Put Coin and Draw Power

MICROCONTROLLER BASED PUT COIN AND DRAW POWER
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INTRODUCTION
The Microcontroller based put coin and draw power is

latest technology for distibution of electric power for paying guest house, lodges
and trains. It can be effectively used to operate to the equipments. Built on the lines
of payphones, here is an automatic coin collection devise for pay loads like lamps
and air-conditioners to be used on a private electrical line.
This type of systems are not available in the market, Their ICS
may not be easily available. Moreover, for simply functions.
The system makes use of a sensor for detecting the coin and a
microcontroller that counts the coins and shows the count on a 7-segment display;
when you close the load switch provided in the circuit, the energise to connect the
load and the coin count on display starts decrementing. When the count decrements
to zero, the relay de-energise to disconnect the load.
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COMPONENT LIST
RESISTORS: LED:
R1 = 220 Ω LED1-LED5 = 5 mm (red)
R2= 33 KΩ
R3 = 220KΩ LDR:
R4, R7, R9 ,R25 = 330 Ω
R5,R8 = 1KΩ LDR1=10mm
R6=10K Ω
R10-R16=270 Ω
R17-R24=4.7K Ω
VR1=2.2MG Ωpreset
CAPACITORS:
SWITCH:
C1,C7 = 10 µF, 16 V electrolytic S1=Push to ON
C2,C3 = 0.01µF ceramic disk S2=ON/OFF
C4=100 µF, 16 V electrolytic
C5,C6=33pF ceramic disk
C8=1000 µF,35V electrolytic
C9,C10=0.1 µF ceramic disk
DIODE: TRANSISTOR:
D1-D5=1N4007rectifierdiode T1,T2=npn transister
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IC: DISPLAY:
IC1 = NE556dual timer DIS1=LTS543
IC2=AT89C2051microcontroller common-cathode,
7-segmentdisplay
IC3=CD5411 7-segment
decoder/driver
IC4= 7805 5V regulator
IC5= 7806 6V regulator
TRANSFORMER: RELAY:
X1=9V,500mA 6v,1C/O relay
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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PCB LAYOUT
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
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Fig-1 shows the put-coin-draw-power circuit. It comprises micro-controller

AT89C2051 (IC2), dual timer NE556 (IC1), 7-segment decoder CD4511 (IC3),
regulators 7805 and 7806 (IC4 and IC5), and few discrete components.
LED1 is used as the light source for light-dependent resistor LDR1, which is
made of cadmium sulphide and acts as the coin detector. Resistors R1 limits the
current through LED1. The light from LED1 falls continuously on LDR1, whose
resistance decreases with increase in the incident light intensity.
The NE556 dual monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller

capable of producing accurate time delays. It is basically a dual NE555. In the time
delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by an external resistor and
capacitor. The two timers operate independently of each other, sharing only Vcc
and ground. The circuits may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms. One
timer of NE556 is used for coin detection.
LDR1, connected at trigger pin 6 of IC1, offers low resistance when light id
falling on it and its trigger input goes low to set the flip-flop and make output pin 5
of IC1 high.
When a coin is inserted, it interrupts the light falling on LDR1, and trigger pin
6 of IC1 goes high to make output pin 5 low. This high-to-low pulse is used by the
microcontroller to display the coin count.
Microcontroller AT89C2051 is the heart of the circuit. It is a low-voltage,

high-performance, 8-bit microcontroller that features 2kB of flash 128 bytes of
RAM, 15 input/output (I/O) lines, two 16-bits timers/counters, a five-vector two-
level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analogue
comparator ,on chip oscillator and clock circuitry. A 12MHz crystal is used for
providing the basic clock frequency. All I/O pins are reset to ‘1’ as soon as RST
goes high. Holding RST pin high for two machine cycles, while the oscillator is
running, resets the device. Power on reset is derived from resistor R6 and capacitor
C7. Switch S1 is used for manual reset.
Coin-detection output pin5 of NE556 is interfaced with port pin P3.0
of the microcontroller [IC2]. The microcontroller program counts the number of
coins inserted and the count is shown on a 7-segment display.
The ‘A’ through ‘D’ inputs of 7 -segment decoder IC3 are interfaced
with port pins P1.4 through P1.7 of IC2. IC3 accepts the BCD input and decodes it
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to show on the 7-segment display. Coin-detection is also indicated by LED2,

