ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Language and Humanities

English Language Teaching

Seminar Paper

Discourse Analysis of Interviews with Diplomats of Egyptian and Ethiopian about Nile River
Basin.
By:- Serawit Dejene Tesfaw
ID No:- GSR/3190/13

Submitted to Dr. Italo

Operational terms
Conversation:-takes place when at least, two speakers are talking.
Discourse:-the issue being discussed by two or more participants.
Discourse participants:-are the people who are involved in a conversation or discussion.
Discourse interruption:-occurs when a speaker has the floor and another makes a move to
take over and successfully paves the way for himself/herself by taking over the discussion.
Maxim:- general truth or principle.
Speaker:-is the person that has the floor to speak.
Current speaker:-is the person speaking now.
Next speaker:-is the speaker that takes over the floor from the current speaker.
Speaker change:-occurs when the current speaker stops speaking and allows the next
speaker to step in.
Adjacency pair:-is a reciprocal exchange of conversation.
Speech errors:-are errors made by the speaker. It may include hesitations or fillers like ‘er’,
‘em’, ‘I mean’, ‘you know’, ‘as in’, etc.
Repair: - means to restate or change your conversation with the intended one.
Turn:-is the current opportunity that is given to a particular speaker to speak.
Turn taking:-when the turn of a speaker expires and another takes over.

Table of Contents
Operational Terms__________________________________________________________I

Chapter One
Background of the study__________________________________________________1
Statement of the problem_________________________________________________2
Objective of the study
Scope of the study
Significance of the study

Chapter Two
Preliminary review of related literature______________________________________3

Chapter three

Methodology_______________________________________________________________8
Observation
Procedure

Chapter four
Analysis__________________________________________________________________9
Conclusion________________________________________________________________12
Reference_________________________________________________________________II

Chapter-one:-Background of the study

Language is the mode of human communication, involving of the use of words in a structured
and conventional way (oxford, 2008). Language is a significant instrument to create
communication. By using language, people could express the ideas, convey something,
thoughts, and even express feelings to the others. It could develop by the needs, wish, and
want of the speaker. It produces something spoken or written, by the words, sentences,
utterance, etc. this language usage is also related to discourse. Discourse is not only corned
with the language, it also examines the context of communication (cook, 2001:3). The
context of communication includes who is communicating with whom and why; in what kind
of society and situation; through what medium; how different types and acts of
communication evolved, and their relationship to each other. Discourse is not just a language
which is written. It is also related to the language use in the society whether written or spoken
and also the type of social practice.
Knowing a language is not simply a matter of knowing how to encode messages and transmit
them to a second party, who by decoding them under what we intended to say. Since
discourse is form of language use, it goes without saying that linguistic methods of analysis
have played a predominant role in the study of text and talk. Many types of structural,
generative, or functional grammars have been developed to describe the properties of verbal
utterances. Thus, phonology, morphology, and syntax have emerged as increasingly explicit
subcomponents of such grammars in order to characterize sound structures, word formation,
and the formal structures of sentences. Similarly, semantics was developed to provide an
account of meaning of such expressions, for instance, by means of rules of interpretation.
Pragmatics immediately followed in order to describe the role of utterances in the context,
namely, speech acts. Much of this earlier work in various grammars was restricted to single,
isolated sentences. It was not until the late 1960s that pleas were made to extend this frame
work to the real forms of language use, that is, discourse.
In Africa, with the exception of island states, every country has territory in at least one trans-
boundary river basin (Awulachew et al, 2008, p.1). There are around 80 major trans-
boundary rivers and lakes in Africa which cover nearly 62% of the continents total territory
(Ibid, p.2). Some of the African river basins are shared by as many as eleven states such as
the case of the Nile river basin includes eleven states namely Burundi, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, South Sudan, Tanzania, and
Uganda. This study relies on the discourse analysis of interviews with diplomats of Egypt and
Ethiopia Nile river. It is vital to study discourse analysis for our knowledge of the
environment, comprehending the implications of their speech meanings and views, and
recognizing ourselves with in our social world. Since the study is based on the interviews it
attempts to address the conversation analysis of Egypt’s and Ethiopia’s diplomats on Nile
river basin.

