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ABSTRACT This article investigates the diets of munities differed, despite living side-by-side. These dif-
neighboring Christians and Muslims in late medieval ferences may relate to inequalities in their access to
Spain (here 13th–16th centuries) through the analysis of foodstuffs, particularly to C3/C4 grain and/or possibly
the stable isotopes of carbon (d13C) and nitrogen (d15N) terrestrial meat sources, though cultural preferences are
in adult human and animal bone collagen. Twenty-four also highlighted. Isotopic values for animals were also
Christians and 20 Muslims are sampled from two adja- found to vary widely, both between and within species,
cent and contemporaneous settlements in the township and this provides a window into the local livestock econ-
of Gandıa on the Mediterranean coast, together with the omy. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:263–273, 2015. VC 2014
remains of 24 animals. Statistical differences in both The Authors. American Journal of physical Anthropology published by
d13C and d15N reveal that the diets of the two faith com- Wiley Periodicals,Inc.
Stable isotope analysis of archaeological bone collagen 172). However, it ended in the forced conversion and
is a well-established technique that can provide direct subsequent expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Spain
evidence of the diet of archaeological populations down after AD 1492 and 1609, respectively.
to the level of an individual (Ambrose, 1993). This infor- The realities of religious co-existence within this plu-
mation needs to be properly contextualized to maximize ralistic society have long been the subject of academic
its benefits and is best used alongside other sources of debate (Glick, 1992; Soifer, 2009) and food, in particular,
evidence such as faunal assemblages and written texts. might be expected to gain a significance that went
A growing number of projects have now applied the tech- beyond physiological need. While dietary preference may
nique to medieval Mediterranean populations (e.g., Sala- be constrained by the local availability of foodstuffs, it is
mon et al., 2008; Bourbou et al., 2011; Fuller et al., often used to express cultural and social identities such
2012; Reitsema and Vercellotti, 2012; Ciaffi et al., 2013), as status, ethnicity, gender, occupation and regional dif-
but major published studies from Spain remain ference (e.g., Montanari, 1999; Super, 2002; Parker Pear-
restricted to the Balearic Islands (Fuller et al., 2010; son, 2003; van der Veen, 2003). Religious groups, in
Nehlich et al., 2012). Responding to this challenge, this particular, may identify themselves by what they choose
article presents data from late medieval populations to consume or to avoid (MacClancy, 1992:42; Latham and
from the mainland peninsula and examines the diets of Gardella, 2005). With this in mind, the aim of the research
Muslims and Christians living in a single locale in the described here was to use stable isotopes to characterize
Kingdom of Valencia during the 13th–16th centuries the diet of two faith communities living in the same local-
AD. It is the first such study to attempt this. ity. To achieve this, human samples were obtained from
The intermingling of faiths in medieval Spain can be
explored from numerous angles, through literature,
architecture, the development of science and the study This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Com-
of archaeological objects, to name a few (e.g., Mann mons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and repro-
et al., 1992). The study of diet using stable isotope evi- duction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
dence is particularly noteworthy, however, because it
offers the prospect of detecting directly the dietary pref- Grant sponsor: AHRC PhD Studentship awarded; Grant number:
erences of different faiths living side-by-side within the 2006/125150; Grant sponsors: Durham Doctoral Fellowship; Society
same community. In brief, Christians, Muslims and for Medieval Archaeology Eric Fletcher Fund Award.
Jews co-existed in the Iberian Peninsula for much of the
Middle Ages, at first under Islamic political control in *Correspondence to: Michelle M. Alexander, BioArCh, Biology S
Block, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK.
al-Andalus after the 8th century AD, and later under E-mail: michelle.alexander@york.ac.uk
Christian rule after the ‘reconquest’ gained momentum
during the 12th and 13th centuries. This life together, or Received 18 June 2014; accepted 15 October 2014
convivencia as it is termed, lent itself to some surprising
cultural influences, for example the popularity of cous- DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22647
cous among Christians and their adopted habit of dining Published online 29 October 2014 in Wiley Online Library
when seated on a cushion on the floor (de Castro, 1993: (wileyonlinelibrary.com).
Ó 2014 THE AUTHORS. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY PUBLISHED BY WILEY PERIODICALS,INC.
264 M.M. ALEXANDER ET AL.
Fig. 3. Boxplot comparison of d13C (A) and d15N (B) of mudejares and Christians. Error bars denote 95% confidence interval,
circles indicate outliers.
