = SD1TL /[T2(R/I)], for T > TL ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-4
where
SD1 = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at a period of 1.0
second, as determined from Section 11.4.4
T = fundamental period of the structure (ASCE 7-05, 12.8.2)
TL = long-period transition period (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.5, Figure 22-15)

The minimum value of Cs need not be less than

(Cs)min = 0.01 ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-5

In addition, the minimum value of Cs, for structures located where S1 ≥ 0.6, shall
not be less than
(Cs)min= 0.5S1 /(R/I) ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-6
where
R = response modification factor based on the type of seismic-force
resisting system used (ASCE 7-05, Table 12.2-1)
I = occupancy importance factor (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.5.1)
S1 = the mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral response
acceleration parameter (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.1)

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.20

 Seismic Ground Motion Values (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4)
Seismic ground motion values are determined based on geographic location and
earthquake probability (ref. ASCE 7-05, Chapter 22, Figure 22-1 and Figure 22-2).
• Site Classification - A, B, C, D, E or F
- A classification is assigned to a site based on the upper 100 feet of the site
profile.
- The types of soils present on site and their engineering properties are
defined in ASCE 7-05, Chapter 20.
Site Class A – Hard rock.
Site Class B – Rock.
Site Class C – Very dense soil and soft rock.
Site Class D – Stiff soil. Site Class D is used if the soil properties are not known
unless the authority having jurisdiction or geotechnical data determines Site
Class E or F soils are present at the site.
Site Class E – Soft clay soil.
Site Class F – Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic
loading, such as liquefiable soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, and
collapsible weakly cemented soils; peats and/or highly organic clays; very
high plasticity clays; very thick soft/medium stiff clays.

• Mapped Acceleration Parameters - S1 and SS

- SS is the 0.2 second spectral response acceleration parameter at short
periods, as defined in ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.1, and shown for the
conterminous United States on ASCE 7-05, Figure 22-1.
- S1 is the 1.0 second spectral response acceleration parameter at a period of
1.0 second as defined in ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.1, and shown for the
conterminous United States on ASCE 7-05, Figure 22-2.
• Site Coefficients – Fa and Fv
- Fa is short-period site coefficient (at 0.2 second period) as defined in ASCE
7-05, Section 11.4.3, and shown in ASCE 7-05, Table 11.4-1 (shown below).
Table 11.4-1

Fa MCE Spectral Response Acceleration Parameter at Short Periods

Site Class Ss ≤ 0.25 Ss = 0.5 Ss = 0.75 Ss = 1.0 Ss ≥ 1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 0.9
F See ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.7
NOTE: Use straight-line interpolation for intermediate values of SS .

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.21

 - Fv is long-period site coefficient (at 1.0 second period) as defined in ASCE
7-05, Section 11.4.3, and shown in ASCE 7-05, Table 11-4.2 (shown below).
Table 11.4-2

Fv MCE Spectral Response Acceleration Parameter at 1-sec Periods

Site Class S1 ≤ 0.1 S1 = 0.2 S1 = 0.3 S1 = 0.4 S1 ≥ 0.5
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
D 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5
E 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.4
F See ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.7
NOTE: Use straight-line interpolation for intermediate values of S1 .

• The Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) spectral response acceleration is

determined by adjusting for the site class effects.
- The MCE spectral response acceleration for short periods (SMS) and at 1.0
second (SM1), adjusted for Site Class effects, is determined by Equations
11.4-1 and 11.4-2, respectively, of ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.3.
SMS = Fa Ss Equation 11.4-1 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.3)
SMS = MCE spectral response acceleration at short periods
SM1 = Fv S1 Equation 11.4-2 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.3)
SM1 = MCE spectral response acceleration at 1.0 second periods
where
SS = the mapped MCE spectral response acceleration at short periods as
determined in accordance with Section 11.4.1
S1 = the mapped MCE spectral response acceleration at a period of 1 s as
determined in accordance with Section 11.4.1
Fa = short-period site coefficient defined in Table 11.4-1.
Fv = long-period site coefficient defined in Table 11.4-2.
• The design earthquake spectral response acceleration parameter at short
periods (SDS) and at 1.0 second period (SD1) is determined by Equations 11.4-3
and 11.4-4, respectively.
SDS = (2/3)SMS Equation 11.4-3 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.4)
SDS = design spectral response acceleration at short periods
SD1 = (2/3)SM1 Equation 11.4-4 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.4)
SD1 = design spectral response acceleration at 1.0 second periods