which is connected to pin P3.7 of the microcontroller.
After inserting the coin, close load switch S2. Port pin P1.1 of the
microcontroller goes high to drive transistor T2 into saturation. Relay RL1
energises and LED3 glows to indicate that the load is now switched on. D1 acts as
a free-wheeling diode.
As power is drawn by the load [pin P1.1 high], the count shown on the
7-segment display [DIS1] decrements .Port pin P1.0 of the microcontroller triggers
the second timer of NE556. When trigger pin 8 of NE556 goes low, its out put pin
9 goes high for a time period decided by present VR1 and capacitor C4. The high
output of the timer is inverted by transistor T1 and fed to port pin P3.2 of the
microcontroller [pin6 of IC2]. The count display decrements by ‘1’ after port pin
P3.2 of the microcontroller receives five pulses [indicated by glowing of LED4].
Fig.2 shows the power supply circuit. The 230V AC mains is stepped
down by transformer X1 to deliver the secondary output of 9V, 500mA. The
transformer output is rectified by a full-wave bridge rectifier comprising diodes D2
through D5,filtered by capacitor C8 and then regulated by ICs 7805 [IC4] and
7806 [IC5]. Capacitor C9 and C10 bypass the ripples present in the regulated
5V&6V power supplies.LED5 acts as the power-‘ON’ indicator and resistor R25
limits the current through LED5.
SOFTWARE
The source program is written in Assembly language and assembled using
Metalink’s ASM51 assembler , which is freely available on the Internet for
download. The source program has been well commented for easy understanding.
It works as per the flow-chart shown in Fig.
First , the program initializes the microcontroller’s registers, then
it checks whether memory register is zero. If register r3 is zero, it goes for coin-
detection. Else, it proceeds to count update and display. Coin-counter register r3 is
incremented by five after insertion of one coin. When the load switch is closed,
port pin P3.1 goes low. Port pin P1.1 goes high to energise relay RL1. Port pin
P3.2 goes low five times then display count number decrements by one.
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$mod51
; p3.0 coin detect pulse
; p3.1 power on switch
; p3.2 monostable pulse(time duration)sensed via transistor
; p3.7 coin sensed LED
; p1.0 monostable triggering signal
; p1.1 relay on or POWER BEING CONSUMED LED
indicator
; p1.4 to p1.7 input to CD 4511(6.1,2,7) to display on 7seg
; r0,r1 for delay
; r2 count for 7 seg display
; r3 count of 5 monostable pulses(ASSUME Rs 1/1 MIN
approx)
;(r4 flag ON already triggered
; r5 flag timer already triggered) not used,for further
development
;r6 count upto 5
; r7 count for 7seg display left justified
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org 000h
sjmp start
org 040h
start: ; -INITIALISATION START-
mov r3,#000h ;count is 0
mov r4 , #000h;flag reset
movr5 ,#000h;mono on flag reset
mov r2,#000h;coin count 0
mov r6,#oo5h;counter set to 5
mov r7,#oooh;
setb p3.0; no coin detected
setbp3.2; mono output detected set high
clr p3.7; coin detected LED off
clr p1.1
;relay de-energised
Setb p1.0
;monostable not triggered

clr p1.4
clr p1.5
; 7 seg display 0
clr p1.6
clr p1.7
;- INITIALISATION OVER-
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
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acall delay
acall delay
tst count:mov a,r3
cjne a,#oooh, tstpwrsw
clrp1.1 ;if r3=0
de-energise relay
coindet: jnb p3.0, updtr3 ;coin sensed
mov r4,#000h ;flag rest
;-PUTTING COUNT ON 7 SEG START-
mov a,r2 ;no of coins detected
rl a
rl a
rl a
;no of coins count in MS of r2
rl a
mov b,a ;copy in b
mov a,p1
an1 a,#oofh ;extract LS portin keep intact
orl a,b
;count ored in a
Movp1, a
;-PUTTING COUNT ON 7 SEG OVER-
sjmp tst count
updt r3: mova,r3
add a,#005h
clr c
mov r3,a ;added in r3
mov a,r2; count no of coins in r2
inc a
clr c
cjne a,#10,max
mov a, #9
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max:mov r2,a
acall coin ;
EVERY TIME COIN SENSED
sjmp tstcount
tstpwrsw: jnb p3.1 ,swpwron
clr p1.1
sjmp coindet
swpw ron : setb p1.1 ; relay on
jnb p3.2,coindet ; is delay running ? if yes go and sense coin
dec r3
dec r6 ;
reduce count from 5 set in r6
mov a,r6
cjne a,#000h, bypss r2
dec r2 ;1
subtracted from r2 for every 5 in r3
mov a,r2
jz min
rl a
rl a
rl a
rl a
clr c
mov b,a
mov a,b1
an1 a,#00fh
orl a,b
mov p1,a
mov r6 , #005h; initial count of 5 in r6
bypssr2: acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
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acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
trigr: clrp1.0
acall delay ;
mono triggered
setbp1.0
ajmp tstcount
min: mov p1,#01h
ajmp tstcount
;-ROUTINES-
delay: mov r0,#0c8h
loop2:mov r1,#ofah
loop1:nop
nop
nop
djnz r1,loop1 ;loop1 approx 5 X 200=1msec
djnz r0,loop2 ;loop2 250 X1msec=250msec
ret
coin : setb p3.7
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
clr p3.7
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
acall delay
ret
end
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START
INITIALISE REGISTERS
IS COIN
COUNT=0??
IS POWER
ON?
DE-ENERGISE RELAY
ENERGISE RELAY
COIN
SENSED?
TIME ON?
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INCREMENT r3 BY5 INDICATE COIN

SENSED ON LED
DECREMENT r3 BY 1
WAIT FOR 2 SECOND

[DELAY]
START TIMER
MONOSTABLE
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HARDWARE DETAILS
 RESISTORS
 CAPACITORS
 DIODE
 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT(IC)
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
 TRANSISTOR
 TRANSFORMER
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 RELAY
 DISPLAY
 SWITCH
 LDR
 RESISTORS:
SYMBOL OF RESISTOR:
A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that

opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its
terminals in accordance with Ohm's law:
The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor
divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the
same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits
COLOUR CODE OF RESISTOR:
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding

scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted
around the body of the resistor. The scheme is simple: The first two numbers
are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a
multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color
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corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for
a 4-band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%.
1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band Temp.

