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Total Mechanical Course - Compressors
Total Mechanical Course - Compressors
COMPRESSORS
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-MN-SM120
Revision 0
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE
COMPRESSORS
SUMMARY
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................4
2. COMPRESSED AIR ........................................................................................................5
2.1. GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING AIR.......................................................6
2.1.1. Pressure ............................................................................................................7
2.1.2. Temperature......................................................................................................8
2.1.3. Relative humidity ...............................................................................................9
2.2. THE BASIC LAWS OF COMPRESSED AIR...........................................................10
2.2.1. Fundamental law .............................................................................................10
2.2.2. Air flow-rate .....................................................................................................10
2.2.3. Pressure losses...............................................................................................11
2.3. PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR.................................................................12
2.3.1. What happens when air is compressed?.........................................................12
2.3.2. Compressors ...................................................................................................13
2.3.3. The reservoir ...................................................................................................15
2.3.4. Air driers ..........................................................................................................15
2.3.4.1. Adsorption driers ........................................................................................15
2.3.4.2. Refrigeration type drier...............................................................................18
2.3.5. Filters...............................................................................................................19
2.3.5.1. Filtration of solids .......................................................................................20
2.3.5.2. Filtration of oil (and water)..........................................................................21
2.3.6. Condensate bleed valves ................................................................................21
2.3.7. The separator ..................................................................................................22
2.4. CONTAMINANTS IN COMPRESSED AIR..............................................................23
2.5. LIMITATION OF CONDENSATES ..........................................................................24
2.5.1. Spiral compressor ...........................................................................................24
2.5.2. Oil-free screw-type compressor.......................................................................25
3. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS...............................................................................26
4. VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS ..................................................................................28
4.1. PISTON TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS.............................................28
4.1.1. Composition of a piston type compressor........................................................30
4.1.1.1. Piston / cylinder / valve system ..................................................................30
4.1.2. The basic single-stage compressor .................................................................36
4.1.2.1. The compression cycle ..............................................................................38
4.1.2.2. Compression ratio ......................................................................................39
4.1.2.3. Resulting flow-rate: ....................................................................................40
4.1.2.4. Volume efficiency: ......................................................................................40
4.1.2.5. Limits of the single-cylinder compressor ....................................................41
4.1.3. The multi-stage compressor ............................................................................43
4.1.3.1. Compression ratio ......................................................................................43
4.1.3.2. The flow-rate ..............................................................................................44
4.1.3.3. Production of heat ......................................................................................45
4.1.3.4. Production of metal particles ......................................................................45
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 2 / 103
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
1. OBJECTIVES
An initial approach to the different types of air compressor is also provided in the operator
courses.
This course essentially concerns the maintenance and operation of air compressors, and
the course starts with a chapter on compressed air.
2. COMPRESSED AIR
A mechanical compressor is a mechanical component designed to increase the pressure
of a fluid by means or a purely mechanical process.
When the fluid is a gas, the compressor is called a "compressor", but when it is a liquid,
the appropriate term is "pump".
Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a fluid and also enable it to be
conveyed through a pipe. As gases are compressible, compressors also reduce the
volume of the compressed gas and may be used purely for this purpose (filling of gas
cylinders, etc.).
Solid
Liquid
Gaseous
The change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is called vaporisation. The vapour
matter is then given a qualification (e.g. water vapour).
The density of matter reaches its minimum value in gaseous state. It decreases under the
effect of a pressure decrease (Gay-Lussac's Law and Charles' Law) or of a temperature
increase (this is gas expansion).
The chaotic movements of the molecules that make up the matter mean that the matter
has no shape. They enable it to occupy the entire closed space in which the matter is
contained.
Air is a mixture of gases that can be obtained free of charge. It is used in three main
services:
Instrument air: supplies the control and regulation systems for small valves.
Process air: used in processes that involve high air flow-rates, such as the
stirring of liquids, pneumatic transport, separation of air, wind tunnels, etc.
Air is a mixture of gases. The main gases that make up air are:
Nitrogen > 78 %
Oxygen > 21 %
Inert gases (argon, neon, helium) and hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour > 1 %
Its quality is variable because air contains water, oil, dust, etc.
Pressure.
Temperature.
Humidity.
2.1.1. Pressure
The pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure used in the International System (SI), but the bar is
the unit that is most often used in industrial applications.
1 bar = 105 Pa
The normal atmospheric pressure of air is 1.013 bars at sea level (0 metres altitude).
This is used as the reference in the measurement of pressures, but it varies with altitude.
For tests and measurements, it is preferable to use bars absolute, which correspond to an
absolute pressure.
2.1.2. Temperature
The unit used for temperature in the international system (SI) is the kelvin (K).
T = t + 273.15
The Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale is also used to read temperatures in the
United States and in certain English-speaking countries.
Here are a few equivalent values provided as examples. Just take the
temperature in °F, subtract 32 and then divide the result by 9/5ths (1.8).
For example:
0 °C = 32 °F 20 °C = 68 °F
5 °C = 41 °F 25 °C = 77 °F
10 °C = 50 °F 30 °C = 86 °F
The following is a small table showing the conversion formulae between the various
temperature units.
The quantity of water that corresponds to the saturation of that same volume of
air (saturation results in the condensation of the excess water vapour).
The maximum quantity of water that a certain volume of air can absorb increases with
temperature.
The presence of humidity in natural gas can cause freezing of the pipelines and
their valves. When humidity comes into contact with the impurities of natural gas, such as
H2S and CO2, it forms a corrosive mixture which reduces the service life of the equipment.
Particularly at the openings and bends of the pipeline, where pressure drops are likely to
occur, the expansion of the gas followed by a drop in temperature can result in the
formation of hydrates which restrict the flow-rate of the gas. Humidity also reduces the
energy content (BTU) of the gas, thus reducing its quality and its value.
Mariotte and Gay-Lussac's Law is the most significant in the field of industrial pneumatics:
P.V=a.T
This relationship is used by the compressor: a constant volume of air is drawn into the
compressor, of which the volume decreases. This reduction of volume causes an increase
in the pressure and temperature of the air drawn in.
Air flow-rate is the quantity of compressed air that passes through a given cross-sectional
area per unit of time.
Q = A1 . V1 + A2 . V2
Q: flow-rate (m3/s)
A: cross-sectional area (m2)
V: velocity (m/s)
The SI units are cubic metres per second (m3/s), but l/s or m3/h are also used.
Flow-rate is a function of many factors, particularly air pressure, the material used, and the
length and inside diameter of the pipe through which the compressed air is conveyed.
When a fluid flows through a straight pipe, the flow can be in either of two regimes, the
laminar regime or the turbulent regime, depending on the Reynolds number R.
This turbulence causes friction, which resists the circulation of the compressed air in the
tubes. Furthermore, the internal walls of the pipes are more or less rough.
These factors, associated with a high flow-rate, cause pressure losses. This is the
pressure loss caused by friction due the motion of a fluid in a tube.