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.22

 Importance Factor and Occupancy Category (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.5)
An importance factor (I) shall be assigned to each structure in accordance with
ASCE 7-05, Table 11.5-1 based on the Occupancy Category from ASCE 7-05,
Table 1-1.
TABLE 11.5-1 IMPORTANCE FACTORS
Occupancy Category I
I or II 1.0
III 1.25
IV 1.5

• Following is a summary of the various definitions for each of the building

Occupancy Categories from ASCE 7-05, Table 1-1.
Category I - Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to
human life in the event of failure.
Category II - All buildings and other structures except those listed in
Occupancy Categories I, III, and IV
Category III- Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial
hazard to human life in the event of failure.
Category IV - Buildings and other structures designated as essential
facilities.

Seismic Design Category (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.6)

Structures shall be assigned a Seismic Design Category in accordance with ASCE
7-05, Section 11.6.
• Occupancy Category I, II, or III structures located where the mapped spectral
response acceleration parameter at 1.0 second period (S1) is greater than or
equal to 0.75 shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category E.
• Occupancy Category IV structures located where the mapped spectral response
acceleration parameter at 1.0 second period (S1) is greater than or equal to 0.75
shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category F.
• All other structures shall be assigned to a Seismic Design Category based on
their Occupancy Category and the design spectral response acceleration
parameters (SDS and SD1) determined in accordance with Section 11.4.4.
• Each building and structure shall be assigned to the more severe Seismic Design
Category in accordance with Table 11.6-1 or Table 11.6-2 (shown below),
irrespective of the fundamental period of vibration of the structure (T).
- Higher Seismic Design Categories require greater consideration of details to
ensure ductile performance of the structure.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.23

 Table 11.6-1. Seismic Design Category Based on Short
Period Response Acceleration Parameter

Occupancy Category
Value of SD1
I or II III IV

SD1 < 0.067 A A A

0.067 ≤ SD1 < 0.133 B B C

0.133 ≤ SD1 < 0.20 C C D

0.20 ≤ SD1 D D D

Table 11.6-2. Seismic Design Category Based on 1.0

Second Period Response Acceleration Parameter

Occupancy Category
Value of SDS
I or II III IV

SDS < 0.167 A A A

0.167 ≤ SDS < 0.33 B B C

0.33 ≤ SDS < 0.50 C C D

0.50 ≤ SDS D D D

Fundamental Period of Structure

Every structure has a fundamental period of vibration defined as the length of
time (in seconds) for the structure to complete one full cycle of vibratory motion.
• Short, stiff building – short duration (e.g. tenth of a second)
• Tall flexible building – long duration (e.g. several seconds)
• The period of vibration can be different for each orthogonal axis of the
building.

There is no simple or direct way to calculate this period of vibration.

• The value T can be calculated using static analysis (i.e. the Rayleigh formula).
- The Rayleigh formula is difficult to use – the value V must be known initially.
• A conservative value of T can be estimated from the following formula.
T = Ct (hn)x
where
hn is the height (in feet) above the base to the highest level
Ct = 0.028 and x = 0.8 for steel moment-resisting frames
0.016 0.9 for reinforced concrete frames

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.24

 0.03 0.75 for eccentrically braced steel frames
0.02 0.75 for all other buildings

Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces (ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.3)

The base shear, V, shall be distributed vertically throughout the structure as Fx at
each Level x.
Fx = Cvx V ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-11
where
Cvx = (wx hxk)/∑wi hik ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-12
wi and wx = portion of seismic weight W located at Level i or x
hi and hx = height from base to Level i or x
k = 1 for T ≤ 0.5 sec
2 for T ≥ 2.5 sec
for 0.5 < T < 2.5, k = 2 or interpolate between 1 and 2

The story shear, Vx, at Level x is the summation of Fx from all levels above and
shall be distributed to the vertical seismic-force resisting elements at Level x
based on the relative lateral stiffness of the vertical elements and diaphragm.