Statement of the problem

 Based on realities on the background of the study, the researcher formulates the
problem statement as follows: what realities are shown in discourse analysis of interviews
with diplomats of the Nile river basin countries. There are some researchers that concern with
discourse analysis as this research. The previous researchers that related with discourse
analysis are as follows: a critical analysis of car advertisement in television by Hermila Tantri
explained some substances like pictures, music, paralanguage, situation co-text inter-text
participant and function; web based activities and SLA a conversational analysis research
approach by Rafaella Negretti on July 1999. She studied participants clearly demonstrating
the context relevance in their interactions, and conversation analysis issues and problems by
Numa Marked tried to address the origin of conversation analysis and how conversation
analysis researchers analyse talk in interaction. But this research analysed the overall
conversational principles and the social basis of conversational principles under discourse
analysis for the seminar paper entitled discourse analysis of interviews with diplomats of
Egypt and Ethiopia on Nile river basin.
The first reason for the researcher to choose conversation analysis as discourse is that
it focuses on how individuals in social setting engage in meaningful acts through language
and make sense of the world around them. The second one is that conversation analysis focus
on details of temporal organization and the unfolding development of action in interaction. At
last, conversation analysis leads to a deeper insight in to the rules and standards of a
relatively new environment in which speakers are forced to establish new and alternative
strategies for communicating with each other.

Objective of the study

General objective
To find out the discourse that is seen in the interviews with diplomats of the Nile river basin
countries.

Specific objectives
To understand our diplomats speech and their complexity.
To comprehend the implications of their speech meanings and views.
To figure-out the implications of my topic for ELT.

Scope of the study

The study relies on interviews done with diplomats of Egypt and Ethiopia on Nile river basin.

Significance of the study

The study provides a vast understanding of discourse analysis, in addition other researchers in
the field might benefit from the study.

Chapter Two:-Preliminary review of related literature

Introduction
Discourse analysis examines how stretches of language, considered in their full textual, social
and psychological context become meaningful and unified for their users. When we receive a
linguistic message, we pay attention to many other factors apart from the language itself. If
we are face to face with the person sending the message, then we notice what they are doing
with their face, eyes, and body while speaking maybe smiled or shook their fist or looked
away. In spoken we notice the quality of the voice as well: maybe the speaker voice was
shaking, or they had a particular accent, or hesitated, or slurred their words. These are the
paralinguistic features of a spoken message.
For Foucault discourse is a group of statements which provides a language for talking about a
way of representing the knowledge about a particular topic at a particular historical moment.
It is about the production of knowledge through language. But since all social practices entail
meaning, and meanings shape and influence what we do in which all practices have a
discursive aspect. In general terms discourse is why we say what we say and when we say it.

Approaches to language
Sentence linguistics Discourse analysis

Sentence linguistic data Discourse analysis data

Isolated sentences Any stretch of language felt to be unified
Grammatically well-formed Achieving meaning
Without context In context
Invented or idealized Observed

Conversational principles: cooperation

Speakers cooperate even when they argue. All speakers design their utterances in accordance
with certain norms of talks and can expect everyone to do so. The idea that conversation
proceeds to a principle, known and applied by all human beings, was first proposed in a
limited form by a philosopher Paul Grice (1975), who put forward what he described as the
cooperative principle. According to this principle, we interpret language on the assumption
that its sender is obeying four maxims.
 The maxim of quality-Tell the truth.
 The maxim of quantity-Give maximum information with minimum effort.
 The maxim of relevance-In the current context.
 The maxim of manner-Not obscure and be clear.

Flouting the cooperative principle

Cooperative principle presupposes that people want to cooperate when they exchange
meaning coordination is regulated by maxims of conversation. But, you can violate the
maxims without being noticed which is by lying. You can also violate them deliberately by
flouting and you can refrain from cooperation by opting out.
Example:-
Lying:- A: Did you eat the last pancake?
B: No, I didn’t. (Although he did)
Flouting:- A: You wrecked my car. A fine friend you turn out to be!
Opting out:- A: My lips are sealed!