Color
band band (multiplier) (tolerance) Coefficient
Black 0 0 ×100
Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F) 100 ppm
Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) 50 ppm
Orange 3 3 ×103 15 ppm
Yellow 4 4 ×104 25 ppm
Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)
Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25% (C)
Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B)
Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)
White 9 9 ×109
Gold ×10-1 ±5% (J)
Silver ×10-2 ±10% (K)
None ±20% (M)
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Preferred values:
5-band axial resistors
5-band identification is used for higher precision (lower tolerance)

resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1%), to notate the extra digit. The first three
bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the multiplier, and the
fifth is the tolerance. 5-band standard tolerance resistors are sometimes
encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. They can be
identified by noting a standard tolerance color in the 4th band. The 5th band
in this case is the temperature coefficientResistor standards
Power dissipation:
The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor

multiplied by the current through the resistor:
TYPES OF RESISTOR:
All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's
law, and other two are derived from that by Ohm's Law.
1.Fixed Resistor:
2.Variable Resistor:
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APPLICATIONS:
 To establish a proper value of voltage drops.
 To limit the current.
 To provide proper load.
CAPACITORS:
A part from resistor and inductors, a capacitor is the other basic
component used in electronics circuit. It is a device which,
(1) has the ability to store change which neither a resistor nor an inductor
can do.
(2) oppose any charge of voltage in the circuit in which is connected.
(3) block the passage of direct current through it.
Capacitor are manufactured in various size, shapes type and are used
for hundred of purpose.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS:
These can be group in two classes as detailed bellow.
(A) Non electrolyte type:
It includes paper, mica and ceramic capacitors,

such capacitors have no polarity requirement i.e.
connected in either direction in circuit.
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(B) Electrolytic capacitors:
These capacitors are called electrolytic they used

and electrolyte as negative plate.
 DIODE:
A diode is a semiconductor diode which allows current to flow
through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a
semiconductor device, It does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is
specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction.
DIODE CHARACTERISTIC:
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Figure shows combined forward bias and reverse bias V-I

characteristics of Ge and Si diodes. From figure-1 we can easily see that
leakage current of Ge diode junction is much more than Si diode junction.
APPLICATION:
• High-speed switching
FEATURES:
• Glass sealed envelope. (GSD)

• High speed.
• High reliability.
 TRANSFORMER:
Different voltages are used for the transmission and distribution of
electrical power. For example, the electrical power is done at l l Kv or
440V. Sometimes low voltage is required for specification application say
electric are welding requires 30 to 50 volts. Hence necessary to transform
the power from on voltage to anther voltage. Transformer does this at high
efficiency. In the chapter; we shall study some basic aspects of single phase
transformer.
PRINCIPLE:
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. In figure

coils A and B are placer near to each other flux produced by coil A due to
current flow links with coil B. If the current through the coil changes, the
flux changes, so emf is induced in coil B. This inducer emf.
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BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
Coil A having number of turns is wound on the limb of a laminated

core. Another coil B having N2 turns is wound on the other limb.
ADVANTAGES:
I. Simple transformer without the centre tapping in secondary is needed.

II. Peak inverse voltage across the diode is half than that in the full wave
rectifier using two diodes.
III. For the same secondary voltage. The output d.c.voltage is twice than
that inn the full wave rectifier with two diodes.
DISADVANTAGES:
I. Four diodes are required.
II. Two diodes conduct in series so the voltage drop in the diode is twice. This
becomes important when the output voltage is low.
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RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and
they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to
switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these
devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to
the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs
in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the
relay coil.
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The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You
can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched
on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in
the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in
the supplier's catalogue.
Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the
relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays
are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage
which is a little lower than their rated value.
Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can
use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of
30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is
too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.
Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You
will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is
usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
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changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further

information please see the page on
switches.
Reed relays
Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a
reed switch. Reed switches are normally
operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay Reed Relay
current flows through the coil to create a Photograph © Rapid Electronics
magnetic field and close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for
example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are
capable of switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to several
hundred times per second; but they can only switch low currents (500mA
maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin
DIL socket ('IC holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.
IC [INTERGRATED CIRCUIT]:
Features
• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products
• 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• 2.7V to 6V Operating Range
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Two-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 15 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial UART Channel
• Direct LED Drive Outputs
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• On-chip Analog Comparator

