AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT- I

DESIGN OF COMMUTER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

ABISHEK. W 210218101001

AKSHAYA. E 210218101008

KARUKKUVEL RAJ. D 210218101024

VENGADESAN. R 210218101046

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

{MONTH&YEAR}
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report “AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I, COMMUTER

AIRCRAFT” is the Bonafede work of ABISHEK. W (210218101001),
AKSHAYA. E (210218101008), KARUKKUVELRAJ. D (210218101024),
VENGADESAN. R (210218101046) who carried out the project work under my
supervision.

SIGNATURE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my heart full thanks to ________ (Head of

Aeronautical Department) for giving me her able support and encouragement. At
this juncture I must emphasis the point that this DESIGN PROJECT would not
have been possible without the highly informative and valuable guidance by
_____, whose vast knowledge and experience had made us go through this project
with great ease. We have great pleasure in expressing our sincere a whole-hearted
gratitude to them,

It is worth mentioning about my teammates, friends and colleagues, for

extending their kind help whenever the necessity arose. I thank one and all who
have directly or indirectly helped me in making this project a great success.

i
ii
 ABSTRACT

The Purpose of the project is to design a (> 100-seater) Medium Range

Commuter/Regional passenger aircraft. The aircraft will possess a low wing,
tricycle landing gear and a conventional tail arrangement. Such an aircraft must
possess wide body configuration to provide sufficient capacity. It must possess
turbofan engines to provide the required amount of speed, range and fuel
economy for the operator. The aircraft will possess one or two engines.

iii
 AIM OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this design project is to design a (<150-seater) passenger aircraft by

comparing the data and specifications of present aircrafts in this category and to
calculate the performance characteristics. Also, necessary graphs need to be
plotted and diagrams have to be included wherever needed.

The following design requirements and research studies are set for the
project:

• Design an aircraft that will transport less than 150 passengers and their
baggage over a design.
• To provide the passengers with high levels of safety and comfort.
• To operate from regional and international airports.
• To use advanced and state of the art technologies in order to reduce the
operating costs.
• To offer a unique and competitive service to existing scheduled
operations.
• To assess the development potential in the primary role of the aircraft.
• To produce a commercial analysis of the aircraft project.

iv
 INTRODUCTION

An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo.

such aircraft are most often operated by airlines. Although the definition of an
airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is typically defined as an
aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service.

The largest airliners are wide-body jets. These aircraft are frequently called
twin aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from
the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These aircraft are usually used for
long haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers.

Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be
powered by turbofans or turboprops. These airliners are the non-mainline
counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers,
and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These
regional routes then form the spokes of a hub-and-spoke air transport model.

The lightest (light aircraft, list of light transport aircraft) of short haul
regional feeder airliner type aircraft that carry 19 or fewer passenger seats are
called commuter aircraft, commuterliners, feederliners, and air the cis, depending
on their size, engines, how they are marketed, region of the world, and seating
configurations. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats.

v
 DESIGN SEQUENCE

RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND MARKET

ANALYSIS

MISSION REQUIREMENT'S

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

REQUIEREMENTS SATISFIED (IF SATISFIED

MOVE TO NEXT STEP OR ELSE RETURN TO
MISSION REQUIREMENTS

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

FINAL EVALUTION ( VERIFY THE EVALUTION

VALUES AND ENSURE CORRECTNESS AND
PROCEED FURTHER )

DETAILED DESIGN

TEST ARTICAL FABRICATION

FLIGHT TEST

vi
 CHAPTER-I

1. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES

OF AIRPLANE AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS AND
PERFORMANCE DETAILS WITH REFERENCE TO THE
DESIGN WORK UNDER TAKEN

1.1 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS:

1.1.1 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Wing Wing Fuselage

Specifications/Aircraft Length span Area Height diameter Aspect ratio
- (m) (m) (m2) (m) (m) -
Airbus A220 35.1 35 112.3 11.5 3.7 10.90828139
Antonov AN-140 22.605 24.505 51 8.225 2.82 11.77441225
Antonov AN-148 29.13 28.91 87.32 8.19 3.15 9.571554054
ATR 42-300 22.67 24.57 54.5 7.59 3.96 11.07678716
ATR 72 27.17 27.05 61 7.65 4.5 11.99512295
De Havilland Canada
Dash 8 z(Q200) 22.25 25.89 54.4 7.49 2.69 12.32154596
De Havilland Canada
Dash 8 z(Q300) 25.7 27.4 56.2 7.49 2.69 13.35871886
De Havilland Canada
Dash 8 z(Q400) 32.8 28.4 64 8.4 2.69 12.6025
Britten Norman Islander 10.865 14.94 30.19 4.185 1.5 7.393295793
CASA C-212Aviocar 16.15 20.28 41 6.6 1.83 10.03118049
CASA/IPIN CN-235 25.81 25.81 59.1 8.18 2.9 11.27167682
Cessna 208 Caravan 11.46 15.87 25.96 4.53 2.1 9.701729584
Antonov AN-24 23.53 29.2 74.98 8.32 3.93 11.37156575
British Aerospace 146-
100/RJ70 26.19 26.34 77.3 8.61 3.5 8.975363519
British Aerospace 146-
200/RJ785 28.55 26.34 77.3 8.61 3.5 8.975363519
British Aerospace 146-
300/RJ100 31 26.34 77.3 8.61 3.5 8.975363519
Table 1-1 - STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

1
 1.1.2 ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS:

No of Fuel
Specifications/Aircraft engines Types Name of engines capacity
(kg)
airbus a220 2 Turbofan PW 1500 G 21805
Antonov AN-140 2 Turboprop PW 127 A 4370
Antonov AN-148 2 Turbofan PROGRESS D-436 12050
ATR 42-300 2 Turboprop PW 120 5255
ATR 72 2 Turboprop PW 127 M 5000
De Havilland Canada Dash
8 z(Q200) 2 Turboprop PW 123 C/D 3160
De Havilland Canada Dash
8 z(Q300) 2 Turboprop PW 123 D/E 3160
De Havilland Canada Dash
8 z(Q400) 2 Turboprop PW 150 3160
Boxer engines
Britten Norman Islander 2 (piston type) Lycoming 0-540-e4c5 620
Caret AiResearch TPE 331-
CASA C-212Aviocar 2 Turboprop 10R-513c 2040
CASA/IPIN CN-235 2 Turboprop GE C77-9c3 5220
Cessna 208 Caravan 1 Turboprop PW Canada PT64-114A 1009
Antonov AN-24 2 Turboprop Ivchencko Al-24A 5550
British Aerospace 146- BAE 146: lycoming Alf
100/RJ70 4 Turbofan 502 R-5 11728
British Aerospace 146- BAE 146: lycoming Alf
200/RJ785 4 Turbofan 502 R-5 12091
British Aerospace 146- BAE 146: lycoming Alf
300/RJ100 4 Turbofan 502 R-5 12901
Table 1-2 - ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS

2
1.1.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:
TAKE-
Cruise OFF Service
Specifications/Aircraft Range speed WEIGHT ceiling W/S

- (km) (km/hr) (kg) (m) (kg/m2)

airbus a220 6297 871 63100 12496.8 561.8878
Antonov AN-140 900 575 14150 7600 277.451
Antonov AN-148 4400 800 43700 12200 500.4581
ATR 42-300 850 500 16900 7600 310.0917
ATR 72 1528 510 23000 7600 377.0492
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q200) 2084 535 16466 7620 302.6838
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q300) 111 532 19505 7620 347.0641
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q400) 2040 667 30481 8229 476.2656
Britten Norman Islander 1398 240 2994 3400 99.17191
CASA C-212Aviocar 835 354 8000 7925 195.122
CASA/IPIN CN-235 4355 450 16100 7620 272.4196
Cessna 208 Caravan 1982 344 3629 7600 139.792
Antonov AN-24 2400 450 21000 8400 280.0747
British Aerospace 146-100/RJ70 3870 747 38101 11000 492.8978
British Aerospace 146-200/RJ785 3650 747 42184 11000 545.718
British Aerospace 146-300/RJ100 3340 747 44225 11000 572.1216