When air is compressed, there is no risk of any dangerous gases of other noxious
products escaping.
This transformation is determined by the laws of thermodynamics. These laws state that
an increase in pressure is equal to a rise in temperature, and that compressing air creates
an increase in heat, so when air is compressed this creates a proportional rise in heat.
Boyle's law explains that if a volume of gas (air) is reduced by half when it is compressed,
the pressure is consequently doubled.
Charles' law links the pressure and temperature of a gas contained in a constant volume.
If any one of these values changes, the other two also change according to the following
equation:
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature of the gas
1 = Initial state before the change
2 = Final state after the change
By applying this formula to a compressor, the volume of air (or the flow-rate) and the air
pressure can be controlled and raised to a level as required for the target application.
2.3.2. Compressors
Figure 11: Screw compressor, vane compressor and liquid ring compressor
There are obviously many types of compressor. Each family of compressors comprises a
number of variants. The following diagram shows the major families of compressors.
In cases where a dew point of +2 °C under pressure is satisfactory, the choice will
normally be a refrigeration type drier.
Conversely, when negative dew points are required, adsorption driers will normally be
used.
This type of drier uses the properties of certain desiccants (phenomenon in which the
water contained in certain products is lost) such as activated aluminium oxide, a molecular
filter or silicagel, which attract molecules of water and therefore dry the compressed air.
Molecular filter type driers are those which provide the best results. They usually consist of
two columns.
The two columns are filled with a desiccant material and the compressed air is fed into
column B, where the water vapour is absorbed by the desiccant.
In the case where dry-air flushing is used, approximately 20 % of the nominal output flow
of the drier is used and therefore rejected to the atmosphere. In modern driers, the
addition of a hygrometer can enable the length of the cycles to be increased, and this
consumption is therefore reduced.
This type of drier cools the compressed air and thus causes condensation. The liquid
water formed in this way is recovered by a water separator, and the dried compressed air
is channelled to the system.
Air system:
The incoming compressed air (A) is pre-cooled in an air/air heat exchanger (B). It
then passes through the air/coolant heat exchanger (C), where its temperature is
reduced to +3 °C.
The condensates are separated from the air and are automatically evacuated by the
water separator (D).
Before leaving the drier (E), the cooled air passes through the air/air heat
exchanger a second time, where it is heated.
Coolant system:
From the compressor (F), the coolant gas is channelled to the condenser (G).
A relief valve (H) regulates the passage of the liquid phase fluid into the heat
exchanger (C), where it evaporates and absorbs the heat from the compressed air.
The compressor then raises the pressure again and the cycle is repeated.
2.3.5. Filters
The quality of the compressed air is defined according to the application. Generally
speaking, it is essential to dehydrate the compressed air in order to protect the
installations from water condensation.
The filters limit the concentration of particles, oil and water which are entrained by the
compressed air into the system.
Additional treatment by de-oiling filters or particle filters will depend on the technology of
the equipment, but also on the profile of the compressed air production installation.
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 19 / 103
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
Direct interception: The larger particles are retained because they are larger
than the distance between 2 fibres.
Inertial interception: Heavy particles to not manage to make their way through
the filtering medium. They strike the fibres and remain attached to them.
Diffusion: All the small particles are in permanent random motion. They
eventually become trapped by a fibre, to which they become attached.
Adsorption: Balls of active carbon have a large surface area and an affinity with
oil vapours. Molecules of oil are therefore easily absorbed. There are other
models that use active carbon. The filter medium is impregnated with active
carbon, which eliminates hydrocarbon vapours by adsorption.
Solids are retained by mechanical barriers (porous filtering media). The fineness of the
filtration is chosen according to the size of the contaminants.
Fine oil mists are retained by coalescent filters (a process in which the liquid particles in
suspension group together to form larger particles).
Bleeds are used to evacuate the condensates (condensed water mixed with oil, etc.)
generated by the production of compressed air.
Figure 26: Float-type bleed valve with regulated level and time-delayed control
The capture and the elimination of condensates are important factors in the quality of air
production.
An efficient system completely eliminates condensation in the air system and in pneumatic
installations.
The separator receives the condensates from the bleeds. Its function is to separate the oil
from the water, in order to prevent any risk of rejecting a pollutant into the environment.
1: Incoming condensates
2: Decompression element
3: Polypropylene retention cartridge
4: Active carbon cartridge
5: Polypropylene cartridge saturation indicator
6: test valve
7: Water discharge
A part of the oil contained in the condensates rises to the surface and, by overflowing, is
evacuated to the recovery tank by an overflow valve.
The pre-cleaned condensates are channelled to the adsorption filters, which absorb any
residual oil.
To obtain a constant filtration quality, it is necessary to replace the pre-filter and the
adsorption filter according to the information obtained from the turbidity test.
Liquid Micron
Hygrometry of the air drawn
Water Mist and
in by the compressor
Vapour ppm
Liquid Micron
Oil Compression cycle and ambient air Mist and
Vapour ppm
Gas Ambient pollution
Hydrocarbons Chemical reaction in the Gas ppm
CO, CO2, etc. compression cycle
The following figure shows the locations of the various contaminants in compressed air
pipes.
Oil-free compression is the most efficient system for avoiding problems connected with
condensates, because it does not create any.
As there is no film of lubricant between the surfaces of the rotor, distribution mechanisms
(outside the main pressure casing) are set up in order to synchronise the rotors so that
they do not come into contact with each other.
Acetylene, Ammonia, Blast furnace gas, Butadiene, Butane, Carbon dioxide, Carbon
monoxide, Chlorine, Coke oven gas, Cracking gas, Ethane, Ethylene, Torch gas,
Hydrogen, Lime furnace gas (soda gas), Sulphurous hydrocarbon products, Natural
gas, Nitrogen, Propylene, Propane, Styrene ventilation gas, Sulphur gases, Smoke,
Evacuation of gases from a viscosity reduction unit, Residue gas, Town gas, Vapour
recovery unit, Monomer vinyl chloride gas washing.
3. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS
There are very many applications for compressors. The following list gives some
examples of use of these machines:
Flow-rate, pressure
Like pumps, compressors are classified in two categories depending on the mode in which
the energy is transferred to the gas:
Volumetric compressors
Dynamic compressors
The state of a gas is defined by its pressure, its volume and its temperature.
This state also defines whether it is in the gaseous or partially liquid phase. In all
cases, it will be defined by P, V, T.
4. VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS
A volumetric compressor is characterised by the encapsulation, or trapping, of the fluid
that that passing through it in a closed volume which is progressively reduced.
This fluid is prevented from returning in the direction of decreasing pressures by the
presence of one or several moving walls.
In this type of machine, unlike in turbines, the kinetic energy communicated to the fluid
generally plays no useful part.
By design, volumetric compressors are particularly suitable for relatively low fluid flow-
rates, in some cases highly variable, and with relatively high pressure ratios.
A set mass of gas at the intake pressure is trapped in a chamber which has a
variable volume.
