Archaic Egyptian Cosmology

Author(s): el-Sayed el-Aswad

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Anthropos, Bd. 92, H. 1./3. (1997), pp. 69-81
Published by: Anthropos Institute
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 92.1997:69-81
Anthropos

ArchaicEgyptian
Cosmology
el-Sayedel-Aswad

Abstract.- This paper is an anthropological readingof and homologybetweenthe underlyingprinciples

mythicalandhistorical textsaimedat exploring thedynamics whichbothcosmologiesare built.
by whicharchaicEgyptiancosmologywas constructed and upon
reconstructed.UsingDumont'sideasofhierarchy andSahlins' Understandinga cosmological systemcan be
workon cultural reproduction, thestudypresentsa synchronie achieved throughconcentratingon symbols and
anddiachronic of
analysis the underlying themesand principles images embodied in the mythicaland religious
The
was constructed.
uponwhicharchaicEgyptian cosmology to which that cosmological system be-
ofvisible/invisibleis thecommonprinciple around system
opposition
whichotherprinciples or sets of oppositionsare clustered. longs.1
A change in the symbolic structureof
The studyshowsthatarchaicEgyptian cosmology underwent the mythico-religious systemresultsin a change
a transformation from a structure based on naturalentities or reconstruction of the whole cosmological be-
intosociallysignificant
cosmological Thepaperfurther lief system. Mythical and religious phenomena
system.
elaboratesthestriking homology betweenthearchaicsocial are dealt with here in theirculturalcontext.As
cosmology representedin Osirianmythology andChristianity
era.[MiddleEast,Egypt, Geertz (1973: 125) states,
the anthropological
intheearlycenturies oftheChristian
cosmology,folklore,symbolic anthropology] study of religionis a "two-stage operation:first,
an analysis of the systemof meaningsembodied
el-Sayedel-Aswad,M.A. (1978,Univ.of Alexandria), M.A., in the symbolswhichmake up the religionprop-
Ph.D. (1984, 1988,Univ. of Michigan,Ann Arbor);since the relating of these systems
1983member ofAmerican since er, and, second,
Association,
Anthropological
1984ofMiddleEastern of
StudiesAssociation North America; to and psychologicalprocesses."
social-structural
Assoc. Prof,of TantaUniv.,Egypt,and the UnitedArab Symbolsand images concentrate meaningsin sen-
EmiratesUniv.,Al Ain;since1993Head oftheUnit ofFolklore is
sible forms.This feature profoundlyimportant
Resources.- Publications:
see References in the
andAnthropological studyof myth,art,and religionwhich are
Cited. viewed to fix without it
meaning making explicit
(Hasenmueller1989: 276).
One of the basic aims of historical-symbolic
Anthropologicaland historicalstudies of archaic anthropologyis to understandhow a cultureor
cosmologiesof ancientsocietiesare stillin an early systemis reordered,or how the reproductionof
phase of development.This paper is an anthro-
pological constructof Egyptianarchaic cosmolo-
gy embodied in two dominantmythologies.One
mythconcerns the god Ra, representingnatural
or solar cosmology,the otheris relatedto Osiris, 1 Symbolsand imagesor iconicsignsbelongto Peirce's
of sign.Therelationship
classification
triplicate between a
representing social cosmology.The researchaims andthatwhichit signifiesis basedon convention,
symbol
to elicit the underlyingstructureof cosmology habit,or law (Peirce1958:391). Thereis nota necessary
which lies behindthe appearances.For example, orintrinsic betweensucha symbolorwordas
relationship
the naturalor solar cosmology implies common "house"and thematerial building in whichpeoplereside
which render the of the or betweenthestatueof liberty andthevalueof freedom.
principles components On theotherhand,therelation ofimageoriconwiththatit
universecomprehensibleregardlessof theirmul- on A diagram,
similarity. ormap
picture,
signifiesdepends
tiple and superficialappearances.In addition,the is an exampleof an icon in thesensethatit is typically
studycontributes studiesthrough
to cross-cultural similarto therealobjectit represents. The thirdkindof
with It com- signs is "index"whichsignifies an objectbecauseit is
dealing comparative cosmology.
identical relatedto it (Peirce1958:391).
to,or internally
pares Egyptian cosmologies diachronicallyand Smokeandcloudsareindicesreferring to fire
respectively
synchronicallywith each other. The paper fur- and rain.Imagesor iconicsignsescapethearbitrariness
thercompares Osirian cosmology with Christian thatcharacterizessymbolsas beingsimilarto or liketheir
cosmology focusing on the strikingsimilarity referents(Hasenmueller 1984:343).

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70 el-Sayedel-Aswad

a structure becomesits transformation (Sahlins thepolarity of brightness/darknessis remarkably

