AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

Topic 2.4
Airframe – Flight Control Surfaces
REVISION2 1
 INTRODUCTION
On completion of this topic you should be able to:

2.4.1 Describe the construction and attachment of flight control surfaces.

2.4.2 Describe methods of flight control balancing - mass and aerodynamic.

REVISION2 2
☻
 PRIMARY AND AUXILARY CONTROL
SURFACES

REVISION2 3
☻
 PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES
Primary flight controls include –
Ailerons,
Elevators, and
Rudders.

REVISION2 4
☻
 PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES
The structure of
primary control
surfaces can include:
• spars;
• ribs;
• skin;
• wires;
• tie rods.

REVISION2 5
☻
 PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

Note: the skin on

this rudder is
fibreglass.

REVISION2 6
☻
 PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

Simple
elevator
construction

REVISION2 7
☻
 PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

Ailerons, elevators and

rudders are attached to
the aircraft by hinges.

Either pull-push rods or

actuator arms are
connected to the flight
control to enable it to
pivot on the hinges.

REVISION2 8
☻
 AUXILARY CONTROL SURFACES

Auxiliary flight controls

include:
• Trailing edge flaps;
• Leading edge slats /
leading edge flaps;
• Trim tabs;
• Spoilers / lift dumpers
/ speed brakes / air
brakes.

REVISION2 9
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP

On larger aircraft, Trailing

Edge Flaps are big
structures.

Similar constructional
characteristics to wing or
stab structure.

i.e. spars, ribs and skin.

REVISION2 10
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP ATTACHMENT
Roller rides Flaps pivot on a hinge point or extend
in flap rearwards along a track using a system
track. of rollers.

Rib
Stringer

Skin

Flap
drive
spindle.

A simple flap showing structural features.

REVISION2 11
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP TYPES

Attached by hinges.

Increases effective camber

and changes wing chord
when deflected
downwards.

REVISION2 12
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP

Hinged only to the lower

portion of the wing.

Also increases lift, but

produces greater drag than
Plain flap because of the
turbulence it causes.

REVISION2 13
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP

Similar to Plain flap - changes

the wings camber and chord
line.

It also allows a portion of

higher pressure air beneath
the wing to travel through a
slot.

Increases velocity of airflow

over flap and provides
additional lift.

REVISION2 14
☻
 TRAILING EDGE FLAP
Attached to wing by a track
and roller system – moves
rearward and down when
extended.

This motion increases total

wing area as well as
camber and chord line.

It is the most efficient flap

system as well as the most
expensive.

REVISION2 15
☻
TRAILING EDGE FLAP ATTACHMENT

Flap roller rides in

this track.

Flap is attached
to this bracket.
REVISION2 16
☻
 SLATS

Simple slat construction may be

hollow with sheet metal skin and
internal ribs for shape.

REVISION2 17
☻
 SLATS

REVISION2 18
☻
 SLATS
Slats sit flush when
retracted.

They run on tracks at

the front of the wing
so that they may
extend outwards.

REVISION2 19
☻
 LEADING EDGE FLAPS
The purpose of leading edge flaps is to improve performance at low speeds.

Some leading edge flaps are

attached by hinge arms and
extended / retracted by
hydraulic actuators.
These Krueger flaps consist
of flat centre section and a
rounded bull nose with a
pivot point inside the
leading edge of the wing.
Krueger flaps extend down
and forward to increase a
wing’s camber and hence
it’s lift.

REVISION2 20
☻
 LEADING EDGE FLAPS

Variable Camber Leading Edge Flaps:

• attach to the wing by a series of links;

• driven by arms connected to rotary
actuators.

As the drive arms rotate, the flap is

extended / retracted.

REVISION2 21
☻
 COMPOSITES
Thinner surfaces such as
spoilers may have different
construction.

For example, upper and

lower metallic or composite
skin with a honeycomb
sandwich layer.

• High strength;
• Light weight;
• Can be formed into
complex shaped surfaces.

REVISION2 22
☻
 SPOILERS
Spoiler structure
showing honeycomb
core.

Spoilers attach to wing

rear spar area using
bolts and bushes.

At centre hinge area is a

robust bracket for
hydraulic actuator.

REVISION2 23
☻
 AIRBRAKE / SPEEDBBRAKE
Some aircraft have an airbrake / speedbrake to help slow
down airspeed.
This is also an auxiliary control surface.

REVISION2 24
☻
 AIRBRAKE / SPEEDBBRAKE

• Attached to empennage or rear

fuselage structure;
• Hydraulically actuated;
• Metal or composite structure;

REVISION2 25
☻
 AIRBRAKE / SPEEDBBRAKE
Some are attached to the wings on hinges and are also:
• Hydraulically actuated;
• Metal or composite structure;

REVISION2 26
☻
 AIRBRAKE / SPEEDBBRAKE

REVISION2 27
☻
 THIN SKINNED CONTROLS
To gain rigidity from thin metal coverings, many manufactures
corrugate the external skin.