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Description
The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer
with
2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The
device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology
and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By
combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a
powerful
microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to
many
embedded control applications.
The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K bytes of Flash, 128
bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level
interrupt
architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip
oscillator
and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for
operation
down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving
modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters,
serial
port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the
RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the
next
hardware reset.
Pin Configuration
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Block Diagram
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Pin Description
VCC
Supply voltage
GND
Ground.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-irectional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to
P1.7 provide internal pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external
pullups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input
(AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the
on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as
inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are
externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because
of the internal pullups.
Port 1 also receives code data during Flash programming
and verification.
Port 3
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Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-irectional I/O

pins with internal pullups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to
the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible
as a general purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are
pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features
of the AT89C2051 as listed below:
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming
and verification.
RST
Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST
goes high. Holding the RST pin high for two machine
cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.
Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively,
of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as
an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz
crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the
device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left
unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2.
There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external
clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry
is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum
voltage high and low time specifications must be
observed.
Figure 1. Oscillator Connections
Note
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CD4511 7-SEGMENT DECODER/DRIVER

Figure 1 shows a simplified block of the 74LS48 BCD to 7-Segment Decoder. The
74LS48 contains three main block circuits, a 7-segment decoder, a driver and a
system of basic memory units. The basic memory unit is often called a latch or a
flip-flop. The decoder outputs drive an encoder circuit made up of OR gates that
generate the 7-segment code necessary to display the digits 0 through 9 and the
letters a through f. The output devices are current driver transistors that supply the
proper current to th e segments in the driver.
Figure 1
Part 1. -- Set-Reset flip-flop

Wire the latch circuit shown in fiqure 2. The Set (A) and Reset (B) are the inputs
and C (L1) and C (L2) are the outputs.
Apply power to the circuit and create a truth table for S and R Inputs and C and C
outputs.
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Wire the latch circuit shown in figure 3. Repeat steps 1. and 2. for circuit 3. These
new outputs are labeled D and D.
Why do we call this circuit a basic memory unit? What happens to the outputs
when S and R both 0? Refer to the textbook (Katz) for a discussion of flip-flops
(chapter 6).
Part 2. -- (7-Segment Decoder-Driver and Display)
Construct the circuit shown in figure 4. Use the TTL handbook to verify the correct
conections. The pin connections for the 74LS48 and the 7-Segment Display are
shown in fiqure 5.
Calculate the value of the resistor between the 74LS48 and the 7-seg LED.
Apply power to the circuit. Create a truth table for figure 4. Do the LEDs L1-L4
which output the binary word agree with the output of the 7-Segment LED? What
does the 7-Segment LED read in binary states 1010-1111? What do you think the
LT, RBI and BI/ RBO pins do?
Figure 3
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Figure 4
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KA78XX/KA78XXA
3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator
Features
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
Description
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive
regulator are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and
with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a
wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate
heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output
current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
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38
TO-220 D-PAK
1. Input 2. GND 3. Output
556
DESCRIPTION
Both the 556 and 556-1 Dual Monolithic timing circuits are highly
stable controllers capable of producing accurate time delays or
oscillation. The 556 and 556-1 are a dual 555. Timing is provided by
an external resistor and capacitor for each timing function. The two
timers operate independently of each other, sharing only VCC and
ground. The circuits may be triggered and reset on falling
waveforms. The output structures may sink or source 200mA.
FEATURES
• Turn-off time less than 2ms (556-1)
• Maximum operating frequency >500kHz (556-1)
• Timing from microseconds to hours
• Replaces two 555 timers
• Operates in both astable and monostable modes
• High output current
• Adjustable duty cycle
• TTL compatible
• Temperature stability of 0.005%/°C
• SE556-1 compliant to MIL-STD or JAN
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39
APPLICATIONS
• Precision timing
• Sequential timing
• Pulse shaping
• Pulse generator
• Missing pulse detector
• Tone burst generator
• Pulse width modulation
• Time delay generator
• Frequency division
• Touch-Tone[encoder
• Industrial controls
• Pulse position modulation
• Appliance timing
• Traffic light control
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
incoherent monochromatic light when electrically biased in the forward
direction. This effect is form of electroluminescence. The color depends on
the semi conducting material used, and can be near-ultraviolet, invisible or
infrared. Nick Holon yak Jr. (1928) of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign developed the first practical visible-spectrum LED in 1962.
PHYSICAL FUNCTION:
An LED is a special type of semiconductor diode. Like a normal
diode, it consists of a chip of semi conducting material impregnated, or
doped, with impurities to create a structure called a pn junction. Charge-
carriers (electrons and holes) are created by an electric current passing
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40
through the junction. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower
energy level, and releases energy in the from of a photon as it does so.
LED MATERIALS:
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with
gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the
production of devices with ever shorter wavelengths, producing light in a
variety of colors.
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic minerals,
producing the following colors:
• Aluminum gallium arsenide(AlGaAs ) - red and infrared