1981:8).2 of great interestto Egyptian materialit does not
This paperappliesDumont'sideas of hierar- constitute thecommon ground oftheaforemention-
chy and encompassment along withconceptsof ed setsof opposites.Thispapersuggeststhatfor
markedness and unmarkedness used in linguistic Egyptianmaterialtheopposition visible/invisible
and semioticstudies(Dumont1986). The impor- is thefundamental principle uponwhich old orar-
tanceofthesenotionsandconceptsin articulatingchaicEgyptian cosmology was Inpre-
constructed.
structures has been recognizedby scholarsonly viousstudies(el-Aswad1987,1988,1993,1994a,
in the last decade.3Dumont'snotionof hierar- 1994b),theauthorconcludesthattheopposition
chicalasymmetric opposition, distinguished from betweenthevisibleandtheinvisibleis theunder-
Lévi-Strauss1 idea ofbinarysymmetric opposition lyingprinciple of thecosmologicalbeliefsystem
(1963) is utilizedin thestructural analysis. Two of contemporary Egyptian peasants.
termsor oppositesare equal in thebinaryoppo- ArchaicEgyptiancosmologyis basicallycon-
sitionwhiletheyare unequalin thehierarchicalcernedwith two intermingled and inseparable
opposition whichnecessitates theattachment of a themesassociatedwithtwo dominant and over-
valueto one oftwoopposites. archingsovereigns. One themedeals withnatu-
Hierarchical opposition is diachronic and con- ral cosmologyor cosmogonyas associatedwith
tainsa doublerelation of identity andcontrariety.the sun god Ra, whiletheotherconcernssocial
First,thereis a distinction withinidentity and cosmology thattreatssocialandpoliticalrelation-
second,thereis an encompassment ofthecontrary ships as well as the dilemmaof life and death
(Dumont1986:227). In this hierarchical or mark- closely connected to theslaingod Osiris.These
ed relationship, an oppositionbetweena whole two interconnected formsof naturaland social
and a partof thatwholeexists.The diachronic cosmologiesindicatea significant development of
feature of thehierarchical structure can be shown ancientEgyptians' thought and worldviews.
by Dumont'sexampleof Adamand Eve. As an
encompassing whole Adam existsalone. Then,
Eve has been createdfroma rib (or part)taken NaturalCosmology:The Creationof the
fromAdam's body.Adam and Eve composea Universe
set of oppositionin whichAdam encompasses
Eve (Dumont1986: 253). Structure, then,"is At the beginning, accordingto the Heliopolitan
processual: a dynamic development ofthecultural cosmology basedon theearliestEgyptian mythol-
categoriesand theirrelationships amounting to ogiesandtheologies thatgo backtotheOld King-
a worldsystemof generation and regeneration"dom (2700 B.C.), therewas Nun,theprimordial
(Sahlins1985:77). ocean in whichgermsof all thingsfloated.Nun
Applyinglinguisticideas of markedness and was chaosor formless massthathadno structure.
unmarkedness and Dumont'snotionof encom- In short, Nun was "unorganized chaos,nothing-
passment, Lyle (1995: 171f., 178f.) statesthat ness" (Moret1972: 374). It was also a lake of
theold-world cosmological structurerestson three chaos and darkness(Grimal1992: 265). By an
axesofpolarity: heat/cold, light/darkness, anddry- effort ofhiswill,Atum"stoodup outofNunand
ness/wetness. The commongroundoftheseoppo- roseabovethewater;thereupon theSuncameinto
sitions,Lyle maintains, is the of the
polarity bright- being, Lightwas, and Atum,duplicatedand
ness/dullness. ThisstudyfindsLyle's statement of madeexternalto theprimordial Water,tookthe
thethree setsofoppositions tobeapplicable tosome nameofRa" (Moret1972:374,italicsareadded).
significant aspectsof archaicEgyptiancosmol- The sungod Ra, then,becamevisibleafterbeing
ogy.However,one shouldmention thatalthough invisible. Although thesunemerged fromthecha-
os, its originwas notknown.It came intobeing
2 Accordingto Sahlins' account (1981: 7, 67 f.) the Hawai- outofitself. "Theuniquedeitywas notthevisible
ians' ritualreceptionof theBritishnavigator,CaptainCook,
in 1779 as theirreturnedGod, Lono, is a reproduction
sun which has alwaysexisted.It was omnipresent,
of theirculturalstructure.For furtherdiscussion of the and theentire earthlived,rejoicedand flourished
"
of CaptainCook who was treatedby Hawaiians in its light (Sourouzian1987: 28 f., italicsare
significance
as theirreturnedGod and how and forwhat reasons they added).The visibleentity or thesunis a marked
rituallymurderedhimsee Sahlins (1981: 22-28; 1985: 106 to theinvisiblerealitywhichis
-109).
figure compared
3 See, forexample,Sahlins 1985, Barnes 1985, Traube 1989, theunmarked ground. The marked termconveysa
el-Aswad 1987, 1988, 1993, 1994a, 19946, 1996a, 19966, morenarrowly specifiedanddelimited conceptual
and Lyle 1990, 1991, 1995. itemthantheunmarked (Waugh1982:301).

Anthropos92.1997

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ArchaicEgyptianCosmology 71

The invisiblerealitywas emphasizedthrough elbowandbindinga knee.The mountains known

varioussignificant mythological events. Of these as "Risings of Geb" were formed from his petrified
events, togiveoneexample,onefindsthatIsis,the position(Moret1972: 370). Geb standsforhard-
granddaughter of thesungod Ra, tirelessly plans ness, solidness,and cohesion,whileNut stands
many times with many tricks to obtain or steal forsoftness, tenderness whereshe was represent-
thereal and hiddennamein whichthesecretof ed as a beautifulbindingwomanadornedwith
thepowerof thatgod resides.In thiscontext, the stars.Earthand sky,then,implythe opposition
secretof Ra's poweris derivedfromor depends hardness/softness associatedwithman/woman or
on his invisibleor hiddenname.Moreover,the husband/wife. Geb,theearthgod,enjoyeda high
godRa manifests himself inmultiple visibleforms, prestigeas beingthefather of humanity (Grimal
symbols, andiconicimages.He appearsas " a fal- 1992: 47).4 Also, Nut,the sky,enjoyeda high
conor a ramorin anthropomorphic formwiththe positionas beinghighor aboveas wellas beinga
falcon'sora ram'shead,andso forth. Theseareall dwellingplaceofthesun,thehighest cosmicgod.
merelyvisibleeffigies, conceivedas hieroglyphs, Fromtheunionof theearthand sky,fourdei-
intended to allow recognition throughout his nu- ties,opposedin pairs,wereborn.Osirisand Isis,
merouscharacteristics andattributes" (Sourouzian and Sethand Nephthys. Thesedeitieswereinte-
1987:26, italicsareadded). gratedintheGreatEnneadofHeliopolis, however,
Besidesthepolarity thereare theyformwhatcan be labeledsocial cosmology
visible/invisible,
othersets of opposites:light/darkness and heat/ thatwillbe discussedindetailsoon.Thetransition
cold.Degreesof visibility as well as of lightand
heat were connected to the movements of the
sun whose different names and forms indicate a
of
spectrum light and heat. Atum means the sun The Sun God
Ra (Atum)
in theeveningtwilight or "he whois not"during
LIGHT
thenight.Another nameofthesungodis Khepri,
meaning "hewhobecomes,"describing theaspect
of the risingsun. Khepriis relatedto the verb
kheperwhichmeans"tocomeintobeing"as well
as to thewordkheperer whichrefers to thescarab
beetle.The nameRa means"thesunreigning in Shu (Air) = Tefnet(Wet)
The Humid
thezenith"(Moret1972:370). The Dry
As a representative of order,Ra conquered
chaosthrough thecreationof theuniverse.After
thecreation was completed, all chaoticfactors and
negative forces retreated to the marginal borders
of theordereduniverse(Grimal1992: 41). This
impliestheoppositeorder/disorder in whichthe Geb Nut
=
first term,order,encompasses thesecond. (Earth) (Sky)
Softness
Havingno femalepartner orwife,thedemiurge Hardness
Ra createdout of himself"a divinepairof off-
spring." OnewasmalecalledShu(air),lordofdry-
ness,and theotherwas femaleknownas Tefnet,
goddessofhumidity ormoisture. Then,outoflight
(or heat), came the oppositedryness/humidity or Osiris = Isis Seth = Nephthys
wetness, associated with theopposite male/female. Vegetation Fertilized Desert Sterility
Shu was represented as a man crownedwitha Nile Soil Darkness Barrenness
feather, whileTefnet, a womanor lioness.
Another divinecouplewas bornfromtheunion and principles
1: Divine genealogyand relatedconstituents
ofthe"dry"(Shu) andthe"humid"(Tefnet). This Fig.
of Egyptiancosmogony.
couplewas themale deityGeb (earth)and god-
dess Nut(sky).Nutwas represented as a woman
stretching her naked body over theearth. The lord
4 Diodorus Siculus mentionedthatShu and Geb played the
Shu (air) holdsNut (the sky)up separating her roles of Kronos and Zeus, respectively.This statement
(it) fromherhusbandGeb (earth).Geb appears implies thatGeb, like Zeus, was the fatherof humankind
as a recumbent manhoistinghimselfup on one (Grimal 1992: 217).