Table 1-3 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

3
1.1.4 WEIGHTS AND PAYLOADS
TAKE- Empty
OFF weight Payloa Fuel
no of WEIGH of d capacit
Specifications/Aircraft Crew seats T aircraft weight y
- - - (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
15118.
airbus a220 2 135 63100 35220 2 21805
Antonov AN-140 2 52 14150 12810 6000 4370
Antonov AN-148 2 99 43700 22000 9000 12050
ATR 42-300 2 52 16900 10285 5255 5255
7556.8
ATR 72 2 74 23000 13500 3 5000
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q200) 2 90 16466 10477 4647 3160
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q300) 2 90 19505 11793 6124 3160
De Havilland Canada Dash 8
z(Q400) 2 90 30481 17819 8489 3160
Britten Norman Islander 1 9 2994 1866 670 620
CASA C-212Aviocar 2 26 8000 3780 2700 2040
CASA/IPIN CN-235 3 51 16100 9800 6000 5220
Cessna 208 Caravan 1 13 3629 2145 21 1009
Antonov AN-24 2 50 21000 13300 5300 5550
British Aerospace 146-
100/RJ70 2 112 38101 23820 8612 11728
British Aerospace 146-
200/RJ785 2 112 42184 24600 11233 12091
British Aerospace 146-
300/RJ100 2 112 44225 25640 11781 12901

Table 1-4 - WEIGHTS AND PAYLOADS

4
1.2 GRAPHS:

Length vs Wing span

40
35
30
Wing Span (m)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-1 LENGTH VS WINGSPAN

The mean Wingspan is 25.43 m

Length vs Wing area

120

100
Wing Area(m2)

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-2 LENGTH VS WINGAREA

The mean Wing Area is 62.74 m2

5
 Length vs Height
14
12
10
Height(m)

8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-3 LENGTH VS HEIGHT

The mean Height is 7.76m

Length vs Fuselage diameter

5
4.5
Fuselage diameter(m)

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-4 LENGTH VS FUSELAGE DIAMETER

The mean Fuselage Diameter is 3.06 m

6
 Length vs Aspect Ratio
16
14
12
Aspect Ratio

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-5 LENGTH VS ASPECT RATIO

The mean Aspect ratio is 10.64

Length vs Range
7000
6000
5000
Range (km)

4000
3000

2000
1000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-6 LENGTH VS RANGE

The mean Range is 2503.6 km

7
 Length vs Cruise speed
1000
900
Cruise speed (km/hr)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-7 LENGTH VS CRUISE SPEED

The mean Cruise speed is 566.81 km/hr.

Length vs Max. TakeOff Weight

70000
Maximum takeOff Weight(kg)

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-8 LENGTH VS MAX. TAKEOFF WEIGHT

The mean Maximum Takeoff weight is 25220.45 kg

8
 Length vs Service Ceiling
14000
12000
10000
Service Ceiling(m)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-9 LENGTH VS SERVICE CEILING

The mean Service ceiling is 8681.25 m

Length vs Fuel capacity

25000

20000
Fuel Capacity(kg)

15000

10000

5000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Length(m)

GRAPH 1-10 LENGTH VS FUEL CAPACITY

The mean Fuel capacity is 6819.93 kg

9
 Length vs W/S
700

600

500

400
W/S

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40
Length(m)

GRAPH 1-11 LENGTH VS W/S

The mean value of W/S is 359.39

10
1.3 SELECTION OF MEAN PARAMETERS:

PARAMETERS VALUES

Crew 2

Length(m) 24.436

Wing span(m) 25.428

Wing Area(m2) 62.741

Height(m) 7.7613

No of engines 2

no of seats 72.938

Fuselage diameter (m) 3.06

Aspect ratio 10.644

Range(km) 2502.5

Cruise speed(km/hr) 566.81

TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (kg) 25221

Empty weight of aircraft(kg) 14928

Fuel capacity(kg) 6819.9

Service ceiling(m) 8681.9

W/S 359.39

Payload weight(kg) 6781.7

Table 1-5 MEAN PARAMETERS

11
 CHAPTER - II

2. PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION, OF

DESIGN PARAMETERS, POWERPLANT SELECTION,
AEROFOIL SELECTION, FIXING THE WING
GEOMETRY OF WING, TAIL, CONTROL SURFACES
LANDING GEAR

2.1 WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

2.1.1 FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

The design takes off gross weight W0 is the weight of the airplane at the
instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight of all the fuel on board at the
beginning of the flight.

𝑊0 = {𝑊𝐶𝑅𝐸𝑊 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 }

Where Wfuel- Weight of the fuel load at beginning of the flight

Wcrew-Weight of the crew including passengers

Wpayload – Weight of the payload

Wempty – Empty Weight of aircraft without crew and payload

𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊0 =
𝑊𝑓 𝑊
(1 − (𝑊 ) − (𝑊𝑒 ))
[ 0 0 ]

Wf/W0- Fuel Weight fraction

We/W0- Empty Weight fraction

12
2.1.2 Estimation of We/W0:

In the plot of W0 vs We/W0 for the aircraft shown in the comparative data
sheet the values of We/W0 tend to cluster around a horizontal line at We/W0.

MTOW vs We/W0
0.6

0.5

0.4
We/W0

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
MTOW(kg)

GRAPH 2-1 MTOW VS We/W0

The fuel weight ratio Wf/W0 can be obtained from the product of mission
segment weight at the end of the segment divided by the weight at the beginning
of segment.

13
MISSION PROFILE:

Figure 2-1 NORMAL MISSION PROFILE FOR PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT

Fuel fractions typical values:

Airplane Type Take Off Climb Descent Landing

Business Jets 0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992
Transport 0.970 0.985 1.000 0.995
Military Trainers 0.990 0.980 0.990 0.995
Supersonic Cruise 0.995 0.92-0.87 0.985 0.992

Table 2-1 Suggested fuel fractions for several mission phases

14
From Table 2-1 ,

We get the following values:

For takeoff, segment 0-1 historical data's shows that,

(W1/W0) = 0.97

For climb, segment 1-2 historical data shows that,

(W2/W1) =0.985

For loiter, segment 3-4 ignoring the feel consumption during descent we assume,

(W4/W3) = 1

For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume that,

(W5 /W4) = 0.995

The Brequet's range equation is used to calculate the value of W3/W2. As we all
know that maximum range is covered during cruise we considering this equation,

𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑊2
𝑅= ln ( )
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊3

15
Typical L/D values:

Aircrafts Cruise Loiter

Homebuilt & single-engine 8-10 10-12
Business Jets 10-12 12-14
Regional turboprops 11-13 14-16
Transport Jets 13-15 14-18
Military trainers 8-10 10-14
Fighters 4-7 6-9
Military, Patrol, Bombers & Transporters 13-15 14-18
Supersonic cruise 4-6 7-9

Table 2-2 Initial estimates of L/D values

From Table 2-2,

L/D values of similar type of aircrafts we come to know that the approximate
value of L/D of our aircraft is to be 15.

