MODULE 13

FLIGHT CONTROL
SURFACES
 THE BASICS
AIRFOIL

An airfoil is a body shaped in such

a way, that when moved through
a fluid it produces an
aerodynamic reaction, Lift, at the
cost of a small resistance, Drag.

Aerofoil surfaces include

wings, tailplanes, fins,
winglets, propeller blades and
helicopter rotor blades.
 THE BASICS
ANGLE OF ATTACK (AoA)

The Angle of Attack is the angle at which relative wind meets an Airofoil.
It is the angle formed by the Chord of the airfoil and the direction of the
relative wind or the vector representing the relative motion between the
aircraft and the atmosphere.

 Controlling the flight surfaces

The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date
back to early aircraft. They operate with a collection of mechanical parts,
such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the
forces of the flight deck controls to the control surfaces. Mechanical
flight control systems are still used today in small general and sport
category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.

Mechanical flight control system

 Controlling the flight surfaces

To make the control force required by pilots manageable, aircraft engineers

designed more complex systems. At first, hydromechanical designs, consisting
of a mechanical circuit and a hydraulic circuit, were used to reduce the
complexity, weight, and limitations of mechanical flight controls systems

Hydromechanical flight control system.

 Controlling the flight surfaces
As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control surfaces were actuated by
electric motors, digital computers, or fiber optic cables. Called “fly-by-wire,” this
flight control system replaces the physical connection between pilot controls
and the flight control surfaces with an electrical interface. In addition, in some
large and fast aircraft, controls are boosted by hydraulically or electrically
actuated systems. In both the fly-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the
control reaction is fed back to the pilot by simulated means.
 Flight Control Systems

Flight Controls

Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary

and secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or
stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary
control system and are required to control an
aircraft safely during flight. Wing flaps, leading
edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute
the secondary control system and improve the
performance characteristics of the airplane or
relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.

 Flight Control Systems

Flight Controls

Movement of any of the three

primary flight control surfaces
(ailerons, elevator or stabilator,
or rudder), changes the airflow
and pressure distribution over
and around the airfoil. These
changes affect the lift and drag
produced by the airfoil/ control
surface combination, and allow
a pilot to control the aircraft
about its three axes of rotation
 Flight Control Systems

Ailerons

Ailerons are a primary flight control surface which control movement about
the longitudinal axis of an aircraft. This movement is referred to as "roll".
 Flight Control Systems

Ailerons

In some large aircraft, two ailerons are mounted on each wing. In this
configuration, both ailerons on each wing are active during slow speed flight.
However, at higher speed, the outboard aileron is locked and only the inboard or
high speed aileron is functional.

Ailerons are made for lateral control, producing a rolling moment by increasing
the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other.
 Flight Control Systems

Aileron types

In order to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered 4

systems: differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and
flaperons.

Differential ailerons
With differential ailerons, one
aileron is raised a greater
distance than the other aileron is
lowered for a given movement of
the control wheel or control stick.
This produces an increase in drag
on the descending wing.
 Flight Control Systems

Aileron types

In order to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered 4

systems: differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and
flaperons.

Frise-Type Ailerons
The aileron that is being raised
pivots on an offset hinge. This
projects the leading edge of the
aileron into the airflow and
creates drag. It helps equalize
the drag created by the lowered
aileron on the opposite wing and
reduces adverse yaw.
 Flight Control Systems

Aileron types

In order to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered 4

systems: differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and
flaperons.

Coupled Ailerons and Rudder

Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked
controls. This is accomplished with
rudder-aileron interconnect springs,
which help correct for aileron drag by
automatically deflecting the rudder at
the same time the ailerons are
deflected.
 Flight Control Systems

Aileron types

In order to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered 4

systems: differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and
flaperons.

Flaperons
They combine both aspects of flaps
and ailerons. In addition to
controlling the bank angle of an
aircraft like conventional ailerons,
flaperons can be lowered together to
function much the same as a
dedicated set of flaps. The pilot
retains separate controls for ailerons
and flaps. Mostly used on large jets. Example of flaperons can be found on Boeing 777.
 Flight Control Systems

Elevators

IThe elevator controls movement about the lateral axis. This movement is referred
to as "pitch".

The elevators respond to a forward or aft

movement of the control column or control
stick. When the pilot moves the controls
forward, the elevator surface is deflected
downwards. This increases the camber of
the horizontal stabilizer resulting in an
increase in lift. The additional lift on the tail
surface causes rotation around the lateral
axis of the aircraft and results in a nose
down change in aircraft attitude. The
opposite occurs with an aft movement of
the flight deck controls.
 Flight Control Systems

Elevators

T-tail
T-tail designs have become popular on many light and large aircraft, especially
those with aft fuselage mounted engines. It has some benefits over the traditional
configuration.
1. In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above most of the effects of downwash
from the propeller
2. T-tail configuration removes the tail from the exhaust blast of the engines
3. It reduces noise and vibration inside the aircraft
4. Seaplanes and amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the horizontal
surfaces as far from water as possible.
 Flight Control Systems

Elevators

On the other hand T-tail configuration has a significant disadvantage: aircraft

may be more susceptible to a deep stall, especially when flying at a very high
AOA (Angle of Attack) with a low airspeed and an aft CG (Centre of Gravity).
 Flight Control Systems

Elevators

Stabilator

Stabilator is essentially a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central

hinge point.