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72 el-Sayedel-Aswad

betweenthe creationof the earthand the rule of thatcosmologyinto a new formof social
of menwas mythologically madeexplicitthrough cosmologythatis crystallized aroundethicaland
Osirianreligion. Osiriswas "thefirst sovereign on social problems. These problems areexpressed in
earthafterthedeparture of thegodsforheavens" the myththrough hierarchically ordered sets of
(Sourouzian1987:27) andwas a god involvedin opposition. Theseoppositions arelove/hate, peace/
humanaffairs. war (or fighting), prosperity/poverty, honesty/
Thelastfourdeities,opposedinpairs,symboli- deceit,immortality/mortality and light/darkness.
ze specificnatural characteristicsoftheuniverse or The firsttermof each of thesesetsof opposites
cosmos.Osiriswasassociatedwiththefertilizationis valuedmoreandhenceencompasses thesecond
of theNile as well as withtheforceof vegeta- term.Osiris represents love, peace, prosperity,
tion,whilehissisterandwife,Isis,was associated honesty, immortality,andlight,5 whileSethstands
withthefertilized soil,in whichseeds grewand fortheoppositeofthesevalues.Sethis nota light
flourished. Meanwhile,as opposed to Osiris, god,butrather represents bothphysicalandmoral
Seth symbolizesthe drydesertwhile his wife nightor darkness. He was fighting againstOsiris,
Nephthys represents barrenness (see Fig. 1). Seth the beneficent god of light(Moret1972: 68 f.).
appears in animal formas an anteateror a Osiriswas justifiedby the tribunaland became
sharpnosedoxyrhynchus fishorgreyhound (Moret god of thedead and lordof eternity, whileSeth
1972:68, 251). Although theNile was anthropo- was condemned for his immoral action.
morphically represented as thegodHapi,thefertil- The mythalso containsothersets of opposi-
ityofthesoil oftheNile aftertheinundation was tions: unity/disunity, collectivity/individuality,
associatedwiththefertile forceof Osiris(Moret passion/lack ofpassion(dispassion), mercy/cruelty.
1972:82; Frazer1987:440 f.). Moral and social relationships are morehighly
valuedthanbloodrelationships. The mythshows
howIsis (sister-wife of Osiris),Nephtyths (sister-
The Social Cosmology wifeofSeth)andlaterHoruswereunitedtogether
againstSeth. Gods show mercytowardOsiris
The structure has an internal diachrony, consisting and devalueSethforhis dispassionand cruelty.
in thechanging relationsbetweengeneralcatego- Moreover, Sethwas alone,isolated,and deserted
ries(Sahlins1985:xv).Therelations between cos- fromevenhis closestrelation, Nephtyths. Mean-
micgodsthatformed theGreatEnneadchanged. while,OsirisandHorushadbecometwoaspectsor
The changingrelationsresultedin a transforma-facesofthesameidentity.
tionfromcosmogonyor naturalcosmologyinto Sociologically,as husbandandwife,Osirisand
socialorhumancosmology. Thistransformation is Isis representedtwooppositeyetcomplementary
connected withOsirianmythology in whichOsi- rolesand features in realor normaland mythical
ris as a sociallysignificant god becamethemost or narrative contexts. Beforedeathor withinthe
dominantcosmicand social figurein Egyptian contextof thenormallifeOsiriswas shownas a
cosmology. benevolent kingor rulerwhoprotected hisfamily
Osiriswas the son of the gods Geb (earth) and country. He was so activeand powerful that
and Nut (sky). Afterhe established justice and he could lead his to
country prosperity. Moreover,
welfarein Egypt,he was rituallykilledby his Osiriswas presented as a dominant, independent,
brother Sethand his followers. Osiris'bodywas and self-confident personwhoneverthought that
cut intopieces and thrownintothe sea. Osiris, he wouldbe betrayed by one of his relativesor
withthehelpof his sister-wife Isis and thegod subjects.DuringOsiris'lifeIsis was presented as
Geb, was resurrected or raisedand becamethe accepting herroleas a wifeinsidethekingdom of
god and judge of the dead in the afterworld.herhusband.She didnothavean activeorleading
Miraculously, Isis transformed herselfintoa bird role.However,afterthedeathof thehusbandthe
andhadsexualrelations withOsirisresulting inthe mythicalrealitygives us a different picturein
birthof Horus.Horusovercameand killedSeth whichtherolesofhusbandandwifearereversed.
and restored his father'spositionas thekingof Isis took the roles of her husbandas defender
theliving(Budge 1973/1: 2-20; Clark1978: 100 and protector of herfamily.She was shownas
-122). Here, cosmologyis anthropomorphic in a powerful anddominant personin supporting her
principle and structure. husbandwho,inturn, was presented as powerless,
Osirianmythology represents a significant
trans-
formation of Egyptianarchaicnaturalcosmology 5 The fact that Osiris was identifiedwith light will be
in the sense thatit reconstructs the elements addressedsoon.