• Gallium aluminum phosphide – green
• Gallium arsenide/phosphide (GaAsp) – red orange-red, orange, and
yellow
• Gallium nitride (GaN) –green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue
• Gallium phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Zinc selenide (ZnSe) –blue
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)-bluish-green and blue
• Indium gallium aluminum phosphide – orange-red, orange, yellow,
and green
• Silicon carbide (Sic)-blue
• Diamond © - ultraviolet
• Silicon (Si) –under development
LED APPLICATIONS:
Here is a list of known applications for LEDs, some of which are

further elaborated upon in the following text:
• In general, commonly used as information indicators in various types
of embedded systems (many of which are listed below)
• Thin lightweight message displays, e.g. in public information signs (at
airports and railway stations, among other places)
• Status indicators, e.g. on/off lights on professional instruments and
consumers audio/video equipment
• Infrared LEDs in remote controls (for TVs, VCRs, etc)
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41
• Clusters in traffic signals, replacing ordinary bulbs behind colored

glass
• Car indicator lights and bicycle lighting; also for pedestrians to be
seen by car traffic
• Calculator and measurement instrument displays (seven segment
displays), although now mostly replaced by LCDs
• Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and [alpha]numeric displays
in environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft
cockpits ,submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in
the field, e.g. night time animal watching and military field use
• Red or yellow LEDs are also use in photographic darkrooms, for
providing lighting which does not lead to unwanted exposure of the
film
• Illumination, e.g. flashlights (US)/torches (UK).
 LDR
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42
Everything has an electrical resistance, some more than others. An LDR will have
a resistance that varies according to the amount of visible light that falls on it. A
close up of an LDR is shown below:
The light falling on the brown zigzag lines on the sensor, causes the resistance of
the device to fall. This is known as a negative co-efficient. There are some LDRs
that work in the opposite way i.e. their resistance increases with light (called
positive co-efficient). I won't go into the physics of how the device changes its
resistance, so just take it as read.
Now, in order to use this device in a simple circuit, all we need to do is put a
voltage across it and measure the current flowing through it. However, measuring
current can be a little tricky. So, we put another resistor in series, and measure the
voltage across the LDR. This makes us a potential divider, and the voltage across
the LDR is proportional to the current. The diagrams below show the concept.

 TRANSISTOR:
Types of Transistor
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43
An NPN Transistor Configuration
Note: Conventional current flow.
We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large
current (Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter
terminals. However, this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing
into the base terminal of the transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of
current control input. The ratio of these two currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC
Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, (β).
Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to the
collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor
itself. As the emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very
large collector current the value of this parameter α is very close to unity, and for a
typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.
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44
α and β Relationships
By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical

expressions that gives the relationship between the different currents flowing in the
transistor.
The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power transistors to well
over 1000 for high frequency low power type bipolar transistors. The equation for
Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the subject, and with zero base current
(Ib = 0) the resultant collector current Ic will also be zero, (β x 0). Also when the
base current is high the corresponding collector current will also be high resulting
in the base current controlling the collector current. One of the most important
properties of the Bipolar Junction Transistor is that a small base current can
control a much larger collector current. Consider the following example.
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45
PN Transistor are of a forward biased diode. Then the base voltage, (Vbe) of an
NPN Transistor must be greater than this 0.7 V otherwise the transistor will not
conduct with the base current given as.
Where: Ib is the base current, Vb is the base bias voltage, Vce is the base-emitter
volt drop (0.7v) and Rb is the base input resistor.
The Common Emitter Configuration.
One other point to remember about NPN Transistors. The collector voltage, (Vc)
must be greater than the emitter voltage, (Ve) to allow current to flow through the
device between the collector-emitter junction. Also, there is a voltage drop
between the base and the emitter terminal of about 0.7v for silicon devices as the
input characteristics of an Nas a switch to turn load currents "ON" or "OFF" by
controlling the Base signal to the transistor, NPN Transistors can also be used to
produce a circuit which will also amplify any small AC signal applied to its Base
terminal. If a suitable DC "biasing" voltage is firstly applied to the transistors Base
terminal thus allowing it to always operate within its linear active region, an
inverting amplifier circuit called a Common Emitter Amplifier is produced.
One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is called a Class A Amplifier. A

Class A Amplifier operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased in
such a way that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and
saturation points, thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce
the positive and negative halves of the AC input signal superimposed upon the DC
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46
Biasing voltage. Without this "Bias Voltage" only the positive half of the input
waveform would be amplified. This type of amplifier has many applications but is
commonly used in audio circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages.
With reference to the common emitter configuration shown below, a family of

