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Physics: An Introduction

 Physics is concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space,

and time, and it is especially interested in what fundamental mechanisms
underlie every phenomenon.
 The concern for describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially defines
the realm of physics.
 Physics aims to describe the function of everything around us, from the
movement of tiny charged particles to the motion of people, cars, and
spaceships.
 In fact, almost everything around you can be described quite accurately by the
laws of physics. Consider a smart phone (Figure 1.2).

 Physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the
device. This knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and
circuit layout when building the smart phone.
 Next, consider a GPS system. Physics describes the relationship between the
speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to
travel that distance. When you use a GPS device in a vehicle, it utilizes these
physics equations to determine the travel time from one location to another.
SECTION I: GENERAL PHYSICS

1.0 Physical Quantities and Units

 All measurable quantities are known as physical quantities.
 All physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of only seven
fundamental physical quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, amount of
substance, luminous intensity and electric current.
 Physical quantities are stated by the numerical value followed by the unit.
 Virtually every other country in the world now uses SI units as the standard.
 . The acronym “SI” is derived from the French Système International.

Table 1.1 Fundamental SI Units

Length Mass Time Electric Current

Basic Quantities Base Units Symbols

Length Metre m
Mass kilogram kg
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Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

 Prefixes are used for multiples and submultiples of a unit.

Table 1.2 Metric Prefixes for Powers of 10 and their Symbols
Prefix Symbol Value Example (some are approximate)

tera T 1012 Terawatt TW 1012 W powerful laser output

giga G 109 gigahertz GHz 109 Hz a microwave frequency
mega M 106 megacurie MCi 106 Ci high radioactivity
kilo k 103 kilometre km 103 m about 6/10 mile
deci d 10-1 decilitre dL 10−1 L less than half a soda
centi c 10-2 centimetre cm 10−2 m fingertip thickness
milli m 10-3 millimetre mm 10−3 m flea at its shoulders
micro µ 10-6 micrometer μm 10−6 m detail in microscope
nano n 10-9 nanogram ng 10−9 g small speck of dust
pico p 10-12 picofarad pF 10−12 F small capacitor in radio

 Derived quantities are combinations of various basic quantities

 Derive units are obtained by multiplying and/ dividing by the units of basic
quantities according to the relationship between the derived quantity and
the basic quantities.

Uses of units
 They are used to check the homogeneity of physical equations.
 Only quantities with the same dimensions can be added, subtracted or
equated in an equation.
 An equation is homogeneous if all the terms in it, have the same units.
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Unit for 𝑠 = m
Unit for 𝑢𝑡 = ms-1 × s = m
1
Unit for 𝑎𝑡 2 = ms-2 × s2 = m
2
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Equation is therefore homogeneous

 NB* an equation which is not homogenous is wrong but a homogeneous
equation does not imply it is correct.
 3 cases of equations being homogeneous yet incorrect are shown
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2𝑎𝑡 2 (incorrect coefficients)
2
1
𝑠= 𝑎𝑡 2 (missing terms)
2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (extra terms)
2
The mole
One mole of a substance is the amount of it that contains the same number
of elementary units as there are atoms in 12g of carbon 12.
 The number of atoms in carbon 12 is 6.022 × 1023
 this number is the Avogadro constant, NA and is given as 6.022 × 1023 mol-1
 for example 1 mole of oxygen has a mass 32g.

Scalars and vectors

A scalar quantity is one which can be fully described by its magnitude.
 examples include mass, time, length, speed, power etc.
A vector quantity is one which can only be fully described by its magnitude
and direction.
 examples include displacement, velocity, force, momentum etc.
 a vector quantity can be represented by an arrow, the magnitude shown by
the length and the direction by the arrowhead.

Force F1 = 10 N Force F2 = -15 N

 NB* two vectors are equal only if their magnitudes are equal and their
direction is the same.
Addition of vectors
 The addition of two or more vectors yields another vector which is known as
the resultant.
 The resultant is a single vector which produces the same effect in both
magnitude and direction.
 There are 2 methods of adding vectors;
1. Parallelogram of vectors
 Two vectors are drawn from same origin
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 Two lines respectively parallel to them are drawn at their tips

 The diagonal of the parallelogram equals the resultant.
2. Triangle of vectors
 Two vectors are drawn with the head of one touching the tail of the
other.
 The third side of the triangle drawn from tail to head of the two
represents the resultant.

***same rules are applied for subtraction***

P-Q = P + (-Q)

Resolving vectors

 It follows from the parallelogram rule that any vector can be treated as a
sum of any two vectors.
 There are an infinite number of these pairs.
 The two vectors that add up to a resultant are known as the components of
that vector.
 The two useful components of a vector are those that are mutually
perpendicular.

Rsinϑ R

ϑ Rcosϑ
 The magnitudes of the components are found by using trigonometry, Rcosϑ
and Rsinϑ.
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2.0 Measurement Techniques

Errors

A reading is a single determination of the value of an unknown quantity.

A measurement is the final result of the analysis of a series of readings.
 Any measurement of a quantity has an amount of uncertainty or error in
the value obtained.
 The uncertainty of a measurement is the total range of values within which
it is likely to lie.
 This degree of accuracy of a measurement depends on the instrument used
and physical constraints of the observer.
 A value can be quoted as 3.62 ± 0.01 mm to denote the error.
 The value 0.01 mm is the absolute error.
0.01
 Error can also be quoted as a fractional error e.g. or 2.76 × 10-3
3.62
0.01
 The percentage error is × 100% = 0.276 %.
3.62
Systematic errors
These are uncertainties in the measurement of physical quantities due to
instruments, faults in surrounding environment or mistakes by the
observer.
 These are characterised by a roughly constant size of error.
 Measurement will either be greater or less than actual value not both.
 Sources include:
 Zero error:- the initial reading on an instrument is non-zero even
when it is not being used.
 Personal error of the observer:- physical constraints or limitations
of the observer.
 Faulty instruments:- other than zero error, e.g. a fast moving
stopwatch.
 Errors due to wrong assumptions:- e.g. value of g varies with distance
from equator can be 9.81 ms-2 or 9.78 ms-2
 Systematic errors can only be reduced by carefully taking measurements,
using different instruments and using different methods.
Random errors
These are uncertainties in a measurement made by an observer or person
taking the measurement.
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 The magnitude of random errors is not constant; reading may be smaller

and greater than the actual value.
 These can be reduced by taking a large number of readings and averaging
them.
Precision and accuracy

The precision of a measurement system refers to how close the agreement

is between repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same
conditions)
 Using different instruments affects the precision of measurement.
 Eg when measuring a length degrees of precision increases from
metre rule to vernier calliper and finally micrometre screw gauge
Measuring instrument Reading
Ruler 1.2 ± 0.1 cm
Vernier Calliper 1.20 ± 0.01cm
Micrometer Screw gauge 1.200 ± 0.001cm

 Number of significant figures in a measurement gives an indication of the

precision of the measurement.

The accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct or true value

for that measurement.

Treatment of errors
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1. Addition or Subtraction
Suppose a physical quantity U is related to two other physical quantities x and
y: U=x+y
If δx and δy are the errors in measurement of x and y resp. then error in U, δU
is given by: δU = ±(δx + δy)
If V = x – y then δV = ±(δx + δy)

2. Product and Quotient

𝑥𝑦
Suppose 𝑈 = , then fractional error in U is given by
𝑧
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ±( + + )
𝑈 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

3. Indices

Suppose U = axbyc where a, b and c are constants.

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then = ±(𝑏 + 𝑐 )
𝑈 𝑥 𝑦

Significant figures

 The significant figures of a number are those digits which have meaningful
contribution to the precision of the number.
 In an experimental measurement, significant figures indicate the extent to
which the readings are reliable.
Example
To compute the value of π from the measured area of a circle 154 cm2 of radius
7:00 cm;
The value of π is given by
154
π= = 3.14
7.00×7.00
 The value of π can only have 3 significant figures.

Rules for determining the number of significant figures

1) Significant figures are quoted only for a measurement and not for a pure
number.
2) All non-zero digits are significant.
3) All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
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4) The initial zeros after the decimal point are not significant if there is no
non-zero digit before the decimal point.
5) In 0.0012, the significant digits are 1,2. Hence, 0.0012 has two significant
figures.
6) Zeros at the beginning and end of a number are not significant. i.e.,
005264202300 has eight significant figures.
7) All zeros and non-zero digit to the right of decimal point are significant
if there is a non-zero digit to the left of the decimal. For example,
5.0008 has five significant figures. 40.00 has four significant figures.
8) The powers of 10 are not counted while counting the number of
significant figures. 1:050 x 1025 has four significant figures.

Rules of compounding the measurement to know the number of significant figures

1. In addition and subtraction, the number of decimal places in the result
should be equal to the smallest number of decimal places in the sum or
difference.
2. So, 2.032 +1.02 = 3.05 and not 3.052
3. 32.324 - 21.12 = 11.20 and not 11.204
4. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the
result should be equal to the number of significant figures of the least
precise term.
5. 31.2 × 2.51 = 78.3 and not 78.312
27.340
6. = 7.79 and not 7.7891738
3.51

SECTION II: NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

3.0 Kinematics

Position

 In order to describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe
its position—where it is at any particular time.
 The position is specified relative to a convenient reference frame. Earth is
often used as a reference frame.
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 In other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in
motion relative to the Earth.
 To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not the Earth, as the reference frame.

Displacement

 If an object moves relative to a reference frame this change in position is

known as displacement. The word “displacement” implies that an object has
moved, or has been displaced.
 Displacement is the change in position of an object:
Δx = xf − x0,
where Δx is displacement, xf is the final position, and x0 is the initial position.

 Note that the SI unit for displacement is the metre (m)

 Note that displacement has a direction as well as a magnitude.

Distance and Displacement

 Although displacement is described in terms of direction, distance is not.

 Distance is defined to be the magnitude or size of displacement between
two positions.
 Note that the displacement between two positions is not the same as the
distance travelled between them.
 Distance travelled is the total length of the path travelled between two
positions. Distance has no direction and, thus, no sign.
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 Displacement is distance travelled in a particular direction.

Time

 As discussed in Physical Quantities and Units, the most fundamental physical

quantities are defined by how they are measured.
 The amount of time or change is calibrated by comparison with a standard.
 The SI unit for time is the second, abbreviated s.
 Elapsed time Δt is the difference between the ending time and beginning time,
Δt = tf − t0,
where Δt is the change in time or elapsed time, tf is the time at the end of the
motion, and t0 is the time at the beginning of the motion
 motion starts at time equal to zero (t0 = 0)

Velocity

 velocity is the rate of change of displacement

v = Δx/t, Δx = (xf − x0)
,
xf and x0 are the final and beginning positions
 the definition indicates that velocity is a vector because displacement is a
vector. It has both magnitude and direction.
 The SI unit for velocity is meters per second or m/s, but many other units,
such as km/h, mi/h (also written as mph), and cm/s, are in common use.

Acceleration

 Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes,

a = Δv/t, Δv = vf – v0
 the SI units for acceleration are ms^-2 , meters per second squared.
 Recall that velocity is a vector—it has both magnitude and direction.
 This means that a change in velocity can be a change in magnitude (or speed),
but it can also be a change in direction.
 For example, if a car turns a corner at constant speed, it is accelerating
because its direction is changing
 Acceleration is a vector
 When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its
motion. This is known as deceleration.

Displacement-time graphs
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 For a displacement-time graph, the gradient at a point is equal to the

speed.

Speed-time graphs

 For a speed-time graph, the area under the curve is the distance
travelled.
 The gradient at any point on the curve equals the acceleration.

 Note, the acceleration is also the second derivative of a speed-time function.

Equations of Motion

 These equations apply only if the motion takes place along a straight line and the
acceleration is constant; {hence, for eg., air resistance must be negligible.}

 One of the equations of motion stems from the definition of acceleration:

acceleration = the rate of change of speed

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rearranging

if we define the distance 's' as the average speed times the time(t), then:

rearranging

rearranging (i

subtracting these two equations to eliminate v

 If we multiply the two equations we show that:

summary:

Example #1

A car starts from rest and accelerates at 10 ms-2 for 3 secs.

What is the maximum speed it attains?
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Example #2

A car travelling at 25 ms-1 starts to decelerate at 5 ms-2.

How long will it take for the car to come to rest?

Example #3

A car travelling at 20 ms-1 decelerates at 5 ms-2.

How far will the car travel before stopping?

Example #4

A car travelling at 30 ms-1 accelerates at 5 ms-2 for 8 secs.

How far did the car travel during the period of acceleration?
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Vertical motion under gravity

Weight

 The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational force acting on the

object, and is dependent on the mass of the body.
 Note that the acceleration due to gravity (or acceleration of free-fall, usually
denoted by g) is taken as constant for all bodies, although it varies slightly from
place to place.
 The direction of that force (weight) is always toward the centre of this planet.
 We can calculate the weight of an object from its mass by the equation W = mg,
where W=weight, m=mass and g=acceleration of free fall.
Weight of the teacher = 70 × 9.81 = 687N
 Consider a body moving in a uniform gravitational field under 2 different
conditions:

I) WITHOUT AIR RESISTANCE

 These problems concern a particle projected vertically upwards and falling

'under gravity'.
 Whether the body is moving up, or at the highest point or moving down, the
weight of the body, W, is the only force acting on it.
 The body therefore experiences a constant acceleration.
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 In these types of problem it is assumed that:

 air resistance is minimal

 displacement & velocity are positive(+) upwards & negative(-) downwards
 acceleration(g) always acts downwards and is therefore negative(-)
 acceleration due to gravity(g) is a constant

Example #1

A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 15 ms-1.

(i) what is the maximum height attained?

(ii) how long is the stone in the air before hitting the ground?

(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 2 d.p.)

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Example #2

A boy throws a stone vertically down a well at 12 ms-1.

If he hears the stone hit the water 3 secs. later,

(i) how deep is the well?

(ii)what is the speed of the stone when it hits the water?

(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 1 d.p.)

II) WITH AIR RESISTANCE

 If air resistance is NOT negligible and if body is projected upwards with the
same initial velocity, as the body moves upwards, both air resistance and weight
act downwards.
 Thus its speed will decrease at a rate greater than 9.81 m s-2 .
 This causes the time taken to reach its maximum height reached to be lower
than in the case with no air resistance.
 The max height reached is also reduced.
 At the highest point, the body is momentarily at rest; air resistance becomes
zero and hence the only force acting on it is the weight. The acceleration is thus
9.81 m s-2 at this point.
 As a body falls, air resistance opposes its weight.
 The downward acceleration is thus less than 9.81 m s-2.
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 As air resistance increases with speed, it eventually equals its weight (but in
opposite direction).
 From then there will be no resultant force acting on the body and it will fall
with a constant speed, called the terminal velocity.

Projectiles

Vertical & horizontal components of velocity

 When a particle is projected under gravity at a velocity u at an angle θ to the

horizontal (neglecting air resistance) it follows the curve of a parabola.
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 The particle has an initial horizontal speed of ucosθ, which is unchanged

throughout the motion.
 Vertically the particle has an initial speed of usinθ. It falls under gravity and is
accelerated downwards with an acceleration of g ms-1,where g = 9.8 ms-2
(approx.)

Time of flight

 The time of flight is calculated from the vertical component of the velocity.
 It is the time it takes for the particle to go up, reach its maximum height and
come down again.
 So this is twice the time to maximum height.
 If the time to maximum height is t secs. Then the time of flight is 2t.
 Consider motion up to maximum height. This is attained when the final velocity v
= 0.

Maximum height attained (H)

 The maximum height attained occurs when the particle is momentarily

stationary, before falling under gravity.
 The vertical component of speed is zero at this point (v=0).
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Range(R)

 The range is simply the horizontal component of speed multiplied by the time of
flight.

Velocity (speed & direction) at time t

 Solution of problems is to find the vertical component of speed at time t and

combine this with the original horizontal component of speed, which remains
unchanged.

Example
A particle P is projected at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal at a speed of 30
ms-1.
What is the speed and direction of the particle after 3 secs?
(g=9.8 ms-2)
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4.0 Dynamics

Newton's Laws of Motion

 A body will remain at rest or move at uniform speed along a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
 The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the applied
force and occurs in the same direction as the force.
 The forces of two interacting bodies on each other are equal and directed in
opposite directions.

Mass

 Newton’s first law expresses the concept of inertia.

The inertia of a body is the reluctance of a body to start moving, or to
stop moving once it has started.
 When you are standing on a bus, and the bus starts very quickly, your body
seems to be pushed backward, and if the bus stops suddenly, then your body
seems to be pushed forwards.
 Notice that when the bus turns left, you will seem to be pushed to the right,
and when the bus turns right, you will seem to be pushed to the left.
 A body of large mass requires a larger force to change its speed or direction by
a noticeable amount, it has a large inertia.
 The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia.
 In the SI system, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).

Definition of momentum

Momentum (P) is a vector quantity equal in magnitude to the product of mass and
velocity.

 Note, mass (m) is a scalar quantity, while velocity (v) is a vector quantity.

P = mv

m (kg) v(ms-1) P (kg. ms-1)

 The letter 'p' in small case is designated to represent pressure.

Theory
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 If we consider a force F acting on a mass m with velocity v, the Second law may
be represented by the proportionality:

But acceleration,

When F = 1N, m = 1kg and a = 1ms-2

The Newton (N)

The Newton is the force that when applied to a 1 kg mass will give it an
acceleration of 1 ms-2.

Linear acceleration

 Here the mass is either stationary and is accelerated by a force in a straight

line or is initially moving at constant velocity before the force is applied.

Example #1

A 5N force acts on a 2.5kg mass, making it accelerate in a straight line.

i) What is the acceleration of the mass?
ii) How long will it take to move the mass through 20m?
(Answer to 2 d.p.)

i)

ii)
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Linear retardation

 Here the mass is already moving at constant velocity in a straight line before
the force is applied, opposing the motion.

Example #1

A 4 kg mass travelling at constant velocity 15 ms-1 has a 10 N force applied to it

against the direction of motion.
i) What is the deceleration produced?
ii) How long will it take before the mass is brought to rest?

i) ii)

Example #2

A sky diver with mass 80kg is falling at a constant velocity of 70 ms-1 . When he opens
his parachute he experiences a constant deceleration of 3g for 2 seconds.
i) What is the magnitude of the decelerating force?
ii) What is his rate of descent at the end of the 2 seconds deceleration?
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i) ii)

The Principle of Conservation of Momentum

The total linear momentum of a system of colliding bodies, with no external forces
acting, remains constant.

 for two perfectly elastic colliding bodies with no external forces note:
iii) By Newton's 3rd. Law, the force on X due to Y , (Fx) is the same as the
force on Y due to X , (Fy) .

Fx = Fy

iv) By Newton's 2nd. Law, the rate of change of momentum is the same, since
F = (rate of change of momentum)
v) Because the directions of the momentum of the objects are opposite,
(and therefore of different sign) the net change in momentum is zero.
 If we consider the speed of individual masses before and after collision, we
obtain another useful equation:
uA = initial speed of mass A
uB = initial speed of mass B
vA = final speed of mass A
vB = final speed of mass B
relative initial speed of mass A to mass B = uB - uA
relative final speed of mass A to mass B = vB - vA

momentum before the collision equals momentum after

hence, mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mB vB

Example #1
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A 5 kg mass moves at a speed of 3 ms-1 when it collides head on, with a 3 kg mass
travelling at 4 ms-1, travelling along the same line.
After the collision, the two masses move off together with a common speed.

What is the common speed of the combined masses?

Example #2

An artillery shell of mass 10 kg is fired from a field gun of mass 2000 kg.
If the speed of the shell on leaving the muzzle of the gun is 250 ms-1 , what is the
recoil speed of the gun?
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Energy changes during collisions

 If no kinetic energy is lost (K.E.= ½ mv2 ) then the collision is said to be

perfectly elastic.
 However if kinetic energy is lost, the collision is described as inelastic.
 In the special case when all the kinetic energy is lost, the collision is described
as completely inelastic.
 This is when two colliding bodies stick to one another on impact.

Newton’s law of restitution

 When two bodies collide, relative velocity after collision = e × relative velocity
before collision.
 e is known as the coefficient of restitution and .
 When e = 1 the collision is elastic.
 e ‹ 1 inelastic and e = 0 then it is completely inelastic.
 For a perfectly elastic collision

Impulse of a force

 This is simply the force multiplied by the time the force acts.
 We can obtain an expression for this in terms of momentum from Newton's
Second Law equation F=ma, where the force F is constant.
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 Remembering that velocity, force and therefore impulse are vector quantities.
 For a mass m being accelerated by a constant force F, v1 is initial velocity and v2
is final velocity:
Ft = m(v2- v1)
 Since impulse is the product of force and time, the units of impulse are
(Newtons) x (seconds), or N s .

Force-time graphs

 The area under a force time graph represents impulse

5.0 FORCES

Law of universal gravitation

 Every particle of matter in universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distances apart.

 The gravitational force `F' between two particles of masses m1 and m2,
separated by distance r is given by. F-GmM
 R²

where, G is a constant called the universal gravitational constant, and is assumed

to have the same value everywhere for all matter.
Coulomb's law

 Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects
and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the
two objects.
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 In equation form, the electrical force `F' between two point charges q1 and q2,
separated by distance r is given by

F=kèqQ
R²
where, ke is a constant called the Coulomb's law constant.

Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include
liquids, gases, and plasmas.)

Origin of upthrust acting in a body in fluid

 When an object is immersed in a fluid (a liquid or a gas), it appears to weigh less

than when in vacuum.
 It is easier to lift large stones under water than when they are out of water.
 The reason for this is that immersion in the fluid provides an upthrust or
buoyancy force.
 We can see the reason for the upthrust when we think about an object, such as
cylinder in water as illustrated below (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Origin of the buoyancy force (upthrust)

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&Archimedes' principle

A body immersed in a fluid (totally or partially) experiences an upthrust which is equal

to the weight of fluid displaced.

 Remember, that the pressure in a liquid increases with depth.

 Thus, the pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is greater than the pressure
at the top of the cylinder.
 This means that there is a bigger force acting upwards on the base of the
cylinder, than there is acting downwards on the top.
 The difference in these forces is the upthrust or buoyancy force, ‘Fb'. we can
see that
Upthrust = Fb = Fup - Fdown
= (pY – pX)A
Fb = ρgAh
where h is the height of the cylinder, and V is its volume. ‘ρ' denotes density of
the liquid and ‘g' denotes acceleration due to gravity.

Volume of fluid displaced = volume of cylinder

= Ah
mass of fluid displaced =Ahρ
weight of fluid displaced = Ahρg = Fb

 This relation has been derived for a cylinder, but it will also apply to objects of
any shape.
Frictional forces

 Frictional force is one that opposes the motion.

 Frictional force always acts in direction opposite to the direction of motion.
 Frictional force is independent of the area of contact of the surfaces.
 For two surfaces with no relative motion the limiting frictional force is directly
proportional to the normal reaction.
 The coefficient of limiting friction μ is defined by

 To determine the coefficient of friction:

Raise one end of a plank gradually and measure the value of θ, at which the
block is on the point of slipping.
Since F = mgsinθ and R = mgcosθ
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Viscosity & Viscous forces

 We use the term viscous force to describe the frictional force in fluid (such as
air resistance).
 The property of the fluid determining this force is the viscosity of the fluid.
 In the simplest form, viscosity can be evaluated by the thickness of a
substance.
 A general rule is that gases are less viscous than liquids, and thicker liquids
exhibit higher viscosity than thin liquids

Stokes’ Law and Terminal velocity

 For a sphere of radius r, moving with velocity v through a fluid whose
coefficient of viscosity is η, the viscous force F experienced by the force is
given by
(Stokes’ law)
 Consider a sphere falling from rest through a viscous fluid.
 Forces acting on the fluid are its weight W, and the upthrust U, due to
displaced fluid, and the viscous drag F.
Initially W U + F sphere accelerates downwards.
As velocity of sphere increases so too does the viscous drag and
eventually
W = U + F. sphere continues to move downwards but now there is no net
force.
The velocity has a constant maximum value known as the terminal velocity
vt.
DRG pg. 189 muncaster
If ρf and ρs are the densities of the fluid and the sphere respectively,
then

At terminal velocity U + F = W where

Experimental determination of η using Stokes’ law

 Place liquid under investigation in a large measuring cylinder.
 Drop a small ball bearing of radius r gently into the liquid.
 Time for ball to fall from A to B is determined, (A should be sufficiently below
the surface so that the bearing would have reached terminal velocity) here
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From the above equation,

Vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

 The following diagram shows three forces acting on an object.

F2

Figure: A vector diagram representing the body in equilibrium

 In the above diagram, if three vectors represent three forces, then for the
object to be in equilibrium,

 Hence, for an object to be in equilibrium, the net force acting on it must be

zero.

Centre of gravity

 An object may be made to balance at a particular point. When it is balanced at

this point, the object does not turn and so all the weight on one side of the
pivot is balanced by the weight on the other side.
 Supporting the object at the pivot means that the only force which has to be
applied at the pivot is one to stop the object falling - that is, a force equal to
the weight of the object.
 Although all parts of the object have weight, the whole weight of the object
appears to act at this balance point.
 This point is called the centre of gravity of the object.

Rotational motion

 When a force acts on an object, the force may cause the object to move in a
straight line.
 It could also cause the object to spin (rotate).
 Consider a meter ruler held in hand at one end so that the ruler is horizontal. If
a weight is hung from the ruler, we can feel a turning effect on the ruler.
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Figure: Turning effect on a metre ruler

 The turning effect increases if the weight is increased or it is moved further
from the hand along the ruler.
 The turning effect acts at the hand where the metre ruler is pivoted.
 Keeping the weight and its distance along the ruler constant, the turning effect
can be changed by holding the ruler at an angle to the horizontal.
 The turning effect becomes smaller as the ruler approaches the vertical
position.
 The turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force.
 The moment of a force depends on the magnitude of the force and also on the
distance of the force from the pivot.

Figure 2.9: Finding the moment of a force

 The moment of a force is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the pivot.
 Referring to figure above, the force has a magnitude ‘F' and acts at a point
distance ‘l ' from the pivot.
 Then, when the ruler is at angle θ to the horizontal,
Moment of force = Fd = Fl cos θ
 The unit of the moment of a force is newton-metre (Nm).
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Example

In the diagram below a light rod AB of length 45 cm is held at A so that the rod makes
an angle of 65 °C to the vertical. A vertical force of 15 N acts on the rod at B.
Calculate the moment of force about the end A.

Figure 2.10
Couples

A couple constitutes of two forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose
lines of action do not coincide.

NB a couple can only produce a turning effect, (not translational motion).

a couple cannot be represented by a single force.
 When a screwdriver is used, we apply a turning effect to the handle. We do not
apply one force to the handle because this would mean the screwdriver would
move sideways.
 Rather, we apply two forces of equal size but opposite direction on opposite
sides of handle as illustrated below.

Figure: Two forces acting as a couple

Torque

 Consider the two parallel forces, each of magnitude F as shown below (Figure
2.12) on opposite ends of a diameter of a disc of radius `r '.
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 Each force produces a moment about the centre of the disc of magnitude `Fr '
in a clockwise direction.
 The total moment about the centre is `F x 2r' or `F × perpendicular distance
between the forces'.

Figure 2.12: Torque of a couple

 The turning effect of a couple is referred to as a torque.
 The unit of torque is same as that of the moment of a force, newton-metre
(Nm).
 The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the forces.

Example

The torque produced by a person using a screwdriver is 0.18 Nm. This torque is applied
to the handle of diameter 4.0 cm. Calculate the force applied to the handle.

Rotational Equilibrium

Figure 2.13: Rotational equilibrium

 For a body to be in rotational equilibrium, net torque acting on the object must
be zero.