REVISION2 28
☻
 TRIM TABS
Some flight controls have trim tabs (also an auxiliary control) on
their trailing edge to help with aerodynamic forces.

REVISION2 29
☻
 CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING
In general, control forces which the pilot has to exert in order to move the controls
depend on the airspeed and area of surface. The larger and/or faster the aircraft, the
higher the force required to maneuver.

For this reason controls

are often balanced to
assist the pilots input
force during maneuvers.
(Reduce forces)

REVISION2 30
☻
 CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING
Flight, especially high speed flight,
demands that all control surfaces be
well aligned and balanced.

Surfaces are aerodynamically and

statically / mass balanced.

Aerodynamic balancing makes it

easier for pilots to operate the
controls in flight – requires less input
force.

Static balancing prevents control

surface flutter and subsequent
vibration.

REVISION2 31
☻
 AERODYNAMIC BALANCING

One form of aerodynamic balance is when

a portion of the control surface of the
aircraft is extended out ahead of the hinge
line.
The portion is known as a Horn Balance.
This utilises the airflow about the aircraft
to aid in moving the surface.

REVISION2 32
☻
 AERODYNAMIC BALANCING
Another form of aerodynamic balance is the “Balance Panel”. The hinge balance panel
forms a moveable partition for the sealed space ahead of the aileron.

When the aileron is deflected upward, (as seen above) the air over the bottom surface
speeds up and produces a low pressure below the balance panel. (Venturi effect) This low
pressure pulls the balance panel down and puts a force on the leading edge of the aileron
in such a direction that it assists the pilot in holding the aileron deflected upward. There is
no extra drag.
REVISION2 33
☻
 AERODYNAMIC BALANCING - ANTI
BALANCE (LEADING)
Balance Tabs are fitted to the trailing edge of a control surface, connected to an
adjustable linkage which is anchored to the fixed surface.

As the control surface moves, the tab will move in the opposite direction, and the
venturi effect there, assists the effort being applied to move the control surface
against the aerodynamic loads.

REVISION2 34
☻
AERODYNAMIC BALANCING – ANTI
BALANCE (LEADING)
“Anti-Balance” Tab is used to decrease sensitivity of the control surface.

In this case the servo tab moves in same direction as the control surface and
increases the force required to move the control.

REVISION2 35
☻
 SERVO TAB
Provide a force to assist the pilot in moving a primary flight control surface of a
large aircraft in the event of a hydraulic system failure.

REVISION2 36
☻
 SPRING TAB
Another device for high speed aircraft.

The tab is deflected at high airspeeds when the restraining spring collapses –
produces an aerodynamic force that aids pilot in moving surface.

REVISION2 37
☻
 GROUND- ADJUSTABLE TAB
Many small aircraft have non-
moveable metal trim tab on
the rudder.

REVISION2 38
☻
 MASS BALANCING

Mass balance (static balancing):

• prevents flutter of the surface by
keeping the weight of the surface
concentrated near the hinge line;
• mass balance weights can be external
or internal;

REVISION2 39
☻
 MASS BALANCING

Control surface is
balanced on knife-edge
mandrel.

A sliding weight of
known weight is moved
along a graduated scale
until the flight control is
balanced (use spirit
level).

REVISION2 40
☻
 MASS BALANCING

REVISION2 41
☻
 MASS BALANCING

REVISION2 42
☻
 MASS BALANCING

REVISION2 43
☻
 MASS BALANCING
The weight must be a certain
distance from the hinge to achieve
equilibrium.

For example, if the weight is one

pound and it must be positioned one
inch forward of the hinge to achieve
equilibrium, the moment arm is said
to be one inch pound.

Two pounds placed half an inch

forward of the hinge will achieve the
same result.

REVISION2 44
☻
 MASS BALANCING
Therefore, it is necessary to know the distance from the hinge that the provision for
installing the balance weights is on the control surface.

A formula can then be used for balance weights required:

M1 x S1 = M2 x S2,
where M1 is the mass used along the sliding scale and M2 is the mass to be installed
on the control surface.

S1 is the distance of the balance weight from the hinge line and S2 is the distance
from the hinge that the weights are mounted on the control surface.

If S2 is known already (for example, 2 inches), the formula can now read:
M1 x S1 = M2
2

REVISION2 45
☻
 MASS BALANCING

If, on the sliding scale, a mass of 0.5 pounds at a

distance of 1 inch from the hinge achieved
balance, then:

0.5 x 1 = M2
2

0.25 = M2

Therefore, a mass of 0.25 pounds is installed to

balance this control surface.

REVISION2 46
☻
 CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING

Rebalance is required
after any repair or repaint
and should be carried out
to aircraft manufacturers
specifications.

REVISION2 47
☻
 CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

2.4.1 Describe the construction and attachment of flight control surfaces.

2.4.2 Describe methods of flight control balancing - mass and aerodynamic.

REVISION2 48
☻
 This concludes Topic 2.4
Airframe - Flight Control Surfaces

Your next topic is Topic 2.5

Airframe – Nacelles/Pylons
REVISION2 49