Generally speaking, the transformation complies with a law which is very similar to that of
a polytropic transformation.
The piston type compressor is one of the very first types of compressor to be used, but it
continues to be the most versatile and is still extremely efficient.
The piston type compressor pushes a piston in a cylinder, by means of a connecting rod
and a crankshaft.
They can compress air or other gases, requiring only very slight alterations to suit the
application.
The piston type compressor is the only model that is capable of compressing air and gas
to high pressures, e.g. for breathable air applications.
The configuration of a piston compressor can be either single-cylinder for low pressures,
or multi-stage to compress a fluid to very high pressures.
In this type of compressor, the air is compressed in stages, with its pressure increasing
stage after stage until it reaches a very high value.
Conditioning in cylinders
Engine starting
etc.
During the intake phase (downward movement of the piston), the internal volume defined
by the piston / cylinder assembly increases, so the pressure in this volume tends to
decrease (Mariotte's law).
The atmospheric pressure therefore becomes higher than the pressure in the cylinder and
presses the inlet valve open, thus allowing air to enter the cylinder.
In fact, nearly all the techniques used are similar (bearing design, construction of pistons
and liners, piston rings).
These two positions define two volumes (VmT and VmB) of the piston/cylinder system.
The ratio between these two volumes will define the maximum compression ratio
(Tc = Vmb/Vmt).
Note that this "volumetric" compression ratio is not equal to the ratio between the intake
and discharge pressures, as the temperature increases during the compression process.
It is easy to demonstrate that it is best to reduce the VmT as mush as possible, because it
behaves as a detrimental dead volume which reduces efficiency.
As such, the true compression ratio of a stage is therefore defined by the ratio of flows
between the two stages and not by the compression ratio of the cylinder.
The link between the piston and the liner is a critical element of the compressor, which
must withstand conflicting stresses.
The slipping velocity of the piston in the liner is quite high, and the lateral forces on the
piston (due to the angle of the connecting rod) require this area to be very well lubricated.
It is necessary to leave a functional clearance between the piston and the liner, so a
sufficient clearance must be maintained once the machine has reached its operating
temperature.
As the piston does have any heat exchange surface with the cooling fluid, it heats up and
therefore expands more than the liner does.
Without a clearance and sufficient lubrication, the friction of the piston in the liner causes
considerable heating of the piston, and this increases its expansion.
In turn, the expansion of the piston increases the contact pressure, increasing the friction
and producing heat, which contributes to expelling the film of lubricant.
This vicious circle continues until the piston jams in the liner: this is "seizure" of the
cylinder. Furthermore, the creation of an overheated point or area on the piston is likely to
cause the oil to decompose and release contaminants into the air produced (CO CO2 >
breathable air).
On the other hand, the joint between the piston and the liner must be as airtight as
possible.
If there is too much clearance, it will be impossible to obtain sealing.
The surface finish of the liner must not be too smooth, in order to ensure that the film of
lubricating oil adheres to it: roughening, leaving striations at 45° with respect to the axis of
the cylinder, is particularly recommended for this purpose.
A clearance such as this will not provide sufficient "natural" sealing between the piston and
the cylinder.
Sealing is obtained in the same way as in internal combustion engines, i.e. by using piston
rings.
The piston rings used are cast iron rings with a square cross-section, and they fit into
grooves machined in the piston.
They are springy and their diameter is slightly larger than that of the cylinder.
Their springiness enables them to take up the clearance between the piston and the
cylinder.
In order to remain springy, the rings are not completely closed, so that there is a gap
between their ends when they are installed. This gap must be sufficient to allow for the
expansion of the piston ring.
In order to improve sealing, several piston rings are installed one above the other.
3 or 4 piston rings are normally used in low-pressure stages, and up to 12 for high-
pressure stages.
The film of oil that adheres to the walls, and which is retained by the roughening of the
cylinder, adds to the sealing effect.
This film of oil produces a veritable mobile fluid seal with the piston. A special piston ring
(the scraper ring), located at the bottom of the piston, limits the thickness of the film of oil
on the cylinder wall.
The valves are extremely sensitive points. A valve opens and closes each time the
compressor revolves, in other words approximately 1500 times per minute, and this all
takes place in a corrosive and fouling environment (oil + high pressure + temperature).
Wear and fouling occur very quickly, particularly on the hottest valves (the discharge
valves) and those which are the closest to the casing.
Valves are the components that require the most frequent maintenance and repair, due to:
Deposits.
Corrosion.
Figure 43: A valve
No maintenance or repair operations can be carried out on the valve other than cleaning it,
if necessary (excess oil causes deposits, which reduce the service life of valves). In case
of doubt, the valve must be replaced.
A cylinder
A piston
An intake valve
A discharge valve
A connecting rod
A flywheel
The valve clapper and its seat constitute a valve assembly. The valve clapper is the
moving part and the seat is the fixed part. The word "valve" is commonly used to refer to
the valve clapper.
The valves are contained in the cylinder head, which is also known as the valve box.
As the piston moves downwards, the pressure in the cylinder decreases. As soon as it is
less than the pressure upstream of the intake valve, the latter opens and allows air to enter
the cylinder (intake).
As it moves back upwards, the pressure in the cylinder increases. As soon as it exceeds
the pressure behind the discharge valve, the latter opens and allows the air to escape to
the outlet (discharge).
In this case, the valves are operated by pressure differential and not by a camshaft, as in
automobile engines. The presence of springs, even with low force values, reduces
efficiency because they increase the pressure differential required to open the valves.
The compression cycles represented in the figure show the change in pressure as a
function of the piston movements.
Compression: the piston begins its movement towards the valves. The air
contained in the cylinder is compressed and its pressure and temperature increase.
This phase corresponds to the arc of curve AB.
Discharge: as soon as the pressure in the cylinder reaches pressure P2, the
discharge valve opens and the air is evacuated to the user application at
pressure P2, until the piston reaches the end of its stroke. This phase is represented
by the straight line BC. We assume that, at the end of its travel, the piston reaches
a point where it just touches the base of the cylinder head, so that there is no longer
any air in the cylinder.
Intake: The piston begins its return, moving away from the valves. As, in theory,
there is no residual air in the cylinder, the following occur simultaneously and
instantly: the discharge valve closes, the pressure drops from P2 to P1, and the
intake valve opens.
This phase is represented by the straight line CD. During this phase, from D to A,
i.e. throughout the entire piston stroke, air enters the cylinder.
As soon as the piston arrives at A, it begins its upward movement again. The intake
valve closes and a new cycle begins.
Theoretical cycle:
In reality, the valves offer some resistance to opening, due to the effect of the return
springs they comprise.
They therefore only open when the downstream pressure is slightly lower than the
upstream pressure.
Furthermore, the air passing through the valves results in a slight loss of pressure,
the effect of which is added to the preceding effect.
For the intake valve to open, the piston must move down a sufficient distance to
allow the pressure inside the cylinder to fall below the upstream pressure.