Principle of moments
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The principle of moments states that for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point must equal the sum of the anticlockwise moments
about the same point.
Example

 Some weights are hung from a light rod AB as shown below (Figure 2.14). The
rod is pivoted. Calculate the magnitude of the force `F' required to balance the
rod horizontally.

Figure: Problem on principle of moments

Equilibrium

For a body to be in equilibrium,

 The sum of forces in any direction must be zero, i.e. resultant force acting on
body must be zero.
 The sum of the moments of the forces about any point must be zero. , i.e.
resultant torque acting on body about any point must be zero.
6.0 WORK, ENERGY, POWER

Work

 When force is applied to an object, work is done only if there is displacement in

the direction of force.
 Mathematically, work done = force × displacement in direction of force
 Work done is a scalar quantity and is represented as dot product of force and
displacement in direction of force.
 It is measured in joules (J) or expressed as newton-metre (Nm).
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 One joule of work is done when a force of one newton moves its point of
application by one metre in the direction of force.
 Qn: What happens when force & displacement are not in same direction?
 If the force and displacement both are not in same direction, then the
component of force in the direction displacement must be found.

Figure 1: An example when force and displacement are not in same direction
 As illustrated above, consider a force `F' acting along a line at an angle θ to the
displacement.
 The component of the force along the direction of displacement is `F cos θ '
work done for displacement x = Fx cos θ

Work done by expanding gas

 A building can be demolished with explosives.

 When the explosives are detonated, large quantities of gas at high pressure are
produced.
 As the gas expands, it does work by demolishing the building.
 Consider a gas contained in a cylinder by means of a frictionless piston of area
A as illustrated below (Figure 2).
 The pressure `p' of the gas in the cylinder is equal to the atmospheric pressure
outside the cylinder.
 This pressure maybe thought to be constant.

Figure 2: Work done by expanding gas

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Since, , the gas produces a force ‘F' on the piston given by,
F=pA
 When the gas expands at constant pressure, the piston moves outwards through
a distance `Δx '. So,
Work done by the expanding gas = force × distance moved;
W = pAΔx
However, `AΔx' is the increase in volume of the gas ΔV .
Hence, W = pΔV
 When the volume of a gas changes at constant pressure,
work done = pressure × change in volume
 When the gas expands, work is done by the gas.
 If the gas contracts, then work is done on the gas.

Examples
 A child tows a toy by means of a string. The tension in the string is 1.5 N and
the string makes an angle of 25 ° with the horizontal. Calculate the work done in
moving the toy horizontally through a distance of 265 cm.
 A sample of gas has a volume of 750 cm3. The gas expands at a constant
pressure of 1,4 x 105 Pa so that its volume becomes 900 cm3. Calculate the work
done by the gas during the expansion.
Energy
 Energy is the ability to do work.
 Energy is measured in joules (J).

Energy conservation & conversion

Law of conservation of energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed: It can only be converted from one form
to another.

Conversion of energy

 Fossil fuels are sources of chemical energy. As an example, when petrol is

burned in a car engine, some of the chemical energy is converted into kinetic
energy of the car and some is wasted as heat energy.
 When the car stops, its kinetic energy is converted into heat energy of the
brakes.
 The outcome is that all the chemical energy has been converted into heat
energy which dissipates in the atmosphere and is of no further use.
 However, the total energy present in the Universe has remained constant.
Hence, all energy changes are governed by the law of conservation of energy.
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Forms of energy

Potential energy

Potential energy is the ability of an object to do work as a result of its shape or

position.

Types of potential energy

 There are different forms of potential energy.
 Elastic potential energy, electric potential energy and gravitational potential
energy are the ones we will look at in this course.

Elastic / Strain potential energy

 In order to wind up a string, work has to be done because a force must be

moved through a distance.
 When the string is released, it can do work.
 When the spring is wound, it stores the ability to do work.
 Hence, the spring stores energy as it is stretched and releases the energy as it
returns to its original shape.
 This type of energy is called elastic potential energy.
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 Elastic potential energy is stored in objects which have had their shape changed
elastically.
 Examples: Stretched wires, stretched springs, compressed gases

Electric potential energy

 The law of charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract
which means that work has to be done when charges are moved relative to one
another.
 If, for example, two positive charges are moved closer together, work is done
and the electric potential energy of the charges increases.
 The electric potential energy stored is released when charges move apart.
 Conversely, if a positive charge moves closer to a negative charge, energy is
released because there is force of attraction.

Gravitational potential energy

 Newton's law of gravitation tells us that all masses attract one another.
 We rely on force of gravity to keep us on Earth.
 When two masses are pulled apart, work is done on them and so they gain
gravitational potential energy.
 If the masses move closer together, they lose gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational potential energy near Earth's surface

 Changes of gravitational potential energy are of particular importance for an

object near to the Earth's surface because we frequently do work raising
masses and, conversely, the energy stored is released when the mass is lowered
again.
 An object of mass `m' near the Earth's surface has weight `mg', where `g' is
the acceleration of free fall. This weight is the force with which the Earth
attracts the mass (and the mass attracts the Earth).
 If the mass moves a vertical distance Δh,
Work done = force × distance moved = mgΔh
 When the mass is raised, the work done is stored as gravitational potential
energy and thus energy can be recovered when the mass falls.
Change in gravitational potential energy; ΔEp = mgΔh

Kinetic energy
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 As an object falls, it loses gravitational potential energy and as a result speeds

up.
 Energy is associated with a moving object.
 Kinetic energy is energy due to motion.
 Consider an object of mass `m' moving with a constant acceleration `a'. In a
distance `s', the object accelerates from velocity `u' to `v'. Then, by referring
to equations of motion
v2 = u2 + 2as
By Newton's second law, the force F giving rise to the acceleration `a' is given
by
F = ma
Combining these two equations,

Upon re-arranging,

 By, definition the term `Fs' is the work done by the force moving a distance
`s'.
 Therefore, since `Fs' represents work done, then the other terms in the
equation must also have the units of work done, or energy.
 The kinetic energy Ek of an object of mass `m' moving with speed `v' is given by

Example

Calculate the kinetic energy of a car whose weight is 9800 N moving at speed of 20 m
s-1. State the form of energy from which the kinetic energy is derived.

Concept of internal energy

 Internal energy is determined by the state of the system and it can be

expressed as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential
energies associated with the molecules of a system.

Example for concept of internal energy

 In everyday life, for a gas stored in a container, the molecules of gas move
randomly and possess kinetic energy which is proportional to the thermodynamic
temperature of gas.
 As molecules of gas exert forces on each other, at any instant there will be
certain potential energy associated with the positions the molecules occupy in
space.
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 As the molecules will be moving randomly, the potential energy of molecules will
also vary randomly.
 But, at given temperature, the total potential energy of all molecules will remain
constant.
 Further, the molecules of gas collide with each other and will interchange
kinetic energy during collisions.
 In this example, the internal energy is given by the sum of the potential
energies and the kinetic energies of all the molecules.

Efficiency

 In most energy changes, some energy is `lost' or `wasted' as heat (thermal)

energy.
 For example, when a ball rolls down a slope the total change in gravitational
potential energy is not equal to gain in kinetic energy because heat (thermal)
energy has been produced as a result of frictional forces.
 Efficiency gives a measure of how much of the total energy may be used and is
not `lost'.
Efficiency =

 Since, energy cannot be created, efficiency can never be greater than 100% and
a `perpetual motion' machine is not possible.

Example

 A man lifts a weight of 480 N through a vertical distance of 3.5 m using a rope
and some pulleys. The man pulls on the rope with a force of 200 N and a length
of 10.5 m of rope passes through his hands. Calculate the efficiency of the
pulley system.
 An electric heater converts electrical energy into heat energy. Suggest why this
process may be 100% efficient.

Power

 Power is the rate of doing work and is given by the formula,

 The unit of power is watt (W) & is equal to a rate of working 1 joule per second.
 This means that a light bulb of power 1 watt will convert 1 joule of electrical
energy to other forms of energy (e.g. light & heat) every second.
 Power, like energy, is a scalar quantity.
 It is common in everyday language to say that a strong person is `powerful'.
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 In, physics, strength, or force or power are not the same.

 Large forces may be exerted without any movement and no work is done.
 Hence, the power is zero in that case.
 Consider a force `F' which moves a distance `s ' at constant speed `v' in the
direction of force, in time `t '. The work done `W' by the force is given by
W = Fs
Dividing both sides of this equation by time `t ' gives

Now,is the rate of doing work , i.e. the power `P' and = velocity (v) .
Hence,
P = Fv ; Power = force × speed
Example

 Calculate the electrical energy converted into thermal energy when an electric
fire, rated at 2.4 kW, is left switched on for a time of 3.0 minutes.
 A boy of mass 60 kg runs up a flight of steps in a time of 1.8 s. There are 22
steps and each one is of height 20 cm. Calculate the useful power developed in
the boy's legs.
7.0 MOTION IN A CIRCLE

Angular displacement

 Radian (rad) is the S.I. unit for angle, θ and it can be related to degrees in the
following way:
 In one complete revolution, an object rotates through 360°, or 2π rad.
 The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc length of the
circumference equal to the radius of the circle.
 As the object moves through an angle θ, with respect to the centre of rotation,
this angle θ is known as the angular displacement.

Angular velocity

 Angular velocity (ω) of the object is the rate of change of angular

displacement with respect to time.
𝜃
𝜔 =
𝑡
θ – angular displacement (rad)
ω – angular velocity of particle (rad s-1)
t – time taken (s)
 The period T, of rotational motion is the time taken to complete one revolution.
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2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇

 Linear velocity, v, of an object is its instantaneous velocity at any point in its

circular path.
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐴𝑃) 𝑟𝜃
𝑣 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡

∴ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
 Note:
(i) The direction of the linear velocity is at a tangent to the circle
described at that point. Hence it is sometimes referred to as the
tangential velocity.
(ii) ω is the same for every point in the rotating object, but the linear
velocity v is greater for points further from the axis.
Centripetal force
 A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes velocity {since its
direction changes}
 In accordance with Newtons 1st law, a body which is moving in a circle must have
a resultant force acting on it.
 For a body moving with constant speed, there is no component of this force
which acts in direction of motion.
 The force must therefore be perpendicular to the motion of the body, ie
directed towards the centre.
 It is known as a centripetal force.
 Centripetal force is the resultant of all the forces that act on a system in
circular motion.

Centripetal acceleration
 By Newtons 2nd law, a body acted upon by a resultant force must have an
acceleration.
 The acceleration is in the same direction as the force (towards the centre)
 It is known as a centripetal acceleration
 A body moving with constant angular velocity ω, along a path of radius r,
𝑣2
centripetal acceleration a is given by 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
 Centripetal force will be given by 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑟 = 2
𝑟
Banked roads
 ‘Banking’ roads removes the reliance on friction having to provide centripetal
force for a vehicle going round a bend.
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 The normal reaction, R acquires a horizontal component (R sin θ).

 Consider car of mass m moving with constant speed v round a bend of radius r.
𝑣2
 Centripetal force needs to provide an acceleration of
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟
Since no vertical acceleration 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑣2
Dividing equations results 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔

Example

A satellite is moving at 2000 ms-1 in a circular orbit around a distant moon.

If the radius of the circle followed by the satellite is 1000 km, find:
i) the acceleration of the satellite
ii) the time for the satellite to complete one full orbit of the moon in minutes(2d.p.).
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Resistance F2 Science
charge per second
1. An electric current is a flow of ______ ______
through a material. Materials that allow electricity to flow
easily are called conductors good conductors.
_________. Metals are ____
Insulators do not allow electricity to pass. Non metals, e.g.
_________
wood, plastic, rubber (except graphite), are insulators.
2. Some materials, e.g. nichrome wire, oppose the flow of an
electric current. As the charges move through the material,
friction between the atoms in the material and the
_______
charges cause some of the electrical energy to change to
opposition to the flow of an
heat. Resistance is the _________
electric current. Components that have a known amount of
resistors
resistance are called ________.
3. Resistors can be used to reduce the current
______ in a
circuit. Variable resistors have a resistance that can be
changed, e.g. a dimmer switch.
Z Parbhoo 3

F2 Science
energy to make the current
The cell or battery provides the ______
battery
flow. Two or more cells connected together make a _______.
A torch cell has a voltage of 1.5V. Three 1.5V cells make a
4.5V battery but the positive end of one cell must be
connected to the negative end of the next. The voltage tells
energy the battery supplies to each ______
you how much ______ charge
passing through the circuit.
Parallel circuits
1.0A 6.0A

0.50A 0.50A 2.0A 2.0A ?

A B C

1.0A 6.0A

What is the current through bulb C

Z Parbhoo 3

Using electricity safely

1. Electricity is useful but it can be dangerous. The mains
electricity is a.c. 220 V, which is much higher than the
voltage of batteries. (a.c. means alternating current)
i. Safety precautions:
ii. Never use mains appliances in the bathroom because
water conducts electricity and can increase the risk of
an electrical accident.
iii. Never touch sockets or switches with wet hands.
iv. Never pull a plug out by the cable because the live and
neutral or earth wires can touch and cause a short
circuit.
v. Do not overload a socket. This means connecting to
many appliances to one socket. Each appliance draws
current, so the wires in the socket become hot. The
insulation melts and may cause a fire.
Z Parbhoo 4

8.0 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

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Newton's Law of Gravitation

 Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

 If the masses are m1 and m2 , with their centres of mass displaced a distance r apart,
then the force of attraction F of one mass on the other is described as:

 The proportionality can be made into an equation using a constant of proportionality.

This constant we call G, the Universal Gravitational Constant.

G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2

 Gravitational force is very weak! This can be shown by considering two 1 kg masses 1
m apart. The gravitational force between them is given by:

 The gravitational force between everyday objects is so small as to be almost irrelevant.

Gravitational Field Strength g

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 The gravitational field strength is the force acting per unit mass in a gravitational
field.
 It has units Nkg-1.
 Close to the earth’s surface g = acceleration of free fall = 9.81 Nkg-1.

Variation of 'g' with distance from the Earth's centre

 Weight W is the force of attraction of the Earth on a mass. For a mass m, the weight
is given by:

The mathematical treatment depends on two assumptions:

1. The value of g is the same at a distance from a mass, whether the mass is in the shape
of a spherical shell or concentrated in the centre.

2. The value of g everywhere inside a spherical shell is zero.

NB the spherical shell and central mass have uniform density

 First consider a mass m on the surface of the Earth.

 The force of attraction between the mass and the earth is its weight W.
 This is also equal to the force F between the mass and the Earth, given by Newton's
Law.

(1)

 Where ME is the mass of the Earth, rE its radius.

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 Now let us consider the value of g at a distance r from the Earth.

case where r › rE

If this new value is gr , then by similarity with equation (1),

(2)

Dividing equation (2) by equation (1),

(3)

case where r < rE

 In the diagram the point X is inside the earth at a distance r from the centre.
 From our initial assumptions, the value of gr is a result of the gravity from a sphere of
radius r .
 If MS is the mass of the sphere, then by comparison with equation (1)

(4)

NB the effect of matter (in the form of a shell) above point X has no effect on the value of gr

 Assume that the Earth has a uniform density ρ (rho).

 Remembering that m = ρV , the mass MS of the internal sphere and the mass ME of the
Earth is given by:
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dividing the first equation by the second,

Substituting for MS from equation (4) ,

recalling that
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NB gr = g when r = rE

Summary

 So for inside the Earth, gr is directly proportional to r . The graph is therefore a

straight line through the origin.
 For outside the Earth, gr follows a function similar to y = x-2, where x decreases
steadily, approaching zero at infinity.

where rE and g are constants

Escape velocity

 Theoretically (neglecting air resistance) to leave the Earth and not return, a mass must
have enough kinetic energy to reach a point an infinite distance away, where its velocity
(and hence KE) is zero.
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 The escape velocity is the minimum initial velocity required to do this. This is a
constant for a particular planetary mass, and is independent of the projected mass.
 Consider a mass m being projected away from the surface of the Earth with velocity v.
 At a distance r from the Earth (mass ME ) the force of gravity F on the mass is given
by:

 This equation can be used to calculate the work done by the gravitational force in
bringing the mass m to rest.
 Consider the mass m moving an incremental distance δr (delta r ) away from the Earth.
That is, against the force F .

 Since work done = force x distance moved against force , the incremental work δW
done by the gravitational field on the mass is given by;

substituting for F from the first equation,

 Making the expression into an integral, where W is the total work done by the
gravitational force between the limits of r = rE and r = infinity :
 (essentially summing the individual slices of F δr between the limits to obtain the area
under the curve)
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Integrating between the limits,

The work done by the gravitational force on the mass equates to the original (maximum)
kinetic energy of the mass.

Making the velocity v the subject,

For the Earth, the escape velocity approximates to 11 kms-1 or 7 miles s-1.

NB for this theoretical treatment

1. the theory does not apply to continuously propelled masses
2. escape velocity is independent of the direction of projection

Satellite orbits

 A satellite (mass m) orbits the Earth (mass ME) at a constant velocity v .

 The centripetal force keeping the satellite in orbit is provided by the gravitational
force of attraction F between the mass and the Earth.
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 Since G and ME are constants, satellite velocity is solely dependent on orbital radius.
 The period T of the motion is simply the circumference of the circular orbit divided by
the satellite's velocity.

 Since G and ME are constants, orbital period, like orbital velocity, is solely dependent on
orbital radius.

Low orbits

 For satellites in orbit a distance equal or less than 200 km above the Earth's surface,
the radius of the orbit approximates to the radius of the Earth:

rE = 6.6 x 106 m r = 6.8 x 106 m

 Making r equal to rE , the equations for orbital velocity v and period T become:
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note: The Law of Gravitation predicts that lower orbits have higher velocities. So a satellite
should go faster and faster as it moves closer to the Earth.

Geostationary orbits

 A geostationary satellite is one that always appears in the same place in the sky, no
matter what the time of day.
 The conditions for this to occur are:
1. the satellite must have an orbital period of exactly 24 hours
2. the satellite must have a circular orbit above the equator
3. the satellite must be orbiting in the same direction as the Earth is rotating

𝑟3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀𝐸

𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑇 2
𝑟=
4𝜋 2

Substituting G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2, ME = 6.0 x 1024kg and T = 24 hrs = 8.64 x 104 s

𝑟 = 42400 km

Height of satellite above the Earth’s surface is 42400 – 6400 = 36000 km

 Uses of such satellites include relaying TV signals and telephone messages from one
point on the Earth’s surface to another.
 The moon is also a satellite so these equations apply to it.

Kepler’s third law

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 The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance to its parent star.

T - orbital period
rM - mean distance

Kepler's 3rd law derived from Newton's Law of Gravitation

 The centripetal force F keeping a mass m in orbit is given by:

 The angular velocity ω is the angle (in radians) traced out when the mass travels v
metres in one second. Stating this definition in an equation and making v the subject:

Substituting for v into our equation for centripetal force:

(i

The centripetal force is provided by gravity.

Hence,
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(ii

Equating equations (i and (ii ,

(iii

The period T of the orbital motion is the circumference (in radians) divided by the angular
velocity. Making ω the subject of the equation:

and substituting for ω into equation (iii

We obtain the expression:

2
Now making T the subject:

If we now remove the constants G MS π by making the equation a proportionality:

Hence Kepler's 3rd Law is consistent with Newton's Law of Gravitation.

Gravitational potential - U
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 The potential U at a point in a gravitational field is defined as being numerically equal

to the work done by the field in bringing a unit mass from infinity to the point.

By definition, the potential at infinity is zero.

where,

U is the gravitational potential at a point

W is the work done in bringing a mass m from infinity to that point.

 The units for gravitational potential (work/mass) are Jkg-1 .

 The work done in moving a mass m from the surface of the Earth to infinity was given
by:

 Now if we make the mass unity (m = 1 kg), the energy difference between the 1 kg mass
on the surface of the Earth and at infinity (zero potential) is W .
 However, since the highest potential is zero at infinity, all potential energies relative to
this level are less than zero (i.e. negative).
 Our 1 kg mass on the Earth therefore has a potential of - W .
 If UE is the potential on the surface of the earth, then:

substituting for W from above(remembering that m = 1kg),

 Therefore in the general case, the potential Ur at a point a distance r away from a
large mass M is given by:
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Derivation of the relation between g and U

 Consider a particle of mass m in a gravitational field.

 In the absence of any applied force, the mass would be attracted to the major body
producing the field.
 Let the mass be held in position by a force F , acting in the opposite direction to the
field direction.
 Now if the force F moves the mass a very small distance δx against the field, the work
done is given by:

(work = force x distance force moves)

assuming that the force F is constant.

 When the mass is static, the net force is zero. Forces are balanced. Since forces are
vector quantities, the minus sign signifies opposite direction.

Substituting for F into our original equation,

(i

By definition, gravitational potential U is given by:

So δU , the increase in U, is given by:

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Substituting for δW from equation (i ,

cancelling the mass m gives,

rearranging, to make -g the subject,

In the limit, , therefore

 From the graph it can be seen that the gravitational field strength g at a radius r is
equal to minus the value of the gradient of the gravitational potential U .
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**** Energy in orbits

The energy Er of a satellite of mass m in orbit, of radius r around a large body of mass M, is
the sum of the satellite's PE and KE respectively,

 This equation can be simplified by eliminating v2 .

 Recalling the equation describing the circular motion of the satellite,

cancelling r

and making v2 the subject.

We can now substitute for v2 in the initial energy equation:

So the total energy Er of the satellite in its orbit is given by:

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note: 1. the total energy of the satellite is always negative

2. the PE component of the energy is twice as large in absolute terms as the KE

component

Also, for any particular circular orbit with radius r , the individual values of kinetic and
potential energies are constant.

By contrast, with elliptical orbits the values of potential and kinetic energies are not constant.
They vary such that when one is large the other is small and vice versa. It must be
remembered that the sum of potential and kinetic energies is always constant for a particular
orbit.

Analogy between Gravitational and Electric fields

QUANTITY GRAVITATIONAL ELECTRIC

Field Strength 𝑔=
𝐹
𝐸=
𝐹
𝑚 𝑞
𝑚 1 𝑞
𝑔=𝐺 𝐸=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑈
𝑔=− 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝐸=−
𝑑𝑥
Potential 𝑈=
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑊
𝑚 𝑞
𝑚 1 𝑞
𝑈 = −𝐺 𝑉=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Force on mass/charge 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐹=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

 Gravitational force unlike electric force is always attractive.

 Gravitational force does not depend on medium in which the masses are situated.

9.0 Simple Harmonic Motion

Free Oscillations

 Oscillatory motion is a periodic motion with a regular to-and-fro motion.

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 Examples of such motion include simple pendulum, vibrating guitar spring, e/m
waves etc.
 Oscillations in mechanical systems such as simple pendulum, mass spring
pendulum are examples of Simple Harmonic Motion.
 A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion (shm) if its acceleration is
directed towards a fixed point in its path and is directly proportional to its
displacement from that point.
 The fixed point is called the equilibrium position i.e. the position at which the
body would come to rest if it were to lose all of its energy.

 Hence, when the displacement is positive the acceleration is negative (and vice
versa).

Definitions and equations

 The period, T of the motion is the time interval for a complete oscillation.
 The frequency, f of oscillation is the number of complete oscillations per
second. SI unit is Hertz (Hz)

1
𝑇=
𝑓

 The amplitude of the motion, x0 is the maximum displacement from the

equilibrium position.
 The angular frequency of oscillation, 𝜔 is given by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
 Vibrating particles are said to be in phase if they are at the position and in the
same direction of motion.
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 Graphs can be used to represent the motion oscillations in shm.

 The graph of displacement against time is a sine wave.

𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡)
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 Velocity is found at any instant by taking the gradient of the displacement-time

graph.

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝜔𝑥₀𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

 Graph of velocity against time is a cosine wave with the maximum as 𝝎𝒙₀
 Acceleration is found at any instant by taking the gradient of the velocity-time
graph.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑎= = = −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙

 The motion of a body vibrating with shm can be described by this equation.
 Where 𝑥 is the displacement about a fixed point O (in m, and is positive to the
right, negative to the left), and ω2 is a positive constant (in s-2) and 𝑎 is the
acceleration of the body (in ms-2).
 To obtain an expression for the velocity, v at any displacement x from the
equilibrium position:

From 𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑥
⟹ sin(𝜔𝑡) =
𝑥0

And
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥₀𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)

𝑣
⟹ cos(𝜔𝑡) =
𝜔𝑥0

Now 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡) = 1

𝑥 2 𝑣 2
( ) +( ) =1
𝑥0 𝜔𝑥0

𝜔2 𝑥 2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝜔𝑥0 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑥0 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥0 2 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑣 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥₀
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On integrating this equation,

𝑥 = 𝑥₀cos(𝜔𝑡)

 This equation requires that x = x0 when t = 0.

 An alternative for x is 𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡); this requires x = 0 when t = 0.
 A graph of acceleration against displacement

Example

A particle displaying SHM moves in a straight line between extreme positions A & B
and passes through a mid-position O.

If the distance AB = 10 m and the max. speed of the particle is 15 ms-1 find the period
of the motion to 1 decimal place.
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SHM and Circular Motion

 The SHM-circle connection is used to solve problems concerning the time

interval between particle positions.
 To prove how SHM is derived from circular motion we must first draw a circle
of radius 'x0' or a (max. displacement).
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 Then, the projection(x-coord.) of a particle A is made on the diameter along the

x-axis. This projection, as the particle moves around the circle, is the SHM
displacement about O.

Energy in SHM

 Total energy in a free oscillation is conserved.

 The total energy, E consists of kinetic energy, K and potential energy, U.

E=K+U

 At any displacement x from the equilibrium position, velocity is given by:

𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥₀2 − 𝑥 2 )
1
And K = 𝑚𝑣²
2

𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝝎²(𝒙₀𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟐

When 𝑥 = 0, the kinetic energy is maximum.

𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐 , this is the total energy in the system
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐 = 𝒎𝝎²(𝒙₀𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝑼
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝑼= 𝒎𝝎²𝒙𝟐
𝟐
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When 𝑥 = ±𝑥0 , the potential energy is maximum.

𝟏
𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐
𝟐

The variation of U, K and E with displacement is shown:

Variation of energy with time

 E remains constant
1
 If displacement at time t is given by 𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡) then 𝑈 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥0 2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡)
2
1
And 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥0 cos (𝜔𝑡)
2 2 2
2

Damped Oscillations

 In free oscillations total energy is constant meaning amplitude is also constant.

 In practice this is not usually the case.
 The amplitude of oscillation gets progressively smaller.
 The frequency is also reduced because of damping.
 These types of oscillations are known as damped oscillations.
 There are three degrees of damping: light, heavy and critical.
 In light damping the amplitude of oscillation is gradually reduced.
 The oscillating system stops after a large number of oscillations, eg a simple pendulum.
 In heavy damping resistance is so great that the system takes a very long time to
return to the equilibrium position.
 When a system is critically damped the damping is sufficient to prevent oscillation but
not too great to delay return to equilibrium position.
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 A car’s suspension system needs to be slightly under critical damping.

Forced Oscillations and Resonance

 In free oscillations the oscillating systems do so at their natural frequencies.

 An external periodic force can be used to get the oscillating system at any frequency.
 The system is performing forced oscillations and has the same frequency as the
external periodic force(driver frequency).
 The amplitude of the forced oscillations depends on the driver frequency and the
natural frequency of the system.
 When the driver frequency equals the natural frequency of the oscillating system the
amplitude is large.
 Resonance is said to occur.
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Forced vibrations

Forced vibration can be illustrated by a simple experimental setup called Barton's pendulums.