So,

{L/D} = 15

Aircrafts Cruise Loiter

Business & Transport jets 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.6

Military trainers 0.5-1.0 0.4-0.6

Fighters 0.6-1.4 0.6-0.8

Military patrol, Bombers, Transports, Flying boats 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.6

Supersonic cruise 0.7-1.5 0.6-0.8

Table 2-3 Specific fuel consumption

16
From the Table 1-5 MEAN PARAMETERS,

V∞ =566.81 km/hr

R = 2502.5 km

From Table 2-3, we found the value of C as 0.6 hr-1

So now substituting these values in the Brequet’s range equation,

𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑊2
𝑅= ln ( )
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊3

We get, {W2/W3} = 1.193

{W3/W2} = 0.838

Now using all the fuel fractions,

{W5/W0} = 0.7967

If at end of the flight, the fuel tanks are not completely empty, making six percent
of allowance for reserve and trapped fuel,

𝑊𝑓 𝑊5
= 1.06 [1 − ( )]
𝑊0 𝑊0

{Wf/W0} = 0.2155

We assume that the airplane occupies 75 passengers (with an average weight of

120kg per passenger including baggage) and 2 crew (with an average weight of
100kg).

Wcrew+Wpayload= 9200 kg

17
From the GRAPH 2-1 we get values of {We/W0} = 0.4341

By substituting these values in:

𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊0 =
𝑊𝑓 𝑊
(1 − (𝑊 ) − (𝑊𝑒 ))
[ 0 0 ]

We get W0 as,

W0= 26255.70776255708 kg

This is only the first estimation.

Now by doing iterations, we can get a fairly accurate value of the maximum
takeoff weight (W0).

2.1.3 ITERATION PROCESS (W0)

For the iteration process, we use the given formula

𝑊𝑒
= 1.02 × 𝑊0 −0.06
𝑊0

FIRST: (With W0=58504.56621004566),

We/W0=0.5539196196304955, W0=39899.31834294411

SECOND:

We/W0= 0.5401846551909114, W0= 37656.25121577611

18
THIRD:

We/W0= 0.542063227757362, W0= 37948.038636615594

FOURTH:

We/W0= 0.5418122397837434, W0= 37908.79272939836

FIFTH:

We/W0= 0.5418458787973894, W0= 37914.04800546624

SIXTH:

We/W0= 0.5418413721798881, W0= 37913.343871787496

SEVENTH:

We/W0= 0.5418419759653464, W0= 37913.43820835764

EIGHTH:

We/W0= 0.5418418950722768, W0= 37913.42556944579

NINTH:

We/W0= 0.5418419059100591, W0= 37913.427262764344

TENTH:

We/W0= 0.5418419044580495, W0= 37913.427035899214

19
 After doing ten iterations, we can see that value of empty fuel ratio starts
to converge on 0.5418419,

So, we can take the value W0= 37913.4270 as the final estimate of the W0

Maximum Takeoff Weight (W0) = 37913.4270 kg

We know that,

{Wf/W0} =0.2155

So, substituting the value of W0, we get the first estimation values of Wf,

Wf = 0.2155×37913.4270

=8170.3435

Weight of the fuel (Wf) = 8170.3435 kg.

We=0.5418419×37913.4270

=20543.08

Empty Weight of the aircraft (We) = 20543.08 kg

20
2.2 POWERPLANT SELECTION:

Propulsion is the action or process of pushing or pulling to drive an object

forward. A propulsion system consists of a source of mechanical power, and a
propulsion unit (means of converting this power into propulsive force).

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and

some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.

An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from
the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is
cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag
of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. The greater the difference between
the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will
accelerate.

2.2.1 THRUST CALCULATION:

AIRCRAFT TYPE TYPICAL INSTALLED T/W
Jet Trainer 0.4
Jet fighter(dogfighter) 0.9
Jet fighter(other) 0.6
Military cargo/bomber 0.25
Jet transport 0.25

Table 2-4 Typical T/W values

From Table 2-4, for our aircraft T/W is 0.25

We already calculated weight ‘W’ in weight estimation which is 37913.4270 kg.

Therefore W=37913.4270×9.81= 371930.71887 N.

21
 T=W×0.25

= 371930.71887×0.25

T= 92982.6797175 N.

So, the thrust required is 92982.6797175 N or approximately 93 kN. Our

aim is to make a twin-engine aircraft, so engine having thrust value more or less
equal to 45-50 kN can be chosen.

S.no Engine Thrust(kN) Dry Length of Engine SFC

name weight(kg) engine(m) Diameter (lb/lbf\h)
(m)
1 CF34-3 41 760 2.6 1.2 0.69
2 CF34- 61.3 1090 3.3 1.3 0.68
8C
3 CF34- 78.5 1700 2.3 1.4 0.65
10A
4 RR 7.8 2061 3.36 1.1 0.874
Conway
Rco
5 Soloviev 53 1450 3.3 0.97 0.72
D-20
6 Soloviev 66.68 1546 309 0.9 0.78
D-30 2

Table 2-5 List of available engines

22
 Thrust vs TSFC
1
0.8
0.6
TSFC

0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Thrust(kN)

GRAPH 2-2 Thrust vs TSFC

From Table 2-5, we have selected the Soloviev D-20 as it has required thrust
range for our aircraft.

2.2.2 Specifications of Soloviev D-20

The Soloviev D-20P, built by the Soloviev Design Bureau, was a low-bypass
turbofan engine rated at 52.9 kN (11,900 lbf) thrust used on the Tupolev Tu-124.
A later derivative with increased bypass ratio, the D-20P-125, was developed into
the Soloviev D-30 family of low and medium bypass engines.

General characteristics

Type: Twin-spool turbofan engine

Length: 3,304 mm (130.1 in)

Diameter: 976 mm (38.4 in)

Frontal area: 0.74 m2 (8 sq. ft)

23
Dry weight: 1,450 kg (3,200 lb)

Components

Compressor: Three-stage LP, eight-stage HP, axial flow

Combustors: Cannular with 12 flame tubes

Turbine: Two-stage LP turbine, single-stage HP turbine

Fuel type: Aviation Kerosene, Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-1

Oil system: Pressure spray at 3.9 bar (57 psi)

Performance

Maximum thrust: 53 kN (11,900 lbf) at 11,700 HP rpm

Overall pressure ratio: 13:1 overall

Fan pressure ratio: 2.6:1

HP pressure ratio: 13.6:1

Bypass ratio: 1:1

Air mass flow:

Fan mass airflow: 113 kg/s (250 lb/s) at 8,550 LP rpm

HP mass airflow: 56.5 kg/s (125 lb/s) at 11,7000 HP rpm

Turbine inlet temperature: JPT 923 K (650 °C)

Specific fuel consumption:

S.f.c. cruise: 73 kg/kN/h (0.72 lb/lbf/h)

S.f.c. take-off: 92 kg/kN/h (0.9 lb/lbf/h)

Thrust-to-weight ratio: 3.73

24
 Figure 2-2 Soloviev D-20

Figure 2-3 Soloview D-20

2.3 FUEL TANK:

OVER VIEW OF FUEL USED IN JET’S:

Jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel (ATF, also abbreviated avtur) is a type of
aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is
colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for
commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized
international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian
turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-
weather performance.

25
 Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons. Because the exact
composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible
to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined
as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound. Further-more,
the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers)
is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke
point. Kerosene-type jet fuels (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) have
the majority of their carbon number distribution between 8 and 16 (carbon atoms
per molecule), while more-refined, more-expensive wide-cut or naphtha-type jet
fuels (including Jet B and JP-4) have most of a carbon chains 10 to 14 atoms long
for enhanced performance in polar regions.

PROPERTIES OF JET FUEL:

Appearance Straw- colored liquid

Density: 775.0–840.0 kg/m3

Melting point: −47 °C (−53 °F; 226 K)

Boiling point: 176 °C (349 °F; 449 K)

Flash point: 38 °C (100 °F; 311 K)

Auto-ignition temperature: 210 °C (410 °F; 483 K)

2.3.1 VOLUME OF FUEL TANK:

The volume of the fuel tank is given by

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑉= =8170.3435/800 = 10.2125 m3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

26
2.4 WING GEOMETRY:

Figure 2-4 WING GEOMETRY

➢ The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the

Wing loading (W/S), Aspect Ratio (b/S), Taper ratio () and the Sweepback
angle at quarter chord (qc).
➢ The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to
find the Wing area S (from W/S) the value of S also enables us to calculate
the Wingspan b (using the Aspect ratio).