curves known commonly as the Output Characteristics Curves, relates the output
collector current, (Ic) to the collector voltage, (Vce) when different values of base
current, (Ib) are applied to the transistor for transistors with the same β value. A
DC "Load Line" can also be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show
all the possible operating points when different values of base current are applied.
It is necessary to set the initial value of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to
vary both up and down when amplifying AC input signals and this is called setting
the operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-point for short and this is shown below.
The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
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47
Output Characteristics Curves for a Typical Bipolar Transistor
The most important factor to notice is the effect of Vce upon the collector current
Ic when Vce is greater than about 1.0 volts. You can see that Ic is largely
unaffected by changes in Vce above this value and instead it is almost entirely
controlled by the base current, Ib. When this happens we can say then that the
output circuit represents that of a "Constant Current Source". It can also be seen
from the common emitter circuit above that the emitter current Ie is the sum of the
collector current, Ic and the base current, Ib, added together so we can also say that
" Ie = Ic + Ib " for the common emitter configuration.
By using the output characteristics curves in our example above and also Ohm´s
Law, the current flowing through the load resistor, (RL), is equal to the collector
current, Ic entering the transistor which inturn corresponds to the supply voltage,
Page
48
(Vcc) minus the voltage drop between the collector and the emitter terminals,
(Vce) and is given as:
Also, a Load Line can be drawn directly onto the graph of curves above from the
point of "Saturation" when Vce = 0 to the point of "Cut-off" when Ic = 0 giving us
the "Operating" or Q-point of the transistor. These two points are calculated as:
Then, the collector or output characteristics curves for Common Emitter NPN
Transistors can be used to predict the Collector current, Ic, when given Vce and the
Base current, Ib. A Load Line can also be constructed onto the curves to determine
a suitable Operating or Q-point which can be set by adjustment of the base current.
The PNP Transistor
The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we
looked at in the previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction
the two diodes are reversed with respect to the NPN type, with the arrow, which
also defines the Emitter terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor
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49
symbol. Also, all the polarities are reversed which means that PNP Transistors
"sink" current as opposed to the NPN transistor which "sources" current. Then,
PNP Transistors use a small output base current and a negative base voltage to
control a much larger emitter-collector current. The construction of a PNP
transistor consists of two P-type semiconductor materials either side of the N-type
material as shown below.
A PNP Transistor Configuration
Note: Conventional current flow.
The PNP Transistor has very similar characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins,
except that the polarities (or biasing) of the current and voltage directions are
reversed for any one of the possible three configurations looked at in the first
tutorial, Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector. Generally, PNP
Transistors require a negative (-ve) voltage at their Collector terminal with the
flow of current through the emitter-collector terminals being Holes as opposed to
Electrons for the NPN types. Because the movement of holes across the depletion
layer tends to be slower than for electrons, PNP transistors are generally more
slower than their equivalent NPN counterparts when operating.
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50
To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more
negative than the Emitter (current must leave the base) by approx 0.7 volts for a
silicon device or 0.3 volts for a germanium device with the formulas used to
calculate the Base resistor, Base current or Collector current are the same as those
used for an equivalent NPN transistor and is given as.
Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in electronic circuits, the
only difference is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current
flow. PNP Transistors can also be used as switching devices and an example of a
PNP transistor switch is shown below.
A PNP Transistor Circuit
The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those
for an equivalent NPN transistor except that they are rotated by 180 o to take
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51
account of the reverse polarity voltages and currents, (the currents flowing out of
the Base and Collector in a PNP transistor are negative).
 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY
The illustration to the right shows the basic layout of the segments in a
seven-segment display. The segments themselves are identified with
lower-case letters "a" through "g," with segment "a" at the top and then
counting clockwise. Segment "g" is the center bar.
Most seven-segment digits also include a decimal point ("dp"), and

some also include an extra triangle to turn the decimal point into a comma.
This improves readability of large numbers on a calculator, for example.
The decimal point is shown here on the right, but some display units put it
on the left, or have a decimal point on each side.
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52
In addition, most displays are actually slanted a bit, making them look
as if they were in italics. This arrangement allows us to turn one digit
upside down and place it next to another, so that the two decimal points
look like a colon between the two digits. The technique is commonly used
in LED clock displays.
Seven-segment displays can be packaged in a number of ways. Three

typical packages are shown above. On the left we see three small digits in
a single 12-pin DIP package. The individual digits are very small, so a
clear plastic bubble is molded over each digit to act as a magnifying lens.
The sides of the end bubbles are flattened so that additional packages of
this type can be placed end-to-end to create a display of as many digits as
may be needed.
The second package is essentially a 14-pin DIP designed to be installed

vertically. Note that for this particular device, the decimal point is on the
left. This is not true of all seven-segment displays in this type of package.
One limitation of the DIP package is that it cannot support larger digits.
To get larger displays for easy reading at a distance, it is necessary to
change the package size and shape. The package on the right above is
larger than the other two, and thus can display a digit that is significantly
larger than will fit on a standard DIP footprint. Even larger displays are
also available; some digital clocks sport digits that are two to five inches
tall.
Seven-segment displays can be constructed using any of a number of

different technologies. The three most common methods are fluorescent
displays (used in many line-powered devices such as microwave ovens
and some clocks and clock radios), liquid crystal displays (used in many
battery-powered devices such as watches and many digital instruments),
and LEDs (used in either line-powered or battery-powered devices).
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53
However, fluorescent displays require a fairly high driving voltage to