Essentially a large pendulum is used to provide a driver frequency which will make the other,
smaller pendulums oscillate at the same rate. This driver frequency is in fact the natural frequency
of the pendulum. The frequency at which it would oscillate at without the smaller pendulums. The
masses of the smaller pendulums are insignificant compared to the mass of the larger. So their effect
is not of any consequence.
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On the graph it should be noted:

1. All the pendulums have the same frequency.

2. Pendulum Y has the same length as P but is not in phase with it. It is approx. 1/4 period behind.
However, Y does oscillate with greater amplitude than the other small pendulums. Y is said to be
resonating with P.

3. The shorter pendulums, W & X are approx. in phase with P.

4. Pendulum Z is approx. 1/2 period behind P.

Using Barton's pendulums to investigate forced vibrations

The method is to keep the length of the dependent pendulum Q the same, while varying the length of
the driver pendulum P.

Measurements are then made of:

1) the frequency of P

2) the frequency of Q
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3) the amplitude of Q

4) the phase difference between P and Q

Initial graphs(blue) are draw for the amplitude of Q and the phase difference of Q against driver
frequency.

Various levels of damping are then applied to Q. Families of curves are produced.

More damping is produced by decreasing the bob mass of Q and/or adding cardboard fins to increase
air resistance.

It can be seen that the amplitude of pendulum Q is maximum (maximum resonance) just before the
natural frequency of the driver pendulum P.
If Q is heavily damped the amplitude is much less at its maximum and occurs at a much lower
frequency than the natural driver frequency.

Whether pendulum Q has light or heavy damping, it always has a phase difference of π/2 radians
(90o) with P, at the natural frequency with which P oscillates.

For higher driver frequencies and light damping the phase difference rises to a maximum of π (pi)
radians (180o).
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Higher driver frequencies and heavy damping produce a phase difference only slightly above π/2
radians.

back to top

implications & uses of resonance

implications:

1. Soldiers must 'break step' when crossing wooden bridges.

2. Cars/aircraft/rockets are carefully designed so that parts do not resonate producing unwanted
noises/dangerous vibrations.

3. Electrical audio circuits are subject to 'feedback' . This is the loud howling sound produced when a
microphone is too close to a loudspeaker and the amplifier gain is too high.

uses:

1. clocks & watches - quartz crystals resonate producing accurate timing frequencies

2. standing waves in pipes

3. ultra-sonic cleaning - dirt particles resonate with the applied frequency and are dislodged

4. crystal radios - circuits resonate at the same frequency as a radio station

5. radio antennas (aerials) - resonate when they interact with radio waves

10.0 WAVES

Reflection of light
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1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.

2. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence

Refraction of light

 The bending effect of light as it passes from one transparent material to another of a
different density is known as refraction.
Refraction is caused by the change in speed of light.
a. At the boundary of 2 optical media, if there is a sudden change in the speed of light, it
will cause the path of light to bend.
b. Light travels fastest in air/vacuum.

 The normal is a line drawn at right angles to the material's surface at the ray's point of
entry.
 The angle of incidence is the angle the light ray makes with the normal.
 The angle of refraction is the angle the refracted light ray makes with the normal inside
the material.

1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of entry are all
in the same plane.
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2) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for a particular wavelength (Snell's Law).
The ratio constant is called the relative refractive index 'n'.
 The relative refractive index between two media where a light ray travels through one
medium (#1) and is refracted through the other medium (#2) is given by:

 The greater the value of refractive index of a medium, the greater the bending of
light, and the denser the material is.

Refractive Index

 The refractive index of a single medium can be defined as the ratio of the speed of
light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
 Here nm is defined as the absolute refractive index

where,

co is the velocity of light in a vacuum

cm is the velocity of light in the medium

let us consider our two materials(#1 & #2 from above). Their absolute refractive indices are
given by:

dividing the second equation by the first,

that is,
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Snell's Law equation can now be rewritten as:

or

note: when a light ray travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium, it bends towards
the normal(and vice versa).

Common refractive indices

Material n (λ = 589.29nm)
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.40
Glass 1.48-1.96

Plane mirror images

1. All images are virtual: that is, they cannot be projected on to a screen.
2. The image produced in a mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

object distance = image distance

3. The image is the same size as the object.

4. A line joining a point on the image to a corresponding point on the object is
perpendicular to the mirror.
5. The image is laterally inverted (sideways upside down).
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Critical Angle

 The Critical Angle (co)is the angle of incidence in a dense medium, such that the angle
of refraction in the less dense medium is 90o .
 As the angle of incidence in the dense medium is increased, the angle of refraction
increases towards 90o.
 During this time a weak reflected ray is also observed.

 Only when the angle of incidence in the medium exceeds the Critical Angle does all the
light become reflected internally.

We can formulate an equation for the critical angle using Snell's Law for two media of
refractive index n1 & n2 .
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When θ1= 90o and θ2= co ,

but sin(90o) = 1, therefore:

from work on relative refractive index,

Applications of total internal reflection:

(i) Glass prisms
(ii) Optical fibres: Made up of plastic fibres that transmit light over long distances
through total internal reflection.
1. An optical fibre has a core of high refractive index, coated with
another material of lower refractive index.
2. Light rays entering the fibre will be internally reflected at the
boundary between these 2 refractive materials.

Optical fibre has a number of advantages over copper wire:

1. less attenuation
2. cheaper metre for metre
3. can carry more information
4. immune to electrical interference
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5. safer - no fire risk as with electric currents

6. wire-tapping more difficult

WAVE MOTION

 A wave is made up of periodic motion, which is motion repeated at regular intervals.

 A wave is a phenomenon where energy is transferred through vibrations.
 One complete motion from one extreme position to another and back is known as an
oscillation/vibration.
 Waves can be formed by moving a rope up and down, using a ripple tank or using a slinky
spring.
 The source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation.

Properties of Wave Motion

Terms used to describe wave motion:

o Crests and troughs: The highest and lowest points of a transverse wave
respectively. In longitudinal waves we have compressions and rarefactions.
o Wavelength ( λ ) is the horizontal distance along a wave between 2 successive
particles of the wave, moving in the same direction.
o Displacement is the distance of a particle of the wave from its equilibrium
position at any particular time
o Amplitude ( a ) is the maximum displacement of a particle of the wave from its
equilibrium position.
 The height of the crest/ depth of a trough from the rest position.
o Period ( T ) is the time for one complete oscillation of the wave.
o Frequency ( f ) is the number of complete oscillations per second.
o Velocity ( v ) the velocity of a particle of a wave in the direction the wave is
travelling.
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oPhase Any 2 points are in phase when they move in the same direction, have the
speed and displacement from rest position. (e.g. 2 crests and 2 troughs)
 There are 2 types of wave motion: Transverse and Longitudinal.

Transverse waves

 Transverse waves are waves in which the direction of vibration of the particles is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
 Examples of such waves include rope waves and water waves.
 The crest is the highest points of the wave whereas the trough is the lowest points
of the wave.

Longitudinal waves

 Longitudinal Waves are waves in which the vibration of the particles is travel
parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
 Examples are sound wave and pressure waves.
 They form compressions and rarefactions.
 Compressions are region where the air particles are close together, creating
high pressure.
 Rarefactions are areas where the air particles are far apart, creating low
pressure
 2 types of graphs used to plot waves:

1. Displacement-distance graph: Plotting the displacement of the wave at a certain

instant of time.
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2. Displacement-time graph: Used to observe the displacement of a specific point

on a graph over a n interval of time.

 Both the transverse and longitudinal waves are progressive waves.

 The wave profile moves along with the speed of the wave.
 A particle at the origin vibrates according to the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡.
where t is time, and ω = 2πf
 Suppose wave is moving from left to right.
 A particle at some point a distance 𝑥 from the origin will have a different phase of
vibration.
 A distance λ corresponds to a phase difference of 2π.
𝑥
 Thus phase difference, φ at any point P will be given by 𝜑 = × 2𝜋
𝜆
 Hence displacement of any particle at a distance x from the origin will be given by
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
2𝜋
Let 𝑘 =
𝜆
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥), motion to the right
Velocity of a wave
 It is the distance moved per unit time.
 Time taken for wave to move a distance equal to one wavelength is one period.
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇

∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Polarisation

 Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane.

 Polarisation is the process by which the oscillations are made to occur in one plane
only.
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 This is done by passing the waves through a 'grid' so that only the waves that can fit
through the slits can continue through:

 This is used in Polaroid glasses to reduce the amount of light reaching the eye.
 Polarisation also has to be taken into account when transmitting and receiving waves. An
aerial has to be aligned to the plane of the polarised waves for it to receive the
maximum signal.
 Polarisation can also be achieved by creating waves in one plane (for example, a laser).
 Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised because the direction of vibration and
direction of propagation are the same.

Electromagnetic Waves

Properties of electromagnetic waves:

 Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. They are electric and magnetic fields
that oscillate at 90° to each other.
 They transfer energy from one place to another.
 They can travel through vacuum (do not require any medium to travel)
 They travel at 3.0 x 108 per second in vacuum. They will slow down when travelling
through water or glass.
 They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
 They carry no electric charge.
 Their frequencies do not change when travelling from one medium to another. Only
their speeds and wavelength will change.
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Uses of electromagnetic waves:

Wave Generation Properties Uses Dangers

Electrons Can be
oscillating modulated for
Radio
Red- communication
transmitters
Radio Waves shifted None
Radar
lower
Television
wavelength
s from
stars.

Red- Can be
shifted modulated for
light from communication
Microwave ovens
stars and Resonance with Internal heating
Microwaves Communication
galaxies molecules of body tissue
system
Electron producing heat.
energy
changes in
atoms
Molecular Transfer of
vibration heat energy to
Electron materials
Thermal imaging
Infra-red energy Modulation for Burns skin
Remote controls
level short distance
changes control(e.g. TV
remotes)
Electron Starts chemical
energy reactions (egg Strong light
Optic fibres
Visible level photosynthesis) causes damage to
Seeing!
changes in Affects photo vision.
atoms film
Electron Produces
energy ionization,
Washing powder
level fluorescence
(whiter than
changes in Produces Skin cancer and
Ultra-violet white)
atoms photoelectric blindness
Security
effect
marking
Affects
photofilm
Electron Ionizing
decelerati Affect
Mutations in cells
on photofilm Taking images of
X rays and severe burns
Electron Penetrating the skeleton
to the skin.
energy Produces
level fluorescence
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changes in Can produce

atoms photoelectric
effect
Nuclear Very
fission penetrating
Nuclear Produce weak Cancer
fusion ionisation treatment Cancers and cell
Gamma Rays
Radioactiv Produce weak Sterilisation of mutation
e decay fluorescence equipment
Affects photo
film

X-rays

 Are produced by accelerating electrons with a high voltage and allowing

them to collide with a metal target.
 X-rays are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated upon
collision with the metal target;

Uses of X-rays

 In X-ray imaging, a beam of high-energy photons is produced and passed through the
body structure being examined.
 The beam passes very quickly through less dense types of tissue such as watery
secretions, blood, and fat, leaving a darkened area on the x-ray film.
 Muscle and connective tissues (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) appear grey.
 Bones will appear white.
 X-rays may be taken of any part of the body to detect tumour (or cancer) cells.
 The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for
the management (including palliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation energies
than for imaging alone.
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LASER

 Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

 Laser light can be used to remove cancer or precancerous growths or to relieve
symptoms of cancer. It is used most often to treat cancers on the surface of the body
or the lining of internal organs.
 lasers can focus very accurately on tiny areas, they can also be used for very precise
surgical work or for cutting through tissue (in place of a scalpel)
 Laser therapy causes less bleeding and damage to normal tissue than standard surgical
tools do, and there is a lower risk of infection.
 Lasers also may be used as coagulators to relieve certain symptoms of cancer, such as
bleeding or obstruction.
 For example, lasers can be used to shrink or destroy a tumour that is blocking a patient’s
trachea (windpipe) or oesophagus.

11.0 SUPERPOSITION

Stationary Waves

Principle of superposition

The resultant displacement at any point of two waves travelling through the same
medium is given by the algebraic sum of the separate displacements due to the two
waves.

 Depending on the phase difference between the waves, this resultant wave
appears to move slowly to the right or to the left or disappear completely.
 It is only when the phase difference is exactly zero, that is when the two waves
are exactly in phase, that 'standing/stationary waves' occur.
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1. Two waves having the same amplitudes approach each other from opposite
directions.
2. The two waves are 180o out of phase with each other and therefore cancel out
(black horizontal line).
3. The phase difference between the two waves narrows. The resultant grows but
is not in phase with either of the two waves.
4. The phase difference between the two waves is narrower still. The resultant is
larger but is still out of phase with the two waves.
5. The phase difference between the two waves is now zero. The resultant has its
maximum value and is in phase with the two waves.

Formation of stationary waves

The conditions for formation of standing waves are:

 two waves travelling in opposite directions along the same line of travel and in
the same plane
 the waves have the same speed
 the waves have the same frequency
 the waves have the same approximate amplitude

Properties of stationary waves

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 There are points where the displacement is permanently zero, these points are
called nodes.
 Points along the wave each have different amplitudes; those points with the
greatest amplitude are called antinodes.
 At points between successive nodes the vibrations are in phase.

The diagram shows how a standing wave moves up and down over time.

 separation of adjacent nodes or adjacent antinodes is half a wavelength (λ/2)

 hence separation of adjacent nodes and antinodes is λ/4
 the maximum amplitude is 2a (twice that of a single wave)
 a standing wave does not transfer energy (its two components however, do
transfer energy in their respective directions)

 Stationary or Standing waves have become very important in physics in the last
hundred years or so. Understanding them has not only given insights into sound but
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many other important topics e.g. AC circuit theory, quantum mechanics,

nanotechnology.

Progressive waves compared to Stationary waves

Progressive Wave Stationary Wave

1. Energy is transferred along the
direction of propagation.
2. The wave profile moves in the
direction of propagation.
3. Every point along the direction of
propagation is displaced but at
different instants.
4. Every point has the same
amplitude
5. Neighbouring points are out of
phase.
1. No energy is transferred along the
direction of propagation.
2. The wave profile does not move in
direction of propagation.
3. There are points known as nodes where
no displacement occurs.
4. Points between two successive nodes
have different amplitudes.
5. All points between two successive
nodes vibrate in phase with one
another.

Closed Pipes

 In the diagrams, P is the site of a node, while Q is at an antinode.

 Nodes are always formed at the closed end of a pipe, where the air cannot move.
Antinodes are always formed at the open end of pipes.
 As with stretched strings, the distance between node and antinode is 1/4 of a
wavelength.

The diagram above represents the Fundamental Frequency, where n=1. This is the 1st
harmonic.
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The diagram above represents the 3rd harmonic, sometimes called the First Overtone.

The diagram above represents the 5th harmonic, sometimes called the Second
Overtone.

 Looking at the different wavelengths in terms of the length of the pipe L ,

we can then make wavelength the subject of each equation.

Interference
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 In accordance with the principle of superposition two waves in the same place at
the same time, they produce an effect which is equal to the combined effects
of the 2 waves.
 This phenomenon is known as interference.
 Certain conditions have to be met however for the effects of interference to
be capable of being observed.

1. The waves from light sources must be coherent with each other.

Coherence means that they must be of the same frequency, with a

constant phase difference between them.

2. The amplitude (maximum displacement) of interfering waves must have

the same magnitude. Slight variations produce lack of contrast in the
interference pattern.

Young's Double Slit Experiment - Apparatus

 Typically distance (D) between the double slits and the screen is ~ 0.2 m (20 cm).
 The slit separation is ~ 10-3m (1mm).
 The preferred monochromatic light source is a sodium lamp.

Young's Double Slit Experiment - Display

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 The fringes become dimmer from the centre travelling outwards.

Young's Double Slit Experiment - theory

 The separation (y) of bright/dark fringes can be calculated using simple

trigonometry and algebra.
 Consider two bright fringes at C and D.
 For the fringe at C, the method is to find the path difference between the two
rays S1C and S2C . This is then equated to an exact number of wavelengths n.
 A similar expression is found for the fringe at D, but for the number of
wavelengths n+1 .
 The two expressions are then combined to exclude n .

With reference to triangle CAS2 , using Pythagoras' Theorem:

substituting for AC and S2A in terms of xC , a and D

(i

also, with reference to triangle CBS1

(ii
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Subtracting equation (ii from equation (i ,

Using 'the difference of two squares' to expand the LHS,

hence,

The path difference S2C - S1C is therefore given by:

In reality, a ~ 10-3m and D ~ 0.2 m . The length a is much smaller than D. The two rays
S2C and S1C are roughly horizontal and each equal to D,

so,

For a bright fringe at point C the path difference S2C - S1C must be a whole number
(n) of wavelengths (λ).
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Hence,

Rearranging to make xC the subject,

Similarly for the next bright fringe at D, when the path difference is one wavelength
longer (n+1),

hence the fringe separation xD - xC is given by,

assigning the fringe separation the letter y ,

or with wavelength λ the subject,

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading of waves through a narrow slit or around the edge of an
obstacle as a result of the superposition of wavelets from a plane wavefront.
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Single Slit

The diffraction pattern is graphed in terms of intensity and angle of deviation from
the central position.

 Note that the central maximum is twice the width of other maxima and that all
these have the same width.
 The secondary maxima are considerably dimmer than the central maximum
(4.7% of the brightness).
 The dark fringes (minima) are where pairs of light waves are in anti-phase and
cancel out.

Multiple-slit diffraction
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N - the no. of clear slits drawn on an opaque glass slide

a - the width of a clear area
b - the width of an opaque area
d - width of a clear and an opaque area
L - length of glass slide

d=a+b

N=L/d

The diffraction patterns below are obtained by varying N.

Note that with increasing N,

1. as the intensities of the principal maxima increase the intensities of the

subsidiary maxima decrease
2. the sharpness of the principal maxima increases
3. the angular position of maxima remains the same
4. the absolute intensity of maxima increases
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For a particular value of N, the effect of altering the sum a+b is to:

1. alter the angular positions of the principal maxima

2. alter the relative intensities of principal maxima

Diffraction grating

 The clear spaces on a diffraction grating act as equally spaced slits.

 So light rays diffracted at the same angle (θ) and in phase with each other will
interfere constructively.
 Whenever this happens, a bright fringe called the principal maxima is produced.

 The path difference between successive light rays must therefore be a whole
number (n) of wavelengths (λ).
 Using simple trigonometry, if d is the distance between slits, then the path
difference is dsin(θ).

Hence,

 So discrete bright fringes (principal maxima) are produced at specific angles

for particular wavelengths of light.

12.0 ELECTROSTATICS

 There are two types of charge – positive and negative.

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Law of Electrostatics

 Like charges repel, while unlike charges attract.

 There are processes in which charge is transferred from one body to another.
 glass rubbed with silk acquires a positive charge
 polythene rubbed with wool acquires a negative charge
 The decision to make the charge acquired by glass positive, and the charge acquired by
ebonite negative was completely arbitrary.
 Later experiments showed that electrons were transferred to the silk from the glass.
 Electrons adopted a negative charge and protons a positive charge.

Charging By Friction

 Some substances acquire an electric charge when rubbed with other substances.
 For example, an ebonite rod becomes negatively charged when rubbed with fur.
 When ebonite and fur are rubbed together, some of the electrons originally in the fur
experience a stronger attraction from atomic nuclei in the ebonite than they do from
nuclei in the fur.
 Consequently, after the rubbing, the ebonite has an excess of electrons, and the fur
has a deficit.

 Table below lists various substances that can be charged by friction.

 If two substances in the table are rubbed together, the substance that is lower in the
table acquires an excess of electrons, the substance higher in the table a deficit.

The Electrostatic series

Acetate weak hold on electrons

Glass

Wool
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Human hair increasing tendency

Calcium to gain electrons

Silk

Aluminium

Cotton

Paraffin wax

Ebonite

Polyethylene

Carbon

Rubber

Sulphur

Gold strong hold on electrons

Charging By Induction

 A charged rod can induce a charge separation on a neutral conductor.

 In all the methods of charging, one object gains electrons while the other loses the
same amount.
 As a result, the total charge is always constant.
 In fact, the total charge in an isolated system is always conserved; this is called the
law of conservation of charge
The total charge (the difference between the amounts of positive and negative charge)
within an isolated system is conserved.

The Laws of Electric Charges

 Unlike electric charges attract each other.

 Like electric charges repel each other.
 Charged objects attract some neutral objects.
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Electrical conductors and Insulators

 An electric conductor is a solid in which electrons are able to move easily from one
atom to another. (Most metals, such as silver, gold, copper, and aluminium, are
conductors.)
 Some of the outer electrons in these conductors have been called “conduction
electrons” for the way they can move about within the atomic framework of the
solid.
 An insulator is a solid in which the electrons are not free to move about easily from
atom to atom. Plastic, cork, glass, wood, and rubber are all excellent insulators.

 Charges introduced on conductors spread out whereas in an insulator they remain in the
positions where they were introduced.

Electrostatics in everyday life

When you take off a pullover over a nylon shirt there is a crackling sound

A pen rubbed with a piece of cloth will pick up small pieces of paper

A television screen easily collects dust

You sometimes get a small electric shock when getting out of a car

If you roll over in bed you can sometimes see small flashes of light between the sheets

You can sometimes get a small electric shock from a cat that has rolled on a synthetic carpet

In a thunder storm there are huge flashes of lightning

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Book covering film can be difficult to work with

Applications of Electrostatics

1. A charged mesh in a chimney acts as an electrostatic dust collector, cleaning the smoke.

 Electrostatic precipitators are air pollution control devices that remove tiny
particles from the emissions (flue gas) of processing and power plants that burn
fossil fuels.
 By relying directly on the properties of electric fields, these devices are capable
of removing almost all (about 99%) of the tiny particles of soot, ash, and dust.
 Dirty flue gas is passed through a series of positively charged plates and
negatively charged wires.
 When a very large negative charge is placed on the wires, the electric field near
the wire is so strong that the air near it becomes ionized.
 Electrons freed in the region of ionization move toward the positive plates and
attach themselves to the tiny waste particles in the flue gas moving through the
plates.
 These waste product particles will now be negatively charged and are attracted to
the plates where they collect on the surface of the plate.
 The plates are shaken periodically to remove the soot, ash, and dust in a collection
hopper.

2. Paint sprays can be charged and the object they are spraying earthed to attract the
paint towards it.
 Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink,
varnish, etc.) through the air onto a surface.
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 In electrostatic spray painting or powder coating, the atomized particles are

made to be electrically charged, thereby repelling each other and spreading
themselves evenly as they exit the spray nozzle.

 The object being painted is charged oppositely or grounded.

 The paint is then attracted to the object giving a more even coat than wet spray
painting, and also greatly increasing the percentage of paint that sticks to the
object.
 This method also means that paint covers hard to reach areas.
 Car body panels and bike frames are two examples where electrostatic spray
painting is often used.
 Post-atomization charging: The atomized fluid comes into contact with an
electrostatic field downstream of the outlet nozzle. The electrostatic field may
be created by electrostatic induction or corona, or by one or more electrodes
(electrode ring, mesh or grid).

Hazards associated with charging by friction

 Care must be taken when emptying oil tankers and refuelling aircraft to avoid a build up
of static charge due to friction that could make a spark and result in an explosion.
 Charging by friction also depends on size of object so when the plane is also in flight
there is also a build-up of charge due to friction with the air molecules.

 Charging by friction typically builds up around 10 nC for every square centimetre of

surface area.
 Since the Earth is so large, it actually stores a huge charge, roughly 400 000 C, and
releases approximately 1500 C of charge every second in storm-free areas
 to the atmosphere.
 The balance of charge is maintained on Earth by other objects dumping excess charge
through grounding and when lightning strikes Earth.
 A bolt may transfer up to 20 C.

13.0 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

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Charge (Q)

 The unit of charge in electricity is the Coulomb (C).

 One Coulomb is the charge that passes an arbitrary fixed point when a current of
1 Ampere flows for 1 second.
 On the sub-atomic level the charge on the electron has a value of −1.602×10-19C.
Similarly, a proton has a charge of +1.602×10-19C .
 It is quite a large unit and has approximately the same charge as 6.2×1018 electrons(or
protons).

Current (I)

 Electric current consists of a flow of charged particles.

 In the normal case, when charge flows through wires these particles are electrons.
 However, when current flows in a vacuum, a solution or a melt, the charge carriers are
ions.
 The unit of current is the ampere. (A)
 The ampere (A) is defined as the current that passes an arbitrary fixed point
when a charge of 1 Coulomb flows for 1 second.

charge = electric current x time

(Coulombs) = (Amperes) x (seconds)

Q = It

 The flow of current is conventionally taken as from positive (higher) potential to

negative (less positive) potential.

Potential Difference (V)

 A current flows because electrical potentials between two points are different.
 Potential difference is short for potential energy difference.
 The potential difference between two points in an electric field is numerically equal
to the work done in moving unit positive charge between two points at different
potentials.
 The unit of potential difference (p.d) is the volt.
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 One volt is the p.d between two points if the work done in moving one coulomb of
charge between them is one joule.

1 V = 1 JC-1

 An equation linking work/energy W, charge Q and potential difference V :

work = charge x potential difference

(Joules) = (Coulombs) x (volts)

Resistance ( R)

 By definition, the electrical resistance (R) of a conductor is the ratio of the p.d. (V)
across it to the current (I) passing through it.

 From this equation, by making each quantity unity, the Ohm can be defined.
 One Ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 ampere
flows when a p.d. of 1 volt exists across it.

Ohm's Law

 The current through a resistor is varied, while the p.d. across it is measured. The graph
of V against I is a straight line through the origin.
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Hence,

Ohm's law states: the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
p.d across it, provided physical conditions* are constant.
*eg temperature

 Some conductors/devices have variable resistances which depend on the currents

flowing through them.

 These are all non-ohmic conductors except for the bottom right graph.
 Ohmic conductors are all metals and follow Ohm's Law.

Resistivity ρ (rho)
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 By experiment it has been found that the resistance R of a material is directly

proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A.

 Making the proportionality an equation, the constant of proportionality ρ (rho) is called

the resistivity.

 Rearranging the equation and making the length and area unity, we can form a definition
for the quantity.

 The units of resistivity can be found by substituting the units for l, A and R in the
resistivity equation.

 Resistivity is measured in units of ohm-metres(Ω.m) .

Typical values of resistivity are:

metals ~10-8
semi-conductors ~ 0.5
glass/alumina ~ 1012

Power

 By definition, 'power' is the rate of working and is equal to the work done divided by
the time taken.

W = QV

= ItV

substituting for W
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cancelling the 't'

(Watts) = (Volts) x (Amps)

note: 1 Watt is a rate of working of 1 Joule per second

 The equation for power can be modified if we make substitutions using Ohm's Law.

substituting in the power equation for V ,

substituting in the power equation for I,

The kilowatt-hour (kWh)

 A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy.

 By definition, a kilo-watt hour is the amount of energy consumed when a rate of
working(power) of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour.

conversion of 1 kWh to Joules:

1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 h = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3600000 J

1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J

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The single cell

 E.M.F.(E) is the p.d. across a cell when it delivers no current.

 The emf of any source of electrical energy can be defined as the energy
converted into electrical energy from other forms when unit charge passes through
it.
 The internal resistance(r) of a cell is a very small resistance. For a 'lead-acid' cell it is
of the order of 0.01 Ω and for a 'dry' cell it is about 1 Ω.
 This means that a lead-acid cell will deliver a higher current than a dry cell.
 We can obtain important equations for E and r by considering a cell with a resistance in
a circuit.

The total resistance Rtotal is the sum of the series resistor and the internal resistance
of the cell.

by summing p.d. around the circuit ,

substituting for Rtotal

by Ohm's law, substituting IR = VR

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Note, VR is called the terminal p.d. That is the p.d. across the cell when it is delivering
current.

Measurement of E & r

After taking readings of terminal p.d. (VR) and current (I), a graph is drawn.