27
2.4.1 Taper ratio λ of the wing:

Wing taper ratio is the ratio between the tip chord and the centre-line Root
chord. Most wings of low sweep have a taper ratio of about 0.4-0.5. Most swept
wings have a taper ratio of about 0.2-0.3

Let taper ratio () be 0.25.

2.4.2 Wing loading of the aircraft:

The wing loading is the weight of the aircraft divided by the area of the
reference (not exposed) wing. As with the thrust-to-weight ratio, the term "wing
loading" normally refers to the take-off wing loading, but can also refer to combat
and other flight conditions.

Wing loading affects stall speed, climb rate, take-off and landing distances,
and turn performance. The wing loading determines the design lift coefficient,
and impacts drag through its effect upon wetted area and wingspan.

𝑊 maximum takeoff weight 37913.42

= = = 564.18
𝑆 wing wetted surface area 67.2

The root chord can now be found using the equation

2×𝑆
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
𝑏 × (1 + 𝜆)

Croot=(2×67.2)/(24×(1+λ)

=4.48 m.

28
The tip chord is given by

Ctip = λ ∗ Croot

Ctip=0.25*4.48

=1.12 m.

Mean chord is given by

2 (1 + λ + λ2 )
𝐶𝑚 = ( ) ∗ Croot ∗
3 (1 + λ)

Cm= (2/3) *4.48*(1+0.25+0.252)/ (1+0.25)

=3.136 m.

Aspect ratio:

wing span 2 b2 242

AR = = = = 8.57
wetted surface area of wing S 67.2

Wing aerodynamic chord is given by

wing span b
wing aerodynamic chord (c) = =
aspect ratio AR

c=24/8.57

=2.8 m.

29
2.4.3 Sweep Angle calculation:

Croot +Ctip
Sweep angle (Λ) = tan−1 ( )
0.5∗wing span

4.48+1.12
Sweep angle (Λ) = tan−1 ( )
0.5∗24

Sweep angle (Λ) = 25°

2.4.4 Sectional lift co-efficient (𝐂𝟏 ):

(2∗W) 2 𝑊 1
C1 = ( ) = ( 𝜌 ) ∗ ( 𝑆 ) ∗ (𝑉 2 )
ρ∗ V2stall ∗S 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙

2
Vstall = 0.25 ∗ Vcruise

2
Vstall = 0.25 ∗ 157.44

Vstall = 39.36 m⁄s

2 1
C1 = (
1.225
) ∗ (564.18) ∗ (39.362 )

C1 = 0.594576

2.4.5 Wing lift coefficient (CL):

CL = 0.9 ∗ C1 ∗ cos Λ

CL = 0.9 ∗ 0.594756 ∗ cos 25°

CL = 0.48498 ≈ 0.5

30
 DESIGN PARAMETERS VALUES
wing span(m) 24
wing area(m2) 67.2
Aspect ratio 8.57
taper ratio 0.25
Wing loading(kg/m2) 564.18
root chord(m) 4.48
tip chord(m) 1.12
mean chord(m) 3.136
wing aerodynamic chord(m) 2.8
sweep angle 250
sectional lift coefficient 0.48498
lift coefficient 0.5

Table 2-6 Wing design parameters

2.5 AIRFOIL SELECTION:

2.5.1 INTRODUCTION:

The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils affect
the cruise speed landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling qualities
and aerodynamic efficiency during the all phases of flight

Airfoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions, design

selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness to chord ratio, lift curve
slope, characteristic curves.

Figure 2-5 Aerofoil Nomenclature

31
Chord:

The distance from the leading to trailing edge measured along the chord
line.

Camber:

The maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line.

The thickness distribution:

The distance from the upper surface to the lower surface, measured
perpendicular to chord line

Angle of attack:

Figure 2-6 Angle of Attack

The angle between the free stream and chord line is known as angle of
attack

2.5.2 NACA airfoils

The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA
airfoils is described using a series of digits following the word "NACA".

32
 The parameters in the numerical code can be entered into equations to
precisely generate the cross-section of the airfoil and calculate its properties.

Four-digit series:

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:

➢ First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.

➢ Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil
leading edge in tenths of the chord.
➢ Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of
the chord.

For example, the NACA 2412 airfoil has a maximum camber of 2% located 40%
(0.4 chords) from the leading edge with a maximum thickness of 12% of the
chord.

The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber.
The 15 indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio: it is
15% as thick as it is long.

Five-digit series:

The NACA five-digit series describes more complex airfoil shapes. Its format
is LPSTT, where:

➢ L: a single digit representing the theoretical optimal lift coefficient at ideal

angle of attack CLI = 0.15 L (this is not the same as the lift coefficient CL),
➢ P: a single digit for the x coordinate of the point of maximum camber (max.
camber at x = 0.05 P),
➢ S: a single digit indicating whether the camber is simple (S = 0) or reflex
(S = 1),

33
 ➢ TT: the maximum thickness in percent of chord, as in a four-digit NACA
airfoil code.

For example, the NACA 23112 profile describes an airfoil with design lift
coefficient of 0.3 (0.15 × 2), the point of maximum camber located at 15% chord
(5 × 3), reflex camber (1), and maximum thickness of 12% of chord length (12).

Six-digit series:

An improvement over 1-series airfoils with emphasis on maximizing laminar

flow. The airfoil is described using six digits in the following sequence:

➢ The number "6" indicating the series.

➢ One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area in tenths
of the chord.
➢ The subscript digit gives the range of lift coefficient in tenths above and
below the design lift coefficient in which favorable pressure gradients exist
on both surfaces.
➢ A hyphen.
➢ One digit describing the design lift coefficient in tenths.
➢ Two digits describing the maximum thickness as percent of chord.
➢ "a=" followed by a decimal number describing the fraction of chord over
which laminar flow is maintained. a=1 is the default if no value is given.

For example, the NACA 612-315 a=0.5 has the area of minimum pressure 10%
of the chord back, maintains low drag 0.2 above and below the lift coefficient of
0.3, has a maximum thickness of 15% of the chord, and maintains laminar flow
over 50% of the chord.

34
Seven-digit series:

Further advancement in maximizing laminar flow achieved by separately

identifying the low-pressure zones on upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The
airfoil is described by seven digits in the following sequence:

➢ The number "7" indicating the series.

➢ One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area on the
upper surface in tenths of the chord.
➢ One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area on the
lower surface in tenths of the chord.
➢ One letter referring to a standard profile from the earlier NACA series.
➢ One digit describing the lift coefficient in tenths.
➢ Two digits describing the maximum thickness as percent of chord.

For example, the NACA 712A315 has the area of minimum pressure 10% of the
chord back on the upper surface and 20% of the chord back on the lower surface,
uses the standard "A" profile, has a lift coefficient of 0.3, and has a maximum
thickness of 15% of the chord.

Eighth series:

Supercritical airfoils designed to independently maximize laminar flow

above and below the wing. The numbering is identical to the 7-series airfoils
except that the sequence begins with an "8" to identify the series.