Seismic Base Shear and Vertical Shear Distribution Spreadsheet Procedure

Open the Excel Spreadsheet and click on the “Multi-Level Bldg.” tab at the bottom
of the spreadsheet.
Input values for the following cells:
1. Occupancy Category (ASCE 7-05, Table 1-1).
2. Importance Factor (I) based on the building occupancy (ASCE 7-05,
Table 11.5-1).
3. Soil Site Class (ASCE 7-05, Chapter 20).
4. Location zip code.
5. Mapped Acceleration Parameters - S1 and SS.
a. Use the link http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazmaps/ to go to the
USGS web site for “Seismic Hazard Maps and Data.”
b. Click on “Seismic Design Maps for Engineers.”
c. Click on “Java Ground Motion Parameter Calculator.”
d. Click on “Download.”
e. Click on “Okay.”

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.25

 f. For “Select Analysis Option,” select “ASCE 7 Standard, minimum design
loads for buildings and other structures.”
g. For “Geographic region,” select “Conterminous 48 states.”
h. For “Data Edition,” select “2005 ASCE 7 Standard.”
i. Click on the “Zip code” tab and enter the zip code for the area of interest.
j. Click on the “Calculate Ss and S1” button and read the values for Ss and S1
listed under “Centroid Sa” and enter those values in the designated cells of
the spreadsheet.
6. Long-Period Transition Period, TL (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.5).
a. Click on the “Maps of TL” tab at the bottom of the spreadsheet.
b. Scan through the maps to find the area of interest and read the appropriate
value for TL.
c. Enter the value in the designated cell of the spreadsheet.
7. Structure height.
8. Actual Calculated Period, Tc.
Enter the value “0” since there is no calculated period from an independent
analysis for the building.
9. Seismic Force-Resisting System (ASCE 7-05, Table 12.2-1).
10. Structure Weight Distribution
a. Insert the number of seismic levels (including the floors from the first floor
above grade and the roof).
b. For each seismic level, insert the height (hx) of the floor or roof level above
the ground.
c. For each seismic level, insert the weight (Wx) tributary to each floor or
roof.
11. Read the various calculated parameters, including the value for Seismic Base
Shear and the values for the Seismic Shear Vertical Distribution.

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.26

 Example Problem – Earthquake Loadings
Given: A five-story, steel-framed office building (Occupancy Category II).
Location: Salt Lake City, Utah 84101
Height: 50’ (5 stories @ 10’ each)
Steel framed structure 120’ x 60’ (with 30’ x 20’ bays): Beams and girders are
connected to columns with special moment-resisting connections.
Soil: Mixture of sand and gravel (Site Class D)
Dead Loads:
Roof 20 psf (0.020 ksf)
Floor 51 psf (0.051 ksf)
Exterior walls 12 psf (0.012 ksf)

Find: The base shear force and the story shears for both the transverse and
longitudinal directions of the building from earthquake action following the
ASCE 7-05 procedure.

Solution: V = Cs W

1. Calculate the building weight Wx for each floor and roof.

Roof
Roof weight = 60 (120) 0.020 = 144.0 kips
Tributary exterior wall weight = [2(5)120 + 2(5)60] 0.012 = 21.6 kips
Total roof weight = 165.6 kips

Floors (weight per floor)

2nd - 5th floor weight = 60 (120) 0.051 = 367.2 kips
Tributary exterior wall weight = [2(10)120 + 2(10)60] 0.012 = 43.2 kips
Total floor weight = 410.4 kips

Total weight: W = roof weight + 4 x floor weight = 1807.2 kips

2. Determine the spectral response acceleration parameters Ss for short periods

(0.2 second) and S1 at a period of 1.0 second from the maps (ASCE 7-05,
Chapter 22, Figures 22-1 and 22-2).
Ss = 1.721 (actually 1.721g)
S1 = 0.698 (actually 0.698g)
(Values for Ss and S1 are taken from the Seismic Base Shear and Vertical Shear Distribution
Spreadsheet.)