Information can be obtained from the graph by manipulating the equation obtained for
E and r:

transposing the I and r, turning the equation around,

comparing with the equation of a straight line,

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Therefore the gradient is '- r' and the intercept on the vertical axis is 'E' .

14.0 D.C. Circuits

Kirchhoff's Laws

 1st Law - The sum of the currents entering a node/junction equals the sum of the
currents leaving.

I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = I4 + I 5

I 1 + I 2 + I 3 - I4 - I5 = 0

 This can also be expressed as the algebraic sum: Σ I = 0

 This can also be derived on the basis of the conservation of charge.

 2nd Law - Around any closed loop in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the individual
p.d's is zero.

This can also be described as:

Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the emf's equals the sum of the
p.d's across resistive elements.

V 1 + V 2 + V 3 - V4 - V5 = 0
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 The convention is that clockwise p.d.'s are positive.

 This is a conservation of energy law.

Resistors in series

 Consider three resistors, R1 R2 R3 with the same current flowing through each.
 If the p.d. across each one respectively is, V1 V2 V3 . Then the total p.d. Vtotal across the
arrangement is:

By Ohm's law, V=IR, therefore:

substituting for Vtotal V1 V2 V3 into the equation for p.d.,

Resistors in parallel

 Consider three resistors R1 R2 R3 with the same p.d. (V) across each of them.

Using Kirchhoff's 1st law, we can write:

By Ohm's law, V=IR and I=V/R , therefore :

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Potential Divider

 A potential divider divides the supply voltage into smaller parts.

 Assuming cells have a negligible internal resistance,

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅2

Therefore,

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

i.e:

𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝑛

Use of special resistors in potential divider circuits

The Thermistor

 A thermistor is a bipolar* semiconductor circuit element.

 It is in effect a temperature dependent resistor.
*contacts can be connected + - or - +
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 Thermistors have negative temperature coefficients (temperature decreases with

increase in resistance).
 The resistance decreases approximately exponentially.
 In a potential divider circuit like the one below, the p.d.'s VR and VT are in the ratio of
the resistors they appear across.
 When the thermistor is hot its resistance is low and of the order of 100's of ohms.
 In this case, most of the 5V p.d. falls across the 10kΩ resistor.
 As the temperature decreases, the resistance of the thermistor increases.
 When its resistance reaches 10kΩ the p.d. is shared equally between it and the series
resistor.
 At really cold temperatures the resistance increases to the order of MΩ's, when most
of the p.d. falls across it and not the series resistor.

The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

 The LDR is also a bipolar semiconductor circuit element.

 LDR's are made from high resistance semiconductor material, whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity.
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 Typically effect of light on a LDR is to reduce its resistance from ~ 106 Ω to ~ 102 Ω.
 In the potential divider below, the p.d.'s VR and VLDR are in the ratio of the resistors
they appear across.
 In the dark, the resistance of the LDR is of the order of MΩ's.
 So most of the 5V p.d. falls across it and not the series resistor.
 With more illumination, the resistance of the LDR decreases.
 When it reaches 10kΩ the p.d. is shared equally with the series resistor.
 In bright light, its resistance is of the order of 100's of Ω's. Then, most of the p.d.
falls across the series resistor.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 An LED is essentially a modified junction diode (or p-n diode) so that it gives out light
when current flows through it.
 The device only allows current to flow in one direction.
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 On the I-V curve, the top right quadrant shows how a very small forward p.d. causes
the diode to conduct.
 There is a high current for a small p.d. increase.
 The bottom left quadrant shows what happens when the diode is reverse biased.
 Notice for increasing p.d. there is a constant 'leakage current' .
 This is very small, being of the order of micro-amps.
 There comes a point when the p.d. is so high that 'breakdown' occurs.
 A large current passes and the diode is destroyed.
 To avoid this, an LED always has a 'limiting resistor' placed in series to limit the
current.
 The level of current designed for is just enough to trigger light from the device.

The potentiometer

 It is primarily used to measure potential difference.

 It is however also used for:

(i) Comparing EMFs (since it draws no current from the p.d it is measuring),
(ii) Comparing resistances,
(iii) Measure currents.

 Terminals A and B are connected across the p.d being measured.

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 A is connected to positive terminal driver cell E1 so it is also connected to positive

terminal of p.d being measured.
 Potentiometer is said to be balanced when the jockey is at a position on XY such
that no current flows through the galvanometer.

At balance, IG = 0 applying Kirchhoff’s first law at C, I1 = I so I2 = 0.

Therefore,

potential at A = Potential at X

And,

potential at B = Potential at C

Therefore,

p.d between A and B = p.d between X and C

i.e. E2 = Irl2

r = resistance per unit length of XY

replacing E2 by E3 results in E3 = Irl3

dividing the equations gives,

𝐸3 𝑙3
=
𝐸2 𝑙2

Thus the respective measurements of balance lengths enable the comparison of

two p.d’s.

15.0 ELECTRIC FIELDS

Electric field strength

 An electric field is the region around a charge where another charged body or object
experiences a force.

The electric field strength at a point is equal to the force on a unit positive charge at
the point.
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Electrostatic field diagrams

 Electric field direction at a point is the direction of a small free moving positive
charge if placed at the point.

Point charge electric field patterns:

A uniform electric field:

 Two oppositely charged and parallel metal plates(X & Y) will produce a uniform electric
field E between them.
 Note, at the edges the field lines are not evenly spaced. So the field there is not
uniform.

 The potential difference between the plates is constant along their length.
 The potential gradient (the drop in pd with distance) is the electric field strength E.
 Since the pd V and the plate separation d are constant, E is also constant.

 Lines of the same potential are called equipotentials.

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 These are placed at right angles to the electric field lines.

 Since field is uniform, the equipotential lines are equally spaced.

 From our definition of field strength (E = F/Q) , making the force F the subject of
the equation, for a small charge q related to a particle :

Deflection of ion beams

 This force is constant at right angles to the original velocity v.

 The vertical displacement Sy of the particle can be found from one of the 'equations of
motion' used in mechanics :

where, u is the original velocity, in this case u = 0

t is the period of acceleration
a is the acceleration

Substituting for u ,
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From Newton's 2nd Law of Motion,

Eliminating F ,

Rearranging to make the acceleration a the subject,

Returning to the expression for vertical displacement and substituting for a ,

The expression for horizontal displacement SX can be rearranged to give an expression

for t .

By substituting for t into the Sy equation we obtain our final expression :

 The equation is of the form y = kx2, where k is a constant.

 The curve of the function is therefore a parabola.

Coulomb’s Law
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The force F between two point charges Q1 & Q2 is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them.

Making the proportionality into an equation by introducing a constant k :

The value of k is given by :

Hence the Coulomb's Law equation becomes :

 The quantity ε is called the permittivity.

 It has a value depending on the medium surrounding the charges.
 The symbol εo is used to describe the permittivity of free space, ie a vacuum.

Electric field strength

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From Coulomb's Law,

where,

QT is a unit test charge (1 C )

QP is any charge at a point

By definition, electric field strength is force/unit charge. So at the point where charge QT is
positioned the field strength E is given by :

therefore QTE = F .

Substituting for F in the initial Coulomb's Law equation,

We can now see how electric field strength E varies with distance r from the point.

Electric potential V

The electrical potential V at a point in an electric field is defined as being numerically equal to
the work done W in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to the point.
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From Coulomb's law, the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is given by :

Q1 is positive at point S. Q2 is also positive but at point T.

Q1 exerts a repulsive force F on Q2.

Q2 exerts a repulsive force F on Q1 .

Consider an external force moving Q2 at T an infinitesimal distance δx towards Q1 at

S.

Because the distance δx is so small, the repulsive force F may be considered to be

constant during the movement.

Using, work = force x distance force moves

the work done δW is given by :

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 The negative sign indicates that work is done against the field, the motion is in the
opposite direction to the direction of repulsion.

Substituting into this equation for F, from the Coulomb's Law equation (above) :

Therefore the total work W done in bringing the charge Q2 from infinity to a point a
distance r from S (where x = r) is given by:

integrating between the limits of r and infinity,

Relation between E and V

Consider a charge +Q being moved by a force F from an arbitrary point A to another

point B against an electric field of strength E.
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The distance moved, δx , is very small, such that the force F may be considered
constant.

Hence the work done δW by the force is :

The force is equal to the force exerted by the field on the charge, but in the opposite
direction.

Substituting in the original equation for F gives:

From the definition of potential difference, W = QV.

Therefore, if the potential difference between A & B is δV : ( VB > VA )

Substituting for δW ,

In the limit as δV and δx tend to zero,

 The E-r and V-r graphs below show the relation clearly.
 The gradient of the V-r graph is negative.
 So the negative of its gradient gives a positive value for E in the E-r graph.
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Analogy between Gravitational and Electric fields

QUANTITY GRAVITATIONAL ELECTRIC

Field Strength 𝑔=
𝐹
𝐸=
𝐹
𝑚 𝑞
𝑚 1 𝑞
𝑔=𝐺 𝐸=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑈
𝑔=− 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝐸=−
𝑑𝑥
Potential 𝑈=
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑊
𝑚 𝑞
𝑚 1 𝑞
𝑈 = −𝐺 𝑉=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Force on mass/charge 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐹=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

 Gravitational force unlike electric force is always attractive.

 Gravitational force does not depend on medium in which the masses are situated.

16.0 CAPACITANCE

Capacitors and Capacitance

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 Capacitors are electrical components used to store charge.

 Their construction is simply two equal area conducting plates, with an insulator
(dielectric) sandwiched in between.

Capacitance

 Capacitance is the measure of the extent to which a capacitor can store charge.
 The larger the capacitor the more charge can be stored per volt of p.d. across the
plates.

where,

C is the capacitance in Farads (F)

Q is the charge in Coulombs (C)
V is the p.d. between the plates

 The unit of capacitance is called the Farad.

 By definition, a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 Farad when 1 Coulomb of charge is
stored with a p.d. of 1 volt across the plates.
 Hence the units of Farads are Coulombs per volt (CV-1)
 One Farad is too large a unit for ordinary circuits, instead smaller derivative units are
used, eg microfarads (μF) and picofarads (pF).

Capacitors in parallel

 Capacitors in parallel have the same p.d. across them.

Writing Q = CV for each capacitor and adding :

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Putting QT as the total charge,

Hence,

𝑄𝑇
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑉
But

Therefore,

Capacitors in series

 The battery removes charge Q- from plate 'a' and deposits it on plate 'f'. Plate 'a' is
therefore left with a charge Q+on its plates.
 Each charged plate then induces an opposite charge in its opposing plate.
 The central capacitor C2 has a positive charge on plate 'c' because electrons are
removed from it to make plate 'b' negative.
 Plate ’d’ is made negative by induction with 'c'.

Making the p.d. V the subject for each capacitor and adding:
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Summing the p.d. around the circuit, the supply p.d. is V is given by:

Hence

Recalling that,

By similarity, it follows that:

Energy stored in a capacitor

 The energy stored in a capacitor is in the form of electrical potential energy. This is
has two components:
 work done in adding electrons to the negative plate
 work done in removing electrons from the positive plate
 Consider a partially charged capacitor, with a p.d. of V volts across it and charge Q on
it plates.
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 Now during charging, consider a small charge δQ moving from one plate to another. If
δQ is very small then the increase in p.d. is also very small. So V may be considered
approximately the same.
Hence the work done δW , is given by :

Recalling the equation for capacitance C and rearranging to make V the subject :

Substituting for V in our original equation.

The total work done is the area under the curve for 0 to Qo, where Qo is the maximum
charge stored.

Integrating between the limits gives the result:

In the general case, we can write Q = Qo .

Recalling the capacitor equation again and making Q the subject:

Substituting for Q into the equation for W :

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Now substituting for CV = VC = Q ,

Summarizing,

Charging & discharging a capacitor

 When the switch is turned to the left, there is an instantaneous flow of current.
 By the action of the battery electrons move in a clockwise sense.
 In a very short time all motion ceases.
 The p.d. across the plates is now the same as that across the battery, but in the
opposite direction.
 The positive of the battery is connected to the positive of the capacitor; no p.d. exists,
so no current flows.
 In this state the capacitor is said to be 'fully charged'.
 Charges on upper and lower plates are of opposite type and equal in quantity.
 Discharging is usually done through a resistor, simplified circuit below.
 When the switch is closed charge from the capacitor flows through the resistor. The
resistance R has the effect of limiting this flow.
 For a fully charged capacitor of capacitance C let the p.d. be Vo and the charge Qo .
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Consider the p.d. around the circuit at a time t seconds from the start of the
discharge. Since there is no net p.d. in the circuit, by Kirchoff's 2nd law (relating to
p.d. in a circuit) :

Quoting the capacitor equation, with V the subject,

Substituting for V in our initial equation,

(i

The current I is defined as the rate of charge of charge with time,

Remember the Ohm's Law equation,

Now, substituting for V and I into equation (i ,

Separating the differential operators dQ and dt ,

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Since Q = Qo when t = 0 and Q = Q when t = t , integrating between these limits :

Hence,

Therefore,

and,

Rearranging into a more familiar form,

Substituting for Q = VC and Qo = VoC , cancelling the C's

So both the charge and the p.d. decrease at an exponential rate.

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When the elapsed time t = CR the charge remaining is approx. 37% of the original
amount.

The p.d. across the resistor VR and the current I through it are given by:

Note the minus signs in these equations.

This is a consequence of Kirchoff's 2nd law. Remember how the p.d. across the resistor
and the capacitor are related.

If VR is taken to the other side of the equation it becomes negative. Hence one p.d. is
the negative of the other.

The second equation (I) is obtained from the first by substituting VR = IR and
rearranging.

The curve of Q vs t for charging is :

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ALTERNATING CURRENTS
 When polarity of an EMF changes with time it is known as an alternating EMF.
 Current caused by such an EMF is called an alternating current.
 Most common type varies sinusoidally with time.
E = E0 sin ωt
where
E is the EMF value at time t
E0 is the peak value (ie maximum value)of E
ω is the angular frequency of the supply = 2πf
 The period is the time taken to complete a cycle.
 The number of complete cycles is the frequency of the ac.
 In Zimbabwe the frequency is 50 Hz

Energy for direct current(D.C) & alternating current (A.C.)

 Direct current does not vary with time and it is always in one direction.
 On a plot of power against time, D.C. is a horizontal line.
 The area under the plot gives the work done/energy used.
 This is simply the product of the constant power( Pconst.)and the time interval that
the power is used for( t' ) .

 However, for A.C. the situation is more complex.

 Here not only does the current value vary, but its direction varies too.
 The power through the resistor is given by:

 But we must average of this power over time 't' to calculate the energy/work, so
the energy/work done is given by,
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 The root mean square ( RMS) current is defined as:

 IRMS is the square root of the average of the current squared.

therefore energy/work done is given by,

 IRMS is the equivalent D.C. current having the same effect on a resistor as the A.C.
 Here is a graph of an A.C. sinusoidal waveform:

where,

Io is the maximum current

ω is the angular frequency

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 Recalling the A.C. energy/work done equation,

and substituting for IRMS

Max power, P0 = I0V0 = I02R

Mean power, Pmean = Irms2R

Also Irms = I0/√2

𝐼02 R
Pmean = = P0/2
2
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The transformer
 Is a device that makes use of mutual induction to produce a large alternating EMF
from a small one or vice versa.
 Presence of soft iron core ensures that all the flux associated with one passes
through the other.

 Consider the primary coil. There are two opposing EMF's working here : the applied
EMF Ep and the back EMF EB .
 If I is the current flowing in the primary and R is its resistance, then from
Kirchoff's law for pd's in a circuit:

 Neumann's equation states that EB is given by :

 Substituting for EB in the Kirchoff relation,

 Assuming that the coil resistance R is so low as to be negligible, we have

(i)

 Both primary and secondary coils have the same flux passing through them. So the
rate of flux change dφ/dt will also be the same. It follows that the back EMF Es in
the secondary is given by :
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(ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)

(iii)

 There are two types of transformer.

 A step-up transformer is when Ns > Np and Es > Ep .
 For a step-down transformer, the inequality is reversed and Np > Ns and Ep > Es .
 The applied EMF in the primary coil must be alternating in nature. A changing
magnetic field is a requirement for transformer action.

Power in a transformer

 Consider a load resistance R connected to the secondary coil.

Quoting the power equation for a circuit,

where P is power, I current and E EMF.

 If we assume that there are no losses (ie that the transformer is 100% efficient)
we can write :

power input = power output

 If Ip and Is are the currents flowing in the primary and secondary coils, then:

rearranging,

substituting for Es /Ep from (iii) the transformer equation,

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Transformer efficiency

 In reality the efficiency of a transformer is not 100%. However efficiency is still

high, being in the range 95-99%.

Ways that power is lost within a transformer :

1.) Coil Heating

 Energy is lost in the coils by resistive heating.
 The power loss P is given by P = I2R , where R is coil resistance and I
the current.
 This can be reduced by choosing wire thickness according to current.
 Between the primary and the secondary, the coil with the smaller number
of turns carries the larger current.
 Therefore this coil is made from thicker wire.
 A small cross-sectional area gives a higher resistance. A higher resitance
gives a greater power loss.
2.) Eddy Currents
 Eddy Currents are unwanted induced currents formed in the body of a
metal object.
 Much heating results from high currents induced from low EMFs.
 To counteract eddy currents the core is laminated.
 It is constructed of very thin(approx. 1mm) sheets of soft iron.
 Each sheet is varnished and insulted from the next.
3.) Hysteresis
 The core material offers some resistance to the changing strength and
direction of the magnetic field(called hysteresis loss).
 This resistance manifests itself as heat within the core.
 The remedy is to make the core of specialist metal (eg permalloy, silicon
steel) where hysteresis loss is minimal.
4.) Flux
 As a result of imperfections in the windings, not all the flux that passes
through the primary coil passes through the secondary.
 This means that not all the energy is transferred between the coils.
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Power transmission

 Most large power-distribution systems are AC. Moreover, the power is

transmitted at much higher voltages than the 240-V AC we use in homes and on
the job

 A given amount of power can be transmitted at high voltage and low current or
low voltage and high current.
Heat energy dissipated in cables, W = I2Rt
This shows that energy wasted is proportional to square of the current in the
cables 
 Most efficient way is to transmit power is therefore at high voltage and low
current.
 Another advantage is that low currents require thinner and therefore cheaper
cables.
 For safety reasons, the voltage at the user is reduced to familiar values.
 The crucial factor is that transformers are the most efficient way to convert
high voltages to low voltages and vice versa, and these work on AC voltages than
DC.

Rectification

 Many electronic devices use DC rather than AC.

 AC can be converted into DC (rectification) by use of rectifiers such as diodes.
 These allow current to pass in only one direction.

Diagrams Half-Wave Rectification

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24.0 DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

STRESS AND STRAIN

 Stress is the force per unit cross sectional area.

 Stress has units of Nm-2 = Pa
 When the stress applied results in an increase in length it is known as a tensile
stress.
 If it results in a reduction in length it is a compressive stress.
 Breaking stress (or ultimate tensile stress) is the maximum tensile stress that
produces fracture.
Hooke's Law and molecular separation
 Hooke's Law states that the extension(x) of a spiral spring (or other elongated body) is
proportional to the applied force (F), provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

k is the constant of proportionality(a measure of 'stiffness')

 So force-extension curves of different materials are straight lines through the origin, with
gradient k.


Important definitions

Brittleness
 Brittle materials cannot be permanently stretched. They break after the elastic
limit is exceeded.

Creep
 Creep occurs when a material is under constant stress over time. Strain
gradually increases, causing eventual fracture.
Dislocation
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 A dislocation is the movement of a broken bond through a crystal. The broken

bond creates a small void between molecules. When a force is applied to the
crystal, the void moves across lattices in the opposite direction to the force.

Ductility
 This is the property a material has whereby it can be permanently stretched.

Elastic limit
 This is the maximum force a body can endure and still regain its original shape
and size, when the force is removed.

Elasticity
 Elasticity is the property a material has whereby it regains its original size and
shape when a deforming force is removed.

Fatigue
 Fatigue is the weakness induced in a material by it repeatedly being stressed in
opposite directions. It can also occur when a material is repeatedly stressed and
the stress being removed.
 Material will fracture even if maximum stress applied in any cycle
could have been indefinitely sustained if applied steadily.
 ~90% of failures which occur in aircraft components are due to
fatigue.
 Mild steel and many ferrous metals can safely undergo an infinite
number of stress cycles if maximum stress is below the fatigue
limit.
 Fatigue fractures usually start in the surface at points of high
stress, e.g. at sharp corners and around rivet holes.

Hooke's law
 The extension of a stretched spring (or wire) is directly proportional to the
extending force, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

Stiffness
 The stiffness of a body is the measure of its resistance to changes in size
and/or shape.

Strain
 Strain is the ratio of change in length to original length. It can also be
considered as the extension per unit length. Strain has no dimensions.
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Strength
 Strength relates to the maximum force that can be applied to a body before it
breaks.
.
 Yield point
 For a body being extended by an applied force, the yield point is when a large
extension is produced for a very small increase in force. The material of the
body is said to show 'plastic' behaviour.

Young's Modulus
 This is a typical stress-strain curve of a ductile material. A brittle material
would have a much smaller strain value before breaking (making EB shorter).


 L - limit of proportionality
E - elastic limit
Y - yield point
X - stress removed here, body has permanent strain 0X'
B - breaking stress
 For a given material, by definition, Young's Modulus (E) is the ratio of stress*
to strain*, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
* sometimes referred to as stress σ (sigma), strain ε (epsilon)
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 The gradient at any point on a stress - strain graph is the Young's Modulus (E).

 On a stress-strain graph the Young's Modulus is constant for the portion of the
graph where Hooke's Law applies. This can be easily shown by substituting for
k=F/x into the equation for E.

 E is a constant because l, A and k are all constant.

Experimental determination of young’s modulus

Plasticity
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 A perfectly plastic material is one which shows no tendency to return to its

original size and shape when the load which has been deforming it is removed.

Strain Energy

 To obtain an expression for the strain energy (work done) in stretching a wire,
consider a wire of original length l0 where a force F produces an extension x. It
is assumed that the wire obeys Hooke's Law.

 Now, let the force F cause a further extension δx, , where δx is so small that F
may be considered constant.
 Since
 work done = force x distance force moves

 The total work done when the wire is stretched from 0 to x is the area under
the F- x curve between these two limits.


 Since the wire obeys Hooke's Law,

 Substituting for F in the integral expression(above):

W = 12Fx

 ,
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As can be seen from the graph, the area under the curve is half the product of
F and x

Elastic Hysteresis

 The graph illustrates how for a given force, the extension is greater for
unloading than loading.
 Looking at this another way, for a given extension the loading force is greater
than the unloading force.
 The stretching produces an increase in temperature (loading), but when the
strain is reduced (unloading) the temperature drops.
 However, some heat is retained to keep the material above its initial
temperature.
 For a complete cycle, the increase in heat energy is the area of the hysteresis
loop.
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 The graph is for rubber, but metals also exhibit this property, though the
effect is considerably smaller.

Types of solids
, Crystalline Solids

 A crystal is a regular 3D arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules. All crystals

are made from identical sub units called cells.
examples of cubic cells:

 The physical properties of solids are governed to a large extent by their crystal
structure (e.g. graphite & diamond).
 It is a basic rule of physics that systems tend towards the lowest level of P.E:-
Such is the case with crystals, where regular arrangements of atoms have a
lower P.E. than the same atoms all jumbled up, with no structure.
 In a large single crystal similar planes of atoms are parallel to each other. So
the crystal can be cleanly cut or cleaved along these planes.

 This is not the case with polycrystalline solids. In this case, a solid consists of
many small crystals called crystallites (or grains).

 Large single crystals display a property called anisotropy.

 This means that physical properties(e.g. resistivity, linear expansion) are
different for different directions along crystal axes.
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Amorphous Solids

 Unlike crystals, amorphous solids have no definite structure. Further, they melt
not at one temperature, like crystals, but over a range of temperatures.

Examples of amorphous solids:

wax, glass, ice, toffee, polythene

 Amorphous solids behave more like liquids with high viscosities. For example,
over time, a vertical pane of glass is observed to be thicker at the bottom than
at the top.
Glasses

 Glasses are electrical insulators and transmit I.R. radiation.

 Manufacture is by melting mixtures of their components and cooling so that an
amorphous solid is produced.
Types of glass:

Soda-Lime

Soda-lime glass is the commonest type of glass and is made from a mixture of silica
SiO2, calcium oxide CaO and sodium oxide Na2O.
Its main uses are window panes and bottles.

Lead Crystal

Lead crystal glass has a high refractive index and a relatively soft surface that can be
easily cut. For these reasons it is used for wine glasses, decanters, flower vases, bowls
etc.
In the manufacture of lead crystal, lead oxide PbO is used instead of calcium oxide
CaO and potassium oxide K2O is used instead of sodium oxide Na2O.

Borosilicate
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Borosilicate glass is heat-resisting and has many uses in the kitchen, laboratory and in
industry. It familiarly known under its trade name Pyrex.

Fused Quartz

Fused quartz is manufactured by melting pure quartz crystals at temperatures around

2000 °C. It transmits U.V. and has low expansivity. Applications include: optics (lenses
& mirrors), halogen lamps, optic fibre, acid glassware, high temperature industrial use.

Polymers

 Polymers are long chain molecules made from smaller units called monomers.
 The simplest polymer is polythene. This is made by the process called
polymerization, whereby a monomer double bond is opened out to make a
polymer, with side bonds.

 Polymer chain molecules fall into three distinct types:

1. Linear - have flexibility (molecules slide past one another)

2. Branched - increased rigidity, lower density, m.p. & strength (molecules

cannot easily pack together)

3. Cross-Linked - very rigid ( no molecular sliding)

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 The bonds in polymers are mostly covalent.

 As a result, polymers have low thermal and electrical conductivities.
 Their densities are quite low compared to metals and ceramics.
 They have low melting points and can be adversely affected by sunlight.
 While polymers are cheap to produce and are resistant to water and acids, they
do degrade when exposed to organic solvents.
 The properties of polymers can be enhanced by the addition of certain
chemicals:
(i) lead is added to PVC to stabilise it against decomposition by sunlight
(ii) mica is added to thermosetting plastics to increase electrical resistance
(iii) glass fibre is added to resins to improve strength
Thermoplastics (e.g. polystyrene, acrylic, PTFE, PVC)

 These become pliable on slight heating, becoming rigid again on cooling.

 The molecules are only weakly bound to each other. So chains are able to move
with some freedom, taking up the shape of the mould.
Thermosetting plastics (e.g. Bakelite, ebonite, epoxy resins)

 Unlike thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics do not become pliable on heating.

 The moulding process takes place before polymerization is complete. After
further heating the plastic sets, its shape becoming permanent.
 As a result of the strong bonding between adjacent chains, thermosetting
plastics can withstand considerable heating before decomposing.
Elastomers (e.g. raw & vulcanized rubber, neoprene)

 Elastomers can produce very large extensions before returning to their original
length, when the extending force is removed.
 The elastic properties of elastomers are primarily a result of cross-links
between adjacent sliding molecules.
 The large extension produced by these materials is explained by tangled
molecules becoming untangled in the large spaces between chains.
Creep

 Is used to describe the gradual increase in strain which occurs when a material
is subjected to stress for a long period of time.
 Unlike fatigue it occurs even when stress is constant.
 It is greater at higher temperatures and may result in fractures in the material
if it is severe.
 Turbine blades in jet engines are particularly susceptible to creep.
 Soft metals e.g. lead and most plastics show considerable creep even at room
temperature.
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25.0 TEMPERATURE

What is temperature?

 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles

making up the substance being examined.
 Temperature must not be confused with heat.
 Heat is the amount of vibrational energy contained in a particular mass.