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ArchaicEgyptian
Cosmology 73

inactive, dependent, andvulnerable. Symbolically,kingbecameRa inthe6thdynasty without loosing

Isis was associatedwiththeoutsidedomainwhere his identity as Osiris.Therefore, in thepersonof
she transformed herselfinto a bird and, then, "theKingOsirisascendsto heavenandsharesthe
regained hercharacter andlivedin thewilderness dominion withRa" (Moret1972: 168).
raising her son Horus (see Table 1). The cosmos or universeis structured through
the combination of opposedyet complementary
or
Table1: ReversedRoles and FeaturesRelatedto Men and elements characteristics,
each incompletein
Womenas Represented in Real andMythical Con- itselfor withoutthe other.Any oppositionis
texts an oppositionof choicesamongunequals.This
Context Menas represented Womenas represented meansthatoppositions are relationsand notjust
byOsiris byIsis things. Oppositions definetheconceptual elements
or conceptsof the systemthrough the relational
Normal-Daily outside inside
Llfe and hierarchical network theyproduce(Waugh
active inactive
1982: 315). The associationof the god sun Ra
leadership dependence withlife as well as withlightor visibility does
powerful/ powerless/ not imply that Osiris is associated only with death
protector protected andinvisibility. Afterdeath,Osirisremovedfrom
outside earthto the sky. He was the firstwho passed
Mythical-Deathinside
Realit?
fromthegodsof theearthto thegodsof heaven.
inactive active a
On his ascendanceto heaven,he underwent
dependence leadership "spiritualization" where he became a soul, a spirit
powerless/ powerful/ (Moret1972: 383). He was also resurrected and
protected protector had thepowerof spiritual lightor enlightenment.
The god sun or Ra is relatedto thenaturallife
ofthisworldly universe, whileOsirisis connected
Osirianmythology had a greatimpacton po- to thesocialandspiritual lifeofboththisworldly
litical,intellectual, and socialdomainsof ancient universe andtheotherworld.Thejudgment ofthe
Egyptian society. Italsofounded the funeralrituals deadpeoplein theafterlife is based on their deeds
thatdevelopedfrombeingexclusively restricted in thislife(see Table2).
to Egyptianelites,especiallykingsor pharaohs,
andFeaturesAssociatedwith
duringthe3rdand 4thdynasties (Old Kingdom) Table2: MainCharacteristics
Ra and Osiris
to being shared and practicedby all Egyptians
without discrimination at theendoftheOld King- Ra Osiris
dom.In the Old Kingdom, Osirian burialrituals creation meaning
wereconfined tokings.Thekingorpharaohstands order
social-natural
forthewholesociety.Afterdeath,thepharaoh' s naturalorder
mummified,thislife boththisandotherlives
royalcorpsehad to be reanimated,
andpreserved to lastforever or to ensureeternity.light-sun light-spirit
The dismemberment of Osiris'bodyhad become visible invisibleandvisible
thestarting point of the ritual of resurrection. The
deadpharaohwas identified withOsiris.The des-
of the whole was boundup withthe In theuniverse, eastandwest,southandnorth,
tiny country
fateof thekingin his struggle againstdeath and day and night, lifeand deathare associated
and
annihilation.Ifthedeadkingwas assimilated with respectively withRa and Osiris.These qualities,
or he however, are complementary andrepresent differ-
Osiris,thelivingkingwas associatedwith, Ra is associated
ent aspects of the same entity.
was,Horus.InthisearlyperiodofEgyptian history
fromwhich
of Egyptiansociety,the sun god Ra and Osiris witheast or easternside of the sky
cosmicgods and wereadopted the sun riseswhileOsirisis connected withthe
becamedominant
The livingkingwas both west and is knownas god a who resides over
bypharaohsas patrons. or the dead 1972: 247).
the son of Ra and Horus(son of Osiris).Osiris the westerners, (Moret
was made sun Ra 1972: 168). In 9th and 10th centuries (2350 B.C.) and after
himself god, (Moret
Osiriancultand solardoctrine are fusedtogether thedemocratic revolution Ra was associatedwith
where"Ra andOsirisfunction as boththevisible Osiris.Mythical and theologicaldoctrineswere
sunwhichilluminat- symbolically presented in thearchitecture ofThe-
diurnalsunandthenocturnal
In a the reflects the
es thedarkness" (Sourouzian1987:26). The dead ban temple. word, temple

92.1997
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74 el-Sayedel-Aswad

wholeuniverse. Thetemplerunsfromeasttowest, ofa society"is notso muchdueto theirsimilarity

following thecourseof thesun.As thereal sun (mechanical solidarity) ortotheircomplementarity
dividesthe sky,thepharaohor god dividesthe (organicsolidarity) to theircommonsubmis-
as
templeintotworegions.On theone hand,there sionto therulingpower"(Sahlins1985:45) that
is theeasternside connected to thesouthof the controlsthemin thislifeas well as in theother
templeand theskywhichis therealmof rising life.
sunor thegod Ra, thegod of life.On theother Osiriancosmologyenjoyeda certainprece-
hand,thereis thewestern sideattached tothe north dence comparedto the cosmologyof Ra. This
whichis thesphereofthesinking sun,of the Osiris statement can be substantiated by comparing both
or thegod ofthedead (Moret1972:415-421). cosmologies with each other. Ra
First, cosmology
Theinvisible qualityas theunderlying principle deals directly withtheproblemof creationof the
or themewas repeatedly In
stressed. official doc- universe as well as withtheconstituents of that
trines of the 12th dynasty,Osirisis "the soul of universe and principles uponwhich it is construct-
Ra, his greathiddenNamewhichresidesin him" ed. Osiriancosmologydeals withsocial,moral,
(Moret1972:385).ThenameofOsiriswasenough andpoliticalproblems as wellas withthedestiny
to turna deadmanintoa god (Moret1972:260). ofmaninboththislifeandtheafterlife. In short,it
One mightask if thisexplainIsis' successfulat- dealswiththeproblemof "meaning" in Weberian
temptto obtainRa's sacredand hiddenname? terminology, i.e.,meaning relatedtolifeanddeath
Andthatname,one speculates, mighthave been andcomplicated socialrelationships.
thatof "Osiris"who becameIsis' husband.This Second,Ra residesin theheightsof heaven,
speculation can be consideredreasonablewithin attachednotto people'severyday life,butrather
thecontextor giventhefactthatbothOsirisand withcreation destiny and of the universe. On the
Isis were the mostdominantdeitiesin ancient contrary, Osiris lives on earthamongpeople,rul-
them and theirlives.Ordinary as
Egyptian religionandcosmology. ing organizing
Osiriancosmologydevelopedfurther in the well as privileged people were interested more in
Middle Kingdom(and New Kingdom), and the practicalissues such as for,
fighting and achieving
Osirianburialritualsbecameavailableandacces- certainobjectives,maintaining justice,and per-
sibleto all peoplewithout being restricted to the forming death rituals includingmummification.
royaland privilegedfamilies.At thisperiodof Third,Ra doctrineor cosmologyis confined
time(history),thereligiousandintellectual center to the livingworldor universewhereasOsirian
movedfromHeliopolisto twocities,one in lower cosmologygoes beyondthatlivingworldto in-
Egyptknownas Busiris,whereOsiris'backbone cludethedomainof theafterworld thatattracted
was buried,theotherin upperEgypt,knownas Egyptians whoshoweda greatconcern ofthetheir
Abydos, the burialplace of Osiris' head (Frazer afterlifeor eternal world.
1987:426; Moret1972:246). Osiriandoctrine or Fourth,as a manor god who livedon earth,
cosmology spreadoverallEgyptbinding allclasses died,resurrected, and thenascendedto heaven,
of thatsociety:The cohesionof the members Osirisencompassed earthand heavenas well as