There are also times when meaning derives from deliberate violations or ‘flouting’s’ as Grice
calls them –of the cooperation principle, always provided that the sender intends the receiver
to perceive them as such, and that this is how, in fact, the receiver does perceive them if the
sender does not intend violations of the principle to be perceived as such, or if the receiver
does not realize that they are deliberate, then communication degenerates in to lying,
obfuscation, or simply breaks down all together.

Conversational principles: politeness

The politeness principle, like the cooperative principle, maybe formulated as a series of
maxims which people assume are being followed in the utterances of others. ‘’politeness can
be defined as showing awareness and consideration of another person’s face’’ (Penelope
Brown and Stephan Levinson 1987). Therefore, politeness in general forms means; to know
how to be nice, tactful and modest to other people. The most relevant concept of politeness is
the concept of ‘’face’’ which is someone’s public self-image. There are two kinds of
politeness negative and positive politeness.
Negative politeness:- is making a speech act less infringing and respects a person’s desire to
be undisturbed, or un-contradicted. For example: if you don’t mind…,
sorry to bother you…., I wanted to ask you…, I see your point,
however….
Positive politeness:- by establishing positive relationships it respects a persons need to be
liked and understood. Example: that’s so nice of you!, you’re welcome!
The linguist: Robin Lakoff (1973) has formulated maxims for politeness as follows.
o Don’t impose
o Give options
o Make your receiver feel good.

The social basis of conversational principle

The cooperative and politeness principles, and the tension between them, reflect a dual
purpose in human intercourse: to act efficiently together with other people, and to create and
maintain social relationships, in which one of these purposes becomes dominant, and the
other hardly matters at all.
Overlap:- multiple speakers speaking at the same time.
 Timing problems:- a speaker miss-projects the end of a turn and starts speaking too
soon.
 Interruption:- starting to speak before the other is done in order to silence the speaker.
 Backchannel:- someone speaks without intending to take the floor. It is not an attempt
to gain the floor rather it signals that the hearer is paying attention like mhmm, yeah,
right, or oh.
Note: co-construction occurs when one speaker begins an utterance and a second speaker
Completes it.

Speech act theory

Speech act theory is based on communication and recognizes that words often do things
besides simply inform or convey information. Inferring the function of what is said by
considering its form and context is an ability which is essential for the creation and reception
of coherent discourse and thus for successful communication. Speech act theory begins with
the observation that there is a class of highly ritualistic utterances which carry no information
about the world outside language at all, because they differ only to themselves. Examples of
such utterances are swearing an oath, sentencing a criminal, opening a building, arresting a
felon, naming a ship. They are utterances in which saying the words and doing the action are
the same thing: the function is created by the form. Such utterances are labelled declarations.
Speech act theory uses technical terms for these layers of intention and interpretation. The
formal literal meaning of the words is the locution; the act which is performed by saying it
the illocution; a third layer is the per-locution or overall aim of the discourse: an utterance is
said to have illocutionary force and per-locutionary force. There are two speech acts namely
direct and indirect speech acts.
Direct speech act:-what is said and what is meant is related.
-Please wash the dishes!
-I bet you five dollars that Chelsea win!
-By the power vested in me I now pronounce you man and wife.
Indirect speech acts:- what is said and what is meant differ from one another.
-Could you wash the dishes?
-A: Want to see a movie tonight?
-B: I gotta study.
-A; How’s that introductory linguistic class?
-B: Don’t ask!

Six general types of speech acts

Representatives:-They are either true or false like assertions, statements, claims, and
 hypothesis.
Commissives:-Commits the speaker to a course of action like promises, threats, vows, and
oaths.
Directives:-directs the hearer to a course of action like orders, requests and questions.
Declarations:-results in the state they name like blessings, hiring’s, firings, baptism, arrest,
and marriage.
Expressive:-indicates the speaker’s attitudes like greetings, apologies, and thanks.
Verdictives:-they are for instance: assessments, appraisals, judgements, and convictions.

Conversation as a discourse type

Studying conversation demands close attention to the context:
Physical environment:- the actual speech situation.
Participants:- characteristics of individual language users.
Social setting:- is about how the participants relate to each other socially.
Prior discourse:- is about what they have in common.
Cultural norms and expectations:- broader conventions of interaction.
Talk may be classed as conversation when:
 It is not primarily necessitated by a practical task.
 Any unequal power of participants is partially suspended.
 The number of participants is small.
 Turns are quite short
 Talk is primarily for the participants and not for an outside audience.