Finally, the inertia of the valves and the inertia of the moving gases produce complex
phenomena which cause sharp pressure variations, and sometimes generate oscillations
before stabilisation.
The maximum pressure that can be supplied by a compressor is equal to the air drawn in
multiplied by the compression ratio, which is represented by the letter " t ", or more
precisely by the Greek letter: τ.
The compression ratio is, in theory, the ratio between the maximum volume and the
minimum volume above the piston at either end of its alternating stroke.
When air is compressed, it heats up and therefore expands, which results in an additional
pressure increase.
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 39 / 103
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
This pressure increase is not usable, because the air eventually drops back to the ambient
temperature.
The compression ratio that can be obtained with a single stage is less than 10.
This is because, for mechanical reasons, it is limited by the minimum volume of the dead
space that can be obtained, by leakage around the pistons and through the valves, and by
the increase in temperature that the materials withstand.
Furthermore, a compression stage is not often used at the maximum pressure it can
supply. It is for this reason that it is not possible, using a single stage, to obtain the high
pressures of 200 to 300 bars that are needed.
This is the cubic capacity of the first stage of the compressor multiplied by the rotation
speed.
This efficiency varies with the pressure that exists downstream of the stage and in the
dead space, when the piston is at top dead centre.
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 40 / 103
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
This pressure prevents the intake valve from opening immediately, i.e. as soon as the
piston starts to move downwards again.
Before being able to draw in a new volume of air, the piston needs to move down to the
extent that the volume above the piston becomes: Vd x Pds / Pus. The total volume is
Vp + Vd, and the volume drawn in will therefore be:
Vd ⎛ Pds ⎞
γ =1− ⎜ − 1⎟
Vp ⎝ Pus ⎠
For Vp = 100 cm3; Vd = 5 cm3; Pds = 8 bars; Pus = 1: the efficiency is 65 %.
For Vp = 100 cm3; Vd = 10 cm3; Pds = 11 bars; Pus = 1: the efficiency drops to zero.
Eleven bars is therefore the maximum pressure that such a stage can deliver.
It can also be seen that, when the discharge pressure of the stage increases, its volume
efficiency decreases.
Many compressors are built on this principle (single cylinder). But in order to obtain high
pressure air (or gas), this system is insufficient.
Anyone who has handled a bicycle pump will have noticed that the pump warms up when
you compress air.
If we assume that the gas in a cylinder does not exchange any heat at all with the outside
(in other words it is practically not cooled at all by its contact with the walls of the cylinder),
this is known as "adiabatic" compression.
In this case the calculations are fairly simple and we find that a compression ratio of 4 is
sufficient to raise the temperature from 20 °C to 237 °C. This result is theoretical, because
the air does, of course, cool in contact with the walls of the cylinder, and its temperature
would, in reality, be lower.
The smaller the cubic capacity, the better the natural cooling (higher surface to volume
ratio).
To make up for this difficulty, it is necessary to compress the air in several phases:
1. Compress the air a first time to a pressure P1 such that the rise in temperature
remains acceptable.
3. Take this air at pressure P1 and recompress it to a pressure P2, again limiting the
compression so that the temperature rise remains acceptable.
4. Cool the air again and repeat the process until the required discharge pressure is
obtained.
In order to balance the stresses on the motor, the crank pins are offset by 30 to 90°.
One could consider offsetting the cylinders themselves, and attempting to place them in
the same plane.
This results in V, W or star configuration compressors, which are more compact and easy
to ventilate.
However, there are rarely more than 5 stages because the mechanical complexity is far
greater and the efficiency is reduced due to the pressure losses which are inevitable in the
various parts of the compressor.
Due to the low compression ratio that can be obtained with a single-stage compressor,
compressors with several stages in series are available.
If we call the respective ratios of each cylinder τ1, τ2, τ3 ..., the resulting ratio will be:
τ = τ1 x τ2 x τ3
Intake pressure at sea level = 1 bar Intake pressure at an altitude of 3000 m = 0.7 bars
st st
Discharge pressure of 1 stage: 1 bar x 6 = 6 bars Discharge pressure of 1 stage: 0.7 bars x 6 = 4.2 bars
We can also see why it is so important not to have a clogged intake filter.
This reduces the pressure at the compressor intake, which proportionally reduces the
discharge pressure.
The same applies at an altitude, where the atmospheric pressure is lower. It is then
necessary to have a sufficiently large pressure reserve to reach the required pressure.
Filling flow-rate: This is the flow-rate calculated according to the time taken to fill a
reservoir with a known volume, at a defined pressure. The difference with respect to the
flow-rate produced is essentially due to losses from the leaks, which are inevitable
between the piston and the cylinder and the bleeds, which are essential as we will
discover later.
A compressor which absorbs 45 m3 of air, for example, may only be capable of outputting
30.
3-stage compressors have higher compression ratios than those with 4 stages.
For this reason, each stage heats up more. As the compressor is a mechanical machine,
the friction of the different parts also generates heat.
The use of a lubricant enables friction to be reduced, and thus reduces the production of
metal particles and also helps to cool the various parts.
But the added oil in the air system of the compressor will also be present at the discharge
end, in different forms: vapour, aerosol or liquid. But oil in any form is poisonous
(Breathing air). Furthermore, some of the oil burns to form coke deposits on the valves and
the hottest parts of the valve boxes. Oil is therefore the main contaminant in a compressor.
Compression of air, particularly when followed by cooling, causes the condensation of the
water vapour it contains.
The disadvantages of water in compressed air are:
Risk of freezing and obstruction of the pipes, under cold weather conditions.
The quantity of water that is eliminated by condensation depends on the relative humidity
of the air drawn into the compressor.
4.1.3.7. Condensates
These can be found after the different stages and they need to be eliminated.
The method used to cool a fluid is always more or less the same: the fluid to be cooled is
passed through a system of pipes (radiator) which is immersed in a cool medium.
The natural exchange of heat is usually not sufficient to obtain the required cooling
performance, so all kinds of clever techniques are used to increase the exchange.
In the case of air cooling, the tubes of the radiator have fins which increase the exchange
surface, and the radiator itself is placed in the blast of a fan.
The metal fin, which is a good heat conductor, is spirally wound around the pressure
resistant tube. Any fouling of the fins reduces the exchange of heat between the fin and
the surrounding air.
The fin is brazed onto the tube in order to ensure a good heat transfer. If this brazed joint
breaks as the radiator ages, the cooling capability is reduced.
Any reduction in the flow of cool ambient air (fouled intake grids, fins, obstacle, loose fan
belt, etc.) will reduce the effectiveness of the cooling.
In a forced air cooling system, an integrated fan forces a flow of air through the
compressor.
It is the elastic distortion of a diaphragm that draws in and compresses the gas.
A piston moves up and down in the cylinder and acts on the hydraulic fluid, which
transmits its oscillations to the diaphragm.
The role of the drilled plate is to ensure that the fluid is evenly distributed under the
diaphragm.