operate, and liquid crystal displays require special treatment that we are
not yet ready to discuss. Therefore, we will work with a seven-segment
LED display in this experiment.
Schematic Diagram
As shown in the two schematic diagrams above, the LEDs in a seven-

segment display are not isolated from each other. Rather, either all of the
cathodes, or all of the anodes, are connected together into a common lead,
while the other end of each LED is individually available. This means
fewer electrical connections to the package, and also allows us to easily
enable or disable a particular digit by controlling the common lead. (In
some cases, the common connections are made to groups of LEDs, and the
external wiring must make the final connections between them. In other
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54
cases, the common connection is made available at more than one location
for convenience in laying out printed circuit boards. When laying out
circuits using such devices, you simply need to take the specific
connection details into account.)
There is no automatic advantage of the common-cathode seven-

segment unit over the common-anode version, or vice-versa. Each type
lends itself to certain applications, configurations, and logic families.
We'll learn more about this in later experiments. For the present, we will
use a common-cathode display as our experimental example.
 SWITCH
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example
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55
ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be

used to switch the power supply to a
circuit.
When used with mains electricity this

type of switch must be in the live wire,
but it is better to use a DPST switch to
isolate both live and neutral. SPST toggle switch
(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its

normally open (off) position when you
release the button, this is shown by the
brackets around ON. This is the standard Push-to-make switch
doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its

normally closed (on) position when you
release the button. Push-to-break switch
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions,

switching on a separate device in each
case. It is often called a changeover
switch. For example, a SPDT switch can
SPDT toggle switch
be used to switch on a red lamp in one
position and a green lamp in the other
position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple

on-off switch by connecting to COM and one of
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56
the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and

B are interchangeable so switches are usually
not labelled.
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off SPDT slide switch
A special version of the standard SPDT (PCB mounting)
switch. It has a third switching position in
the centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-
OFF-(ON) versions are also available
where the switch returns to the central off
position when released.
SPDT rocker switch
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch

mains electricity because it can isolate
both the live and neutral connections. DPST rocker switch
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57
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a

reversing switch for a motor as shown
in the diagram.
DPDT slide switch

ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in
the centre which is off. This can be very
useful for motor control because you
have forward, off and reverse positions.
Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are Wiring for Reversing Switch
also available where the switch returns to
the central off position when released.
Page
58
Example
Type of Switch
Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a

standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again
to switch off. This is called a latching action.
Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)
Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed

in response to small movements. They are available with
levers and rollers attached.
Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.
Tilt Switch (SPST)
Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this

bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be
used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some
tilt switches contain mercury which is poisonous.
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59
Reed Switch (usually SPST)
The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a

small magnet near the switch. They are used in security
circuits, for example to check that doors are closed.
Standard reed switches are SPST (simple on-off) but
SPDT (changeover) versions are also available.
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the

example shown has 8 switches. The package is the same
size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the

code of a remote control.
Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also

known as a 6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have
momentary or latching action. Latching action means it
behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first
position, push again for the second position etc.
Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions.

They may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type
has a rotary action and it is available with a range of
contact arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
Multi-way rotary switch
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a
stop under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way
switch you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-
pole switch (many contact sets) described above.
1-pole 4-way switch symbol
Page
60
Page
61
UNIT = 7
POWER SUPPLY
INTRODUCTION:
Most of the electronics devices and circuits required D.C. sources of their
operation. Dry cells and batteries are one of form the D.C. sources. They have the
advantages of being portable and ripple free.
A typical D.C. power supply consists of three stages. They are follows:
1. Rectification
2. Filtering
3. Regulation
A single power can provide as many voltages as are needed; using a voltage
divider. A voltage divider is simple taped resistor connected across the output
terminals. The taped resistor may consist of two or three resistor connected in
series across the power supply in fact, bleeder resister may also be use as voltage
divider. Now we are discuss about the three stages of D.C. power supply.
 RECTIFICATION:
Rectification is process in which simple harmonic A.C. voltage is converted
into a unidirectional voltage (D.C. voltage). It is a circuit, which employs one or
more diode to convert A.C. voltage into pulsating D.C. voltage. There are mainly
three different types of rectifier circuits. They are,
2. Half wave rectifier,
3. Full wave rectifier,
4. Full wave bridge rectifier.
Page
62
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The full wave rectifier is more expensive but more efficient then the full
wave circuit. The circuit of a full wave rectifier is shown in figure.
fig
The circuit uses two rectifier elements and the transformer with secondary
center tapped. The bridge circuit, however eliminate the use to secondary center
tap but required four rectifier elements.
FILTERS:
The output of rectifier contains A.C. components of considerable magnitude.
The effect of this A.C. components is to vary the output D.C. voltage. The filter
system is used to reduce the magnitude of this ripple ( pulsation ) present in the
output voltage supplied by the rectifier and provide a regulated and constant
voltage. No filters, in practice give any output voltage as ripple free as that of D.C.
battery but it approaches it so closely that the power supply performs well.
The out of various rectifier circuit is pulsating. It has a D.C. value and some
A.C. variation called ripples. This type of output is not useful driving, electronic
circuits. In fact, these circuit required a very steady D.C. output that approached
the smoothness out the pulsating in the output.
There are four popular filter circuits. They are,
1. Series inductor filter,
2. Shunt capacitor filter,
3. LC filter,
4. TT filter.
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63
REGULATION:
We have discussed about rectifiers and filters. They are capable of supplying
D.C. voltage and current but the voltage supplied by the rectifier circuit never
remains constant and it shows changes when load is changed or A.C. supply (main
input) fluctuates. It also contains A.C. ripples which can not be completely
eliminated by filtering. It has been seen that with a capacitor filter voltage
regulation is poor (D.C. output voltage changes when the load current is changed).
For a choke input filter, output voltage also shows variation for low load currents.
An other drawback with this filter circuit is that they can not filter out variation
from the D.C. output voltage caused by fluctuations in the A.C. supply.
We also know that in almost all circuit applications, it is important to have a
constant D.C. supply voltage but output of a filter shows frequent variations in
D.C. supply. That caused unsatisfactory operation of equipment. It can also
damage it. Due to this reason voltage regulation is required.
“Voltage regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage
when the load is removed.” The good regulation means that the output voltage
remains constant.
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64
UNIT = 8
APPLICATIONS
This equipment can be used for.
Page
65
1. Paying guest house.