Stabilator construction is simple compared to the stabilizer + elevator, having

practically only a plate, and having no control linkages inside. This makes it
lighter and produces less drag.
 Flight Control Systems

Elevators

Trimmable horizonal stabilizer (THS)

Most airliners and transport aircraft are equipped with adjustable horizontal
stabilizers which are combined with independently-moving elevators. The
elevators are controlled by the pilot or autopilot and primarily serve to change
the aircraft's attitude, while the whole assembly is used to trim and stabilize the
aircraft in the pitch axis.

The main advantage of THS is smaller

elevator deflection angles. When high-lift
devices are deployed (flaps for example),
the center of pressure on the wing shifts
backwards. The result is a massive
change in trim, and by adjusting the
stabilizer incidence, the elevator can be
held near its neutral position and has
reserves for control.
 Flight Control Systems

Rudder

The rudder is a primary flight control surface which controls rotation about the
vertical axis of an aircraft. This motion is called yaw. Like the other primary
control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface in this
case, to the vertical stabilizer or fin. The rudder is controlled by the left and right
rudder pedals.

Unlike a boat, the rudder is not used to steer the aircraft. Rather, it is used to
overcome adverse yaw induced by turning or, in the case of a multi-engine
aircraft, by engine failure and also allows the aircraft to be intentionally slipped
when required.
 Flight Control Systems

Rudder

The rudder works by changing the effective

shape of the airfoil of the vertical stabilizer.
Changing the angle of deflection at the rear
of an airfoil will change the amount of lift
generated by the foil. With increased
deflection, the lift will increase in the
opposite direction. The rudder and vertical
stabilizer are mounted so that they will
produce forces from side to side, not up and
down. The side force is applied through the
center of pressure of the vertical stabilizer
which is some distance from the aircraft
center of gravity. This creates a torque on
the aircraft and the aircraft rotates about its
center of gravity.
 Flight Control Systems

Rudder

Yaw Damper

Yaw damper is a device used on many

aircraft to reduce the rolling and yawing
oscillations known as the Dutch roll. It also
makes flying more easy for pilots. It is in
simplest terms, an "autopilot" for yaw. When
engaged, it operates the rudder
 Flight Control Systems

Rudder

Yaw Damper

Modern digital yaw dampers are part of an

integrated digital autopilot system. They use
accelerometers and rate sensors to
determine the aircraft's motion. It then runs
the numbers through special algorithms to
determine what rudder inputs need to be
made in order to damp any Dutch roll and
to coordinate a turn. It then provides those
rudder commands to a servo or hydraulic
system which operates the rudder.
 Flight Control Systems

Rudder

Dutch roll

Dutch Roll is a type of aircraft motion where

the yaw (tail wagging) and roll (rocking from
side to side) motions are out of phase. It
means that the aircraft yaws in one
direction and rolls in the other. "Dutch-roll"
characteristics of the following Boeing 720
were the least troublesome of any of the 707
series. Instructors found it difficult at first to
induce a good Dutch-roll condition for
demonstration purposes, except at altitude
where turbulence would make the plane
"snake." Recovery, of course, was to turn the
yaw damper on, which stops the roll
immediately. With yaw damper inoperative,
the recovery was taught using ailerons only.
Flight Control Systems
FLAPS

Flight Control Systems

FLAPS

Flight Control Systems

FLAPS

Flight Control Systems

FLAPS

Flight Control Systems

FLAPS

Flight Control Systems

FLAPS

 Flight Control Systems

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

 Flight Control Systems

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

 Flight Control Systems

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

 Flight Control Systems

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

 Flight Control Systems

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

Flight Control Systems

SPOILERS

Flight Control Systems

SPOILERS

Flight Control Systems

TRIM SYSTEMS

Flight Control Systems

TRIM SYSTEMS

Flight Control Systems

TRIM SYSTEMS

Flight Control Systems

TRIM SYSTEMS

Flight Control Systems

TRIM SYSTEMS

 Flight Control Systems

TRIM TABS, SERVO TABS

 Flight Control Systems

Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

Elevons

The ailerons, elevators, and

rudder are considered
conventional primary control
surfaces. However, some aircraft
are designed with a control
surface that may serve a dual
purpose. For example, elevons
perform the combined functions
of the ailerons and the elevator..
 Flight Control Systems

Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

Ruddervator

A ruddervator combines the

action of the rudder and elevator.
This is possible on aircraft with V–
tail empennages where the
traditional horizontal and vertical
stabilizers do not exist. Instead,
two stabilizers angle upward and
outward from the aft fuselage in
a “V” configuration. Each contains
a movable ruddervator built into
the trailing edge. Movement of
the ruddervators can alter the
movement of the aircraft around
the horizontal and/or vertical axis.
 Flight Control Systems

Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

Canard

In aeronautics, a canard is a wing

configuration in which a small
forewing or foreplane is placed
forward of the main wing of a
fixed-wing aircraft or a weapon.
The term "canard" may be used to
describe the aircraft itself, the
wing configuration, or the
foreplane. Canard wings are also
extensively used in guided
missiles and smart bombs.