This system has the advantage of enabling any breakage of the diaphragm to be detected
by a pressure measurement.
The diaphragm provides static sealing on the gas side of the process.
It is for this reason that diaphragm compressors are used for dangerous, poisonous and
corrosive gases.
The two rotors have combined profiles, one forming lobes (male rotor) and the other
forming alveoli (female rotor). These profiles are developed along the shaft to obtain a
constant pitch helix.
As the numbers of lobes and alveoli are not the same, the two screws rotate at different
speeds, and this has the effect of moving their line of contact in the axial direction, carrying
the enclosed fluid along the length of the rotors.
After intake, the volume of the cell of trapped gas is progressively reduced until the
rotation of the rotors uncovers the discharge orifice. Discharge then continues until all the
gas has been evacuated.
In this type of compressor, the rotors are synchronised either by gears or by the fact that
one is driven by the other. In the latter case, it is essential to carefully lubricate the line of
contact between the male and female lobes, and this is achieved by injecting a liquid,
which may be oil or water, or even liquid phase coolant in the case of refrigeration
applications.
This injection, which is carried out in relatively large quantities (approximately ten litres of
oil per cubic metre of gas drawn in), is also used for sealing purposes and to cool the
compressor and thus come close to isothermal operation, which is a better in terms of
energy consumption. It is nevertheless necessary to separate the liquid from the
compressed gas, which requires special equipment and induces additional losses.
This means that the compression ratio is set and that the machine does not adapt itself
automatically to different compression ratios, as piston-type compressors with valves do.
The main parts of the compression component comprise a male rotor and a female rotor,
which rotate towards each other while the volume between them and the compressor
casing decreases.
The pressure ratio of a screw compressor depends both on the length of the screw profile
and on the shape of the discharge orifice.
For these two sub-groups, although the compression principle is the same, the
technologies involved are very different.
The first generation of screw compressors comprised rotors with symmetrical profiles.
From a mechanical point of view, they produced good results but there was a large
clearance between the rotors and the casing, which resulted in a leakage flow from the
discharge end to the intake end, which obviously meant that the volumetric efficiency was
poor.
Progress made with machine-tools enabled profiles to be designed such that the leakage
space between the casing and the rotors was greatly reduced, with the following
advantages:
The diameters of the male and female rotors of the same compressor can be identical or
different.
The length of the rotors is variable, and depends on the make and model of the
compressor (the length is usually twice the diameter).
The drive from the motor is usually applied to the male rotor, which in turn drives the
female rotor, but the opposite configuration also exists.
The peripheral speed of the rotors must be between 20 and 50 m/s, otherwise the system
will not operate correctly. This implies a minimum rotation speed and a maximum rotation
speed. Small diameter rotors are driven by a step-up gearbox.
The direction of rotation of these compressors is imposed by the way the rotors are
configured.
Principle of operation:
Dual rotor screw compressors are volumetric machines, which means that compression is
obtained by reducing the volume.
They are of the rotary piston type. This "piston" effect is due to the meshing of two rotors
inside a casing. The helical shape of these compressors explains why they are called
screw compressors.
The primary (or male) rotor generally comprises four lobes. The secondary (or female)
rotor usually comprises six lobes (or splines).
The lobes of the male rotor fit into the splines of the female rotor, which means that the
two rotors turn in opposite directions.
The male rotor has four lobes and the female rotor has six.
Intake
Compression
Discharge
Intake:
Due to the rotation of the rotors, the gas is drawn in through the intake orifice and
fills the inter-lobe spaces.
These spaces open up as the rotors rotate, until they are fully developed.
When the filling of the inter-lobe spaces is complete, the intake is closed with a
quantity of gas enclosed inside the compressor.
Compression:
The rotation continues, the space between the lobes decreases and the volume of
the enclosed gas is reduced, which therefore results in a pressure increase.
Discharge:
When the rotors are in a certain position, the compressed gas reaches the
discharge orifice and the discharge phase begins.
The operating cycle shows an advantage of the screw compressor over the piston-type
compressor: there is no detrimental space, and there is therefore no expansion stroke.
The cooling systems used in screw compressors are relatively similar to those of piston
type compressors.
The gas to be conveyed arrives through the intake pipe and is forced through to the
discharge side.
This consists of a cylindrical stator inside which an eccentric rotor turns. The latter has
radial grooves in which vanes slide and are permanently pressed against the wall of the
stator by centrifugal force.
The volume between two vanes is variable. In front of the intake pipe, the volume
increases, and gas is therefore drawn in. This gas is then trapped between two vanes and
is conveyed towards the discharge pipe.
In this area, the volume decreases and the compressed gas escapes into the discharge
pipe.
Operation with lubrication: the vanes are usually made of steel, and the oil not
only improves the friction between the vanes and the stator, but also evacuates
calories and improves the sealing between the vanes and the stator.
In this configuration, the compressed gas is contaminated by oil.
Designed on the basis of a proven technology, the direct drive vane compressor operates
at a very low speed and offers incomparable reliability.
The rotor, which is the only permanently moving part, comprises a certain number of slots
over its entire length, in which sliding vanes are housed and slip on a film of oil.
The rotor rotates in a cylindrical stator. During rotation, centrifugal force pulls the vanes out
of their recesses. They therefore form individual compression cells. The rotation reduces
the volume of the cell and therefore increases the air pressure.
The high pressure air exits through a discharge orifice, and the remaining traces of oil are
removed by the final oil separator.
B. The air at atmospheric pressure is trapped between the rotor and the wall of the stator.
C. The volume of air, reduced by the vanes, returns into the slots by the wall of the stator. The reduction of
the volume of the air increases the pressure. Oil is continuously injected to provide cooling, lubrication
and sealing.
D. The high pressure compressed air passes through the primary oil separator, which removes 99 % of the
oil it contains.
E. The residual oil is eliminated in the final separation element, which means the air supplied is of a very
high quality.
F. The air from the system flows through the intermediate cooler, which reduces its temperature to less
than 10 °C above the ambient air temperature, thus eliminating condensation.
G. The oil, separated from the air, is retained in the compression chamber and evacuated by the internal air
pressure. It is blown through an oil cooler by air, and through a filter, before returning to the stator.
H. The air system is regulated by a servovalve which controls the intake valve. If the compressor is at full
load, the intake valve will be completely open. The higher the increase in the internal pressure, the more
the intake valve is modulated by the servovalve.
These compressors use an auxiliary liquid to provide sealing between the rotor and the
stator. This liquid is pressed against the periphery of the stator by the centrifugal force
received from the vane wheel.
A cylindrical body (stator) (3) with a centre-line that is eccentric with respect to
rotation axis.
Two disks (flanges (1) and (4)) located on either end of the stator, each with an
opening (aperture) enabling gas to enter (intake aperture) and to exit (discharge
aperture).
The auxiliary liquid forms a ring which is concentric with respect to the body.