2. Lodges.
3. Trains.
4. Fairs.
5. Hotels.
Page
66
UNIT = 9
COMPONENT PRICE LIST

TOTAL PRIZE Rs. 415.00
Page
67
NAME QUANTITY PRIZE
(1) Resistor 24 Rs. 12.00
(2) Capacitor 10 Rs. 16.00
(3) Transistor 02 Rs. 12.00
(4) Diode 05 Rs. 05.00
(5) Transformer 01 Rs. 40.00
(6) LED 05 Rs. 10.00
(7) IC 05 Rs. 150.00
(8) Relay 01 Rs. 40.00

(9) P.C.B 01 Rs. 80.00
(10) LDR 01 Rs. 15.00
(11) Display 01 Rs. 15.00
(12) Switch 02 Rs. 20.00
Page
68
UNIT = 10
SUMMARY
Page
69
After completion of this project we can say that by using “ PUT

COIN AND DRAW POWER” we can save electricity.This system has wide
range of use at industrial level.
Page
70
UNIT = 11
BIBILOGRAPHY
BASIC ELECTRONICS
- B.L. THERAJA
Page
71
THE 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

- KENNETH J. AYALA
A MONOGRAPH ON ELECTRONICS
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
- N.C. GOYAL
Page
72

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Put Coin and Draw Power

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MICROCONTROLLER BASED PUT COIN AND DRAW POWER

The Microcontroller based put coin and draw power is

X1=9V,500mA 6v,1C/O relay

Fig-1 shows the put-coin-draw-power circuit. It comprises micro-controller

The NE556 dual monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller

Microcontroller AT89C2051 is the heart of the circuit. It is a low-voltage,

to show on the 7-segment display. Coin-detection is also indicated by LED2,

;monostable not triggered

INCREMENT r3 BY5 INDICATE COIN

WAIT FOR 2 SECOND

 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that

COLOUR CODE OF RESISTOR:

Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding

1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band Temp.

5-band axial resistors

5-band identification is used for higher precision (lower tolerance)

The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor

 To limit the current.

 To provide proper load.

These can be group in two classes as detailed bellow.

(A) Non electrolyte type:

It includes paper, mica and ceramic capacitors,

(B) Electrolytic capacitors:

These capacitors are called electrolytic they used

Figure shows combined forward bias and reverse bias V-I

• Glass sealed envelope. (GSD)

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. In figure

BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

Coil A having number of turns is wound on the limb of a laminated

I. Simple transformer without the centre tapping in secondary is needed.

I. Four diodes are required.

changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further

• On-chip Analog Comparator

Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-irectional I/O

CD4511 7-SEGMENT DECODER/DRIVER

Part 1. -- Set-Reset flip-flop

1. Input 2. GND 3. Output

 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

• Aluminum gallium arsenide(AlGaAs ) - red and infrared

Here is a list of known applications for LEDs, some of which are

• Clusters in traffic signals, replacing ordinary bulbs behind colored

• Illumination, e.g. flashlights (US)/torches (UK).

An NPN Transistor Configuration

Note: Conventional current flow.

By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical

The Common Emitter Configuration.

One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is called a Class A Amplifier. A

With reference to the common emitter configuration shown below, a family of

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Output Characteristics Curves for a Typical Bipolar Transistor

The PNP Transistor

A PNP Transistor Configuration

Note: Conventional current flow.

A PNP Transistor Circuit

Most seven-segment digits also include a decimal point ("dp"), and

Seven-segment displays can be packaged in a number of ways. Three

The second package is essentially a 14-pin DIP designed to be installed

Seven-segment displays can be constructed using any of a number of

However, fluorescent displays require a fairly high driving voltage to

As shown in the two schematic diagrams above, the LEDs in a seven-

There is no automatic advantage of the common-cathode seven-

Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example