VisibleCosmos < Osiris ► InvisibleCosmos

Earthly I Heavenly

Vegetation I . Enlightenment
Fertility Body ^ ► Soul Justice
Nile Corpse-Mummy Spirit Word
HiddenName

Material Immaterial
Mortal Immortal
Dark Light
inferior superior
Fig. 2: The visible and the invi-
powerless powerful sible aspects of the cosmos and
the relatedfeaturesshowingthe
encompassmentof Osiris of the
Sacrifice w _. . whole universeor cosmos.
Corporeal < ► Divine

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ArchaicEgyptian
Cosmology 75

thisworldlylife and otherworldly life. He also Itcanbe theorized thattwosignificant historical

encompasses the visible and invisible aspects of events facilitated the and
rapidacceptance practice
theuniverse whileRa doesnothavethatprivilege. of Christianity in Egypt.The first eventhappened
In a word,he is associatedwithdeathandencom- in A.D. 48 whenSt. Marktheevangelist visited
the
passes contrary or life.At once encompassing Alexandria and stayed four yearspreaching the
and transcending thesociety,Osirisis capableof principles and ideas of thenewreligionto Egyp-
dominating thatsocietyand theuniverseas well, tianfollowers (Atiya1968: 25, 27).6 Duringthat
in its multiplespheres,visibleand invisible,this time,St. Markestablished theChristian (Coptic)
lifeandtheotherlife(see Fig. 2). churchin Alexandria (Homersham 1892:161).He
returned to Jerusalem afterordaining Anianus(a
shoemaker and firstEgyptianconvert), bishopof
MythicalRealitiesand Cosmological thefirstchurch (Fowler1901:3). Thesecondevent
Metaphors was theritualdeathof St. Markin Alexandria in
A.D. 68 (Atiya1968:27) whichwillbe discussed
Specificaspectsof Osirianmythology have been subsequently.
comparedwiththoseof Christianity by scholars To begin,one mightask whyAlexandria was a
suchas Budge(1969, 1973,1974),Creed(1942), stage from which Christianity spreadquickly."No
Clark(1978),Brandon(1969),Frazer(1987), and country" Creed (1942: 300) says"hasaffected the
The
Jung(1968) amongothers. similarity between development of the Christian religion more than
OsiriancultsandChristianity might be a product of has Egypt,or rather - to speakmoreexactly- no
theChristian culturallensthrough whichEgyptian cityhas affected thedevelopment oftheChristian
was
religion interpreted in colonial and postcolo- religion more profoundly than has Alexandria." In
nial times.Whatever themotiveof thesestudies, Egyptand throughout the Ptolemicand Roman
theyhavebeenlimited tosurface analogyandhave periods,Alexandriawas a vitalcenterof intel-
suffered fromthelackofsystematic approachthat lectual,political,and economicactivities. In the
aimsatexploring therelationships betweenunder- first century A.D., it was second only to Rome in
lyingprinciples upon which structures of Osirian political importance, but greater in itscommercial
andChristian cosmologies arebuilt.Comparabilityprosperity andintellectual or educational progress
cannotbe madeon external or surfacehomology, (Homersham 1892: 161; Fowler1901: 2). When
but ratheron internalor deep relationships be- St. Markcame to Alexandria, thedominant reli-
tweenbasic components of the structure (Hend- gion was thatof Osiris,knownthenas Serapls.
ricks1982:140). Ptolemy I (305-282 B.C.) hadmadeOsiris,under
This paperdoes notclaimthatChristian reli- thenameof Serapis,a universalstategod whom
gion,however,is a duplicateof Osirianmythol- bothGreeksand Egyptians couldworship(Bran-
ogy,butratherconfirms some significant under- don 1969: 132) and had built a greattempleto
lyingprinciples of bothtypesof cosmologies. In Serapis in Alexandria. When Egyptlaterbecame
otherwords,itattempts torevealtheprinciples by a part of the Roman Empire 30 B.C., thegod
in
whichthestriking homology between Osirian and Serapis(Osiris) was beingworshipped.
Christian cosmologies canbe rendered intelligible. It mustbe mentioned thatduringthe period
Here,to support theobjective of this part of the between A.D. 48 and 68 (or betweenthe first
paperI quote Sahlins (1985: 76) who says "I visit of St. Mark to Alexandria and his deathin
do not offera competing historical theory, since 68), there were no historically recorded eventsof
it shouldbe clear thatI am not talkingabout violenceor discordbetweenEgyptianChristians
what'actuallyhappened.'Yet,whatI am talking and followersof the god Serapis (Osiris). On
about- indigenous schemesof cosmological pro- his second visitto Alexandriain A.D. 68, St.
-
portions may be even more significant histori- Mark "was overjoyedto findthatthe brethren
cally." had so multiplied thattheywere able to build
It has beensaid that"betweentheOld Empire a considerable churchin thesuburban districtof
andtheadventofIslam,Egyptreceivedonlytwo
majorinfluences fromwithout- Hellenismand
(Nock 1944: 21). It can be argued 6 Concerning the exact date or yearof the firstvisitof
Christianity" St. Mark to havedifferent
historians
thatthisinfluence couldnothaveexistedormight Alexandria, opinions.
Someauthorities say thatitwasA.D. 40 (Fowler1901:2),
havetakena verydifferent formiftherewerenot A.D. 45 (Butcher1975:20), or A.D. 48 (Atiya1968:27).
alreadya similarpreexisting religioussystemin Atiyamentions thatsomeothersourcesstatethattheyear
EgyptupontheadventofChristianity. was A.D. 55, 58, or 61 (1968: 27).