Fixed Points

 For any temperature scale, it is necessary to have two fixed points.

 These are temperatures at which particular physical properties manifest
themselves e.g. melting, boiling.

Common fixed points:

ice point - temperature when pure water ice is in equilibrium with liquid water at
standard atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg).

steam point - temperature when pure liquid water exists in equilibrium with water
vapour at standard atmospheric pressure.

triple point* - temperature when pure water ice, pure liquid water and pure water
vapour exist in equilibrium.

* there are triple points for many other substances besides water

 Temperature scales are divided into a specific number of degrees between the
two fixed points.
 The gap between the upper and lower fixed points is called the fundamental
interval.

As a matter of historical interest, the Fahrenheit scale was founded on the following
fixed points:
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lower fixed point 0 deg. (0oF) - the coldest salt mixture temperature attained

higher fixed point 100 deg. (100oF) - horse blood temperature

The Kelvin (Absolute) temperature scale

 This scale uses the triple point of water as the upper fixed point and absolute
zero (zero molecular motion) as the lower fixed point.
 The triple point of water is assigned the temperature 273.16K while the ice
point is 273.15K and the steam point 373.15K.

 By definition one degree Kelvin is: 1 / 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the

difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water.

The Celsius temperature scale

 The Celsius scale was defined by using the ice point and the steam point.
 These were designated as 0oC and 100 oC resp.
 The Celsius scale is closely related to the Kelvin scale.
 By definition one degree Celsius is: 1 / 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the
difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
 This is the same definition as for a degree Kelvin.
 So a temperature change of 1K equates to a change of 1oC.
 The two scales are also defined by the equation:
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TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

 There are various types of thermometers.

 However each type uses a particular thermometric property (i.e. a property
whose value changes with temperature.)
E.g. a liquid in glass makes use the change in length of a column of liquid
confined in a capillary tube of uniform bore.
Liquid in glass

 These are simple to use and are cheap.

 The thermometer works by an expanding liquid in a vacuum, moving against a
scale.
 There are a number of disadvantages to this instrument:
1.) The glass itself expands and contracts and leading to under and over
reading of temperatures.
2.) Parallax errors mean readings are only accurate to about 0.1oC.
3.) The diameter of the bore is not consistent.
4.) Their large thermal capacity means that they do not react quickly and
they may affect the temperature they are trying to measure.
 This is how the two liquids used in thermometers, alcohol and mercury compare:
alcohol

 transparent, must be used with a dye

 heat conduction poor
 sticks to glass - concave meniscus
 temperature range ~ 150oC ... -114.9 oC

mercury

 opaque
 is a metal and therefore a good heat conductor
 does not stick to glass - convex meniscus
 temperature range: -39oC (fp of mercury) to ~356oC just below its b.p
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 The temperature on a liquid in glass thermometers can be calculated by making

certain measurements.

Thermocouple

 Thermocouples work on a principle called the thermoelectric or Seebeck

Effect.
 When two different metal wires are twisted together at a junction, an EMF
(electromotive force) is generated across the loose ends.
 The magnitude of this EMF relates to the temperature at the junction.

 On the graph, the value of T where the EMF is maximum is called the 'neutral
temperature'.
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 The gradient (d(EMF)/dT) anywhere on the curve is called the thermoelectric

power .
 Measured with a high resistance millivoltmeter, EMF values are in the range 1mV
- 4mV/100oC.
 This simpler arrangement has a disadvantage in that there are three EMFs set
up and the temperature reading is therefore not consistent.
 A more convenient and efficient setup is to have two junctions instead of one,
but still have just two metals.
 The reference cold temperature is usually melting ice.

Typical pairs of metals and temperature ranges:

temperature
metals
rangeoC
chromel/alumel ~1100 max.
Pt/Pt-Rh 1100 - 1700
Fe/Constantan 95 - 760
Cu/Constantan 200 - 350

Resistance thermometer
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 The property of metals that their resistance is temperature-dependent makes

them ideal as thermometers.
 The metal of choice is platinum as a result of its high melting point(1773oC) and
large resistance temperature coefficient*.
*α(alpha) a big increase in resistance for a small rise in temp.

 Platinum-resistance thermometers are both sensitive and useful over large

ranges of temperature.
 Range -200 oC to 1200 oC
 Main disadvantage is that they have large heat capacities and cannot follow
rapidly changing temperatures.
 In practice resistance thermometers are either thin films of platinum on a
substrate or platinum wire wound around a former.
The general equation for calculating a temperature is thus

𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0
𝜃= × 100
𝑋100 − 𝑋0

26.0 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

 Thermal physics deals with the changes that occur in substances when there is
a change in temperature.

Internal energy

 When you heat up a material, it may change state.

 The increased kinetic and potential (from their greater separation) energy of
the particles is an increase in what we call internal energy.
 Internal energy is defined as:
The internal energy of a system is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic
and potential energies of its molecules.
 Therefore, an increase in temperature for a material means an increase in its
internal energy.

Heat (thermal) Capacity C

 By definition, Heat capacity (C) is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a body by one degree (oC or K).
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where,

ΔQ is the heat energy added to the body

Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
C is the heat capacity of the body

 The units of heat capacity are Joules per degree. Since Kelvin and Celsius
degrees are equivalent the units are: JK-1 or JC-1
Specific Heat Capacity c

 By definition, specific heat capacity (c) is the heat energy required to raise
the temperature of unit mass by one degree (oC or K).

where,

ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned

m is the mass of the body
Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
c is the specific heat capacity of the body

 The units of specific heat capacity are Jkg-1K-1 or Jkg-1C-1

Relationship between C and c is 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐
Determination of Specific Heat Capacity by experiment

These two methods concern the heating up a known mass and measuring the
temperature rise for a known amount of electrical energy used.

Specific Heat Capacity of a liquid by an electrical method

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 The heat energy supplied by the electrical element is given to the liquid and its
container, producing a temperature rise Δθ.
 The heater current (I) and voltage (V) are monitored for a time (t).
energy supplied by heater = VIt

energy absorbed by liquid and container = mLcLΔθ + mCcCΔθ

where,

mL mass of liquid
mC mass of container
cL specific heat capacity of liquid
cC specific heat capacity of container

Equating the two quantities,

mL , mC , cC are known and V, I, t, Δθ are all measured. So the specific heat capacity of
the liquid (cL) can be calculated.

Specific Heat Capacity of a solid by an electrical method

 The method is very similar to that for a liquid except that there is no container.
 The solid under test is a lagged cylinder with holes drilled for the thermometer
and the heater element.
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 A little glycerine is added to the thermometer hole to improve thermal contact.

 Heat energy supplied by the electrical element is given directly to the solid,
producing a temperature rise Δθ.

where,

ms- mass of solid

cs - specific heat capacity of solid

ms is known and V, I, t, Δθ are measured. So the specific heat capacity of the solid
(cs) can be calculated.

note: more accurate results can be obtained by applying a 'cooling correction'.

 This is based on Newton's Law of Cooling, which states:

The rate of cooling is proportional to the excess temperature over the
environment.

Melting and Boiling

 Change of phase from solid to liquid (melting) occurs when the bonds between
the solid molecules are broken.
 Heat energy provided is used to break these bonds and hence there is no
increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules.

 Change of phase of liquid to gas (boiling) occurs when the intermolecular bonds
are completely broken.
 Heat energy provided is used to increase the potential energies of the
molecules and also to do work against the external pressure as the liquid
expands to become a gas.
 The temperature thus during a phase change is constant.

Latent Heat

 Latent heat is the energy involved when a substance changes state.

 Latent heat energy (L) has two components:
 ΔU - the increase/decrease in internal PE
 ΔW - the external work involved in expansion(+ΔW) and contraction(-ΔW)
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This can be summarized as:

The phase changes involving latent heat energy are:

phase change action symbol

solid to liquid melting LF
liquid to solid fusion LF
liquid to vapour vaporization LV
vapour to liquid condensation LV
solid to vapour sublimation LS
vapour to solid sublimation LS

The graph illustrates the temperature changes when a solid (e.g. ice) is heated from
below its melting point, to above boiling.

 Note that the changes of state occur in the flat areas.

 There is no temperature rise here and hence no increase in KE.
 latent heat must be absorbed from the surroundings (and given to the
substance) for the substance to melt or boil.
 Latent heat is given out to the surroundings (from the substance) when the
substance condenses or freezes.
Specific Latent Heat Capacity l

By definition,

 the latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy involved in changing the
state of unit mass of the substance at the melting/freezing point.
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 the latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the energy involved in

changing the state of unit mass of the substance at the boiling point.
This may be summarized by the equation:

where,

ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned

m is the mass of substance
l specific latent heat of fusion/vaporization

The units of specific latent heat capacity are Jkg-1.

Determination of Specific Latent heat Capacity by experiment

 There are a number of different methods for finding l for different substances
and different phase changes.
The specific latent heat of ice by the 'method of mixtures'

 Ice cubes are added to hot water of known temperature in a copper

calorimeter.
 The mixture is stirred until all the ice has melted and a final reading of
temperature taken.
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where,

mw mass of water
mi mass of ice
mc mass of calorimeter

cl specific heat capacity of liquid water

cc specific heat capacity of calorimeter

θhigh temperature of the hot water

θfinal temperature of mixture

l specific latent heat of fusion of ice

Hence l can be calculated from the known quantities and measured values.

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid


 Water is heated electrically until it boils.
 The condensed water (m) is collected over time (t).
 Heating element readings of voltage (V) and current (I) are recorded.
In the steady state,

electrical energy supplied = heat energy to produce steam

Cooling effect of Evaporation

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 Collisions between molecules cause a transfer of energy, where some molecules

gain and some lose energy.
 If the fast moving molecule is near the surface it will have enough energy to
escape the force of attraction of the other molecules.
 The lower energy molecules are left behind.
 A liquid with less Ek has a lower temperature.
 Thus evaporation provides cooling.
OR
 Latent heat of vaporisation e.g. for sweat is provided by the body.
 The body becomes cooler having lost heat energy.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

 To understand this concept we must first appreciate what thermal equilibrium

is.

 Consider a body at a high temperature in contact with a body at a low

temperature.
 Heat is transferred from the high temperature body to the lower temperature
body until the temperatures are equalized.
 When these equal, a constant temperature is reached and maintained, the two
bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.


 Consider three bodies, X, Y and Z.
 Z is in thermal equilibrium with Y.
 X is in thermal equilibrium with Y.
 Then Z is in thermal equilibrium with X.
 To try to visualize this further, consider a hot cup of tea.
 After about twelve hours, the saucer, the cup and the tea will all be at the same
temperature.
 The saucer is in equilibrium with the cup.
The cup is in equilibrium with the tea.
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Therefore the tea is in equilibrium with the saucer.

They are each in thermal equilibrium with each other.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The change in the internal energy* (ΔU) of a system is equal to the amount of
heat supplied (ΔQ) to the system, minus the amount of work (ΔW) performed by
the system on its surroundings.

 *Only internal energy changes can be measured. Absolute values of internal

energy are not defined.

This can be stated as the equation:

Note:

ΔQ is positive when heat is absorbed by the system

ΔQ is negative when heat flows away from the system

ΔW is negative when work is taken out of the system

ΔW is positive when work is put into the system

 Consider a mass of gas in a piston arrangement (frictionless piston, an ideal gas

in the cylinder).

 Work is done when the volume of the gas changes.

 By considering dimensions it can be shown that :

work (W) = constant pressure (p) x change in volume (ΔV)

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 When heat energy ΔQ is supplied to the gas :

 the temperature of the gas increases
 work ΔW is done by the gas expanding to move the piston
 the internal energy of the gas increases ΔU
 the volume of the gas increases ΔV

Note ΔW is negative - work is removed from the system

 When no heat is applied and work is done externally by pushing the piston
inwards to compress the gas:
 the temperature of the gas increases
 work ΔW is done compressing the gas
 the internal energy of the gas increases ΔU
 the volume of the gas decreases ΔV

Note:

ΔW is positive - work is done on the system

ΔQ is negative - heat is removed from the system
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27. IDEAL GASES

Main assumptions of the Kinetic Theory

1. all the molecules of a particular gas are equal

2. collisions between molecules and their container are completely elastic

3. collisions between molecules themselves are completely elastic

4. the size of actual molecules is negligible compared to molecular separation

5. the laws of Newtonian mechanics apply

6. extremely large numbers of molecules mean that statistical methods can be applied

7. between collisions molecules move in straight lines at constant speed

8. the motion of molecules is random

9. gravitational effects are negible

10. the time for each collision is negligible

The ideal gas equation is,

where,

n is number moles of gas

R is the Universal Gas Constant
T is the temperature in kelvin

Derivation of equations

 The first step in understanding this theory is to appreciate the momentum change when
a particle rebounds from a collision with a wall.
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initial mtm. in the x-direction = mu1

final mtm. in the x-dir. = m( - u1) = - mu1

momentum change in the x-dir. = mu1 - ( - mu1) = 2mu1

Consider a volume of gas in a cuboidal shape of side L.

We have seen how the change in momentum of a molecule of gas when it rebounds from one
face , is 2mu1 .

The distance the molecules travels between collisions is 2L.

It collides with face A. Moves a distance L to collide with opposite face B, before returning to
face A .

Since speed = distance/time, time = distance /speed

Therefore the time (t) it takes for the molecule to traverse this distance 2L is given by:
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The rate of momentum change (dp/dt) in this time interval is given by:

From Newton's 2nd Law, applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

The molecule therefore exerts a force F on the wall, given by:

Since pressure (p) = force/area , the pressure on wall A produced by a single molecule is,
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Now, consider all the molecules (N) in the cube and each of their x-component velocities (u1 u2
u3 . . . uN).

The pressure on wall A becomes:

where,

is the mean square velocity of molecules in the x-direction

The density ( ρ rho ) of the gas is given by:

Substituting for into the equation for pressure p

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 Up to now we have considered the velocity of a molecule in one direction. Now, let us
consider the resultant velocity of a molecule in three dimensions.

 In the diagram, molecule velocity (c1) is resolved into x, y and z directions. The value of
each component is respectively, u1, v1 and w1.
Side d is the projection of c1 on the x-y plane.

Using Pythagoras' Theorem,

substituting for d2 in the second equation,

The equation represents component velocities for one molecule.

Replacing these velocities with mean square velocities, the equation now applies for all
molecules.
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We make the assumptions that there are very large numbers of molecules and their motion is
random. So we can say that mean square velocity components are equal to one another.

So molecular velocity c in terms of components becomes,

Substituting for into the equation for pressure previously obtained,

Molecular KE and temperature

Multiplying the Kinetic Theory equation for pressure by V, (the volume of the gas) we obtain:

(i

but density ρ (rho) is given by:

making the mass M the subject, (where M is the mass of gas)

substituting for ρV into the Kinetic Theory equation (i ,

(ii
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With some simple arithmetic and a more detailed description of M, this equation can be
amended into a more useful form:

If N is the total number of molecules and m is the mass of one molecule:

Now, substituting for 1/3 and M into equation (ii ,

The ideal gas equation is,

where,

n is number moles of gas

R is the Universal Gas Constant
T is the temperature in kelvin

Elimenating pV between the last two equations,

Making the subject of the equation,

(iii

The Avagadro Number NA is by definition the number of molecules per mole. It is obtained by
dividing the total number of molecules by the number of moles of matter:

We can now modify equation (iii to include NA by substituting for n/N ,

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By definition the Boltzmann's constant k is given by:

So the final form of the equation is:

is called the average translational KE of a molecule

 So the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is proportional to the temperature.

 This can also be said in the converse: temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of gas molecules

28. NON-VISCOUS FLUID FLOW

Fluid:
 A fluid is a substance that flows and takes the shape of its container.
 Both liquids and gases are fluids, with water and air being common
examples.
Steady flow:

(Also known as streamline flow, uniform flow etc.)

This is when all the fluid particles pass any given point follow the same
path at the same speed (i.e. they have the same velocity).
 Opposite of this is turbulent flow.
Incompressible flow:
 A fluid in which changes in pressure produce no change in the density of
the fluid is known as an incompressible fluid.
 Incompressible flow is flow of such a fluid.
 Liquids can be considered to be incompressible, and gases subject to
small pressure differences can be taken to be such.
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Non-viscous fluid flow:

 A viscous fluid offers resistance to the motion through it of any solid
body or to its own motion past a solid body.
 In non-viscous fluid flow we consider the flow of a fluid without any
internal friction of adjacent layers.
Laminar flow
 A special case of steady flow in which the velocities of all the particles
on any given streamline are the same.
 Different streamlines may have different speeds.
 A tube of flow tubular region whose boundaries are defined by a set of
streamlines.

Equation of continuity

 In steady flow the mass of fluid entering one end of tube is equal to mass leaving
the other end during the same time interval.
 Consider an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow; consider a section XY of a tube of
flow within the fluid.
Let: AX and AY be the cross-sectional areas of the tube of flow at X and Y
respectively.
ρX and ρY be the densities of the fluid at X and Y respectively.
vX and vY be the velocities of the fluid particles at X and Y respectively.

In a time interval Δt the fluid at x will move forward a distance vXΔt.

The volume AXvXΔt will enter the tube at X.
The mass of fluid entering at X in time Δt is
ρXAXvXΔt
similarly the mass leaving at Y in the same time will be
ρYAYvYΔt
since mass leaving is equal to mass leaving at Y,
ρXAXvXΔt = ρYAYvYΔt
for an ideal fluid ρX = ρY
AXvX = AYvY
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Av is known as the flow rate, or volume flux of the fluid.

Bernoulli’s Equation
 States that for an incompressible, non-viscous fluid undergoing steady flow, the
pressure plus the kinetic energy per unit volume plus the potential energy per unit
volume is constant at all points on a streamline, i.e.
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
2
 where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the fluid density, v is the velocity of the
fluid, h is the height above some reference point, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
 For a horizontal tube of flow the Bernoulli equation becomes:
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
A small volume of fluid along its path, various quantities in the sum may change, but
the total remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation becomes
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

Consider the flow of an ideal fluid through a non-uniform in a time Δt. The force on
the lower end is P1A1. Work done on the lower end of the fluid by the fluid behind it
is
𝑊1 = 𝐹1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝑉
Similarly the work done on the fluid at the top in time Δt is
𝑊2 = −𝑃2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 = −𝑃2 𝑉
Note work done is negative since force is opposite to displacement.
The net work done by these forces in Δt is

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉
Part of the work is used to change the kinetic energy part to change potential
energy. If m is mass passing through pipe in time Δt then change in kinetic energy
1
is ∆𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
Change in potential energy is ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦1
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Work energy theorem can be stated 𝑊 = ∆𝐸𝑘 + ∆𝐸𝑝

For horizontal tube flow 𝑦2 = 𝑦1 and ∆𝐸𝑝 = 0

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑘
1
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
dividing by V throughout

1 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑣12
2 2

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2

Consequences of Bernoulli equation

 Whenever a flowing fluid speeds up, there is a corresponding decrease in the

pressure.

Filter pump

 Has a narrow section in the middle section in the middle so that a jet
of water flows faster here.
 The pressure drop caused forces or sucks in air from the pipe
connected to the side.

Venturi meter
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 It is used to measure the volume of a gas or liquid per second

flowing through gas pipes or oil pipes.

Atomizers

 Air stream passing over an open tube reduces pressure above the
tube.
 This reduction causes liquid to rise into the air stream.
 Liquid is the dispersed into a fine spray of droplets.

Aerofoil

 Design of aircraft wings speeds up air molecules above the wing.

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 This ensures a lower pressure above than that below, and results in
a dynamic upward lift force.

29.0 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

 Recall the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 Heat is transferred from the high temperature body to the lower temperature body
until the temperatures are equalized.
 When these equal, a constant temperature is reached and maintained, the two bodies
are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Convection

 Convection is the method by which all fluids transfer heat.

 Convection is the heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of a fluid.
 When most fluids are heated they expand becoming less dense, than that which is
above it. It therefore rises to the top and the cooler to the bottom.
 The cycle continues as this cooler fluid is heated and also rises. Setting up convection
currents.

Radiation

 Radiation is the heat transfer without the presence of any medium that is it can occur
in vacuum.
 Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic
waves.
 Thermal radiation is emitted by all bodies with a temperature above absolute 0.
 It consists of a number of wavelengths; objects at low temperatures emit waves of
longer wavelengths. (less energy).
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 Objects at higher temperatures emit waves of longer wavelengths (more energy.

Consequences of energy transfer

Applications
 solar panel: the sun’s thermal radiation is absorbed by a matt black surface and
warms up the pipes containing water
 refrigerator: the freezer compartment is located at the top of the refrigerator. It
cools down the air which then sinks. Any warm air rises to the top and then is cooled.
 metals are used in cooking pans because they conduct the heat well
Consequences
 a metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it conducts the heat
 Convection currents create sea breezes. During the day the land is warmer and acts as
heat source. During the night the sea acts as the heat source.
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 a black saucepan cools better than a white one,

 white houses stay cooler than dark ones.

30. CHARGED PARTICLES

Electrons

 Matter is made up of small particles, atoms and molecules etc.

 However from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was deduced that
atoms were made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles
Protons, electrons and neutrons
 There exists a smallest unit of electric charge, called the elementary charge, e, of which
other units are simple multiples, 𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶.
 This was reasoned by Millikan that this was the charge on an individual elect
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

 he assumed that when tiny oil drops are sprayed from an atomizer, they become charged by
friction.
 The hypothesis was the total charge on any oil drop would be an integral multiple of
elementary charge.

 To measure this charge, Millikan made use of the uniform electric field in the region
between two oppositely charged parallel plates.
 He charged the plates by connecting each to opposite terminals of a large bank of storage
batteries whose potential difference could be varied.
 Once a mist of oil drops is sprayed through a small hole in the upper plate in a Millikan
apparatus, it is possible, by carefully adjusting the potential difference between the plates,
to “balance” a particular droplet that has the same sign as the charge on the lower plate.
 When the droplet is balanced, the gravitational force pulling it down equals the electric
force pulling it up.
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 For a positively charged drop of mass m and charge q, the electric force acts upward if the
lower plate is positively charged:
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸
where E is the electric field between the plates.
When the droplet is in balance,
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔

 The density of air at room temperature is negligible compared to density of oil, so the
upthrust due to air is ignored.
 the electric field in the region between two parallel plates is constant and has a magnitude
given by
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑
where V is the electric potential difference between the plates, and d is the separation
between the plates.
𝑚𝑔𝑑
 Hence the charge on the oil drop is given by, 𝑞 = .
𝑉
 The mass m of the oil drop could be found by switching of the electric field and measuring
the terminal velocity.
 The total charge q could therefore be calculated.
 Millikan repeated the experiment over and over, meticulously balancing a charged oil
droplet, measuring its balancing voltage, and then allowing the droplet to fall under gravity
and measuring its terminal speed.
 The list of values he determined for the total electric charge on each of the drops studied
contained a significant pattern: all the values were simple multiples of some smallest value
(1.602 × 10−19 𝐶.)
 Charge is said to be quantised
The Motion of Charged Particles in Electric Fields

 A charged particle in a uniform electric field of field strength E experiences a force FE

given by
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸

 The particle moves with uniform acceleration.

Since E is constant FE is also constant.
𝐹 𝑞𝐸
Applying Newtons second law, 𝑎 = 𝐸 =
𝑚 𝑚
 This will be the case for small charged particles (such as ions, electrons, and protons)
where gravitational effects are negligible and they are moving between two parallel plates
in a vacuum.
 Consider an electron moving with velocity v, entering an electric field of intensity E which is
perpendicular to its motion.
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 The vertical displacement y, of the electron after time t, is given by:

1 𝑞𝐸
𝑦 = ( ) 𝑡2
2 𝑚
 The horizontal displacement x, is unaffected by the field and is given by:
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡
𝑞𝐸
Eliminating t, 𝑦 = ( 2) 𝑥
2
2𝑚𝑣
The path of the electron is a parabola in the field.
 Since the electron gained a y-component of velocity there is an increase in the kinetic
energy.
 The work done by the electric force = change in kinetic energy of electron
1
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

The Motion of Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields

 An electron moving with a velocity v at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density B
experiences a force F, given by 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
 The force is perpendicular to both the field direction and the velocity.
 The force can neither speed up nor slow down the electron as it is at right angles.
 Since B, e and v don’t change the force on the particle has a constant magnitude and is
directed towards the centre at all times.
 The electron is projected in a circular path at a constant speed.

 The magnetic force provides the centripetal force.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐵𝑒𝑣 =
𝑟
Velocity selector
 When a magnetic field and an electric field are perpendicular to each other in such a way
they produce deflections in opposite senses they are called crossed fields.
 When the deflecting forces are equal in magnitude, only electrons of a certain velocity pass
through undeflected.
 This is known as velocity selection.
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸
𝐵𝑒𝑣 = 𝑒𝐸
𝐸
Making v subject formula: 𝑣=
𝐵
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Determination of specific charge

 A narrow beam of electrons is accelerated towards a cylindrical anode.

 When the fields (E and B) are zero the electrons pass through undeflected hitting the
screen at Z.
 The magnetic field between plates is switched on and adjusted till they hit point X.
 The magnetic force provides the centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐵𝑒𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑒 𝑣
=
𝑚 𝑟𝐵
B can be calculated from the dimensions of the coil.
r is measured directly
v can be determined by switching on the electric field between the plates .
 The electric field is switched on and is adjusted so that the beam of electrons hits Z again,
the electric force = the magnetic force
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵

𝑒 𝐸
=
𝑚 𝑟𝐵2
𝑒
 The ratio is known as specific charge and it has a value 1.76 × 1011 𝐶/𝑘𝑔
𝑚
 The mass of the electron was found to be 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

31.0 QUANTUM PHYSICS

 Quantum theory is used to explain interactions between matter and energy on the
extremely small scale of atoms and sub-atomic particles.
The theory has some basic points:

 energy comes in small, discrete units called photons

 elementary particles behave both like particles and like waves
 particle motion is random.
 uncertainty: particle position and momentum cannot be known at the same time
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Planck's Quanta

 Max Planck (1901) first proposed the idea that light was emitted as discrete packets of
energy called quanta.
 He also showed that each packet (quantum) had energy given by the equation:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

where,

E = energy (J)
h = Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Js
f = frequency of light radiation (Hz, s-1)

 However, Einstein, as part of his photo-electric effect theory, described these quanta
as streams of particles, which he termed photons.

Einstein's Photo-Electric Effect Theory

 The theory considers a beam of light as a stream of photons, each with energy hf.
 What is meant by 'the intensity of light'?
Consider photons emitted from a point source. The sphere around the point, where the
photons arrive, enlarges with distance from the point. So at large distances, the
photons are spread out over a large area.
Note there is no diminution of photon energy, whatever the distance travelled.
Intensity (I) beam of light (no. of photons/m2/sec.)
 Einstein's big idea, in essence, was that when a photon collides with an electron there
are two possible outcomes:
1. the photon reflects from the electron with no energy transfer
2. the photon is absorbed by the electron and gives up ALL its energy to it
 Photons are paired with electrons.
 So there is no question of one photon sharing energy with more than one electron.
intensity of light (no. of electrons emitted by a surface)
or more accurately,
(no. of photons/m2/sec.) (no. of electrons/m2/sec.)
 So when a photon arrives at the surface, an electron is emitted instantaneously.
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 The photon energy received is used to overcome the forces holding the electron within
the surface and to give it kinetic energy to escape.