35
2.5.3 Thickness to chord ratio:

[(Croot + Ctip )/2] ∗ (b⁄2) = (S⁄2 )

[𝐶̂ ] = ((S⁄2 )/(b⁄2))

[𝐶̂ ] = ((67.2⁄2 )/(24⁄2))

[𝐶̂ ] = 2.8 m

V = 2 ∗ [ (2⁄3) ∗ (t⁄c) ∗ (b⁄4) ∗ (𝐶̂ 2 )] ∗ 0.75

10.2125 = 2 ∗ [ (2⁄3) ∗ (t⁄c) ∗ (24⁄4) ∗ (2.82 )] ∗ 0.75

(t⁄c) = 0.217

2.5.4 Reynolds number calculation:

R e = (ρ ∗ VL ∗ D)/μ

VL2 − Vf2 = 2 ∗ 0.2g ∗ 0.6 ∗ runway distance

VL2 = 2 ∗ 0.2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 2000

VL = 68.62 m⁄s
Where
𝑉𝐿 -lifting velocity
𝑉𝑓 - Final velocity = 0
=17.965*10-6
Runway distance = 1000 m

D = t = (t⁄c) ∗ 𝐶̂ = 0.217 ∗ 2.8

36
 D = t = 0.6076 m

R e = (1.225 ∗ 68.62 ∗ 0.6076)/(17.965 ∗ 10−6 )

R e = 2.9 ∗ 106

2.5.5 Calculation of leading-edge radius:

Leading edge radius = 1.58% of chord = 0.0158 × 3.136

Leading edge radius = 0.0495 m

s.no airfoil name Reynolds no 2*10^6

angle of attack cl cd cl/cd
1 NACA63(4)-421 9.75 1.2778 0.0208 61.43
2 NACA65(4)-421 a=0.5 11.75 1.1136 0.0351 31.7
3 NACA63(4)-221 9.5 1.121 0.0193 58.14
4 NACA65(4)-421 8.75 1.1028 0.0205 53.9
5 NACA65(4)-221 8 0.9414 0.0188 50.18
6 NACA64(4)-221 9.25 1.0819 0.019 57.24
7 NACA66(4)-221 9.5 0.7328 0.0248 29.56
8 NACA64(4)-421 9.5 1.2541 0.0204 61.51

Table 2-7 List of Available Aerofoils

37
From Table 2-7 we have selected NACA 664-221, which has the suitable lift
coefficient for current design.

2.5.6 NACA 664 – 221:

Figure 2-7 NACA 664-221

Type CAMBERED airfoil

Max thickness 21%
Camber 1.1%

Cl max 0.7326

Cd max 0.0248

(L/D)max 29.56

Angle of attack at (L/D)max 9.5°

Zero lift angle 3.2°

38
2.5.6.1 Graphs:

GRAPH 2-3 Cl vs Cd GRAPH 2-4 Cl vs Alpha

GRAPH 2-6 Cl/ Cd vs Alpha GRAPH 2-5 Cd vs Alpha

39
 GRAPH 2-7 Cm vs Alpha

2.6 FLAPS SELECTION:

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft
wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of
a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the minimum speed at which the
aircraft can be safely flown, and to increase the angle of descent for landing. Flaps
also cause an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed.

40
 Figure 2-8 Different types of airfoils

There are mainly 4 varieties of flaps used around a modern-day aircraft. The flaps
on an aircraft is mainly used to change the aerodynamic shape, or camber of a
wing. Flaps increase the ability to produce lift thereby producing an increment in
the aircraft's drag also. They are normally found on the inboard section of a wing's
trailing edge. From above flaps the preferable flaps is double slotted flaps as it is
simpler in design and has more efficiency.
FLAPS TAKEOFF LANDING
Double slotted flaps 20° 40°
(∆Clmax)/cos∆ 1.825 2.5
(∆Clmax) 1.72 1.92

Table 2-8 FLAPS DATA

41
 CLmax = ∆CLmax + CLmax
(required ) (avilable)

CLmax = (0.9 ∗ ∆CLmax ) + 1.72

(required )takeoff

CLmax = (0.9 ∗ 0.7328) + 1.72

(required )takeoff

CLmax = 2.37952
(required )takeoff

CLmax = (0.9∆CLmax ) + 1.92

(required )landing

CLmax = (0.9∆ ∗ 0.7328) + 1.92

(required )landing

CLmax = 2.57952
(required )landing

2.7 TAIL DESIGN:

2.7.1 INTRODUCTION:

The empennage also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the
rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the
feathers on an arrow. Most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical
and horizontal stabilizing surfaces which stabilize the flight dynamics of yaw and
pitch as well as housing control surfaces.

The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide stability; the
movable surfaces on tails namely elevator and rudder provide control. The
complete design of tail surfaces requires information on location of the center of
gravity(c.g.) of airplane, shift in (c.g.) location during flight and the desirable
level of stability. However, to obtain the (c.g.) location, the weights of horizontal

42
and vertical tails are needed which depends on their size. Hence, preliminary
sizing of the two tails are carried out.

2.7.2 TYPES OF TAILS:

The many types of airplane tail design include, the conventional, T-tail,
cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted V-tail, inverted Y-tail,
twin-tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane tail designs.

Figure 2-9 Tail of Boeing 747

We have selected conventional tail for our aircraft. The conventional tail
design is the most common form.

2.7.3 Conventional Tail:

It has one vertical stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage
and one horizontal stabilizer divided into parts, one on each side of the
vertical stabilizer. For many airplanes, the conventional arrangement
provides adequate stability and control with the lowest structural weight.

43
 Figure 2-10 A conventional Tail layout

2.7.4 Tail Design:

From the data collected on similar transport aircraft, we choose the following vale
as tail parameters,

PARAMETERS HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL

Area ratio(St/Sw) 0.31 0.21
Aspect Ratio 5 1.7
Taper ratio 0.26 0.31
Tail volume ratio 1 0.09
Sweep Λwing+5° Λwing+5°

Table 2-9 Tail Design parameters

The root chord can now be found using the equation

2×𝑆
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
𝑏 × (1 + 𝜆)

The tip chord is given by

Ctip = λ ∗ Croot

44
Horizontal tail volume coefficient is given by

𝐿𝐻𝑇 𝑆𝐻𝑇
𝐶𝐻𝑇 =
𝐶𝑀 𝑆𝑊

Vertical tail volume coefficient is given by

𝐿𝑉𝑇 𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑇 =
𝑏𝑤 𝑆𝑊

45
PARAMETERS HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL
ST(m2) 20.832 14.112
b(m) 10.21 4.89
LT(m) 10.12 10.285
Λt 30° 30°
Croot(m) 3.24 4.41
Ctip(m) 0.8424 1.3671

Table 2-10 Tail geometry parameters

2.7.5 AIRFOIL SELECTION FOR TAIL:

For both horizontal and vertical tails NACA 0012 can be used. Because the
elevator and rudder have deflections on both sides of undeflected positions, and
the NACA had generated huge amount of data on the airfoil.

2.7.6 NACA 0012

Figure 2-11 NACA 0012

46
 Type Symmetric airfoil
Max thickness 12%
Camber 0%

Cl max 0.6195

Cd max 0.01306

(L/D)max 47.4

Angle of attack at (L/D)max 5°

Zero lift angle 0°

Table 2-11 TAIL AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

2.8 LANDING GEAR:

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying, allowing it to
take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear placement is
essential for ground stability and controllability. A good landing gear position
must provide superior handling characteristics and must not allow overbalancing
during takeoff or landing.

2.8.1 Tricycle-type landing gear:

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type

landing gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type landing
gear is used on large and small aircraft with the following benefits:

• Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when
braking, which enables higher landing speeds.
• Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and
ground maneuvering.
47
 • Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is
forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep
the aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel
type landing gear.

2.8.1.1 Nose Landing Gear

The nose landing gear (NLG) hydraulically retracts forward into a wheel
well under the cockpit and provides a steering system which is automatically
activated when the wheel is on the ground. During taxing the steering system
allows 15 degrees of turn while 45 degrees are possible to maneuver the aircraft
in the ramp.

The NLG incorporates a small taxi light, which is mounted on the actuator
strut, above the larger landing light, and has two gear doors. The larger forward
gear door is operated hydraulically and opens only during extension and
retraction. On the ground it can be opened manually for servicing. The smaller
aft door is linked to the NLG's leg. It is pushed open when the gear is lowered
and pulled into its closed position when the gear is retracted.