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76 el-Sayedel-Aswad

Bauealis"(Atiya1968: 27). The questionhereis thefamily, in whichfather is themostdominant

whatwerethefactorswhichfacilitated therapid andencompassing figure,an unquestionable reali-
of in
spread ChristianityAlexandria, andthen over ty. In other words these categories of theperson
all Egypt? had becomehistorical metaphors thatsucceeded
Thisquestioncan be answeredby referring to in linkingthesecularand transcendental realities
thebasicsymbolic structuresofboththeChristian together. One of the hymnsaddressedto Osiris
and Osirian(Serapis)religions.In thiscase, the says"Thouartthefather andmother ofmankind,
attentionwillbe paidtothestructural relationshipsthey live on thy breath, they subsist on theflesh
betweenconcepts, symbols, images, and rituals of of thybody" (Frazer 1987: 442).
each religion.The foremost impression or con- Hierarchy is universaland theorderis view-
clusionone mighthaveafterexamining theideas ed to constitute mainlyin inequality(Dumont
andritualsofboththeOsirianmythandChristian 1986:265f.).Thebeliefin theencompassing "Fa-
religionis thattheyare similarin manyrespects. ther"eitherin bothOsirianmythology andChris-
"The resemblance neednotbe purelyaccidental. tian religionconstitutes, borrowing Rappaport's
AncientEgyptmayhave contributed its shareto phrase(1979: 210), "ultimate sacredpostulates."
thegorgeoussymbolism of theCatholicChurch In theirnature, sacredpostulates are "neitherver-
as wellas tothepale abstractions ofhertheology" ifiablenorfalsifiable butnevertheless takento be
(Frazer1987: 445). Basic concepts,images,and unquestionable becausemystically knownor be-
ritualsof bothreligionsinclude:God as father cause rituallyaccepted"(Rappaport1979: 129).
andGod as son,theHolyMotheranddivineson, Analogousrelationships were and stillare core
the saviorwho saves and people who need to principles ofChristianity. ForChristianity, God is
be saved,sufferings, holyspirit,trinity, baptism, the the
"Father, Almighty, the Creator. Because
resurrection,andjudgment. In bothreligions, one he is Father,the self findsitselfwithina uni-
mightsay,conceptsandritualscan be understood versalstructure of kinship.Becausehe is theAl-
in theirrelationalcontexts.No conceptcan be mighty, nothing can finallythreaten thefulfillment
understood separately or without relation to other of God's familial design" . . . "No matterhow
concepts. As Sahlins says(1981: 71), "God the Fa- different or even irreconcilable various Christian
theris understood by relationto God the Son, and theologiesmayappear,they all finally displaya
viceversa."Therelationships betweenconceptsin commonidentity derivedfromthe sharedroot
bothOsirianand Christian systemsare strikinglymetaphor ofthefatherhood ofGod.Thisis notone
similar.To see thelikeis to see thesamein spite divineattribute amongmany,buta principle for
of,andthrough, thedifferent. Thistension between theinterpretation ofthemall" (Harned1981:28 f.).
samenessand difference characterizes thelogical Osiris was a god in humanform.One of
structureof likeness(Ricoeur1978:5). theEgyptian religion'sfundamental characteristics
commonwithChristianity is "the realityof a
God who is in man and above man" (Morenz
The EncompassingFather,The God-Man 1973:2). The "Christian era itselfowes itsname
andsignificance totheantiquemystery ofthegod-
The archaicor traditional man, Mircea Eliade man, which has its rootsin the archetypical Osiris-
(1959: 5) argues,"acknowledges no act which Horus myth of ancient Egypt"(Jung 1968: 68 f.).
has not been previouslypositedand lived by As Ortner (1984: 148) states and
"society history
someoneelse."Themyth ofOsiriswas a paradigm are not simplysums of ad hoc responsesand
of familialor kinshiprelationship, social values, adaptations to particular stimuli, butaregoverned
politicalrelation,
suffering, eternal return, justice, by organizational and evaluative schemes.It is
and interaction betweenGod and man as well these(embodied,of course,withininstitutional,
as betweenmenand women.Egyptianconcepts symbolic, and materialforms)thatconstitute the
of kinshipand descentexplainthecontinuity and system."The eventthus "enterscultureas an
repetitionoftheirsocialandcultural structure. instanceof a receivedcategory, theworldly token
Therelationship betweenfather andsonandvi- of a presupposedtype"(Sahlins 1981:7). Like
ce versa,ontheonehand,andbetween mother and Christ,Osirislivedon earthamongmenand was
son and vice versa,on theother,reflect themost involvedin the social affairsof theirdailylife
significantsocial,familial,religious, and political without loosinghis transcendental quality.When
principlesthatordered Egyptian society.Thesecat- he was born,"a voice proclaimed thattheLord
egoriesofperson,represented in theirmyth, were of all thingshad come upon the earth"(Moret
divineentitiesthatmadekinship relationships and 1912:70 f.).

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ArchaicEgyptian
Cosmology 77