Conversation analysis
Conversation analysis which is sometimes regarded as distinct from discourse analysis
(Levinson 1983: 286), is a branch of study which sets out to discover what order there might
be in this apparent chaos. It is often associated with a group of scholars in the United States
of America known as ethno-methodologists: because they set out to discover what methods
and people use to participate in and make sense of interaction. Conversation analysis is a
cumulative science built across 50 years’ worth of research on interactions of all types, of all
kinds in all languages. Conversation analysis is not just what people say, but how people say
it, when they say it relative to somebody else talking, at what pace, with what intonation.

Turn taking
The ethno-methodologists starting point is the very basic observation that conversation
involves turn taking and that the end of one speaker’s turn and the beginning of the next
frequently latch on to each other with almost perfect precision and split-second timing
(Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson 1974). Overlap of turn occurs in only five percent of
conversation or less, strongly suggesting that speakers somehow know exactly when and
where to enter (Ervin-Tripp 1979). They signal to each other that one turn has come to an end
and another should begin. Where there is overlap between turns it has some particular
significance: signalling annoyance, urgency, or a desire to correct what is being said.
Conversely, pauses between turns also carry particular meaning. Conversation analysis tries
to describe how people take turns, and under what circumstances they overlap turns or pause
between them.

Turn types
One type of turn alternation the ethno-methodologists describe is an adjacency pair. This
occurs when the utterance of one speaker makes a particular kind of response very likely. A
greeting, for example, is likely to be answered by another greeting, a summons by an answer.
If they are not, we are likely to interpret this somehow: as rudeness perhaps, or deafness, or
lack of attention. In an adjacency pair, there is often a choice of two likely responses. A
request is most likely to be followed by either an acceptance or a refusal. In such cases, one
of the responses is termed the preferred response while the other is termed the dis-preferred
response.

Cues to ends of turns

 Falling intonation.
 Eye gaze or body movement.
 Pause.
 Selecting the next speaker which might be self or other selection.

Discourse as process
Ethno-methodology depicts conversation as discourse constructed and negotiated between the
participants, following pre-established patterns, and marking the direction they are taking in
particular ways: with pauses, laughter, intonations, filler words, and established formulae.
These conventions enable the participants to orientate to what is happening, and immediately
make sense of the interaction. For the discourse analyst, it provides another way of
accounting for sequences of utterances, though one apparently limited to discourse which is
the mutual construction of more than one person.

Discourse typology reciprocity

In discourse analysis it has been fairly common to distinguish between two fundamental
types of discourse: reciprocal and non-reciprocal when there is at least a potential for
interaction, when the sender can monitor reception and adjust to it-or, in other words, where
the receiver can influence the development of what is being said. In non-reciprocal discourse,
sender and receiver may have no opportunity for interaction. The prototype of reciprocal
discourse is face to face conversation while the prototype of non-reciprocal discourse is a
book by a dead author.

Chapter-three:-Methodology
The design of the research was qualitative method. According to Bodgan and Taylor,
qualitative research is the procedure of research which produces descriptive data in the form
of written or oral words of people and behaviour which can be observed (In Moleong, 2007:
3). Qualitative research is also called naturalistic research methodology. This research is done
on natural setting. The researcher must not build some hypothesis, but the researcher can
observe and give some interpretations from this research. The researcher collected the data
from video recordings of interviews done with Ethiopian and Egyptian diplomats about the
Nile river basin. The researcher applied a research strategy called case study for my research
entitled conversation analysis of the interviews with Ethiopian and Egyptian diplomats up on
the Nile river basin. The researcher believes that case study provides an interesting data with
even more interesting results. The researcher won’t have any influence on the progress of the
study. When it comes to execute the case study, the researcher used descriptive research.

Observation
Observation is a technique that includes thoroughly choosing, watching, listening, reading,
touching and recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or occurrences.
In this research the researcher used observation so that it qualifies scientific method of data
collection, answer a research question and is scientifically planned and implemented with
proper controls. The flexibility of the method makes it as essential primary source of data and
in addition to other methods. Since the research strategy is case study, it needs a highly
dedicated observation while conducting it.