A vacuum is created and gas is therefore drawn in; this gas is then conveyed (because it
is trapped between two vanes and the liquid) towards the discharge aperture, which is
located opposite capacities with decreasing volumes.
This therefore creates a compression, and the discharge of compressed gas is possible.
As far as the supply of liquid for the ring is concerned, three configurations are possible:
Totally recycled operation: after separation (separation chamber), all of the liquid
is recycled after first being cooled in a heat exchanger.
The advantages of this system are that there are no valves, and the mechanism is simple
and inexpensive, all of which make for quiet operation, low mechanical losses, the
possibility of operating at high speeds, absence of vibrations, lightness, reliability and a
low resistive torque.
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Compressors
Moreover, Scroll compressors have a unique advantage: they are happy with half the
starting voltage required for a piston type compressor, and for an equal starting voltage
they start up a quarter of the time it takes for a piston type compressor to start.
5. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
These are machines in which the exchange of energy takes place between a rotor
equipped with vanes that rotate about a centre-line, and a permanently flowing fluid.
These machines are classified in two categories, based on the geometrical shape of the
wheels:
Centrifugal compressors, in which the fluid enters the wheel axially and is then
distributed all around the centre-line in a perpendicular direction. The fluid exits
the periphery of the wheel and is collected by a scroll.
Axial compressors, in which the fluid retains an axial flow as it passes through
the rotating wheel.
For axial compressors, the air has a helical motion, in other words the distance between
the fluid path and the centre-line of the wheel remains constant. Conversely, in a
centrifugal compressor, the air moves further and further away from the centre-line as it
passes through the fan.
They are particularly adapted and energy-efficient when the demand is high and relatively
constant.
External conditions, such as ambient temperature, have a significant effect on the energy
efficiency and on the control range of this type of compressor.
Considering that centrifugal compressors are intrinsically free of oil, the air discharged is of
a high quality and there is no pulsation in the discharge.
For a carefully designed and well operated machine, maintenance costs are relatively low.
It comprises ducts formed by the disk, the covering flanges and the vanes.
The open wheel is used in cases where a high pressure is required. It can manage small
and large flows, but is only used in single-stage compressors.
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Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
The semi-closed wheel is used for large flows. This type of wheel is usually installed in
single-stage machines, although it can also be used as a first stage in a multi-stage
compressor.
The role of the guide vane assembly, which is located upstream of the wheel, is to
correctly orient the threads of fluid as they enter the wheel.
It provides a connection between the upstream stage (at the scroll) and the downstream
stage (at the inlet apertures).
With or without vanes, this component partly transforms the kinetic energy (dynamic
pressure) into potential energy (static pressure), and correctly orients the fluid at the outlet
of the wheel so that it enters the scroll or the guide vane of the next stage.
Its role essentially consists in transforming the rotary motion of the fluid into a translation
movement.
Like the diffuser, this is used to transform a fraction of the kinetic energy of the fluid into
potential energy, in order to limit the pressure losses in the fluid transport ducts.
If there is only one wheel in the compressor, the latter is classified as a single-stage
compressor. If there is more than one wheel in the compressor, the latter is classified as a
multi-stage compressor.
In a multi-stage compressor, each of the wheels adds to the pressure of the gas. A multi-
stage compressor can be considered as several compressors combined together in the
same envelope.
The body of the compressor is important because it must have the shape of a volute. A
volute is like a part of a spiral. Its diameter and therefore its volume increases in the
direction of the flow.
If the ball is given a velocity, the string will become taut. Due to this tension, the ball will
move in a perfect circle thanks to its velocity.
If there is enough energy, the ball continues to go around in a series of circles. At each
instant of its travel, the physical tendency of the ball is to try to move in a straight line.
But the ball continues to form a circle because it is held by the string.
If the spring breaks, the ball will immediately move in a straight line.
The gas enters the casing of a centrifugal compressor through the intake orifice. On the
inside of the envelope, the gas passes into the turbine. The entry point is known as the
eye of the wheel.
The wheel rotates very quickly. The gas is forced towards the outside of the rim of the
wheel by centrifugal force. As the gas moves towards the outer edge of the wheel, its
velocity increases.
When it is necessary to vary the load of the compressor, variable intake vanes are placed
on the air intake, and these change the relative intake velocity of the air entering the
compressor, and consequently the flow inside the compressor.
Horizontal envelope.
Vertical envelope.
When the gas leaves the wheel and flows through the diffuser
and into the return passage, it is in contact with the outside of
the walls of the diaphragm.
The diaphragms use the cooling system to cool the gas in the
compressor.
But when the axial thrust is too high, which is the case of multi-
stage compressors, a balancing drum is installed to balance the
forces.
The sealing of the gases around the shafts is obtained by means of:
The surface is flat and perpendicular to the rotation axis of the rotor. Sealing is provided by
contact with a stationary ring pressed against a rotating ring installed on the shaft.
The pressurised oil is supplied by a sealing-oil pumping unit. These oil pumping units
require a lot of maintenance and are one of the main causes of shut-down observed on
centrifugal compressor units. The use of dry seals avoids the need for these oil pumping
units, and improves the reliability of centrifugal compressors.
A stationary bush, centred and guided by one or several O-rings and pressed
against the rotating ring by springs.
A rotating ring with spiral grooves enabling the stationary bush to be lifted.
The rotation effect and the viscosity forces enable a clearance to be established between
the rotating ring and the stationary bush. As this clearance is small, the leakage flows are
low and are ejected to the atmosphere by means of a torch.
This packing is called "tandem" because it consists of simple packings, each capable of
sealing the gas pressure; the second packing backs up the first.
The double packing consists of two single packings mounted face to face. Inert gas is
injected between these two packings. This injection can contaminate the process gas, but
prevents this gas from being rejected to the atmosphere. The reliability of this packing is
totally dependent on this injection of inert gas.
5.1.5. Lubrication
Concerning the lubrication of the bearings, this usually consists of lubrication under
pressure: the oil arrives under pressure thanks to a pump, and is channelled to the
bearings.
In order to preserve correct oil viscosity, coolant units are placed on the lubrication system.
Before passing through the coolant unit, the oil passes through a filter in order to eliminate
any impurities it may contain.
If the oil flow-rate is to low (level, viscosity, etc.), the bearings may suffer damage due to
insufficient lubrication. A regular flow-rate must be maintained when the compressor is
operating.
A safety system will stop the installation if a lubrication anomaly occurs. It is for this reason
that an auxiliary pump is installed in parallel in the system. The main pump can be either
directly driven by the compressor shaft, or driven by its own electric motor. This pump
usually operates while the installation is rotating.
The auxiliary pump operates until the compressor reaches its normal rotation speed, after
which the main lubrication pump takes over from the auxiliary pump and the latter stops.
In a serial configuration, the discharge from the first compressor provides the intake air for
the second one. In this way, the gas that enters the second compressor is at a higher
pressure than the intake pressure of the first compressor. In this configuration, the
pressure is regular.