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.27

 3. Determine the Site Coefficients, Fa and Fv.
From Table 11.4-1 (for Site Class D, Ss ≥ 1.25): Fa = 1.0
From Table 11.4-2 (for Site Class D, S1 ≥ 0.5): Fv = 1.5

4. Determine the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) spectral response

acceleration for short periods (SMS) and at 1.0 second (SM1), adjusted for Site
Class effects.
SMS = Fa Ss Equation 11.4-1 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.3)
= 1.0 (1.721) = 1.721
SM1 = Fv S1 Equation 11.4-2 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.3)
= 1.5 (0.698) = 1.047

5. Determine the design earthquake spectral response acceleration parameter at

short periods (SDS) and at 1.0 second period (SD1).
SDS = (2/3) SMS Equation 11.4-3 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.4)
= (2/3) 1.721 = 1.147
SD1 = (2/3) SM1 Equation 11.4-4 (ASCE 7-05, Section 11.4.4)
= (2/3) 1.047 = 0.698

6. Determine the Importance Factor (ASCE 7-05, Table 11.5-1)

Category II (standard occupancy): I = 1.0

7. Determine Seismic Design Category

SDS = 1.147, Occupancy Category = II: SDC = D ASCE 7-05, Table 11.6-2
SD1 = 0.698, Occupancy Category = II: SD1 = D ASCE 7-05, Table 11.6-1
Use Seismic Design Category D (Note: Both categories are the same; otherwise
the more severe category would be selected.)
Since S1 = 0.698 (and less than 0.75) the Seismic Design Category is determined from
Tables 11.6-1 and Table 11.6-2 based on the Occupancy Category and the design spectral
response acceleration parameters (SDS and SD1).

8. Determine the Response Modification Factor (ASCE 7-05, Table 12.2-1)

For special moment-resisting connections: R = 8

9. Calculate the seismic response coefficient, Cs.

Cs = SDS /(R/I) ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-2
Cs = 1.147/(8/1.0) = 0.143

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.28

 10. Calculate the fundamental period of vibration of the building.
T = Ct (hn)x
where
Ct = 0.028 for steel moment resisting frames.
hn = height in feet above the base to the highest level
= 5 stories @ 10’ each = 50 feet
x = 0.8 for steel moment resisting frames
T = Ct (hn) x = 0.028 (50)0.8 = 0.640 sec < TL = 8 seconds

11. Check the maximum value for Cs.

(Cs)max = SD1 /[T(R/I)], for T ≤ TL ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-3
= 0.698/[(0.640)(8/1.0)]
= 0.1363
In Step 9, Cs = 0.143 based on ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-2.
Use Cs = 0.1363

12. Check the minimum value for Cs.

Since S1 = 0.698g > 0.6g, the minimum value for Cs = 0.5S1 /(R/I)
(Cs)min = 0.5 S1 /(R/I) ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-6
(Cs)min = 0.5(0.698)/(8/1) = 0.0436 < Cs = 0.1363 OK
Use Cs = 0.1363

13. Calculate the base shear.

V = Cs W ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-1
V = 0.1363 (1,807.2) = 246.3 kips
The base shear is valid for both the transverse and longitudinal directions
of the building.

14. Calculate the story shears (ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.3).

Using ASCE 7-05, Equation 12.8-11 and Equation 12.8-12:
∑wi hik = (410.4)101.07 + (410.4)201.07 + (410.4)301.07 + (410.4)401.07 + (165.6)501.07
= 4821.78 + 10,123.01 + 15,621.66 + 21,252.57 + 10,888.25
= 62,707.27
where k = 1.07, interpolated between 1 and 2 for 0.5 < T = 0.64 < 2.5

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.29

 2nd floor: Fx = Cvx V = [(wx hxk)/∑wi hik ] V
= [(410.4 x 101.07)/62,707.27] (246.3) = 18.94 kips
3rd floor: Fx = Cvx V = [(wx hxk)/∑wi hik ] V
= [(410.4 x 201.07)/62,707.27] (246.3) = 39.76 kips
4th floor: Fx = Cvx V = [(wx hxk)/∑wi hik ] V
= [(410.4 x 301.07)/62,707.27] (246.3) = 61.36 kips
5th floor: Fx = Cvx V = [(wx hxk)/∑wi hik ] V
= [(410.4 x 401.07)/62,707.27] (246.3) = 83.48 kips
Roof: Fx = Cvx V = [(wx hxk)/∑wi hik ] V
= [(156.6 x 501.07)/62,707.27] (246.3) = 42.77 kips

CN Addendum Lateral Loads A.30