48
 Figure 2-12 Nose landing gear

2.8.1.2 Main Landing Gear

The main landing gear (MLG) also retracts forward, fulfilling 90 degrees
turn to lie flat in the wheel wells. They are equipped with carbon heat sink type
brakes by Bendix and an anti-skid system by Hydro-Air. The brake stem features
an emergency system that provides hydraulic accumulator pressure to power the
brakes in case of a malfunction or loss of the normal hydraulic system. When the
emergency system is active the anti-skid system is not available

49
 Figure 2-13 Main landing gear

Each MLG has three doors. The two forward doors are operated
hydraulically and open only during extension and retraction but can be opened
manually for maintenance works on the ground. The aft door is mechanically
linked to the strut and remains open when the MLG is extended.

2.8.2 LANDING GEAR LOAD CALCULATIONS:

WW (or) WL- Load on the wheel

WL = WO − (0.8 ∗ Wf )

WL = 37913.42 − (0.8 ∗ 8170.3435)

50
 WL = 31377.145 kg

Weight calculation for nose wheel

WLNLG = (10% WL ) ∗ 9.81⁄(Number of wheels)

WLNLG = (0.1 ∗ 31377.145)⁄(2)

WLNLG = 15390.48 N.

Weight calculation for main wheel

WLMLG = (90% WL ) ∗ 9.81⁄(Number of wheels)

WLMLG = (0.9 ∗ 31377.145) ∗ 9.81⁄(8)

WLMLG = 34628.20 N.

2.8.3 Tire Sizing:

Aircraft type Diameter (cm) Width (cm)

A B A B
General aviation 5.1 0.349 2.3 0.312

Business twin 8.3 0.251 3.5 0.216

Transport/ Bomber 5.3 0.315 0.38 0.480

Jet fighter / trainer 5.1 0.302 0.36 0.467

Table 2-12 Statistical tire sizing

Main wheel diameter (or) width = A*WWB

Nose wheel diameter (or) width = A*WWB

51
2.8.3.1 Nose wheel:

Nose wheel diameter calculation

Nose wheel diameter = A*WWB

From Table 2-12, A=5.3 And B=0.315

Nose wheel diameter = 5.3*(15390.48)0.315

Nose wheel diameter (DNLG) = 110.47 cm = 1.1047 m

Nose wheel width calculation

Nose wheel width = A*WWB

From Table 2-12, A=0.36 And B=0.48

Nose wheel width= 0.36*(15390.48)0.48

Nose wheel width (WNLG) = 36.82 cm = 0.3682 m

Area of contact (AP ) calculation

AP = WLNLG / tire pressure

From (RAYMER, 2018) Tire pressure = 4.8*105 N/m2

AP = 15390.48 / 4.8 ∗ 105

AP = 0.03206 m2

WLNLG 15390.48
Runway loading = = = 0.48 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Ap 0.03206

52
2.8.3.2 Main wheels:

Main wheel diameter calculation

Main wheel diameter = A*WWB

From Table 2-12, A=5.3 And B=0.315

Main wheel diameter = 5.3*(34628.60)0.315

Main wheel diameter (DMLG) = 142.62 cm = 1.4262 m

Main wheel width calculation

Main wheel width = A*WWB

From Table 2-12, A=0.36 And B=0.48

Main wheel width= 0.36*(34628.60)0.48

Main wheel width (WMLG) = 58.83 cm = 0.5883 m

Area of contact (AP ) calculation

AP = WLMLG / tire pressure

From (RAYMER, 2018) Tire pressure = 4.8*105 N/m2

AP = 34628.60/ 4.8 ∗ 105

AP = 0.07214 m2

WLNLG 34628.60
Runway loading = = = 0.48 ∗ 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Ap 0.07214

53
2.8.4 VALIDATION:

Nominal working stress on concrete runway = 2.75 MN/m2

Working stress obtained = 0.48 ∗ 106 N⁄m2

Since,

0.48 ∗ 106 N⁄m2 < 2.75 MN/m2

The condition is satisfied

54
 CHAPTER - III

3. PREPARATION OF LAYOUT DRAWING,

CONSTRUCTION OF BALANCE AND THREE VIEW
DIAGRAMS OF THE AIRPLANE UNDER
CONSIDERATION

3.1 Fuselage Sizing:

From (RAYMER, 2018), Length of the fuselage is

L = a * W0c

Where a – 0.281 & c – 0.43

L = 26.715 m

For passenger aircrafts, slenderness ratio is approximately 7

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒

Df = 3.816 m

3.1.1 Cockpit Sizing:

From (Torenbeek, 1982),

Length of cockpit = 2.67 m.

55
 Figure 3-1 Typical Stick controlled Aircraft cockpit

3.1.2 Passengers Compartment Sizing

It is determined to have 2 separate classes of seats in our aircraft, the first class
having 15 seats and economy class having 60 seats.
First Class Economy
No of passengers 15 60
Seat pitch(cm) 97 81
Seat width(cm) 60 46
Aisle width(cm) 51 30
No of rows 4 10
Aisle height(cm) 76 76

Table 3-1 Passenger cabin layout

56
3.2 ESTIMATION OF WETTED SURFACE AREA:
3.2.1 Wetted surface area of Wing & Tail:

The exposed root chord is given by,

𝐶𝑟 −𝐶𝑡 𝐷𝑓
𝐶𝑟𝑒 = 𝐶𝑟 − ( 𝑏⁄ × )
2 2

The exposed wing taper ratio is given by,

𝐶𝑡
𝜆𝑒 = ⁄𝐶
𝑟𝑒

The exposed wing span is given by,

𝑏 𝑏 𝐷𝑓
(2) = 2 − 2
𝑒

The exposed surface area is given by,

𝑏 𝐶𝑟𝑒 +𝐶𝑟
𝑆𝑒 = 2 × ( ) ( )
2 𝑒 2

The wetted surface area of the wing is given by,

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 2 × 𝑆𝑒 (1 + 0.25(𝑡⁄𝑐))

The mean aerodynamic chord of exposed wing is given by,

1+𝜆𝑒 +𝜆2 𝑒
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 2⁄3 ×
1+𝜆𝑒

57
 Wing Horizontal Vertical Tail
Tail
𝐶𝑟𝑒 (m) 3.9452 2.343 2.032
𝜆𝑒 0.2838 0.3596 0.6728
𝑏 10.09 3.195 0.535
( )
2 𝑒
𝑆𝑒 (m2) 85.91 17.83 3.446
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 (m2) 178.96 37.53 7.25
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑒 (m) 2.795 1.710 1.7212

Table 3-2 Wetted surface area for wing and stabilizers

3.2.2 Wetted surface Area of Fuselage:

The fuselage wetted surface area is given by,

2⁄
2 3 1
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝜋𝐿𝑓 𝐷𝑓 (1 − ) (1 + 2 )
𝐿𝑓 ⁄𝐷𝑓 (𝐿𝑓 ⁄𝐷𝑓 )

Swet=261.295 m2 .

3.2.3 Wetted Surface Area of Engine:

The nacelle wetted surface area is given by,

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 2 × 1.2𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝐿𝑁

Swet=24.31 m2 .

58
3.3 COMPONENT WEIGHT BUILDUP:

The approximate weight of the each component can be found from the following
table,

Fighters Transport & General Multiplier

Bomber Aviation
Wing 44 49 12 Se
Horizontal tail 20 27 10 Se
Vertical tail 26 27 10 Se
Fuselage 23 24 7 Swet
Nose landing 0.033 0.043 0.057 TOGW*0.15
gear
Main Landing 0.033 0.043 0.057 TOGW*0.85
gear

Table 3-3 Approximate empty weight buildup

From this weight of each component is determined.