Observations

1. Emission of photo-electrons only occurs if the frequency of incident radiation

exceeds a minimum value called the 'threshold frequency'.
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation which
results in emission of an electron.
2. The emission of photo-electrons starts immediately the surface becomes
irradiated (provided the frequency of the radiation is above the thresh-hold
frequency).
3. If the incident radiation has a frequency above the thresh-hold frequency:
(no. electrons emitted/sec.) (radiation intensity)
4. Increasing the frequency of the incident radiation has the effect of increasing
the kinetic energy of all emitted electrons. Hence the maximum kinetic energy
an electron may have is increased by increasing frequency.
5. Radiation intensity is independent of electron kinetic energy. The kinetic energy
of electrons is solely controlled by the radiation frequency.

Wave Theory predictions

 Classical wave theory predicts that energy is carried in the wave-front. Electrons
absorb the energy from the wave until the level exceeds the work function*. Electrons
are then released from the surface of the metal.

*W0 or Φ is minimum energy to remove an electron

 Three main predictions come from this classical explanation:
1. Radiation intensity is proportional to the resulting maximum electron kinetic
energy.
(radiation intensity) (maximum electron kinetic energy)
2. The effect should occur for any frequency of light
3. There is a delay between the radiation contact with the surface and the first
release of electrons.
 Einstein's photo-electric effect equation describes this process in more detail:
1 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
 Note this involves the maximum electron kinetic energy.
 Many electrons emerge from the surface with less than the maximum energy. This is a
result of energy lost in collisions before they are free.
 W0 is called the 'work function' of the surface and is dependent on the material.
 That there must be a minimum frequency for electron emission is implicit.
If
ℎ𝑓 < 𝑊0
there is not enough energy available to release an electron.
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 However, that particular frequency for an electron to be released is given by:

ℎ𝑓0 = 𝑊0
where fo is the threshold frequency.
 Using c=foλo and substituting for fo = c/λo , the threshold wavelength λo is given by:
𝑐
ℎ = 𝑊0
𝜆0

𝑐
𝜆0 = ℎ
𝑊0
Millikan's apparatus - stopping potential

 In 1916 Millikan devised a series of experiments that completely vindicated Einstein's

theory.
 He found that altering the potential between the surface and the electron collector-
electrode, altered the 'electron current'.
 When a small positive potential was applied to the metal, only electrons with enough KE
escaped to impact on the collector electrode. The remainder were pulled back to the
surface.
 So only a small electric current was detected at the electrode.
 With increased +ve potential, the electron current was reduced. Eventually there came a
point when the current reduced to zero. This corresponded to electrons with the
maximum KE being stopped from reaching the collector. This p.d. between both
electrodes is called the stopping potential V.
 We can now integrate 'stopping potential' into the photo-electric effect equation.
 The work done by an electron in moving against the 'stopping potential'(ie against the
'electric field' ) is equal to the maximum KE of the electron.
1 2
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

from Einstein's photo-electric effect equation:

1 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

substituting for KE,

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ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 + 𝑒𝑉

rearranging into the form for a straight line ' y = mx + c '

ℎ 𝑊
𝑉= 𝑓−
𝑒 𝑒

 For different materials, a plot of V against frequency f is a straight line, with

intercepts on the V-axis and the f-axis.

intercept on V-axis ( f = 0 ) is:

𝑊
𝑉=−
𝑒

intercept on the f-axis (V = 0 ) is:

𝑊
𝑓 = 𝑓0 =
ℎ

where fo is the threshold frequency

gradient is given by :
ℎ
𝑚=
𝑒

Notes
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1. for different materials the graph has the same gradient but different
intercepts
2. measurements of W0 (the work function) can be made
3. measurements of h (Planck's constant) can be made
Wave-particle duality

 The reflection and refraction of light are satisfactorily explained on the basis of light
being a wave motion.
 Light can be diffracted and can produce interference patterns-convincing evidence it is
a wave motion.
 This wave model does not however explain the photoelectric effect, and light here is
attributed a particulate nature.
 These ideas of light being a wave and a stream of particles are two different models
but neither can be a literal description of what light is.
The De Broglie Equation

 In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed that matter also had a wave nature.
 He proposed that any particle of momentum p has an associated wavelength λ (the De
Broglie wavelength), given by:
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Where m is the particle’s mass and v its velocity.
 The relation was verified by Davisson and Germer in 1927 by electron diffraction in
crystals.
Electron diffraction

 X-rays waves have a wavelength of the order of 10-11 m travelling at the speed of light
at approximately 3 x 108 ms-1.
 Wavelength of particles depends on velocity, which is variable.
 So as an example let's take an electron travelling at 10% the speed of light.
me = 9.1×10-31 v = 3 x 107 ms-1 h = 6.6×10-34 J.s

using the De Broglie equation,

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
6.63 × 10−34
𝜆=
9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 107
= 2.42 × 10−11 𝑚

 The electron wavelength travelling at 10% the speed of light has approximately the
wavelength of X-rays.
 Shorter wavelengths, approaching that of gamma rays, can be obtained with higher
electron velocities.
 Diffraction occurs when particles or waves with wavelength λ comparable with atomic
spacing d, interact with atoms in crystals.
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 At a particular angle θ* waves are diffracted by atoms in adjacent planes and interfere
constructively.
 As with transmission diffraction gratings, a bright image is only produced when the
path difference is a whole number of wavelengths.

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃
 Practically, the incident waves can be provided by X-rays, electrons or neutrons.
Electron energy levels

 An electron in an atom has a number of separated energy values or energy levels.

 Energy levels are characteristic of the atom.
 An electron cannot have any energy value between these levels.
 The energy of an electron is quantised.
 In the energy level diagram (below), energies have to be measured relative to one
another.
 The ground state is the lowest level and ionisation is the highest.

 This is a measure of potential energy.

 This is set to zero at infinite distance from the atomic nucleus or molecule, the state
of an ionised or free electron.
 Relative to this state, all the bound electron states have negative potential energy and
are measured below it (because they have less energy).
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 Note that electron energies are expressed in electronvolts.

An electronvolt (eV) is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron, when accelerated
through a p.d of 1 volt.
Using E=QV the energy is given by e x 1 = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules.
 Quantum numbers are given to each energy level. The ground state is n=1, with the n
numbers increasing by '1' for each level. The highest energy level, where energy is
zero, has n= ∞.
Energy level changes

 When radiant energy is absorbed by a bound electron it is excited into a higher energy
level. Conversely, when an electron falls to a lower level, radiant energy is given out.
 Example: an electron moves down from level 3 to level 1 and gives out a photon of light
of frequency f.
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸3 − 𝐸1

Spectral lines

 The spectrum of hydrogen it is found to be composed of distinct spectral groups.

 If an electron is excited up from the ground state n = 1 to level n = 4, there are four
possible paths for it to come back down again to the original state.
4 4 4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1 1 1
 If we analyse these transitions/jumps, it is found that they can be divided further into
six basic types:
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
 Each transition involves the emission of an electromagnetic wave.
 The frequency of the waves is dependent on the energy level differences.
 When there are a large number of atoms these different transitions occur
simultaneously.
 Radiation of many different frequencies is emitted.
 Spectrum of hydrogen is composed of light of these frequencies.
Types of Spectra

 An emission spectrum is the spectrum of radiations emitted by an object which is

acting as a source of radiation.
 An absorption spectrum is the spectrum of the radiations transmitted by a substance
which has absorbed some radiation incident on it.
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32.0 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The nuclear atom

 An atom is the smallest chemically indivisible part of an element - that means you can't
split it by chemical (or physical) means into anything smaller - it takes a nuclear
reaction to do it!
 The best model of the atom was known as the Thomson or "plum pudding" model.
 The atom was believed to consist of a positive material "pudding" with negative "plums"
distributed throughout.

 Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment changed the way we think of atoms.
 He directed beams of alpha particles (which are the nuclei of helium atoms and hence
positively charged) at thin gold foil to test this model and noted how the alpha particles
scattered from the foil.

Observations made from the experiment:

 Most of the fast, highly charged alpha particles went whizzing straight through
undeflected, or deflected through small angles.
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 This was the expected result for all of the particles if the plum pudding model was
correct.
 Some of the alpha particles were deflected back through large angles. This was not
expected.
 A very small number of alpha particles were deflected backwards! This was definitely
not as expected.
 To explain these results a new model of the atom was needed.

 In this model the positive material is concentrated in a small but massive (lot of mass -
not size) region called the nucleus.
 The negative particles (electrons) must be around the outside preventing one atom
from trespassing on its neighbour’s space to complete this model.
The Conclusion

 The fact that the vast majority of the alpha particles got straight through led
Rutherford to propose that the atom was composed primarily of empty space.
 The fact that backscattering occurred in 1 in 8000 alpha particles indicated that there
was a:
o small (that was why so few were affected)
o massive (meaning containing lots of mass - he knew the electrons had very little
mass and the fact that all of the positive charges were concentrated into a
small area meant that the mass was concentrated there too)
o positively charged (because it repelled the alpha particles) nucleus in the centre
of the atom (neutrons had not been discovered at that time - so he made no
mention of them!).

The nucleus

 Every atom has a central, positively charged nucleus.

 Over 99% of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus.
 Nuclei are unaffected by chemical reactions.
 Nuclei contain protons and neutrons which are collectively referred to as nucleons.
 The nucleon number also called mass number, A is the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom.
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 The atomic number, Z is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

 Two atoms are said to be isotopes of each other if they have the same number of
protons but different neutron numbers.
 Isotopes have identical chemical properties.
 Various isotopes of an element whose chemical symbol is represented by X are
presented using the usual notation 𝑨𝒁𝑿

Where Z and A are proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number respectively.

Einstein’s Energy-Mass relation

 According to his special theory of relativity a mass m is equivalent to an amount of

energy E, where: 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 . c being speed of light≈3 x 108ms-1.
 Whenever a reaction occurs and energy is released there is associated decrease in
mass.
 The unified atomic mass unit has an energy equivalent of 931 MeV.

Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Difference

 Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to break up the nucleus into its
separate nucleons OR this can be expressed as the energy released when the nucleus
is formed from separate nucleons.
 The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of the individual nucleons that make up that
nucleus.
 The difference in mass is called the mass defect of the nucleus ( m).

Mass defect = Mass of nucleons – Mass of nucleus

 The relationship between binding energy and mass difference is given by Einstein's
equation:

Eb= m c2

m is difference between mass of nucleus and total mass of nucleons

m = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – m nucleus

where:

m = mass difference

mp= mass of a proton

mn= mass of a neutron

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mnucleus= mass of the formed nucleus

Z = proton number or atomic number

A = nucleon number or mass number

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

 If we know the binding energy in a nucleus, and the number of nucleons, we can work
out the binding energy per nucleon, which is the average energy needed to remove
each nucleon.

 The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.

 We can plot a graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number and it gives a
smooth curve - with one remarkable anomaly - helium (4He) the binding energy per
nucleon is:

Binding energy per nucleon of helium = 28.38 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ÷ 4 = 7.1 𝑀𝑒𝑉

This is not where we would expect on the general curve.

 Iron has the one of the highest binding energy per nucleon values - so the graph peaks
around A=58 - here we find the most stable nuclei.
 Large nuclei (much greater than iron), i.e. further to the right (greater nucleon
number) there are less stable the nuclei.
 This is because the binding energy per nucleon is getting less.
 These nuclei undergo fission and split to produce products with higher binding energy
per nucleon values - more stable products.
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 Nuclei of much smaller mass than iron we find they have a lower binding energy per
nucleon.
 These fuse to produce a heavier nucleus which is more stable - fusion can be shown to
be energetically viable from the above graph.
 The product nucleus has a higher binding energy per nucleon than the two that fuse to
form it.
 It is therefore more stable than its constituents.

Nuclear fission

 This is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei.

 Energy is released because the average binding energy per nucleon of the products is
greater than that of the parent.
 A nuclide of Uranium 235
92𝑈 when bombarded by slow neutrons captures 1 to form 92𝑈
236

which is unstable and undergoes fission.

 One possible reaction is:

235 141
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236
92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛 + Energy

Mass is conserved

 The mass defect appears as energy released by Einstein’s energy mass-

relation.
 The nucleon numbers as well as proton numbers are all conserved.

Energy is conserved

 80% of the energy released by the reaction goes into providing kinetic
energy for the fission fragments.
 These are often radioactive and their subsequent decay accounts for a
further 10% of the energy.
 The remaining 10% appears as the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.

Nuclear fusion

 This is the combining of two light nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus.

 Energy is released by the process.

2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻 + 10𝑛 + 3.27 𝑀𝑒𝑉

 Energy released by the fusion of 2 nuclei is very much less than that which results from
the fission of a heavier nucleus.
 However energies provided per unit mass of reactants by the 2 processes are much the
come.
 Mass and energy are also conserved in fusion reactions.
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Example

Calculate the energy released when 10 kg of 235

92𝑈 undergoes fission according to:

235 141
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236
92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛

Mass: of 235
92𝑈 = 235.04𝑢

of 141
56𝐵𝑎 = 140.91𝑢

of 92
36𝐾𝑟 = 91.91𝑢

of 10𝑛 = 1.01𝑢

1𝑢 = 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

33.0 RADIOACTIVITY

Nuclear Radiation

 All nuclear radiation comes from the nucleus of an atom.

 It is spontaneous - we cannot make an atom emit a particle of nuclear radiation.
Extreme pressure or temperature has no effect on the rate of decay of a substance.
 It is random - we cannot predict how an individual atom will behave, only by using the
mathematics of probability can we predict how a proportion of a large number of atoms
will behave.
 There is a background radiation detected in nature due to the presence of some
radioactive substances in the air, soil or water.

Types of radiation

 There are 3 types of radiation namely, -particles, β-particles and γ-rays.

 In -emission and β-emission the parent nucleus undergoes a change of atomic number
becoming a new element.
 This is called the daughter nucleus.
 Most times the daughter is in an excited state and reaches the ground state by
releasing a γ-ray.
 The emission of a γ-ray just takes away the energy released in the transition to the
ground state.
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 Charged particles are affected by electric fields.

 The particles that are charged will accelerate towards the plate with opposite charge.
 An -particle will therefore accelerate towards the negative plate and the β-particle
towards the positive plate.
 The γ-ray has no charge so it is not affected by this electric field and will just continue
on its straight path.
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 Moving charged particles experience a force when they travel in a magnetic field that
is at right angles to their path.
 The force acts mutually at right angles to the direction the particle is travelling and
the direction of the field so it takes a circular path.
 The direction it will go in can be found using Flemings left hand rule.
Nuclear Reactions

 Nuclear equations can be used to show the decay process.

 These must balance for nucleon number and proton number.
Alpha decay

 A nucleus that has high mass and too many protons to be stable tends to undergo alpha
decay.
 When alpha decay occurs a group of two protons and two neutrons (helium nucleus)
comes out of the nucleus.
 The proton number decreases by 2 but the nucleon number decreases by 4.
 The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 2 positions to the left of the 'parent'
in the periodic table.
238 234 4
92U → 90Th + 2α

 The above equation shows the radioactive decay of Uranium-238 by alpha emission.
Beta Decay

 When a nucleus has too many neutrons, it tends to beta decay.

 When beta decay occurs a neutron within the nucleus emits the particle and changes
into a proton.
 The proton number increases but the nucleon number stays the same.
 The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 1 position to the right
14 14 0
6C → 7N + −1β

 The above equation shows the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 by beta emission.
Gamma Emission
 Sometimes, after its emission of an alpha or beta particle, the nucleus is still in an
excited state.
 In order to get to a lower energy state it emits a quantum of energy in the form of a
gamma ray.
 No matter is emitted from the nucleus therefore the nucleon number and the proton
number remain the same.
 Before and after emission of the gamma ray they are the same isotope of the element
but they are different nuclide because the term nuclide incorporates nuclear energy
states as well basic structure.
Penetrating Properties

 The penetrating power of nuclear radiation depends upon the ionising power of the
radiation.
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For Dennis Phiri

 The radiation continues to penetrate matter until it has lost all of its energy.

Alpha particles:
 Produce considerable ionisation because of their relatively slow speed and size.
 They lose most of their energy over short distances and hence are least
penetrating.
 They are absorbed by about 5 cm of air or a sheet of paper.
Beta particles:

Produce much less ionisation than -particles.

Can penetrate quite deeply into matter before its energy has been used up. Its
penetrating power is therefore moderate (absorbed by 500cm air, 0.1 cm
aluminium sheet).
 Betas have only about 1/8000 of the mass of an alpha particle and only half of
the charge.
 Therefore its interaction with matter as it passes through is far less severe.
Gamma Rays:

 Have an ionising power so low that they penetrate very deeply into matter
before most of the energy has been used up.
 Their penetrating power is therefore very high (about 99.9% is absorbed by
500 m of air or 5 cm lead).
 Gamma rays are pure energy - no charge and no mass - therefore their
interaction with matter is much less than the other two.

Hazards of Radioactive isotopes

 All radiation sources are dangerous.

 Cells of a body may undergo harmful physical and chemical changes due to being
exposed to radioactive samples.
 Extent of damage depends on:
i) Nature of radiation
ii) Dosage received
iii) Part of the body exposed
 Some precautionary measures include:
i) Keep sources in thick lead containers.
ii) Use tongs to handle them.
iii) Keep sources at a safe distance from the body.
Rate of Radioactive Decay

 The rate of decay or activity of a radioactive sample is the number of radioactive

atoms that disintegrate per second.
 It is measured in Becquerel (Bq).
 The rate of decay or activity (A) depends on the number of radioactive atoms present.
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For Dennis Phiri

 It is proportional to the number of parent nuclei present.

 The constant of proportionality is called the decay constant and given the symbol λ.
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁

 The decay constant is characteristic to each radioactive isotope.

 It is the probability of a decay occurring. We can calculate the expected activity of a
sample if we know its size and decay constant.
Now,
dN
A=−
dt
The – sign is because N decreases as t increases
So,
𝑑𝑁
− = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑑𝑁
Hence, ∫ = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁

ln 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝑐

If initial number of nuclei is N0, i.e. N = N0 when t = 0 then c = ln N0

 ln 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + ln 𝑁0

 ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = −𝜆𝑡

𝑁
 ln = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁
 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
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For Dennis Phiri

 The activity of radio-isotopes decreases exponentially with time.

 After a given time period the amount that has yet to decay is halved.
 This is the case no matter when you start to measure the activity of the sample.
Half-life

 It is the time taken for half the nuclei of a radioactive nuclide present to disintegrate.
 Half-lives vary widely from microseconds to millions of years!
 Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 x 109 years (4,500,000,000 years) whereas
Polonium-212 only has a half-life of 3 x 10-7 seconds (0.000 000 3 seconds).
𝑁
Using 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , when 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , 𝑁 = 0
2 2
ln 2
Manipulating the equations leads to 𝑡1 =
2 𝜆

Uses of radioisotopes

 Cancer treatment – cells can be destroyed by γ-radiation.

 Detection of leaks in underground pipes.
 Carbon dating is used to date archaeological samples.
 Monitoring of thickness of metal sheets during production.
For Dennis Phiri

Physical Quanitities & Units 6. Nov 04 (Q1)

2. June 02 (Q2)
A student uses a micrometer screw gauge to measure
the diameter of a wire. He fails to notice that, with the
gauge fully closed, the reading is not zero.
(a) State and explain whether the omission introduces a
random error or a systematic error into the readings of
the diameter.
[2]
A student takes readings to measure the mean diameter
of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge.
(a) Make suggestions, one in each case, that the
student may adopt in order to
(i) reduce a systematic error in the readings,
(ii) allow for a wire of varying diameter along its length,
(iii) allow for a non-circular cross-section of the wire.
[3]

(b) Explain why the readings are precise but not (b) The mean diameter of the wire is found to be
accurate. 0.50 ± 0.02mm. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in
[2] (i) the diameter,
(ii) the area of cross-section of the wire.
3. Nov 02 (Q1) [2]
(a) (i) Define density.
(ii) State the base units in which density is measured. 7. June 05 (Q1)
[2] Make estimates of the following quantities.
(a) the speed of sound in air
(b) The speed v of sound in a gas is given by the [1]
expression (b) the density of air at room temperature and pressure
[1]
γp
v= (c) the mass of a protractor
ρ [1]
where p is the pressure of the gas of density ρ. γ is a (d) the volume, in cm3, of the head of an adult person
constant. [1]
Given that p has the base units of kgm-1 s-2, show that
the constant γ has no unit. 8. Nov 05 (Q1)
[3] (a) (i) Define pressure.
[1]
4. Nov 02 (Q2) (ii) State the units of pressure in base units.
A student uses a metre rule to measure the length of an [1]
elastic band before and after stretching it. (b) The pressure p at a depth h in an incompressible
The lengths are recorded as fluid of density ρ is given by
length of band before stretching, Lo = 50.0 ± 0.1 cm p = ρgh,
length of band after stretching, Ls = 51.6 ± 0.1 cm. where g is the acceleration of free fall.
Determine Use base units to check the homogeneity of this
(a) the change in length (Ls − Lo), quoting your answer equation.
with its uncertainty, [1] ....................................................................
(b) the fractional change in length, [1] .[3]
(c) the uncertainty in your answer in (b). [3]
9. June 06 (Q1)
5. June 04 (Q1) (a) Derive the SI base unit of force.
(a) State the difference between a scalar quantity and a [1]
vector quantity. [2]
(b) Two forces of magnitude 6.0N and 8.0N act at a (b) A spherical ball of radius r experiences a resistive
point P. Both forces act away from point P and the angle force F due to the air as it moves through the air at
between them is 40°. speed v. The resistive force F is given by the expression
Fig. 1.1 shows two lines at an angle of 40° to one F = crv,
another. where c is a constant.
Derive the SI base unit of the constant c.
[1]

(c) The ball is dropped from rest through a height of

4.5m.
(i) Assuming air resistance to be negligible, calculate the
final speed of the ball.
[2]
(ii) The ball has mass 15 g and radius 1.2 cm.
The numerical value of the constant c in the equation in
(b) is equal to 3.2 x 10-4 when measured using the SI
On Fig. 1.1, draw a vector diagram to determine the system of units.
magnitude of the resultant of the two forces. [4] Show quantitatively whether the assumption made in (i)
is justified.
[3]
For Dennis Phiri

ball falls, it interrupts a second beam of light and the

10. June 07 (Q1) timer is stopped. The vertical distance h between the
The uncalibrated scale and the pointer of a meter are light beams and the time t recorded on the timer are
shown in Fig. 1.1. noted. The procedure is repeated for different values of
h. The student calculates values of t 2 and then plots the
graph of Fig. 2.2.

The pointer is shown in the zero position.

The meter is to be used to indicate the volume of fuel in
the tank of a car.

A known volume V of fuel is poured into the tank and the

deflection θ of the pointer is noted.
Fig. 1.2 shows the variation with θ of V.

(a) Use Fig. 2.2 to calculate a value for g, the

acceleration of free fall of the ball. Explain your working.
[4]

(b) Identify one possible source of random error in the

determination of g and suggest how this error may be
reduced. [2]

Kinematics
1. Nov 01(Q2)
A student determines the acceleration of free fall using 2. June 02 (Q4)
the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2.1. A steel ball of mass 73 g is held 1.6 m above a
horizontal steel plate, as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

The ball is dropped from rest and it bounces on the

plate, reaching a height h.
(a) Calculate the speed of the ball as it reaches the
plate.
A steel ball is held on an electromagnet. When the [2]
electromagnet is switched off, the ball immediately
interrupts a beam of light and a timer is started. As the
For Dennis Phiri

(b) As the ball loses contact with the plate after

bouncing, the kinetic energy of the ball is 90% of that
just before bouncing. Calculate
(i) the height h to which the ball bounces,
(ii) the speed of the ball as it leaves the plate after
bouncing.
[4]

(c) Using your answers to (a) and (b), determine the

change in momentum of the ball during the bounce. [3]

(d) With reference to the law of conservation of

momentum, comment on your answer to (c). [3]

3. June 02 (Q5)
Some gas is contained in a cylinder by means of a
moveable piston, as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.

Use data from Fig. 3.1 to determine

(a) the distance travelled by the ball during the first 0.40
s,

[2]
(b) the change in momentum of the ball, of mass 45 g,
State how, for this mass of gas, the following changes during contact of the ball with the surface,
may be achieved. [4]
(a) increase its gravitational potential energy
[1] (c) the average force acting on the ball during contact
(b) decrease its internal energy with the surface.
[1] [2]
(c) increase its elastic potential energy
[1]

5. Nov 02 (Q4)
(a) Explain what is meant by the concept of work.
[2]

(b) Using your answer to (a), derive an expression for

4. Nov 02 (Q3)
A ball falls from rest onto a flat horizontal surface. Fig.
3.1 shows the variation with time t of the velocity v of the
ball as it approaches and rebounds from the surface.
the increase in gravitational potential energy ΔEp when
an object of mass m is raised vertically through a
distance Δh near the Earth’s surface.
The acceleration of free fall near the Earth’s surface
is g. [2]
6. June 04 (Q3)
A student has been asked to determine the linear
acceleration of a toy car as it moves down a slope. He
sets up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 3.1.

The time t to move from rest through a distance d is

found for different values of d. A graph of d (y-axis) is
plotted against t 2 (x-axis) as shown in Fig. 3.2.
For Dennis Phiri

(b) Just before impact with the plate, the ball of mass 35
g has speed 4.5ms-1. It bounces from the plate so that
its speed immediately after losing contact with the plate
is
3.5ms-1. The ball is in contact with the plate for 0.14 s.
Calculate, for the time that the ball is in contact with the
plate,
(i) the average force, in addition to the weight of the ball,
that the plate exerts on the ball, [4]
(ii) the loss in kinetic energy of the ball. [2]

(c) State and explain whether linear momentum is

conserved during the bounce.
[3]

8. June 04(Q5)
Two forces, each of magnitude F, form a couple acting
on the edge of a disc of radius r, as shown in Fig. 5.1.

(a) Theory suggests that the graph is a straight line

through the origin.
Name the feature on Fig. 3.2 that indicates the presence
of
(i) random error,
(ii) systematic error. (a) The disc is made to complete n revolutions about an
[2] axis through its centre, normal to the plane of the disc.
Write down an expression for
(b) (i) Determine the gradient of the line of the graph in (i) the distance moved by a point on the circumference
Fig. 3.2. [2] of the disc,
(ii) Use your answer to (i) to calculate the acceleration of (ii) the work done by one of the two forces. [2]
the toy down the slope.
Explain your working. [3] (b) Using your answer to (a), show that the work W done
by a couple producing a torque T when it turns through
n revolutions is given by
7. June 04 (Q4) W = 2πnT. [2]
A ball has mass m. It is dropped onto a horizontal plate
as shown in Fig. 4.1. (c) A car engine produces a torque of 470Nm at 2400
revolutions per minute. Calculate the output power of the
engine. [2]

9. Nov 04 (Q3)
A girl stands at the top of a cliff and throws a ball
vertically upwards with a speed of 12ms-1, as illustrated
in Fig. 3.1.

Just as the ball makes contact with the plate, it has

velocity v, momentum p and kinetic energy Ek.
(a) (i) Write down an expression for momentum p in
terms of m and v.
(ii) Hence show that the kinetic energy is given by the
expression
p2
Ek = [3]
2m
For Dennis Phiri

At the time that the girl throws the ball, her hand is a
height h above the horizontal ground at the base of the
cliff.
The variation with time t of the speed v of the ball is
shown in Fig. 3.2.