Compressors can also be connected together in parallel. In this configuration, the gas
flow-rate is regular.
In a parallel configuration, if the discharge pressure of one compressor drops below the
discharge pressure of the other, the compressor with the lowest pressure will be driven by
the other one.
All compressors installed in parallel are protected against pressure back-flow by a non-
return valve installed on the discharge of each compressor.
These compressors have an envelope with a vertical sealing face. The sealing between
the envelope and the cover is provided by an O-ring type seal. These envelopes are
generally forged.
Assembly and disassembly of the compressor are carried out from the opposite end to the
drive.
The rotor is placed inside the aerodynamic cartridge, which is made up of the assembly
consisting of the diaphragms and the wall of the air intake. This aerodynamic cartridge,
which has a parting line to enable the rotor to be installed, is inserted into and removed
from the compressor envelope by means of a system of rollers. All these compressor
assembly and disassembly operations can be carried out without disconnecting the
process pipes.
These compressors are suitable for low pressures and high flow-rates. They have an
envelope in two parts, which are bolted together at the horizontal parting line. The sealing
of the parting line is of the metal-on-metal type. These envelopes are often cast.
An axial compressor is a compressor whose flow follows the line of the rotating shaft,
unlike a centrifugal compressor. The axial compressor generates a continuous flow of
compressed air, and provides high efficiency for a given density and a given compressor
cross-section.
It is necessary to have several stages of blades to obtain high pressures, in order to have
compression ratios that are equivalent to those of a centrifugal compressor.
An axial compressor has two sets of blades, the rotor and the stator.
An axial compressor comprises rotary parts and static parts. The central shaft, which is
guided by bearings, consists of rings which are themselves made up of rotating blades and
static vanes.
The assembly is an alternating stack of rotors and stators. A stage is a rotor disk followed
by a stator disk.
The rotating stage accelerates the flow of flu id thanks to the energy induced by the
transmission shaft.
The static stage transforms the kinetic energy into pressure via an expansion process due
to the shape of the stator.
The cross-section between the rotor and the compressor casing decreases to maintain a
flow in the axial direction of the machine.
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Compressors
The blades of the rotor act in the same way as the blades of a fan.
When the gas exits the blades of the rotor, it is sent through the vanes of the stator. The
gaps between the vanes of the stator act as diffusers and reduce the velocity of the gas.
As the speed decreases, the pressure increases. Each set of rotor and stator blades
increases the gas pressure.
The blades of an axial compressor are smaller towards the discharge end of the
compressor. As the gas flows from the intake to the discharge, the gas takes up less
space and this causes the pressure to increase.
The increase in the compression ratio for a single stage is limited by the relative velocity
between the rotor and the fluid, and by the geometry of the vanes.
The compression ratio in the final stages is obtained if the relative velocity between the
fluid and the rotors is supersonic, but this is obtained to the detriment of efficiency and
utilisation.
Operational stoppage is caused by aerodynamic stalling of the fluid on the rotor, and this
results in an aerodynamic obstruction, known as surging. Surging is a dangerous
phenomenon for the compressor, as it can cause the vanes and/or blades to rupture.
5.3. SURGING
Until a few years ago, oil-well gases were evacuated to torches, due to the fact that the
recovery structure for these gases was not economically viable.
This high pressure gas re-injection technique enables gases to be re-injected into the wells
or strata, and produces a high-pressure gas/crude mixture which increases the operating
coefficients of the strata.
The most suitable machines for this application were compressors. However, these
machines are subject to a considerable drawback, which is the surging phenomenon, an
unstable operating state that results in pulsations that can be dangerous in that they
jeopardise the mechanical strength of the machine and can reverse the axial thrust on the
rotor, cause vibrations in the compressor and result in rupture of the blades due to the
inversion of the gas flow. It is therefore essential to keep the compressor operating outside
the instability zone.
This phenomenon occurs in operating ranges that correspond to low flow-rates at the
intake, and can generally occur whenever "Compression ratio – Flow-rate" characteristic
curve reaches its maximum.
Surging is a condition that only occurs in centrifugal and axial compressors. For each gas
velocity in a compressor, there is a certain capacity below which the operation of the
compressor becomes unstable.
To prevent this phenomenon, compressors are fitted with anti-surge systems to regulate
the intake flow-rate and maintain the compressor within a stable operating range by
ensuring, whatever the compression ratio, an intake flow-rate that is higher than the flow-
rate which corresponds to a surge phenomenon, by sending gas back to the intake via a
relief valve controlled by a flow regulator rate, after tapping that gas from the discharge
end; this causes a major decrease in production due to the permanent opening of the
recirculation valves.
The solutions proposed until now, to prevent this phenomenon, have not provided
encouraging results. This is because these systems always have a risk of moving into a
surge phase. This is due to the fact that current anti-surge regulation systems have
several disadvantages, which are:
Creation of radial vibrations of the rotor, which can result in rupture of the thrust
bearing and of the blades.
In certain cases, operation of the compressor in the surge area even if the
recirculation valves are completely open.
On the other hand, the molar mass of the gas varies frequently, and this causes the
pressure to vary with time.
All this requires specific anti-surge protection facilities that are capable of adapting to any
change in the characteristics of the system.
5.3.1. Definition
Due to its principle, the compressor is connected to two systems at different pressures: the
intake system (low pressure) and the discharge system (high pressure).
Surging occurs in a compressor when the high pressure discharge system empties into the
low pressure intake system, due to a back-flow of gas in the compressor.
This phenomenon, which can have several causes, results in a momentary instability of
the air system (in the case where the gas is air).
When the discharge system has back-flowed sufficiently into the intake system, the
compressor returns to its operating conditions, which enable it to restore the flow in the
correct direction until a new instability cycle starts.
These large fluctuations in flow-rate are known as surging, due to the successive back-
and-forth oscillations of the gas flow.
5.3.2. Consequences
Each reversal of the air flow therefore represents a violent shock for the kinetics of the
compressor, and also for the electrical power supply of the main drive motor.
For this reason, the manufacturers establish safety coefficients and install surge detectors,
but the effects of surging are vary destructive, either immediately, or progressively due to
fatigue of the components that are subjected to the repeated shocks.
The other protection sensors (temperature, differential pressure, etc.) theoretically enable
this phenomenon to be anticipated, but surging occurs by definition when the compressor
is operated under conditions which exceed its performance limits.
In practice, operating conditions that exceed the performance limits of compressors occur
relatively often:
The most typical case is an excessively fast closing pitch of the regulating valve,
which generates an overpressure wave in the discharge that will be detected by
the surge detector and will cause a power cut-off: "light" surging then occurs. As
the power of the drive motor is off, damage to the compressor is rare.
Just as typical is the total or excessively fast closure of the regulating valve (cell
undergoing washing, loss of the system by the valve plc, etc.), which results in
an overpressure which exceeds the maximum differential of the compressor: in
this case, surging is inevitable and is caused by exceeding the maximum design
power of the compressor.