3.4 C.G CALCULATION:

The C.G calculation of an airplane is very important. This CG must be

properly located so that the airplane will be stable during maneuvering. Initially
for fully loaded condition, the weight of the components of fuselage and wing is
found out. From that cg of fuselage and wing is found out. After fixing the
fuselage and wing the cg is calculated for different configuration.

The position of various components is found out by comparing it with a

similar type aircraft.

59
3.4.1 C.G CALCULATION FOR FUSELAGE:

Case(1): With Full Payload:

Weight W×X
S no Component (N) X (m) (Nm)
1 Fuselage 61519.29 12.0195 739431.11
2 Crew 1962 2.67 5238.54
Nose landing
3 gear 2396.6811 2.6 6231.37
4 Horizontal tail 4722.6321 24.297 114745.79
5 Vertical stabilizer 912.33 24.8403 22662.55
6 Passengers 90252 12.0195 1084783.91
7 Control systems 8502.327 13.355 113548.58

Table 3-4 Fuselage with full payload

∑W=170267.26 N

∑WX=2086641.85 N

X = ∑WX / ∑W

X = 12.2551 m

60
Case(2): With Half Payload:
S no Component Weight (N) X (m) W×X (Nm)
1 Fuselage 61519.29 12.0195 739431.1062
2 Crew 1962 2.67 5238.54
Nose landing
3 gear 2396.6811 2.6 6231.37086
4 Horizontal tail 4722.6321 24.297 114745.7921
Vertical
5 stabilizer 912.33 24.8403 22662.5509
6 Passengers 45126 12.0195 542391.957
7 Control systems 8502.327 13.355 113548.5771

Table 3-5 Fuselage with half payload

∑W= 125141.2602 N

∑WX= 1544249.894 N

X = ∑WX / ∑W

X = 12.34005 m

61
 Case(3): With No Payload:
W×X
S no Component Weight (N) X (m) (Nm)
1 Fuselage 61519.29 12.0195 739431.106
2 Crew 1962 2.67 5238.54
3 Nose landing gear 2396.6811 2.6 6231.37086
4 Horizontal tail 4722.6321 24.297 114745.792
5 Vertical stabilizer 912.33 24.8403 22662.5509
6 Passengers 0 12.0195 0
7 Control systems 8502.327 13.355 113548.577

Table 3-6 Fuselage with No Payload

∑W= 80015.2602 N

∑WX= 1001857.94 N

X = ∑WX / ∑W

X = 12.52084 m

3.4.2 C.G CALCULATION FOR WING:

Case(1): With Full Fuel

S
no Component Weight (N) X (m) W×X (Nm)
1Wing 6659.9109 10 66599.109
2Engine 28449 16.8273 478719.8577
3Fuel 80151 15.4918 1241683.262
Main Landing
4 gear 13592.736 12.5 169909.2

Table 3-7 Wing with full fuel

∑W= 128852.6469 N

∑WX= 1956911.429 N

62
 X = ∑WX / ∑W

X = 15.1872 m

Case(2): With 10% Reserve fuel

S Weight W×X
no Component (N) X (m) (Nm)
1 Wing 6659.9109 10 66599.109
2 Engine 28449 16.8273 478719.858
3 Fuel 8015.1 15.4918 124168.326
4 Main Landing gear 13592.736 12.5 169909.2

Table 3-8 Wing with reserve fuel

∑W= 56716.7469 N

∑WX= 839396.493 N

X = ∑WX / ∑W

X = 14.7998 m

63
3.4.3 CALCULATION OF C.G FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS:

[∑𝑋𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 × ∑𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 ] + [∑𝑋𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 × ∑𝑊𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ]

𝑋𝐶𝐺 =
∑𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 + ∑𝑊𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔

S Wwing Xwing
no Components Wfus (N) Xfus (m) (N) (m) XCG (m)
Full payload + Full
1 Fuel 170267.3 12.2551 128852.6 15.1872 13.51817
Full payload +
2 Reserve Fuel 170267.3 12.2551 56716.75 14.7998 12.89094
Zero payload +
3 Reserve fuel 80015.26 12.52084 128852.6 15.1872 14.16574
Zero payload +
4 Full fuel 80015.26 12.52084 56716.75 14.7998 13.46616
Half payload + Full
5 Fuel 125141.3 12.34005 128852.6 15.1872 13.78443
Half payload +
6 Reserve Fuel 125141.3 12.34005 56716.75 14.7998 13.10718

Table 3-9 C.G calculation for different conditions

The C.G variation is around 5-7% which is within the acceptable limit range

64
 CHAPTER - IV

4. DRAG ESTIMATION, PERFORMANCE

CALCULATION, STABILITY ANALYSIS AND V-N
DIAGRAM

4.1 DRAG ESTIMATION:

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated by the interaction and contact of

a solid body with a fluid (liquid or gas). It is not generated by a force field, in the
sense of a gravitational field or an electromagnetic field, where one object can
affect another object without being in physical contact. For drag to be generated,
the solid body must be in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid, there is no
drag. Drag is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and
the fluid. There must be motion between the object and the fluid. If there is no
motion, there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the object moves through
a static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object. Drag acts in a
direction that opposes the motion. (Lift acts perpendicular to the motion.)

65
 Figure 4-1 Types of Drag

Types of Drag:

Parasite Drag:

Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow an aircraft’s
movement. As the term parasite implies, it is the drag that is not associated with
the production of lift. This includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft,
turbulence generated in the airstream, or a hindrance of air moving over the
surface of the aircraft and airfoil. There are two types of parasite drag

Profile drag -form drag, and skin friction.

Interference drag

Profile Drag:

It is the measure of resistance to the flight caused by the air on the profile of
the drag

It is further classified as

66
 • Skin friction drag

• Form drag (or) pressure drag

Skin Friction Drag:

Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of

moving air with the surface of an aircraft. Every surface, no matter how
apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged surface when viewed under a microscope.
The air molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of the wing, are
virtually motionless. Each layer of molecules above the surface moves slightly
faster until the molecules are moving at the velocity of the air moving around the
aircraft. This speed is called the free-stream velocity. The area between the wing
and the free-stream velocity level is about as wide as a playing card and is called
the boundary layer. At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase
velocity and move at the same speed as the molecules outside the boundary layer.
The actual speed at which the molecules move depends upon the shape of the
wing, the viscosity (stickiness) of the air through which the wing or airfoil is
moving, and its compressibility (how much it can be compacted).

Form Drag:

Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to
its shape and airflow around it. Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas,
and the aerodynamic shape of other components. When the air has to separate to
move around a moving aircraft and its components, it eventually re-joins after
passing the body. How quickly and smoothly it re-joins is representative of the
resistance that it creates, which requires additional force to overcome Notice how
the flat plate causes the air to swirl around the edges until it eventually re-joins
downstream.

67
 Form drag is the easiest to reduce when designing an aircraft. The solution
is to streamline as many of the parts as possible.

Interference Drag :

Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy
currents, turbulence, or restricts smooth airflow. For example, the intersection of
the wing and the fuselage at the wing root has significant interference drag. Air
flowing around the fuselage collides with air flowing over the wing, merging into
a current of air different from the two original currents.

Figure 4-2 Interference Drag

Figure 4-3 Interference drag

The most interference drag is observed when two surfaces meet

at perpendicular angles. Fairings are used to reduce this tendency. If a jet fighter
carries two identical wing tanks, the overall drag is greater than the sum of the
individual tanks because both of these create and generate interference drag.
Fairings and distance between lifting surfaces and external components (such as
radar antennas hung from wings) reduce interference drag.