and Sacrifice
Suffering judge in thelastjudgment(Brandon1969:382).
Osirisalso was thejudge in the last judgment
"Mythical incidents constitute archetypical situa- of the afterworld (Brandon1969: 102). He was
tions. The experiencesof celebratedmythical the"Rulerof Eternity" (Wilson1956: 269). The
are
protagonists re-experienced by the living in judgment of each individual seemedto occurafter
analogous circumstances. More, the living become his death where his or her heart was weighedin
mythical heroes" (J. Prytz Johansen quoted in front of Osiris, the sole judge thedead. The
of
Sahlins1981:14,italicsarein theoriginal). dead wereblessedor punishedaccording to their
Osiriswas therepresentation of sufferings.He actionsin theworldly life(Budge1974:21-25).
was betrayed, denied,andslaughtered byhisclos-
est relative,his brother Seth.It is debatablethen
thestatement whichEliadeemphasizes concerning Trinity
thesuperiority of Christianity comparedwiththe
old Mediterranean ethics.The reasonof thatsu- The conceptof the trinity is not exclusiveto
periority as Eliade claimswas thatChristianityChristianity. Beforethe adventof Christianity,
"gavevalueto suffering: transforming painfroma Egyptknewtrinity, implying thereligiousbelief
negative condition toan experience witha positive thatthreegodsareone,inmanydifferent forms.7 A
spiritualcontent" (Eliade 1959: 96). Osiriancos- well knownexampleof thiswas "theunionof
mologygivesa highvalueto suffering andOsiris Ptah,Sokaris,andOsiris.Sokaris,whowas a local
himselfwas a model forthose who suffered. In god at Memphis,was associatedwithPtah,who
ancienttextsone reads,"theheartof Osirisis in was powerful therebutwhoseinfluence was also
everysacrifice," and "Osirisknows the day when nationwide; through his function as god of the
he shallpass out" (Moret1912: 98). Osiriswas dead, he was associatedwithOsiris,who was
"the breadof life" (Moret 1912: 104) as well supremein such matters"(Morenz 1973:142).
as "pastandfuture-cause andpotentiality" (Clark Historicalrecordsmentionthattherewere two
1978: 157).In Osirianreligioneverypersoniden- statements whichservedto enhancethenatureof
tifiedhimself withOsiris,especiallythedeceased the god Apis,the God of Memphis,by making
who"wouldbecomelikeuntoOsirisin everyre- two deitiestake up theirabode in him. These
spect"(Budge1974:lxxx,416-418). Similarly, in statements demonstrate thatthe threegods are
Christianity every"Christian is to becomea little one (Morenz1973:143). Anotherexamplegoes
Christ(Lewis 1971: 153). In addition, Osiriswas backto Ramessideperiod(1308-1085 BC) where
thesaviorgodwho,byhisdeathandresurrection,trinity was.represented in the god Apls. Three
assuredhisdevoteesa newlifeafterdeath(Moret gods wereunitedin thatgod. These gods were
1912:138).WhenOsirianreligion disappeared, "it Osiris=Apis(a single quantity)- Atum-Horus
was succeededby thereligionof Christ,thenew at the same time . . ., the GreatGod (Morenz
saviorgod, who had also died and rose to life 1973:143).8
again"(Brandon1969:132). The Holy Spiritis a fundamental component
oftheChristian Trinity. The notionofHolySpirit
was also recognizedin Osirianmythology.9 The
Afterlifeand Judgment god Osiris was represented in the form of a
birdand was believedto descendfromheavenly
The beliefin the afterlife was the fundamentalheightsto settleuponhis templeso as to unite
reasonthatdroveEgyptians to preserve thebodies
of theirdead by the highlysophisticated artof 7 Forfurther information on thethemeof trinity in ancient
embalming and mummification that "continued in Egyptian religionsee Morenz(1973: 142-146).
Egyptforsome centuriesafterthe introduction 8 Comparethisstatement withtheLeydenhymnsto Amon
of Christianity into thatcountry, in fact until whichrunas follows:"All godsarethree, Amon,Re, and
became Ptah, and thereis no second to them.Hidden (/ran)is his
thedoctrine preachedby SaintAnthony nameas Amon,he is Re in face,and his bodyis Ptah"
known.This greatascetictaughtmento believe (Morenz1973: 144,italicsin theoriginal).
thatChristwouldat theResurrection, give them 9 Thethemeofthebirdas a symbolassociatedwiththevital
back theirbodies in a glorifiedstateand that forceof lifeis also shownwhenIsis, thedivinefemale,
therefore mummification was unnecessary forthe transformed herselfintoa birdandmiraculouslymadelove
withherdead husbandOsiris.The soul symbolizing the
genesisofthespiritual body"(Budge1973:134f,). vitalandeternalforceof lifewas represented in theform
The lastjudgmentis a basic concernin both of a humanheadedbird(Budge 1974: 285-294; Clark
Christian and Osirianreligions. Christwillbe the 1978:253-256).

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78 el-Sayedel-Aswad

withhis image.In Osirianmythology thebirdis quarterof the globe: JesusChrist,the Saviour

a symbolof life or spirit,whilein Christianityof theWorld"(1975: 12, italicsare added).And
thedove is a symbolof Holy Spirit(Liungman "Isis's devoteespassedquietlyto theworshipof
1991: 126). Osiris"appearsas a spirit... tojoin another Mother"(Marlowe1971:60). Certainly in
his formin his sanctuary. He comesflying outof art"thefigureof Isis sucklingthe infantHorus
theheavenslike a sparrow-hawk withglitteringis so like thatof theMadonnaand childthatit
plumage"(Morenz 1973: 144). The spiritof God has sometimes receivedtheadoration of ignorant
"represents its divine substance and vitality, which Christians" (Frazer 1987: 445).
it impartsto the image yet on the otherhand
it denotespreciselyinferior earthly creatures and
raisesthemto thelevel of formsof thesublime Baptism
God" (Morenz1973: 152).
Concerning the ritualof baptism,whichis also
essentialin Christianity, one findsthatit was
The DivineMotherand theEncompassingSon observedand performed in Osirianreligion.In
ancientEgypt,an infantwould be baptizedto
The root metaphors of sacredmotherhood and cleansehis bodyand his soul.The water"makes
divinechildhood arerepresented in Isis andHorus of him what it makes of every . . . Egyptian
respectively. These metaphors have been repre- whoreceivestherite,theequal to Osiris"(Moret
sentedin similarfashionsin history. The "early 1912: 181f.). The ritualof baptismsymbolized
of
representation Coptic a Madonna is a truere- deathand lifewherethe childwas supposedto
production of Isis the
suckling baby Horus" (Atiya die and to be bornagain intolife,like thegod
1968: 2, italicsare added).Horus,however,was Osiris(Moret1912: 182). In Christianity as well,
seen by Egyptiansas the representation of his and in theritualof baptism, theinfant is ritually
fatherOsiris.Horus was an encompassing god assimilated to Christin his deathso as to be one
who came to guide and controlpeople in their withhimin hisresurrection (Brandon1969:320).
worldly life, while his father was their judge in the The symbolicsignificance of baptismin both
afterlife. As Budge(1973:306) pointsout,thebulk religions, then,is thatit signifies themeaningful
ofthemassesinEgyptwho"professed Christianityrelationship betweendeathand life or men and
transferred to Marythe Virginthe attributes of God.
Isis theEverlasting Mother, andto theBabe Jesus
thoseoftheHorus."
In thiscontext, it mightbe usefulto referto The Cross,Symbolof Life,Rebirth,and Eternity
a picturein a galleryin Londonwhichrepresents
a processionof Egyptiangods to see how myth Anotherstriking factthatemphasizesthe simi-
andhistory aremixedtogether in one unit.In this laritybetweenChristianity and Osirianreligions
picture, Butcher says, "the singersgo before, the is the use of the symbol thecross.In Chris-
of
minstrels followafter;in themidstthereare the tianity, the cross symbolizesChrist'spains and
damselsplayingon thetimbrels; and in theplace sufferings through whichhumankind is redeemed
ofsuperest honour is borne thegoddess, Isisywith and granted eternal life.The Christian crosshas
Horus uponher knee.The sick are broughtby been recognizedas beinga reproduction of, the
theirfriendsto the waysideto receivestrengthankh(Clark1978:258),an ancientEgyptian sym-
and healingas thegods pass.[10] Littleimagesof bol of life.As some writers maintain "theankh
themaresoldas charmsto wardoffevilfromthe signwas cruciform witha roundedtopwhichthe
purchaser. But in thecenterof thecanvasa very Christians readilyadoptedfromtheearliesttime"
humblecavalcademeets. . . bearinga womanand (Atiya1968: 21; Liungman1991: 46, 438). The
child. . . Thoseancientgodsarelostandforgotten,ankhwas "thekeyofEternallifethatopensup the
but the child's nameis honourednow in every gatesofdeathon to immortality" (Cirlot1971:68
-72, 167). EgyptianChristians (Copts)tookthe
ankhas a symbolofeternallifethrough thesacri-
10 Miracles were attributed to Isis who "was in her capacity ficialdeathof Christ;it "appearson gravestones
as goddess of wisdom and as mystichealer of the blind of thesixth
through ninthcenturies" (Biedermann
and the ailing thatshe was reveredthroughout the Greco-
Roman worldand thatherinfluenceon bothJudaismof the 1992:83). Thecrossandankhwereso similar that
postexilicperiod and nascentChristianity is most readily bothEgyptian Christians and followers of Osiris/
apparent"(Kee 1980: 145). Serapisusedthemincommon. Whenthetempleof