Another typical case is operation under very hot conditions, with air
temperatures in excess of the maximum design temperature of the compressor.
The operation of the compressor can no longer be guaranteed, whatever its
flow-rate.
The final typical case is operation with increasing pressure losses as years go
by, due to progressive clogging of the air intake filters. There comes a time
when the compressor is operated with a back-pressure greater than its
maximum differential pressure. In this case, surging can occur an any moment,
depending on the required flow-rate and air intake temperature. The risk in
operation is that the operator may get used to this offset operation during the
cooler months or the year, because as soon as the first high temperatures
occur, surging will be inevitable and will happen time and time again for as long
as the air intake has not been unfolded.
Each of these conditions can, on its own, trigger surging, but under operating conditions,
problems often add together, therefore increasing the risk of triggering this phenomenon.
In practice, in cases where the maximum temperature of the air drawn in and the nominal
pressure differentials are complied with, 99 % of all cases of surging are due to valve
regulation or to communication problems between plcs.
To properly understand the origin of the destruction of parts during surging, it is necessary
to bear in mind that the power of the motor is adjusted to ensure operation at the
maximum operating point of the compressor, which is the point that combines the four
following parameters:
Maximum hygrometry
The power of the drive motor will be calculated to comply with this extreme operating point
plus a slight inbuilt safety margin, to avoid unnecessary and costly over-consumption of
energy.
If the operating point imposed on the compressor is greater than its calculated maximum
point (safety margin included), the power of the air that is "over-compressed" by rapid
closure of the valve then becomes greater than the power of the compressor. The
expansion of the air back to the intake system is then inevitable.
In the worst case, if the sealing of the compression chamber is extremely efficient, which is
generally the case to obtain high compression efficiency, the expansion can briefly lock the
wheel and the high speed shaft of the compressor (rotor). When this happens, the teeth of
the step-up gear between the input shaft and the high speed shaft absorb all of the
maximum torque of the drive motor, because the rotation speed is zero.
The motor is subjected to a violent current drain, identical to that of a start-up, until its
maximum power is exceeded.
In this case, all the energy is often released by the breakage of the teeth of the gear.
In the meantime, considering the rotation speed of the wheel (15,000 to 20,000 rpm) and
the duration of the surge (at least 1/10th of a second), the rotor will have completed at least
25 to 30 revolutions under mechanical shock conditions. The result will be breakage of the
bearings and shocks between the impeller and the casing. The compressor is therefore
destroyed.
If the surging phenomenon lasts for several seconds and the step-up does not fail, then
the electric motor can suffer flashover due to the electrical stresses imposed on the
winding by the successive stoppages.
A few recommendations:
The slowest possible regulation, according to the process, in order to avoid jolts.
6. TROUBLESHOOTING
Increase leakage due to:
Other measurements and other information are obviously essential (vibration level, axial
displacements, oil overheating, résulats des anlyses d’huiles, etc.), in order to determine
the mechanical condition of the compressor.
Piping strain
Defective grouting
Excessive vibration
Piping strain
Shaft misalignment
Excessive vibration
Worn or damaged coupling
(Vibration may be transmitted
from the coupled machine. To
localise vibration, disconnect Dry coupling (if continuously lubricated type is used)
coupling and operate driver
alone. This should help to Warped shaft caused by uneven heating or cooling
indicate whether driver is
causing vibrations)
Damaged rotor or bend shaft
Control panel.
Low voltage.
Cold oil.
Low Oil Pressure Excessive leakage at bearing shim tabs and/or bearings.
Lubrication failure.
Insufficient cooling
Loose piston.
Dirt in packing.
Incorrect oil.
7. CONCLUSION
Like with pumps, there are several methods of driving compressors:
By electric motor: usually of the asynchronous type. In this case, the rotation
speed of the compressor is imposed by the electric motor. These motors are
equipped with thermal cut-outs to protect them against overloading.
On compressors (and on all of the other equipment), makeshift repairs must be generally
prohibited:
After each maintenance operation, all safety devices and protection systems
must be put back into place, in good operating condition.
Concerning the alignment of compressors with their drive systems, refer to the course on
pumps (SM110), where an explanation of alignment is given. You will also find an
explanation concerning seal packings.
8. FIGURES
Figure 1: An air compressor.................................................................................................5
Figure 2: Gas compressor ...................................................................................................6
Figure 3: Different pressures ...............................................................................................8
Figure 4: Effect of volume on pressure and temperature ...................................................10
Figure 5: Air passing ..........................................................................................................10
Figure 6: Types of flow.......................................................................................................11
Figure 7: Typical system ....................................................................................................12
Figure 8: Compression of air..............................................................................................13
Figure 9: Centrifugal compressor and axial compressor....................................................13
Figure 10: Piston-type reciprocating compressors.............................................................14
Figure 11: Screw compressor, vane compressor and liquid ring compressor....................14
Figure 12: Different compressors.......................................................................................14
Figure 13: Air reservoir ......................................................................................................15
Figure 14: Air drier .............................................................................................................15
Figure 15: Operation of the adsorption type drier ..............................................................16
Figure 16: Adsorption type drier.........................................................................................16
Figure 17: Diagram of an adsorption type air drier.............................................................17
Figure 18: Single-column drier...........................................................................................17
Figure 19: Refrigeration type air drier ................................................................................18
Figure 20: Operation of a refrigeration type drier ...............................................................18
Figure 21: Functional diagram of a refrigeration type drier ................................................19
Figure 22: Filtration methods .............................................................................................20
Figure 23: Different types of solid particle filter ..................................................................20
Figure 24: Oil and water filter element ...............................................................................21
Figure 25: Detailed view of the filter...................................................................................21
Figure 26: Float-type bleed valve with regulated level and time-delayed control ...............21
Figure 27: Oil separator .....................................................................................................22
Figure 28: Another type of separator .................................................................................22
Figure 29: Location of contaminants..................................................................................23
Figure 30: Spiral compressor.............................................................................................24
Figure 31: Operation of the spiral compressor...................................................................24
Figure 32: Example of an installation with a screw-type compressor.................................25
Figure 33: Details of an oil-free screw-type compressor ....................................................25
Figure 34: Choice criteria...................................................................................................26
Figure 35: Diagrams of single-effect compressors.............................................................28
Figure 36: Diagram of a double-effect compressor............................................................29
Figure 37: Reciprocating volumetric compressor...............................................................30
Figure 38: Piston / cylinder / valve system.........................................................................30
Figure 39: Connecting rod / crankshaft system..................................................................31
Figure 40: Piston position ..................................................................................................31
Figure 41: Taking up the clearance ...................................................................................32
Figure 42: Clearance between piston and liner..................................................................33
Figure 43: A valve..............................................................................................................34
Figure 44: Exploded view of the valves .............................................................................35
Figure 45: Operation of a basic compressor – intake phase..............................................36
Figure 46: Operation of a basic compressor – discharge phase........................................37
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 100 / 103
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
9. TABLES