68
4.1.2 ESTIMATION OF DRAG POLAR:

MACH NO:

From std atmospheric table, for the height of 8.5 km, it is found that

Speed of sound=306.4 m/s

Cruise speed = 157.44 m/s

Therefore Mach number, M = 0.51

The cutoff Reynolds number is given by,

𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 1.053
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 ( )
𝑘

Where Cmac is exposed aerodynamic chord for wings and stabilizers &
length for fuselage and nacelle.

K is the skin roughness value which is equal to 1.015*10-5

The skin friction drag coefficient (Cf,e) is given by

0.455
𝐶𝑓,𝑒 =
(log10 𝑅𝑒 )2.58 (1 + 0.144𝑀2 )0.65

The Form factor (FF) for wing & stabilizer is given by

0.6 𝑡 𝑡 4
𝐹𝐹 = [1 + ( ) + 100 ( ) ] [1.34𝑀0.18 (cos 𝛬)0.28 ]
(𝑥 ⁄𝑐)𝑚 𝑐 𝑐

Where (x/c)m=1

69
The Form factor (FF) for engine is given by,

0.35
𝐹𝐹 = 1 +
𝐿𝑛 ⁄𝐷𝑛

The Form factor (FF) for fuselage is given by,

60 𝐿𝑓 ⁄𝐷𝑓
𝐹𝐹 = 1 + 3 +
(𝐿𝑓 ⁄𝐷𝑓 ) 400

The parasite drag coefficient (Cd0) for each component is given by,

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝑓,𝑒 . 𝑄. 𝐹𝐹
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓

(Re)cutoff Cf,e FF Q(interference (CD)0

factor)
Wing 20.43*106 0.002622 1.525 1 0.010648
Horizontal 12.18*106 0.002842 1.245 1.04 0.00205
Tail
Vertical 12.26*106 0.002839 1.25 1.04 0.000398
Tail
Engine 24.37*106 0.00255 1.103 1.5 0.001526
Fuselage 220.11*106 0.001864 1.1924 1 0.0086423
Total (CD)0 0.0152383

Table 4-1 Parasite Drag Buildup

Accounting for 5% of leakage due to perturbation,

(Cd)0 = 0.016

70
Parasite Drag due to Flaps:

Flap chord is given by,

Cf = 20% of Cwing = 0.6272 m.

Flapped area is given by,

Sflapped = 25% of Sref = 16.8 m2

Takeoff flap deflection, δflap = 25°

Landing flap deflection, δflap = 65°

The Drag due to flap (∆CD0) is given by,

𝐶 𝑆
∆𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 ( 𝑓⁄𝐶 ) ( 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝⁄𝑆 ) (𝛿𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 − 10)
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑓

Flap Deflection Fflap ∆𝑪𝑫𝟎 Total 𝑪𝑫𝟎

Take-off 25° 0.0074 0.00555 0.02155
Landing 65° 0.0074 0.02035 0.03635
Cruise 0° 0 0 0.01600

Table 4-2 Total Parasite Drag

The Ostwald efficiency factor (e) is given by,

𝑒 = 4.61(1 − 1.45𝐴𝑅 0.68 )(cos 𝛬)0.15

e = 0.5615

71
The Induced Drag coefficient (K) is given by,

1
𝐾=
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

K = 0.06614

Hence Drag polar is,

• For takeoff , CD = 0.02155 + 0.06614 CL2

• For Cruise, CD = 0.01600 + 0.06614 CL2
• For Landing, CD = 0.03635 + 0.06614 CL2

Drag Polar
2

1.5

0.5
CL

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
CD

Landing Cruise Takeoff

GRAPH 4-1 Drag polar

72
4.2 ESTIMATION OF DRAG AND LIFT FORCES:

The velocity at takeoff is given by,

Vtakeoff = 1.2*Vstall =47.32 m/s

The velocity at landing is given by,

Vlanding=1.3*Vstall = 51.68 m/s.

4.2.1 During takeoff

Drag:

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2

D= 0.5*1.225*47.322*67.2*(0.02155+0.06614*2.37952)

D =16 kN

Lift:

1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2

L = 0.5*1.225*47.322*67.2*(2.37952)

L =218.4 kN

4.2.2 During Cruise:

Lift:

L=W

73
 L = 0.9*W0

L = 334.733 kN.

CL = 2W/(ρv2S) = 0.8119

Drag:

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2

D= 0.5*1.225*157.442*67.2*(0.016+0.06614*0.8119)

D =28 kN

4.2.3 During Landing:

Drag:

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2

D= 0.5*1.225*51.1682*67.2*(0.03635+0.06614*2.57952)

D =22 kN

Lift:

1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2

L= 0.5*1.225*51.1682*67.2*(0.03635+0.06614*2.57952)

L = 277 kN

74
4.3 V-n Diagram
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

1. In aerodynamics, the flight envelope defines operational limits for an

aerial platform with respect to maximum speed and load factor given a particular
atmospheric density. The flight envelope is the region within which an aircraft
can operate safely.

2. If an aircraft flies 'outside the envelope' it may suffer damage; the limits
should therefore never be exceeded. The term has also been adopted in other
fields of engineering when referring to the behaviour of a system which is
operating beyond its normal design specification, i.e. 'outside the flight envelope'
(even if the system is not even actually flying).

3. Visual Representation. There are several types of aircraft flight

envelope diagram, normally depicting the relation between one flight parameter
and another. The most common diagram includes airspeed (normally expressed
in Mach) and flight altitude variation (V-h) or airspeed and load variation (V-n).

4. This second diagram is the most important and common plot used as it
shows structural load limits as a function of airspeed. This flight envelope is
normally defined during the design phase. A chart of speed versus load factor (or
V-n diagram) is a way of showing the limits of an aircraft's performance. It shows
how much load factor can be safely achieved at different airspeeds.

5. The definition and analysis of the V-n diagram is critical during the
design of an aircraft as it affects the operation of the aircraft. A manoeuvre or
gust of wind may temporarily force an aircraft outside its safe flight envelope and
thereby cause structural damage endangering flight safety.

75
4.3.2 Load Factor:

An aircraft structure is designed to be able to withstand the forces exerted upon

it during flight; together, these forces are calculated as the load factor and may
vary depending on the phase of flight; the load factor is defined as the relationship
between lift and the weight of the aircraft

𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛= =
𝑊 𝑊

n = 2.229

Using a factor of safety 1.5, the maximum load factor (nmax) is

nmax(+ve) = 1.5*n

nmax(+ve) = 3.34

The ultimate negative load factor is given by,

nmax(-ve) = -0.4*nmax(+ve)

nmax(-ve) = -1.34

4.3.3 Velocity Calculations for V-n Diagram:

4.3.3.1 Corner velocity:

2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊
𝑉𝑏 = √
𝜌𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆

For positive nmax, Vb = 61.557 m/s

For negative nmax Vb = 40.84 m/s

76
4.3.3.2 Stalling velocity:

2𝑛 𝑊
𝑉𝑠 = √ , where n=1
𝜌𝐶 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆

For positive nmax, Vs = 39.36 m/s

For negative nmax Vs = 35.36 m/s

4.3.3.3 Dive Velocity:

Vd = 1.25*Vcruise

Vd = 1.25*157.44

Vd = 196.88 m/s

4.3.3.4 Calculation of Load factor upto Corner velocity:

The load factor is given by,

𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛= =
𝑊 𝑊

As CL(+ve) = 0.8119, CL = -0.7365, we get

n+ve = 8.8143*10-4 V2

n-ve = -7.995*10-4 V2

From the above data we can plot the V-n diagram with the aid of Excel or
equivalent graph plotting tool.

77
4.3.3.5 PLOT OF V-N DIAGRAM:

V-n Diagram
4
B Structural damage
+nmax C
3

2
Load factor (n)

n=1
1

A Vd
0
V V* Vc
0 50 100 150 200 250
-1
-nmax
E Structural damage D
-2
Velocity (m/s)

GRAPH 4-2 V-n Diagram

4.4 Performance Calculation:

78