(a) (i) Calculate the change in gravitational potential

energy of the block and bullet.
[2]

(ii) Show that the initial speed of the block and the bullet,
after they began to move off together, was 1.3ms-1.
[1]

(b) Using the information in (a)(ii) and the principle of

conservation of momentum, determine the speed of the
bullet before the impact with the block.
[2]

(c) (i) Calculate the kinetic energy of the bullet just

before impact.
[2]
(ii) State and explain what can be deduced from your
Speeds in the upward direction are shown as being
answers to (c)(i) and (a)(i) about the type of collision
positive. Speeds in the downward direction are negative.
between the bullet and the block. [2]
(a) State the feature of Fig. 3.2 that shows that the
acceleration is constant.
11. Nov 05 (Q3)
[1]
A stone on a string is made to travel along a horizontal
circular path, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
(b) Use Fig. 3.2 to determine the time at which the ball
(i) reaches maximum height,
(ii) hits the ground at the base of the cliff.
[2]

(c) Determine the maximum height above the base of

the cliff to which the ball rises.
[3]

(d) The ball has mass 250 g. Calculate the magnitude of

the change in momentum of the ball between the time
that it leaves the girl’s hand to time t = 4.0s.
[3]
The stone has a constant speed.
(a) Define acceleration.
(e) (i) State the principle of conservation of momentum.
[1]
[2]
(b) Use your definition to explain whether the stone is
(ii) Comment on your answer to (d) by reference to this
accelerating.
principle.
[2]
[3]
(c) The stone has a weight of 5.0 N. When the string
makes an angle of 35° to the vertical, the tension in the
10. June 05 (Q3)
string is 6.1 N, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
A bullet of mass 2.0 g is fired horizontally into a block of
wood of mass 600 g. The block is suspended from
strings so that it is free to move in a vertical plane.
The bullet buries itself in the block. The block and bullet
rise together through a vertical distance of 8.6 cm, as
shown in Fig. 3.1.
For Dennis Phiri

(a) Explain the concept of work.

[2]
(b) A table tennis ball falls vertically through air. Fig. 8.1
shows the variation of the kinetic energy Ek of the ball
with distance h fallen. The ball reaches the ground after
falling
through a distance ho.

Determine the resultant force acting on the stone in the

position shown. [4]

12. Nov 05 (Q4)

A trolley of mass 930 g is held on a horizontal surface by
means of two springs, as shown in Fig. 4.1.
(i) Describe the motion of the ball.
[3]
(ii) On Fig. 8.1, draw a line to show the variation with h
of the gravitational potential energy Ep of the ball. At h =
ho, the potential energy is zero.
[3]

14. June 06 (Q3)

The variation with time t of the speed v of the trolley for
the first 0.60 s of its motion is shown in Fig. 4.2.
(a) Explain what is meant by the internal energy of a
substance.
[2]
(b) State and explain, in molecular terms, whether the
internal energy of the following increases, decreases or
does not change.
(i) a lump of iron as it is cooled
[3]
(ii) some water as it evaporates at constant temperature

[3]

15. Nov 06 (Q1)

(a) Define what is meant by
(i) work done,
[2]
(ii) power.
[1]
(a) Use Fig. 4.2 to determine
(i) the initial acceleration of the trolley, (b) A force F is acting on a body that is moving with
[2] velocity v in the direction of the force.
(ii) the distance moved during the first 0.60 s of its Derive an expression relating the power P dissipated by
motion. the force to F and v.
[2]
[3]
(b) (i) Use your answer to (a)(i) to determine the (c) A car of mass 1900 kg accelerates from rest to a
resultant force acting on the trolley at time t = 0. speed of 27ms-1 in 8.1 s.
[2] (i) Calculate the average rate at which kinetic energy is
(ii) Describe qualitatively the variation with time of the supplied to the car during the acceleration.
resultant force acting on the trolley during the first 0.60 s [2]
of its motion.
[3] (ii) The car engine provides power at a constant rate.
Suggest and explain why the acceleration of the car is
13. Nov 05 (Q8)
For Dennis Phiri

not constant.
[2]

16. Nov 06(Q2)

A student investigates the speed of a trolley as it rolls
down a slope, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

(a) State the nature of an α-particle.

[1]

(b) Show that the initial speed of an α-particle after the

decay of a francium nucleus is approximately
The speed v of the trolley is measured using a speed 1.8 × 107 ms-1.
sensor for different values of the time t that the trolley [2]
has moved from rest down the slope.
Fig. 2.2 shows the variation with t of v. (c) (i) State the principle of conservation of linear
momentum.
[2]
(ii) The Francium-208 nucleus is stationary before the
decay. Estimate the speed of the astatine nucleus
immediately after the decay.
[3]

(d) Close examination of the decay of the francium

nucleus indicates that the astatine nucleus and the α-
particle are not ejected exactly in opposite directions.
Suggest an explanation for this observation.
[2]

18. June 07 (Q4)

(a) A stone of mass 56 g is thrown horizontally from the
top of a cliff with a speed of 18 m s-1, as illustrated in
Fig. 4.1.
(a) Use Fig. 2.2 to determine the acceleration of the
trolley at the point on the graph where t = 0.80 s.
[4]

(b) (i) State whether the acceleration is increasing or

decreasing for values of t greater than 0.6 s. Justify your
answer by reference to Fig. 2.2.
[2]
(ii) Suggest an explanation for this change in
acceleration.

[1]
(c) Name the feature of Fig. 2.2 that indicates the Deformation of Solids
presence of
(i) random error, 1. Nov 01 (Q5)
[1] In the following list of solids, underline those materials
(ii) systematic error. which are crystalline.
[1] rubber copper nylon glass aluminium
[2]

17. Nov 06 (Q3) (b) The three graphs A, B and C of Fig. 5.1 represent
Francium-208 is radioactive and emits α-particles with a the variation with extension x of the tension F in
kinetic energy of 1.07 × 10-12 J to form nuclei of astatine, specimens of three different materials. One of the
as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. materials is polymeric, one is brittle and the other is
ductile. They are not shown in that order in Fig. 5.1.
For Dennis Phiri

(ii) the tensile strain in the wire,

(iii) the Young modulus of the material of the wire.
[3]

(b) A steel wire of uniform cross-sectional area

7.9 × 10-7 m2 is heated to a temperature of 650 K. It is
then clamped between two rigid supports, as shown in
Fig. 5.1.

The wire is straight but not under tension and the length
between the supports is 0.62 m. The wire is then
allowed to cool to 300 K.
When the wire is allowed to contract freely, a 1.00 m
length of the wire decreases in length by 0.012 mm for
(i) State the type of material which would produce the every 1K decrease in temperature.
line shown in each graph. (i) Show that the change in length of the wire, if it were
[2] allowed to contract as it cools from 650 K to 300 K,
(ii) Use graph B to estimate the work done in stretching would be 2.6 mm.
the specimen from 0 to 4 mm. [2]
[3] (ii) The Young modulus of steel is 2.0 × 1011 Pa.
Calculate the tension in the wire at 300 K, assuming that
2. Nov 02 (Q9) the wire obeys Hooke’s law.
An aluminium wire of length 1.8 m and area of cross- [2]
section 1.7 × 10−6m2 has one end fixed to a rigid (iii) The ultimate tensile stress of steel is 250MPa. Use
support. A small weight hangs from the free end, as this information and your answer in (ii) to suggest
illustrated in Fig. 9.1. whether the wire will, in practice, break as it cools.
[3]

4. June 05 (Q4)
A glass fibre of length 0.24m and area of cross-section
7.9 x 10-7 m2 is tested until it breaks.
The variation with load F of the extension x of the fibre is
shown in Fig. 4.1.

The resistance of the wire is 0.030Ω and the Young

modulus of aluminium is 7.1 × 1010 Pa.
The load on the wire is increased by 25 N.
(a) Calculate
(i) the increase in stress,
(ii) the change in length of the wire. [4]

(b) Assuming that the area of cross-section of the wire

does not change when the load is increased, determine
the change in resistance of the wire. [3]
(a) State whether glass is ductile, brittle or polymeric.
3. Nov 04 (Q5) [1]
(a) A metal wire has an unstretched length L and area of (b) Use Fig. 4.1 to determine, for this sample of glass,
cross-section A. When the wire supports a load F, the (i) the ultimate tensile stress,
wire extends by an amount ΔL. The wire obeys Hooke’s [2]
law. (ii) the Young modulus,
Write down expressions, in terms of L, A, F and ΔL, for [3]
(i) the applied stress,
For Dennis Phiri
(iii) the maximum strain energy stored in the fibre before
it breaks.
[2]
(c) A hard ball and a soft ball, with equal masses and
volumes, are thrown at a glass window. The balls hit the
window at the same speed. Suggest why the hard ball is
more likely than the soft ball to break the glass window.
[3]
5. June 06(5)
Fig. 5.1 shows the variation with force F of the extension
x of a spring as the force is increased to F3 and then
decreased to zero.
(a) State, with a reason, whether the spring is
undergoing an elastic change.
[1]
(b) The extension of the spring is increased from x1 to
x2.
Show that the work W done in extending the spring is
given by
W= ½ k (x22 - x12 ) [3]
where k is the spring constant.
(c) A trolley of mass 850 g is held between two fixed
points by means of identical springs, as shown in Fig.
5.2.
When the trolley is in equilibrium, the springs are each
extended by 4.5 cm. Each spring has a spring constant
16Ncm-1.
The trolley is moved a distance of 1.5 cm along the
direction of the springs. This causes the extension of
one spring to be increased and the extension of the
other spring to be decreased. The trolley is then
released. The trolley accelerates and reaches its
maximum speed at the equilibrium position.
Assuming that the springs obey Hooke’s law, use the
expression in (b) to determine the maximum speed of
the trolley.
[4]
6. Nov 06 (Q5)
(a) Distinguish between the structure of a metal and of a
polymer. [4]
(b) Latex is a natural form of rubber. It is a polymeric
material.
(i) Describe the properties of a sample of latex.
[2]
(ii) The process of heating latex with a small amount of
sulphur creates cross-links between molecules. Natural
latex has very few cross-links between its molecules.
Suggest how this process changes the properties of
latex.
........................................................................................[
2].
7. Nov 06 (Q6)
A straight wire of unstretched length L has an electrical
resistance R. When it is stretched by a force F, the wire
extends by an amount ΔL and the resistance increases
by ΔR. The area of cross-section A of the wire may be
assumed to remain constant.
(a) (i) State the relation between R, L, A and the
resistivity ρ of the material of the wire.
[1]
(ii) Show that the fractional change in resistance is equal
to the strain in the wire.
[2]
(b) A steel wire has area of cross-section 1.20 × 10-7 m2
and a resistance of 4.17Ω.
The Young modulus of steel is 2.10 × 1011 Pa.
The tension in the wire is increased from zero to 72.0 N.
The wire obeys Hooke’s law at these values of tension.
Determine the strain in the wire and hence its change in
resistance. Express your answer to an appropriate
number of significant figures.
[5]
The initial height of the stone above the level of the sea
is 16 m. Air resistance may be neglected.
(i) Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy
of the stone as a result of falling through 16 m.
[2]
(ii) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the stone as it
reaches the sea.
[3]
(b) Use your answer in (a)(ii) to show that the speed of
the stone as it hits the water is approximately 25 m s-1.
[1]
(c) State the horizontal velocity of the stone as it hits the
water.
[1]
(d) (i) On the grid of Fig. 4.2, draw a vector diagram to
For Dennis Phiri

Electric Fields
1. June 02 (Q6)
Two horizontal metal plates are situated 1.2 cm apart,
as illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
3. June 05 (Q6)
Two parallel metal plates P and Q are situated 8.0 cm
apart in air, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

The electric field between the plates is found to be

3.0 x104 NC-1 in the downward direction.
(a) (i) On Fig. 6.1, mark with a + the plate which is at the
more positive potential.
(ii) Calculate the potential difference between the plates.
[3]
(b) Determine the acceleration of an electron between
the plates, assuming there is a vacuum between them.
[3]
2. Nov 02 (Q6)
An electron travelling horizontally in a vacuum enters the
region between two horizontal metal plates, as shown in
Fig. 6.1.
Plate Q is earthed and plate P is maintained at a
potential of +160 V.
(a) (i) On Fig. 6.1, draw lines to represent the electric
field in the region between the plates.
[2]
(ii) Show that the magnitude of the electric field between
the plates is 2.0 x 103 Vm-1.
[1]
(b) A dust particle is suspended in the air between the
plates. The particle has charges of +1.2 x 10-15 C and
–1.2 x 10-15 C near its ends. The charges may be
considered to be point charges separated by a distance
of 2.5 mm, as shown in Fig. 6.2.

The lower plate is earthed and the upper plate is at a

potential of + 400V. The separation of the plates
is 0.80 cm.
The electric field between the plates may be assumed to The particle makes an angle of 35° with the direction of
be uniform and outside the plates to be zero. the electric field.
(a) On Fig. 6.1, (i) On Fig. 6.2, draw arrows to show the direction of the
(i) draw an arrow at P to show the direction of the force force on each charge due to the electric field.
on the electron due to the electric field between the [1]
plates, (ii) Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge
(ii) sketch the path of the electron as it passes between due to the electric field.
the plates and beyond them. [3] [2]
(iii) Determine the magnitude of the couple acting on the
(b) Determine the electric field strength E between the particle.
plates. [2] [2]
(iv) Suggest the subsequent motion of the particle in the
(c) Calculate, for the electron between the plates, the electric field.
magnitude of [2]
(i) the force on the electron,
(ii) its acceleration. [4] 4. Nov 05(Q6)
Two horizontal metal plates X and Y are at a distance
(d) State and explain the effect, if any, of this electric 0.75 cm apart. A positively charged particle of mass
field on the horizontal component of the motion of the 9.6 × 10-15 kg is situated in a vacuum between the
electron. plates, as illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
[2]
For Dennis Phiri

represent the horizontal velocity and the resultant

velocity of the stone as it hits the water.
[1]

The potential difference between the plates is adjusted

until the particle remains stationary.

(a) State, with a reason, which plate, X or Y, is positively

charged.
[2]
(b) The potential difference required for the particle to be
stationary between the plates is found to be 630 V.
Calculate
(i) the electric field strength between the plates,
[2]
(ii) the charge on the particle.
[3] (ii) Use your vector diagram to determine the angle with
the horizontal at which the stone hits the water. [2]

6. June 07 (Q2)
(a) Define electric field strength.
[1]
(b) Two flat parallel metal plates, each of length 12.0 (a) On Fig. 1.1,
cm, are separated by a distance of 1.5 cm, as shown in (i) calibrate the scale at 20 × 103 cm3 intervals,
Fig. 2.1. [2]
(ii) mark a possible position for a volume of 1.0 × 105
cm3.

The space between the plates is a vacuum.
The potential difference between the plates is 210 V.
The electric field may be assumed to be uniform in the
region between the plates and zero outside this region.
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field strength
between the plates. [1]
(c) An electron initially travels parallel to the plates along
a line mid-way between the plates, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The speed of the electron is 5.0 × 107 m s-1.
For the electron between the plates,
(i) determine the magnitude and direction of its
acceleration, [4]
(ii) calculate the time for the electron to travel a
horizontal distance equal to the length of the plates.
[1]
(d) Use your answers in (c) to determine whether the
electron will hit one of the plates or emerge from
between the plates.
[3]
[1]
(b) Suggest one advantage of this scale, as compared
with a uniform scale, for measuring fuel volumes in the
tank of the car.
[1
DC Current
1. Nov 01 (Q7)
(a) A student has been asked to make an electric
heater. The heater is to be rated as 12 V 60W, and is to
be constructed of wire of diameter 0.54 mm. The
material of the wire has resistivity 4.9 x 10–7Ωm.
(i) Show that the resistance of the heater will be 2.4Ω.
[2]
(ii) Calculate the length of wire required for the heater.
[3]
(b) Two cells of e.m.f. E1 and E2 are connected to
resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 as shown in Fig.
7.1.
For Dennis Phiri

The resistors are of resistance 15 Ω and 45Ω. The

battery is found to provide 1.6 × 105 J of electrical
energy when a charge of 1.8 × 104 C passes through
The currents I1, I2 and I3 in the various parts of the circuit the ammeter in a time of 1.3 × 105 s.
are as shown. (a) Determine
(i) Write down an expression relating I1, I2 and I3. (i) the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery,
[1] (ii) the average current in the circuit.
(ii) Use Kirchhoff’s second law to write down a relation [4]
between
1. E1, R1, R2, I1 and I3 for loop ABEFA, (b) During the time for which the charge is moving,
2. E1, E2, R1, R3, I1 and I2 for loop ABCDEFA. 1.1 × 105 J of energy is dissipated in the 45Ω resistor.
[2] (i) Determine the energy dissipated in the 15Ω resistor
during the same time.
2. July 02 (Q8) (ii) Suggest why the total energy provided is greater than
A student has available some resistors, each of that dissipated in the two resistors.
resistance 100Ω. [4]
(a) Draw circuit diagrams, one in each case, to show
how a number of these resistors may be connected to 4. June 04 (Q7)
produce a combined resistance of A household electric lamp is rated as 240 V, 60W. The
(i) 200Ω, filament of the lamp is made from tungsten and is a wire
(ii) 50Ω, of constant radius 6.0 × 10-6 m. The resistivity of
(iii) 40Ω tungsten at the normal operating temperature of the
[4] lamp is
7.9 × 10-7 Ωm.
(b) The arrangement of resistors shown in Fig. 8.1 is (a) For the lamp at its normal operating temperature,
connected to a battery. (i) calculate the current in the lamp,
(ii) show that the resistance of the filament is 960Ω. [3]

(b) Calculate the length of the filament. [3]

(c) Comment on your answer to (b). [1]

5. June 04 (Q8)
A thermistor has resistance 3900Ω at 0 °C and
resistance 1250Ω at 30 °C. The thermistor is connected
into the circuit of Fig. 8.1 in order to monitor temperature
changes.
The power dissipation in the 100Ω resistor is 0.81W.
Calculate
(i) the current in the circuit,
(ii) the power dissipation in each of the 25Ω resistors.
[4]

3. Nov 02 (Q7)
A student set up the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1.
The battery of e.m.f. 1.50V has negligible internal
resistance and the voltmeter has infinite resistance.
(a) The voltmeter is to read 1.00V at 0 °C. Show that the
resistance of resistor R is 7800Ω. [2]
For Dennis Phiri
(b) The temperature of the thermistor is increased to
30 °C. Determine the reading on the voltmeter.
[2]
(c) The voltmeter in Fig. 8.1 is replaced with one having
a resistance of 7800Ω.
Calculate the reading on this voltmeter for the thermistor
at a temperature of 0 °C.
[2]
6. Nov 04 (Q6)
Fig. 6.1 shows the variation with applied potential
difference V of the current I in an electrical component
C.
(a) (i) State, with a reason, whether the resistance of
component C increases or decreases with increasing
potential difference.
[2]
(ii) Determine the resistance of component C at a
potential difference of 4.0 V.
[2]
(b) Component C is connected in parallel with a resistor
R of resistance 1500Ω and a battery of e.m.f. E and
negligible internal resistance, as shown in Fig. 6.2.
(i) On Fig. 6.1, draw a line to show the variation with
potential difference V of the current I in resistor R.
[2]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, use Fig. 6.1 to determine the
current in the battery for an e.m.f. of 2.0V.
[2]
(c) The resistor R of resistance 1500Ω and the
component C are now connected in series across a
supply of
e.m.f. 7.0V and negligible internal resistance.
Using information from Fig. 6.1, state and explain which
component, R or C, will dissipate thermal energy at a
greater rate.
[3]
7. June 05 (Q7)
(a) Define the resistance of a resistor.
[1]
(b) In the circuit of Fig. 7.1, the battery has an e.m.f. of
3.00 V and an internal resistance r.
R is a variable resistor. The resistance of the ammeter is
negligible and the voltmeter has an infinite resistance.
The resistance of R is varied. Fig. 7.2 shows the
variation of the power P dissipated in R with the
potential difference V across R.
(i) Use Fig. 7.2 to determine
1. the maximum power dissipation in R,
2. the potential difference across R when the maximum
power is dissipated.
[1]
(ii) Hence calculate the resistance of R when the
maximum power is dissipated.
[2]
(iii) Use your answers in (i) and (ii) to determine the
internal resistance r of the battery.
[3]
(c) By reference to Fig. 7.2, it can be seen that there are
two values of potential difference V for which the power
dissipation is 1.05W.
State, with a reason, which value of V will result in less
power being dissipated in the internal resistance.
[3]
8. Nov 05 (Q7)
For Dennis Phiri

A battery of e.m.f. 4.50 V and negligible internal

resistance is connected in series with a fixed resistor of
resistance 1200Ω and a thermistor, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

One of the lamps is faulty. In order to detect the fault, an

ohm-meter (a meter that measures resistance) is
connected between terminals X and Y. When measuring
resistance, the ohmmeter causes negligible current in
the circuit.
Fig. 7.2 shows the readings of the ohm-meter for
different switch positions.

(a) At room temperature, the thermistor has a resistance

of 1800Ω. Deduce that the potential difference across
the thermistor (across AB) is 2.70 V.
[2]

(b) A uniform resistance wire PQ of length 1.00m is now

connected in parallel with the resistor and the thermistor,
as shown in Fig. 7.2.

(a) Identify the faulty lamp, and the nature of the fault.
[2]

(b) Suggest why it is advisable to test the circuit using

an ohm-meter that causes negligible current rather than
with a power supply.
[1]

(c) Determine the resistance of one of the non-faulty

lamps, as measured using the ohmmeter.
[1]

(d) Each lamp is marked 6.0 V, 0.20 A.

A sensitive voltmeter is connected between point B and Calculate, for one of the lamps operating at normal
a moveable contact M on the wire. brightness,
(i) Explain why, for constant current in the wire, the (i) its resistance,
potential difference between any two points on the wire [2]
is proportional to the distance between the points. (ii) its power dissipation.
[2] [2]
(ii) The contact M is moved along PQ until the voltmeter
shows zero reading. (e) Comment on your answers to (c) and (d)(i).
1. State the potential difference between the contact at [2]
M and the point Q.
[1] 10. Nov 06 (Q7)
2. Calculate the length of wire between M and Q. (a) Distinguish between the electromotive force (e.m.f.)
[2] of a cell and the potential difference (p.d.) across a
resistor.
(iii) The thermistor is warmed slightly. State and explain .......................................................................................[3
the effect on the length of wire between M and Q for the ]
voltmeter to remain at zero deflection. (b) Fig. 7.1. is an electrical circuit containing two cells of
[2] e.m.f. E1 and E2.

9. June 06(Q7)
A circuit contains three similar lamps A, B and C. The
circuit also contains three switches, S1, S2 and S3, as
shown in Fig. 7.1.
For Dennis Phiri

(iii) the total energy dissipated in the internal resistance

of the battery charger and the car battery.
[2]

(c) Use your answers in (b) to calculate the percentage

efficiency of transfer of energy from the battery charger
to stored energy in the car battery.
[2]

Forces
The cells are connected to resistors of resistance R1, R2
and R3 and the currents in the branches of the circuit are 1. Nov 01(Q1)
I1, I2 and I3, as shown. Distinguish between the mass of a body and its weight.
(i) Use Kirchhoff’s first law to write down an expression [4]
relating I1, I2 and I3. [1]
(ii) Use Kirchhoff’s second law to write down an 2. Nov 01 (Q3)
expression relating (a) State the two conditions necessary for the
1. E2, R2, R3, I2 and I3 in the loop XBCYX, [1] equilibrium of a body which is acted upon by a number
2. E1, E2, R1, R2, I1 and I2 in the loop AXYDA. [1] of forces. [2]

(b) Three identical springs S1, S2 and S3 are attached

11. June 07 (Q6) to a point A such that the angle between any two of the
A car battery has an internal resistance of 0.060 Ω. It is springs is 120°, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
re-charged using a battery charger having an e.m.f. of
14 V and an internal resistance of 0.10 Ω, as shown in
Fig. 6.1.

(a) At the beginning of the re-charging process, the

current in the circuit is 42 A and the e.m.f. of the battery
is E (measured in volts).

The springs have extended elastically and the

(i) For the circuit of Fig. 6.1, state extensions of S1 and S2 are x.
1. the magnitude of the total resistance, Determine, in terms of x, the extension of S3 such that
2. the total e.m.f. in the circuit. Give your answer in the system of springs is in equilibrium. Explain your
terms of E. working.
[2] [3]
(c) The lid of a box is hinged along one edge E, as
(ii) Use your answers to (i) and data from the question to shown in Fig. 3.2.
determine the e.m.f. of the car battery at the beginning
of the re-charging process.
[2]

(b) For the majority of the charging time of the car

battery, the e.m.f. of the car battery is 12 V and the
charging current is 12.5 A. The battery is charged at this
current for 4.0 hours.
Calculate, for this charging time,
(i) the charge that passes through the battery,
[2]
(ii) the energy supplied from the battery charger,
[2]
For Dennis Phiri

The lid is held open by means of a horizontal cord A rod AB is hinged to a wall at A. The rod is held
attached to the edge F of the lid. The centre of gravity of horizontally by means of a cord BD, attached to the rod
the lid is at point C. On Fig. 3.2 draw at end B and to the wall at D, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
(i) an arrow, labelled W, to represent the weight of the
lid,
(ii) an arrow, labelled T, to represent the tension in the
cord acting on the lid,
(iii) an arrow, labelled R, to represent the force of the
hinge on the lid. [3]

3. June 02 (Q3)
(a) Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of an
object. [2]

(b) A non-uniform plank of wood XY is 2.50 m long and

weighs 950 N. Force-meters (spring balances) A and B
are attached to the plank at a distance of 0.40 m from
each end, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

The rod has weight W and the centre of gravity of the

rod is at C. The rod is held in equilibrium by a force T in
the cord and a force F produced at the hinge.

(a) Explain what is meant by

(i) the centre of gravity of a body,
[2]
(ii) the equilibrium of a body.
[2]

(b) The line of action of the weight W of the rod passes

through the cord at point P.
Explain why, for the rod to be in equilibrium, the force F
produced at the hinge must also pass through point P.
[2]
When the plank is horizontal, force-meter A records (c) The forces F and T make angles α and β respectively
570 N. with the rod and AC = ⅔ AB, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
(i) Calculate the reading on force-meter B. Write down equations, in terms of F, W, T, α and β, to
(ii) On Fig. 3.1, mark a likely position for the centre of represent
gravity of the plank. (i) the resolution of forces horizontally,
(iii) Determine the distance of the centre of gravity from [1]
the end X of the plank. [6] (ii) the resolution of forces vertically,
[1]
4. Nov 05 (Q2) (iii) the taking of moments about A.
(a) Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of a [1]
body.
[2]
(b) An irregularly-shaped piece of cardboard is hung
freely from one point near its edge, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Nuclear Physics
1. Nov 01 (Q8)
197
(a) One isotope of gold is represented as 79 Au
State the number of neutrons in one nucleus of this
isotope.
[1]

(b) In an α-particle scattering experiment, an α-particle

approaches an isolated gold nucleus, as illustrated in
Fig. 8.1.

Explain why the cardboard will come to rest with its

centre of gravity vertically below the pivot. You may
draw on Fig. 2.1 if you wish.
[2]

5. June 06 (Q2)
For Dennis Phiri

Complete Fig. 8.1 to show the path of the α-particle as it

passes by, and moves away from, the gold nucleus.
[2]

(c) The α-particle in (b) is replaced by one having 3. Nov 02 (Q8)

greater initial kinetic energy. A nucleus of an atom of francium (Fr) contains 87
State what change, if any, will occur in the final deviation protons and 133 neutrons.
of the α-particle. (a) Write down the notation for this nuclide.
[1] [2]
(b) The nucleus decays by the emission of an α-particle
to become a nucleus of astatine (At).
Write down a nuclear equation to represent this decay.
2. July 02 (Q9) [2]
The radiation from a radioactive source is detected
using the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 9.1. 4. Nov 04 (Q7)
The α-particle scattering experiment provided evidence
for the existence of a nuclear atom.
(a) State what could be deduced from the fact that
(i) most α-particles were deviated through angles of less
than 10°,
[2]
(ii) a very small proportion of the α-particles was
deviated through angles greater than 90°.
[2]

(b) Fig. 7.1 shows the path AB of an α-particle as it

approaches and passes by a stationary gold nucleus.