Procedure
The researcher conducted the study by observing the video recordings of diplomats talking
about the Nile river basin and depicting it on the analysis part accordingly.

Chapter four:-Conversation analysis

Conversation one
J:-thank you so much for joining us.
Member of Egyptian parliament Mohammed Fuad:-it’s a pleasure to be here.
J:-Mohammed.Fuad why did you go to the Security Council?
M.F:-I think at this stage we are we are sort of e e e at a communication kind of breakdown.
em according to our article 35 chapter 6 of the UN charter em the a member nation can
go to the security council to resolve peacefully an argument which can disrupt the peace
going of two nations so I think we are at the stage where em the negotiations have been
going on for long so I think it’s a signal of despair that the negotiation does needs to go
ahead and restart so it’s a….
J:- despair? Despair you said.
M.F:-correct.(back channeling)
J:-so wo does that mean you’re actually there is a potential for an armed conflict?
M.F:-no no I wouldn’t I wouldn’t put it like this because for an armed conflict to happen you
need to have two conditions you need to have the will and you need to have the capability. I
mean while the capabilities are there I don’t think the will of the nations have existed all
available options they had so I I I I I I I will not ou ou instead will not go there but I think we
need to reach negotiations I mean you are you are the stage Egypt was able to negotiate Saini
in three weeks and we had been able trying to negotiate peacefully for the past ten years and
its and we are not going anywhere so I think it’s just a look for moderation we are we are
looking for a bigger form to moderate this case and it’s not going to be the first time for the
UN to look at a some sort of a border dispute or a river dispute there have been compromised
before.
J:-And just very briefly where can the compromise come? What will be the breakthrough?
M.F:-I think a I think there is absolutely no question and no one is disputing Ethiopia’s right
for the development no one is disputing Ethiopia’s right to actually go ahead en en en en built
a dam I think we have e e e problem for the detail it’s just the filling time I mean you we are
looking at a nation which is I mean a use water in depth and words its venerable to the Nile
so if this particular venerability needs to be insured and if we ensure this particular
venerability I think we can come to terms the two nation we can come to terms or you can
respect Ethiopia’s e e needs for development as well as Egypt dependency on water.
From these paralinguistic features of a spoken message the researcher notice the quality of
the voice which is shaking. The languages that have been used on this interview is unified,
achieves its meaning and contextual. According to Paul Grice the researcher interpreted these
utterance on the assumption that its sender obeyed the maxim of quantity and relevance while
violating the maxim of quality and manner. In fact, he is not telling the truth about the
potential for an armed conflict and also he was not clear about it. It seems as if they had been
hopeless and want to embark war. To prove the implication of the interview seeing Abdul
Fatah El-Sisi’s speech is enough.
Abdul Fatah el-Sisi :- No one can take a single drop of water from Egypt if anyone wants to
take let them.
For overlap to happen there must be timing problems, interruption, and back-channelling. In
this utterance we see we see overlap which is interruption. The journalist started to speak
before the interviewee is done talking. Back-channelling has also occurred ‘’correct’’ which
is reassuring or confirming the utterance said before contrary to interruption. While observing
the interview the researcher have noticed that there is direct speech act because what is said
sand what is meant is almost related. From types of speech acts the researcher found
directives (questions) and expressive (greetings and thanks). This conversation is done with
its own physical environment, participants, social setting or how the participants relate to
each other socially and prior discourse which is what they have in common and their
common ground for talking is the GERD. Most of the time the floor was taken by the
interviewee and there were cues to ends of turns like falling intonation, eye gaze and body
movement