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ArchaicEgyptian
Cosmology 79

Serapiswas brokendownin A.D. 395,"therewas place at his tomb(Butcher1975: 23). "The co-
foundin it,engraven on stones,certain characters,existenceof naïvemythology amongthemasses
whichtheycalledhieroglyphics, having the form and a sophisticated theologyamongan elite of
of crosses.Both the Christians and pagans,on theoreticians, bothservingto maintainthesame
seeingthem,thought theyhad reference to their symbolic universe, is a frequent historical
phenom-
respective religions;for the Christians who affirm enon" (Berger and Luckman 1967: 112,italicsin
thatthecrossis thesignofChrist'ssavingpassion, theoriginal).
claimedthischaracter waspeculiarly theirs,butthe The deathof St. Mark,whichimpliednotions
pagans alleged thatit might appertain to Christ and of suffering and sacrifice, mightbe thought of
Serapisin common"(Butcher1975:219). as a criticalhistorical eventwhichmotivated the
Alexandrians prostrated themselves beforeSe- followers ofthenewreligionto distinguish them-
rapis(Osiris)or Christimpartially duringthefirst selvesfromothersand to declarethemselves as
century and the firsthalfof the secondcentury uniquebelievers oftheSaviorGod (Christ)despite
(Meinardus1965: 112f.). The similarity between thefactthatbothreligions conveyedone message
thetwo religionswas strongenoughto produce or meaning:salvationin otherworldly lifebased
an ambiguousstatesharedby bothEgyptian na- on and
morally sociallyguided behavior in this
tivesandoutsiders. Forexample, when the Roman worldly life.
emperor HadrianvisitedEgypt,he wrotea letter
to theconsulServiansin A.D. 134 saying,"they
whoworship SerapisareChristians, andsomewho Conclusion
call themselves Bishops of Christ are devotedto
Serapis ... the very Patriarch himself, whenhe Thisstudyhas attempted to demonstrate thathier-
came intoEgypt,is maintained by some to have archically opposedrelationships between elements
worshippedSerapis,by others Christ" (Fowler and concepts which form the cosmological system
1901:7). ofancient Egyptexplainstableandchanging qual-
itiesof thatsystem.ArchaicEgyptian cosmology
is culturally orderedandhistorically transformed.
A RitualDeath Historicaltransformation, however, is understood
in termsof diachronic relationships betweenele-
It has been mentioned thatforalmost20 years mentsof thecosmological beliefsystem. In other
(A.D. 48 to 68) - theperiodbetweenSt. Mark's words,themythical cosmologyas a set of hier-
twovisitsto Alexandria - no violenceor hostility archicalrelationships betweenconceptsor cate-
betweenthebelievers oftheold andnewreligions goriesis characterized by its internal diachrony
was recorded in history. However,on thesecond that is based on the changingrelationbetween
visitofSt.MarktoAlexandria inA.D. 68,anevent its concepts.Withinthistheoretical context,ar-
occurred. By thisevent,it is meant the ritual death chaic Egyptian cosmology had been developedand
of St. Mark which happened on a day in which transformed from a natural system concerned with
both Christians and the followers of Osirian reli- the problem of the creation of the world into a
gion were celebrating, separately, some religious social cosmology that deals with human problems
festivals.In the yearA.D. 68, it happenedthat relatedto themeaningofthislifeas wellas tothe
Easterfellon thesamedayas theSerapisfestival. eternal meaning anddestiny ofmanintheafterlife.
The followers of Serapis(Osiris)werecelebrating Meaningsofcosmological conceptsandhistor-
theSerapisfestivalin theSerapion.At thesame ical eventsare realizedthrough theelicitationof
time,Christians werecelebrating Easter.No ref- hierarchical relationships betweenoppositions in
erencein historical recordsregarding themotives whichspecificconceptsenjoya highor distinct
orcausesthatdrovebelieversofSerapistopunish value.ThispaperconcludesthatforarchaicEgyp-
and kill St. Mark(Butcher1975: 23). However, tiancosmology, thepolarity is
of invisible/visible
according tohistorical records, "St.Markwasseiz- theprincipleuponwhichotherpolaritiesor sets
ed, draggedwitha rope aroundhis neckin the of oppositions arebuilt.Thisconclusiondoes not
street,and thenincarcerated forthenight.In the support Lyle'sstatement thatthepolarity ofbright-
following morning thesameordealwas repeated ness/darkness is the common grounduponwhich
untilhe gaveup theghost"(Atiya1968:27). The old-world cosmology is constructed.
corpseof St. Markwas buriedin thechurchof Old-world cosmology is inseparablefrommyth
Baucaliain Alexandria. And for or
manycenturies, religion. As a matter of fact, archaiccosmology
the electionof the Alexandrian patriarchs took constituted thecorefoundation ofreligion inwhich

92.1997
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80 el-Sayedel-Aswad

invisibledomainformed a sanctifiedand unques- Budge,E. A. Wallis

Gods of theEgyptians,2 vols.New York:Dover
tionablereality.God exists,butis invisible.Yet, 1969 The
Publications.
[1904]
he can makehimselfvisibleto whomhe desires 1973 Osirisand EgyptianResurrection, 2 vols. New York:
whenever he wishes. DoverPublications [1911]
Symbolsand imagesembodiedin mythand 1974 TheBookoftheDead (Translation). London:Routledge
reveal- and Paul.
religionaretreadedin thisstudyas a clue Kegan [1909]
ing humaninvolvement in historyas well as an Butcher,E.L.
agentin theprocess of culturalor cosmological 1975 TheStoryoftheChurchofEgypt.London:Smith, Elder
transformation. & Co. [1897]

Cirlot,J.E.
ofSymbols.
1971 A Dictionary byJackSage.New
Translated
York:Philosophical [1962]
Library.
Clark,B.T. Rundle
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