Different thicknesses of aluminium are placed between

the source and the detector. The count rate is obtained
for each thickness. Fig. 9.2 shows the variation with
thickness x of aluminium of the count rate.

(a) Suggest why it is not possible to detect the presence

of the emission of α-particles from the source.
[1]

(b) State the evidence provided on Fig. 9.2 for the

emission from the source of
(i) β-particles,
(ii) γ-radiation. [4] On Fig. 7.1, draw lines (one in each case) to complete
the paths of the α-particles passing by the gold nucleus
when the initial direction of approach is
(i) along line CD,
(ii) along line EF. [3]

5. June 05 (Q8)
For Dennis Phiri

231 (b) One type of radioactive decay cannot be represented

Fig. 8.1 shows the position of Neptunium-231 ( 93 Np ) on Fig. 7.1.
on a diagram in which nucleon number (mass number) Identify this decay and explain why it cannot be
A is plotted against proton number (atomic number) Z. represented.
[2]

Phases of Matter
1. Nov 01 (Q4)
A sphere has volume V and is made of metal of density
ρ.
(a) Write down an expression for the mass m of the
sphere in terms of V and ρ.
[1]

(b) The sphere is immersed in a liquid. Explain the

apparent loss in the weight of the sphere.
[3]
(a) Neptunium-231 decays by the emission of an α-
particle to form protactinium. (c) The sphere in (b) has mass 2.0 x 10-3 kg. When the
On Fig. 8.1, mark with the symbol Pa the position of the sphere is released, it eventually falls in the liquid with a
isotope of protactinium produced in this decay. constant speed of 6.0 cm s-1.
[1] (i) For this sphere travelling at constant speed, calculate
1. its kinetic energy,
243 2. its rate of loss of gravitational potential energy.
(b) Plutonium-243 ( 94 Pu ) decays by the emission of a [5]
β-particle (an electron). (ii) Suggest why it is possible for the sphere to have
On Fig. 8.1, show this decay by labelling the position of constant kinetic energy whilst losing potential energy at
Plutonium-243 as Pu and the position of the daughter a steady rate.
product as D. [2]
[2]
2. June 05(Q2)
The Brownian motion of smoke particles in air may be
6. June 06 (Q8) observed using the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.1.
The radioactive decay of nuclei is both spontaneous and
random.
Explain what is meant by
(a) radioactive decay of a nucleus,
[2]
(b) spontaneous decay,
[2]
(c) random decay.
[2]

7. June 07 (Q7)
The radioactive decay of a strontium (Sr) nucleus is
represented in Fig. 7.1.

(a) Describe what is seen when viewing a smoke

particle through the microscope.
[2]

(b) Suggest and explain what difference, if any, would

be observed in the movement of smoke particles when
larger smoke particles than those observed in (a) are
viewed
through the microscope.
[2]
(a) State whether Fig. 7.1 represents α-decay, β-decay
or γ-decay.
3. June 06 (Q4)
[1]
For Dennis Phiri

(a) Define density. mean separation of molecules in water vapour

[1] (ii)
mean separation of molecules in liquid water
(b) A U-tube contains some mercury. Water is poured
into one arm of the U-tube and oil is poured into the [2]
other arm, as shown in Fig. 4.1.
(d) State the evidence for
(i) the molecules in solids and liquids having
approximately the same separation,
[1]
(ii) strong rigid forces between molecules in solids.
[2]

Waves, Suspension
1. Nov 01(Q6)
Light of frequency 4.8 x 1014 Hz is incident normally on
a double slit, as illustrated in Fig. 6.1.

The amounts of oil and water are adjusted until the

surface of the mercury in the two arms is at the same
horizontal level.

(i) State how it is known that the pressure at the base of

the column of water is the same as the pressure at the
base of the column of oil.
[1]
(ii) The column of water, density 1.0 x 103 kgm-3, is 53
cm high. The column of oil is 71 cm high.
Calculate the density of the oil. Explain your working.
[3]

4. June 07 (Q3)
(a) Define density.
[1] Each slit of the double slit arrangement is 0.10 mm wide
and the slits are separated by 1.5 mm. The pattern of
(b) Liquid of density ρ fills a container to a depth h, as fringes produced is observed on a screen at a distance
illustrated in Fig. 3.1. 2.6m from the double slit.

(a) (i) Show that the width of each slit is approximately

160 times the wavelength of the incident light.
[3]
(ii) Hence explain why the pattern of fringes on the
screen is seen over a limited area of the screen.
[3]

(b) Calculate the separation of the fringes observed on

the screen.
[3]

The container has vertical sides and a base of area A.
(i) State, in terms of A, h and ρ, the mass of liquid in the
container. [1]
(ii) Hence derive an expression for the pressure p
exerted by the liquid on the base of the container.
Explain your working.
[2]
(c) The intensity of the light incident on the double slit is
increased. State the effect, if any, on the separation and
on the appearance of the fringes. [3]
2. June 02(Q7)
Figs. 7.1(a) and (b) show plane wavefronts approaching
a narrow gap and a wide gap respectively.

(c) The density of liquid water is 1.0 g cm-3. The density

of water vapour at atmospheric pressure is
approximately
1
g cm-3 .
1600
Determine the ratio
volume of water vapour
(i) [1]
volume of equal mass of liquid water
For Dennis Phiri

(a) By reference to displacement and direction of travel

On Figs. 7.1(a) and (b), draw three successive
wavefronts to represent the wave after it has passed
through each of the gaps.
[5]
(b) Light from a laser is directed normally at a diffraction
grating, as illustrated in Fig. 7.2.
of wave energy, explain what is meant by a transverse
wave.
[1]
(b) A second transverse wave T2, of amplitude A has the
same waveform as wave T1 but lags behind T1 by a
phase angle of 60°. The two waves T1 and T2 pass
through the
same point.
(i) On Fig. 5.1, draw the variation with time t of the
displacement x of the point in wave T2.
[2]
(ii) Explain what is meant by the principle of
superposition of two waves.
[2]
(iii) For the time t = 1.0 s, use Fig. 5.1 to determine, in
terms of A,
1. the displacement due to wave T1 alone,
2. the displacement due to wave T2 alone,
3. the resultant displacement due to both waves. [3]

4. June04 (Q2)
Fig. 2.1 shows the variation with distance x along a
wave of its displacement d at a particular time.
The diffraction grating is situated at the centre of a
circular scale, marked in degrees.
The readings on the scale for the second order
diffracted beams are 136° and 162°.
The wavelength of the laser light is 630 nm.
Calculate the spacing of the slits of the diffraction
grating.

[4]
(c) Suggest one reason why the fringe pattern produced
by light passing through a diffraction grating is brighter
than that produced from the same source with a double
slit.
[1]

3. Nov 02 (Q5)
The variation with time t of the displacement x of a point
in a transverse wave T1 is shown in Fig. 5.1.

The wave is a progressive wave having a speed

For Dennis Phiri
of 330ms-1.
(a) (i) Use Fig. 2.1 to determine the wavelength of the
wave.
(ii) Hence calculate the frequency of the wave.
[3]
(b) A second wave has the same frequency and speed
as the wave shown in Fig. 2.1 but has double the
intensity. The phase difference between the two waves
is 180°.
On the axes of Fig. 2.1, sketch a graph to show the
variation with distance x of the displacement d of this
second wave. [2]
5. June 04 (Q6)
Fig. 6.1 shows wavefronts incident on, and emerging
from, a double slit arrangement.
The wavefronts represent successive crests of the
wave. The line OX shows one direction along which
constructive interference may be observed.
(a) State the principle of superposition.
[3]
(b) On Fig. 6.1, draw lines to show
(i) a second direction along which constructive
interference may be observed (label this line CC),
(ii) a direction along which destructive interference may
be observed (label this line DD).
[2]
(c) Light of wavelength 650 nm is incident normally on a
double slit arrangement. The interference fringes formed
are viewed on a screen placed parallel to and 1.2m from
the plane of the double slit, as shown in Fig. 6.2.
The fringe separation is 0.70 mm.
(i) Calculate the separation a of the slits.
[3]
(ii) The width of both slits is increased without changing
their separation a. State the effect, if any, that this
change has on
1. the separation of the fringes,
2. the brightness of the light fringes,
3. the brightness of the dark fringes.
[3]
6. Nov 04 (Q2)
The spectrum of electromagnetic waves is divided into a
number of regions such as radio waves, visible light and
gamma radiation.
(a) State three distinct features of waves that are
common to all regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
[3]
(b) A typical wavelength of visible light is 495 nm.
Calculate the number of wavelengths of this light in a
wave of length 1.00m.
[2]
(c) State a typical wavelength for
(i) X-rays,
(ii) infra-red radiation.
[2]
7. Nov 04 (Q4)
A string is stretched between two fixed points. It is
plucked at its centre and the string vibrates, forming a
stationary wave as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
The length of the string is 75 cm.
(a) State the wavelength of the wave. [1]
(b) The frequency of vibration of the string is 360 Hz.
Calculate the speed of the wave on the string. [2]
(c) By reference to the formation of the stationary wave
on the string, explain what is meant by the speed
calculated in (b).
[2]
8. June 05 (Q5)
(a) Explain what is meant by the diffraction of a wave.
[2]
For Dennis Phiri

(b) Light of wavelength 590 nm is incident normally on a

diffraction grating having 750 lines per millimetre. (c) The intensity of wave A alone at point P is I.
The diffraction grating formula may be expressed in the (i) Show that the intensity of wave B alone at point P is I.
form
d sin θ = n λ. [2]
(i) Calculate the value of d, in metres, for this grating. [2] (ii) Calculate the resultant intensity, in terms of I, of the
(ii) Determine the maximum value of n for the light two waves at point P.
incident normally on the grating. [2]
[2]
(iii) Fig. 5.1 shows incident light that is not normal to the (d) Determine the resultant displacement for the two
grating. waves at point P
(i) at time t = 3.0ms,
[1]
(ii) at time t = 4.0ms.
[2]

10. June 06(Q6)

A long tube, fitted with a tap, is filled with water. A tuning
fork is sounded above the top of the tube as the water is
allowed to run out of the tube, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

Suggest why the diffraction grating formula, d sin θ = nλ,

should not be used in this situation.
[1]

(c) Light of wavelengths 590 nm and 595 nm is now

incident normally on the grating.
Two lines are observed in the first order spectrum and
two lines are observed in the second order spectrum,
corresponding to the two wavelengths.
State two differences between the first order spectrum
and the second order spectrum.
[2]

9. Nov 05 (Q5)
Fig. 5.1 shows the variation with time t of the
displacements xA and xB at a point P of two sound
waves A and B.
A loud sound is first heard when the water level is as
shown in Fig. 6.1, and then again when the water level
is as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.1 illustrates the stationary wave produced in the
tube.
(a) On Fig. 6.2,
(i) sketch the form of the stationary wave set up in the
tube,
[1]
(ii) mark, with the letter N, the positions of any nodes of
the stationary wave.
[1]

(b) The frequency of the fork is 512Hz and the difference

in the height of the water level for the two positions
where a loud sound is heard is 32.4 cm.
Calculate the speed of sound in the tube.
[3]

(c) The length of the column of air in the tube in Fig. 6.1
is 15.7 cm.
(a) By reference to Fig. 5.1, state one similarity and one Suggest where the antinode of the stationary wave
difference between these two waves. [2] produced in the tube in Fig. 6.1 is likely to be found.
(b) State, with a reason, whether the two waves are [2]
coherent. [1]
For Dennis Phiri

11. Nov 06 (Q4)

(a) In order that interference between waves from two 12. June 07 (Q 5)
sources may be observed, the waves must be coherent. Light reflected from the surface of smooth water may be
Explain what is meant by described as a polarised transverse wave.
(i) interference, (a) By reference to the direction of propagation of
[2] energy, explain what is meant by
(ii) coherence. (i) a transverse wave,
[1] [1]
(ii) polarisation.
[1]

(b) A glass tube, closed at one end, has fine dust

(b) Red light of wavelength 644 nm is incident normally sprinkled along its length. A sound source is placed near
on a diffraction grating having 550 lines per millimetre, the open end of the tube, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

The frequency of the sound emitted by the source is

Red light of wavelength λ is also incident normally on
the grating. The first order diffracted light of both
wavelengths is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
(i) Calculate the number of orders of diffracted light of
wavelength 644 nm that are visible on each side of the
zero order. [4]
(ii) State and explain
1. whether λ is greater or smaller than 644 nm, [1]
2. in which order of diffracted light there is the greatest
separation of the two wavelengths. [2]
varied and, at one frequency, the dust forms small
heaps in the tube.
(i) Explain, by reference to the properties of stationary
waves, why the heaps of dust are formed. [3]
(ii) One frequency at which heaps are formed is 2.14
kHz.
The distance between six heaps, as shown in Fig. 5.1, is
39.0 cm.
Calculate the speed of sound in the tube. [3]
(c) The wave in the tube is a stationary wave. Explain,
by reference to the formation of a stationary wave, what
is meant by the speed calculated in (b)(ii).
[3]

1. Physical Quantities and Units

Physical quantity A measurement, consisting of a number multiplied

by a unit
Base unit Primary or fundamental unit not dependant of other units
SI Base units mass (kg) current (A)
length (m) temperature (K)
time (s) amount of substance (mol)
Derived unit Obtained from the base units by multiplication and
division without including any numerical factors
Prefixes pico (p) 10-12 centi (c) 10-2 kilo (k) 103
-9 -1
nano (n) 10 deci (d) 10 mega (M) 106
micro (μ) 10 -6
giga (G) 109
-3
milli (m) 10 tera (T) 1012

Avogadro constant The number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12

Avagadro number, 6.0 x 1023 mol-1
L The amount of matter that contains the same number of
The mole atoms (or molecules) as there are atoms in 0.012kg of carbon-12
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Scalar quantity Has size only

Vector quantity Has both magnitude and direction
Parallelogram law If two vectors are represented in size and direction by the
adjacent sides (tail to tail) of a parallelogram, then the resultant vector is represented
in size and direction by the diagonal between the two vectors.

Triangle of vectors If two vectors are represented in size and direction by the consecutive sides (nose to
tail) of a triangle drawn to scale, then the third side represents the resultant vector in
size and direction

Resultant vector a single vector that has the same effect as all the vectors present

Components of a two vectors perpendicular to each other which produce the

vector same effect as the original vector

2. Measurement
Systematic errors All measurements taken are faulty in one direction
Accuracy is not improved by taking more readings
Random errors Result in a scatter of readings about a mean value
Accuracy is improved by taking an average of several readings
Combining errors 1. ADDING & SUBTRACTING – add absolute errors
2. MULTIPLYING & DIVIDING – add % error
3. POWERS – multiply % errors by the power
Accuracy A measure of the fractional uncertainty in a measurement
An accurate experiment has a small systematic error
Precision A precise experiment has a small random error
A measure of the size of the smallest measurement that can be made
with an instrument
e.g.  1.0 mm with a metre rule,  0.1 mm with a vernier callipers,  0.01
mm with a micrometer

3. Kinematics
Displacement The length of the path between two points in a straight line, a
vector
Speed Rate of change of distance, a scalar
Velocity Rate of change of displacement, a vector
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity, a vector
Gradient of a displacement-time velocity
graph
Gradient of a velocity-time graph acceleration
Area under a velocity-time graph displacement or distance moved
Area under an acceleration-time change in velocity
graph
Equations of motion v = u + at v 2 = u 2+ 2 a s
s
= ½ (u + v) s = ut + ½ a t 2
t
Projectile motion The vertical and horizontal motions are independent of each other.
There is acceleration in the vertical direction as gravity acts
downwards.
No horizontal acceleration if friction is ignored.
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The principle applies to motion in any uniform field if the direction of

the force remains constant (eg. in an electric field not a magnetic
field)
Projectile formulae u sin θ
maximum height s =
2g
2u sin θ u sin 2θ
time of flight = range =
g g
Range is a maximum when  = 45
Terminal velocity The maximum velocity that can be reached by an object moving
through a liquid or gas

4. Dynamics
Newton’s first law All bodies remains at rest or continues with uniform motion
in a straight line unless an unbalanced force acts on it.
Newton’s second law The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the unbalanced force on the body and takes place in the direction of
the force
Newton’s third law If one body exerts a force on a second body then the
second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body.
Resultant force A single force that represents the combined effect of all the
forces present in a given situation
Newton’s second law mv mu
formula F= = ma (for a constant mass)
t
F = mass per second x velocity change (for a changing
mass)
Momentum The product of mass and velocity.
p = mv a vector, units: kg ms-1
One Newton The force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration
of 1ms-2
Impulse The change in momentum, or
product of force and time, Units N s
Mass A measure of the inertia of a body
Weight The force of gravity on a mass
Area under a force- Impulse or change in momentum
time graph
Principle of In a system of interacting (e.g. colliding) bodies the total
conservation of linear momentum remains constant if no external forces
momentum are acting
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Collisions and In an elastic collision KE is always conserved,
momentum in an inelastic collision KE is not conserved.
Momentum is conserved in all collisions
Relative velocity rule In an elastic collision the relative speed of approach
equals the relative speed of separation
i.e. u1 - u2 = - (v1 – v2)

5. Forces
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The four fundamental forces Gravitational, Electromagnetic,

Strong nuclear force and Weak nuclear force
Pressure The force per unit area acting at right angles to the surface.
F
p = a scalar, unit: pascal (Pa)
A
Pressure in a liquid p = h  g where h = depth of liquid,
g = acceleration due to gravity
 = density of liquid
Upthrust The force acting on objects in fluids.
Upthrust equals the weight of the displaced fluid
Normal reaction force The force between two objects in contact acting 90 to
the surface at the point of contact
Friction The force that opposes motion or possible motion produced between
surfaces, or fluids and surfaces
Moment force x perpendicular distance from the line of action
of the force to the axis of rotation
T=Fd units: Nm
Principle of moments For an object in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise about any point
equals the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about that point
Couple The turning effect produced by two identical anti-parallel forces
Moment or torque of couple=one force x perpendicular distance
between the forces
Conditions for static equilibrium 1. The resultant force must be zero in any direction
2. The resultant torque about any point must be zero
Centre of mass The point at which an applied force produces acceleration but no
rotation. The point at which the mass of the body can be considered to
act.
Centre of gravity The single point at which the entire weight of the body can be
considered to act
Triangle of forces If three forces acting at a point can be represented in size and direction
by the sides of a closed triangle taken in order, then the forces are in
equilibrium

6. Work, Energy, Power

Energy The capacity to perform work
Principle of conservation of energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
from one form to another
Work done force x displacement in the direction of the force.
a scalar. Unit: joule (J)
Joule 1J = 1Nm
The work done when a force of 1N moves its point of
application through a distance of 1m
Area under a force-displacement work done
graph
Work done on/by expanding gas W = pv where v = change in volume
p = pressure of the gas
Kinetic energy Ek = ½ m v2 a scalar
Gravitational potential energy Ep = mgh

Work-energy equation F s = ½mv2 - ½mu2

Types of potential energy gravitational, elastic, chemical

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Internal energy The sum of the KE and PE possessed by all the particles in that
system
Power Rate of doing work or rate of energy transferred. Unit: watt
Power and velocity P = Fv where P = power required to move a steady force F at speed v
Efficiency Ratio of energy output to energy input, or
ratio of power output to input power

7. Electric Fields
Electric field A region of space where a charge experiences a force
Electric field strength The force per unit positive charge at a point in the field
F
E= where F = electric field strength where the charge
q
+q is placed and F = force on the charge +q
Field lines Lines which positive test charges follow in an electric field
Equipotential A line joining points of equal potential
Field strength of a uniform field V
E=- where V = pd between the plates,
d
d = separation of plates
minus sign shows that field lines are from positive to the
negative plate while the potential increases from the negative to the
positive plate

8. Current of Electricity.
Electric current Rate of flow of charge.
Q
I = where I = current (A), Q = charge (C), t = time (s)
t
Coulomb The amount of charge that passes appoint in a circuit when
a current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second. 1 C = 1 A x 1 s
Ampere The current in two infinitely long straight wires 1 m apart
in a vacuum which produces a force of 2 x 10 -7 N m-1 on
each wire.
Potential difference The electrical energy converted into other forms of energy when 1 C of charge
(p.d). passes from one point to another.
W
V= where W = energy transferred (J), Q = charge (C)
Q
Volt The p.d. between two points in a circuit when 1 J of
electrical energy is transferred for each coulomb of charge
1 V = 1 J C-1
Resistance The ratio of the p.d. across a conductor to the current
passing through it.
V
R=
I
Ohm 1 Ω = 1 V A-1
Ohm’s Law The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the p.d. across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are constant.
Power The rate at which energy is converted from one form to another.
P=IV unit: watt (W)
Kilowatt hour The electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW device in 1 hour
Resistivity The resistance of a material per unit length and cross sectional area.
R A
ρ= unit : Ω m
l
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Emf The emf of a source is the electrical energy produced per coulomb of charge
passing through the source.
W
E= where W = energy transferred (J), Q = charge (C)
Q
Maximum power A given source of emf delivers the maximum amount of power to a load when the
theorem resistance of the load equals to the internal of the source.

9. D.C. Circuits.
Kirchhoff’s laws At a junction in a circuit, the current arriving equals the current leaving.
(ΣI=0)
Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the emf’s is equal to the
sum of the p.d.’s. ( Σ E = Σ I R )
Resistors in series RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel 1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

10. Phases of Matter

Density m
ρ= where ρ = density (kg m-3 ), m = mass (kg),
V
V = volume (m3)
Phases of matter Solids, liquids, gases, plasma.
The kinetic theory of matter Matter is made up of particles in motion.
In solids :the particles are closely packed and vibrate about a mean
position in the lattice.
In a liquid : the particles vibrate and move within ordered clusters with
limited freedom.
In a gas : the particles are widely separated and move randomly with
high speeds in all directions.
Equilibrium separation Particles in a solid have an equilibrium separation.
At separations less than the equilibrium separation, the molecules
repel each other so their P.E. increases.
At separations greater than the equilibrium separation, the
molecules attract each other, their P.E. falls.
The potential energy of a pair of molecules has its minimum value at
the equilibrium separation.
The internal energy The sum of the K.E. and P.E. possessed by all the particles in a
system.
Brownian motion The random motion of very small particles in a liquid or gas due to
uneven bombardments by the smaller surrounding molecules of the
liquid or gas.
Spacing of molecules In solids and liquids, about 3 x 10-10 m.
In gases, about 30 x 10-10 m.
Diameter of atoms about 3 x 10-10 m.
The diameter of a nucleus is about 5 x 10-15 m.
Pressure The force per unit area on a surface where the force is at
right angles to the surface.
F
p= where p = pressure (Pa or N m-2),
A
F = force normal to area A.
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Pressure in a fluid p=hρg where p = pressure, ρ = density,

g = acceleration due to gravity, h = depth
Melting and vaporisation The latent heat supplied increases the P.E. of the molecules and
supplies energy for work to be done if an expansion occurs. There is
no change in the K.E. of the molecules since the temperature is
constant.
Evaporation Occurs at the surface of a liquid and at all temperatures.
It is caused by the random motion of molecules that escape from the
surface.
Boiling Takes place at a temperature when the vapour pressure inside a
bubble equals that of the external pressure due to the atmosphere and
that of the liquid.
Boiling takes place at the boiling point and takes place throughout the
liquid.

11. Deformation of solids

Hooke’s Law The tension in a spring is proportional to its extension (provided that
the proportional limit is not exceeded)
T = k e, where k = spring constant(N m-1), e = extension
Strain Extension per unit length.
Tensile stress Tension per unit area applied normal that area.
Young modulus stress
E = provided the limit of proportionality
strain
is not exceeded
Strain energy ½ F x where F = force, x = extension
Area under a force-extension graph
Energy per unit volume ½ stress x strain
Area under the stress-strain graph
Ductile materials Show plastic behaviour and become permanently deformed.
Brittle materials Break beyond the elastic limit.
Crystalline solids Particles are arranged in a regular repetitive manner.
There is long range order.
Amorphous solids Particles are arranged in a disordered way.
There is no long range order.
Polymers Contain very long chain molecules made up of repeating subunits
called monomers.

12. Nuclear Physics

α scattering experiment A nuclear model of the atom is proposed by Rutherford,
the nucleus contains all the atom’s +ve charge and most of its mass.
The electrons surround the nucleus at relatively large distances from it.
Nucleons Protons and neutrons
Nuclide A specific combination of protons and neutrons in a nucleus,
A
Z X where A = nucleon number, Z = proton number,
X = chemical symbol
Isotopes Nuclei of the same element with the same number of protons but with
different numbers of neutrons.
Radioactivity The decay of an unstable nucleus when it emits all or some of the
following: α particles, β particles and γ rays, other particles or radiation.

Activity The rate at which nuclei decay.

α particle A helium nucleus ( 42 He or 42 α )
β particle An electron ( 0
β or 0
e )
1 1
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γ radiation An electromagnetic wave of very short wavelength

13. Waves
Progressive wave The movement of a disturbance from a source which transfers energy
and momentum from the source to places around it.
Wavefront A line or surface on which the disturbance has the same phase at all
points.
A ray A line which represents the direction of travel of a wave.
Displacement The vector distance a particle is moved from its rest position.
Amplitude The maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position.
Wavelength The distance from one particle to the next particle in phase with it, e.g.
distance between adjacent crests or troughs.
Period The time for one complete oscillation, or time taken for a wave to travel
one wavelength.
Frequency The number of oscillations per unit time made by a particle,
or the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed point in one second.
Wave speed v=fλ
Phase of a point in a wave A measure of the fraction of a complete wave cycle the point has
completed from a chosen start position.
Phase difference between two The fraction of a cycle by which one wave moves behind the other.
particles along a wave x x
phase difference φ = x 2 П radians or φ = x 360°
λ λ
Intensity of a wave The power passing through unit area at right angles to the direction of
propagation. Units : W m-2
Intensity α (amplitude)2
Transverse wave Particle vibration is at right angles to the direction of wave motion
Longitudinal wave Particle vibration is parallel to the direction in which the wave is
travelling

14. Superposition
The principle of
superposition
Stationary waves
Huygens’ principle
Diffraction
Interference
Interference conditions
Coherent sources
Constructive interference
Destructive interference
Wherever two or more waves meet, the total displacement at any point is equal to
the sum of the individual displacements at that point.
Result from the superposition of two waves of the same speed, frequency and
amplitude which travel in opposite directions
Stationary waves consist of nodes or points of zero displacement and antinodes or
points of maximum displacement. NN =λ/2 = AA and NA = λ/4
Each point on a wavefront becomes a new centre of disturbance and emits
wavelets in the forward direction.
The new wavefront is the surface which touches all the wavelets.
The result of superposing waves from coherent sources on the same wavefront
after the wave has been distorted by an obstacle.
The smaller the width of the gap in relation to the wavelength, the greater the
diffraction
The superposition of waves from a finite number of coherent sources.
Sources S1 and S2 must have the same wavelength and be coherent.
Those which emit waves of the same wavelength or frequency which have a
constant phase difference.
The waves arrive at a point Q in phase.
For a bright fringe at Q: S2 - S1 Q = n λ
(where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,….)
The path difference between the waves is zero or a whole number of wavelengths.
The waves arrive at a point Q out of phase by half a cycle.
For a dark fringe at Q, S2 Q - S1 Q = ( n + ½ ) λ
(where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)
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The path difference between the waves is a whole number of wavelengths plus a
half a wavelength.

Young’s two-slit formula ax

λ = where a = slit separation, x = fringe separation,
D
D = slit to screen distance.
Diffraction grating 1
The spacing d = , where N is the number of lines per metre
N
d sin θn = nλ where d = slit spacing, θn = angle of diffraction of the nth order.