Conversation two
Dr. Sileshi Bekele Ministry of water, irrigation and energy of Ethiopia:-
Dr:-hmm huh thank you very much for your interest and let me say a few words and I will
take your questions later as I told the council perhaps am the first water minister addressing
the oldest body on hydroelectricity dam that is under scrutiny in the unprecedented and unfair
manner here at security council it we believe Ethiopia believes it is an unfitting use of the
climate resource of the security council to discuss the grand Ethiopian renaissance dam
nevertheless I have noticed the concerns and e just causes of my country Ethiopia let me refer
it that we are dealing here with hydroelectric dam we are not building a nuclear plant which
is not the first of its kind in the Africa or in the world. The world has many experience in
hydroelectric dam eh we are building preserver to store the water that will generate electricity
after heating the turbine the water continues to flow in the downstream eh GERD is actually a
peoples project all works of Ethiopians e are contributing to this dam to bring light to whom
to 65 million people who are currently living in darkness the Nile belongs to all the peoples
of the basin countries eh in the basin we have half a billion in eleven countries Ethiopia
generates 77 million cubic meter water annually and in fact 85% of the Nile is coming from
Ethiopia equally Ethiopians has have best wishes and neighbourly careful the compacters
Egypt and Sudan we have all the intention to live together in peace and coordinate for our
mutual benefit the GERD demonstrates this cooperative principles or collective wellbeing
prosperity and regional integration Ethiopia has 70%of its population under the age of 30
more than 100,000 people graduate from higher education. 30 million Ethiopians are in
school it is un imperative therefore to cater the growing net for this population finally
Ethiopia believes that un agreement is with a reach and given the necessary political will and
the commitment to negotiate in good face we have already reached an understanding on a
considerable number of issues so the African union is the light platform the right platform to
deal with this kind of issue to really bring eh a conducive environment for face full
negotiation thank you very much. I can now request ask eh you can ask request me your
questions
Crowd:-over here! Over here!
J:-thank you Mr minister eh eh Raymushflus from sky news Arabia eh today eh section most
of eh members of security council they can talk about solution that can to satisfy all the
parties of the conflict Ethiopia Sudan and Egypt what which kind of solution do you think
your point of view will come to satisfy all the parties thank you
Dr.:-thank you for that question em it’s actually a solution that satisfy the three countries you
know the negotiating parties solution is the solution that workis for for all of us is very
important so we are working towards that to look in to rules and guidelines that will be
concluded that works well for everyone and a win win cooperative that is based on equitable
and reasonable utilization without causing significant harm principles
J:-eh Egypt and Sudan they are accusing Ethiopia that you don’t want any kind of solution
and you just go to unilateral ehhhh steps without consulting the other parties’ thank you.
Dr.:- no that’s (laughter) the other way round actually we always go to negotiation with
solution at hand we take a draft em eh eh eh em rules and guidelines agreement to eh put it on
the table and these parties always disrupt in facts during the last nine meetings eh eh they
disrupted Ethiopia has have never disrupted any meeting always to continuously engage and
solve and we have seen already solution at hand for first feeling since about that year butaah
the parties didn’t want to conclude that first feeling agreement ehh it could give us more time
actually to negotiate the more complex issues of comprehensive agreement.
 From these paralinguistic features of spoken language the researcher noticed the
quality of the voice which is moderate. The language that have been used on the
united nation interview was unified, achieved its meaning and contextual. The speaker
obeyed the maxim of quantity relevance and manner while violating the maxim of
quality. He was not telling the truth when he said the dam is not for consumption
because he mentioned irrigation but in the end he amended it by saying well Ethiopia
has current needs and future needs. He have used fillers at the beginning by saying
‘’hmmm huuh’’ meaning am ready to start. ‘’ em eh eh eh’’ used by him mostly and
few with the journalist which shows ‘’ wait a minute….yeah…..i got it…..here it
is…..’’ as the previous conversation this one is also direct speech meaning what is
said and what is meant is related. The conversation taken in the interview has its own
physical environment and participants. Most of all their common ground is the
GERD. At last the researcher have noticed eye gaze, falling intonation and body
movement while the Ethiopian ministry of water and irrigation giving a chance for the
journalists to raise their questions. He also used a hyperbole by saying ‘’ we are not
building African white elephant’’.
Note that this studies implicates for ELT that conversational discourse happens
everywhere either in classroom or outside the classroom. We are living our day to day life
using those conversational implications, and maxims without even noticing it.

Conclusion
 This research analysed the overall conversational principles under discourse analysis for
the seminar paper entitled discourse analysis of interviews with diplomats of Egypt and
Ethiopia on the Nile river basin. It found out the discourse that is seen in the interviews,
and tried to describe how people take turns, and under what circumstances they overlap
turns or pause between them.

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