that the diet contained adequate quantities of high pro- sorghum, and this has been linked to the “social seg-
tein foodstuffs such as meat. It is far more likely then regation” of Muslims and, in particular, to a deteriora-
that the adults with enriched carbon values obtained tion in their social standing following the Christian
their C4 plant signatures indirectly through the con- Reconquest (Ruiz, 2001). We should also remember that
sumption of animals foddered on bagasse, the fibrous dietary differences between crypto-Muslims and Christi-
waste from sugarcane crushing, and the green tops. ans may have become more acute during the 16th cen-
C4 crops, it should be noted, were generally regarded tury when halal meat became unavailable, at least
as a low-status foodstuff by society at this time; sorghum legally, due to the prohibition of Muslim butchery prac-
and millet were consumed only when the supply of other tices (Vincent and Ortiz, 1978; Ehlers, 2006). Alterna-
grains was lacking, particularly in rural settlements tively, it is also possible that the isotopic variation in
(Braudel, 1972:595; Glick, 1982:82; Sarasa, 1995:195; both d13C and d15N is explained by a stronger preference
Adamson, 2002:8), so the observed dietary differences for marine fish in the mudejar diet. There is some his-
may reflect socio-economic disparities between rural torical evidence to suggest that meat rose in price in the
(Benipeixcar) and urban (Gandıa) and/or between Kingdom of Valencia during the 16th century, when the
mudejares and Christian populations. Historical sources king prohibited the slaughtering of animals several
indicate the Duke of Gandıa instructed the Muslim times after 1525 (Garcıa C arcel, 1977:100) and this may
workers on his land to farm sugarcane due to its profit- have led to a preference for fish, chicken and eggs
ability and that this policy led to such a serious shortage among those of lower socio-economic status.
of staple crops, such as wheat, that grain had to be A word of caution is required, however, before these
imported from Valencia (Aparisi et al., 2009). A conven- socio-economic interpretations are uncritically accepted.
tional interpretation of the results might therefore be According to Islamic sources, millet (a C4 crop) was
that the Christian inhabitants of Gandıa had privileged much appreciated by Muslims (Marın, 1997:10); it is
access to these wheat imports while the rural mudejar mentioned, together with sorghum, in Islamic agricul-
population fell back on the cultivation and consumption tural treatises (Hern andez Bermejo et al., 1998:22) and
of C4 crops. A similar emphasis on C4 crops has been it was cultivated together with wheat and barley in
noted among mudejar populations in the Sierra de regions of the peninsula that lay outside Christian politi-
Espad an in the north of the Kingdom of Valencia in the cal control, such as in 13th-century Granada (Arie,
14th–16th centuries (Butzer et al., 1986: 372). Written 1992:158). Millet is also specifically listed in Islamic
records and archaeobotanical evidence indicate that com- treatises as a licit product in which to trade (Constable,
munities there relied on the cultivation of millets and 1994:161) and this suggests that differences in cultural
Fig. 4. Boxplot comparison between d13C (A) and d15N (B) values and sex within the mudejar and Christian populations. Error
bars denote 95% confidence interval, circles indicate outliers.
traditions in cooking and eating may also have had their cattle closer to settlements, where soils are likely
part to play in the observed isotopic differences. enriched with manure and domestic refuse (Hedges
The results presented here strongly suggest that the et al., 2005; Bogaard et al., 2007; Commisso and Nelson,
evident dietary differences between mudejares and 2010). The sheep, on the other hand, may have been
Christians originated in the home. A comparison of Mus- grazed further afield in transhumant flocks (Montalvo,
lim and Christian females reveals that the enrichment 1992:162) as they were in the mountains of the Sierra
in 13C in particular is most pronounced in the mudejar de Espad an, north of Valencia, where there were both
population (Mann–Whitney U 5 21.5, P 5 0.001; Fig. 4), small, locally owned herds and large inter-regional flocks
although the observation of corresponding higher d15N that grazed seasonally (Butzer et al., 1986).
values among mudejar females compared to Christian The enriched carbon values exhibited by certain cattle
females is not statistically significant (Mann–Whitney probably reflect foddering on C4 plants such as millet,
U 5 48.5, P 5 0.067). If it can be assumed that the task sorghum or sugarcane. In his 12th century Treatise on
of food preparation was, for the most part, taken up by Agriculture, Ibn al’Awwam mentions that the by-
women in medieval Christian and Muslim societies products of sugarcane, among them molasses and dis-
(Bynum, 1987:192; Garcıa Marsilla, 1993:152; Boone and carded cane, supply excellent cattle fodder (Ibn al-
Benco, 1999:67; Insoll, 1999:62–63), then this may have Awwam, 1802) and this is exactly the practice in west-
heavily influenced the difference in diet. Unfortunately, ern India today where tops are fed green to dairy ani-
there were too few males (n 5 5) in our mudejar sample mals, as well as being dried and stored and fed like
to explore this further and compare between males of cereal straws (Mena, 1987; Yadar and Solomon, 2006).
different faith. The question might be resolved in the Given what we know of the local historic landscape, it
future by larger and better-balanced samples. seems highly likely that at least some of the C4 contribu-
Turning finally to trends in diet within the two faith tion to the diet of cattle came from sugarcane, specifi-
groups, statistical analysis indicates that there is no dif- cally the draught animals put to work in the plantations
ference between the d13C and d15N values of males and sugar mills. Other animals too had access to these
(n 5 12) and females (n 5 12) in the Christian population C4 crops and while some animals, such as chickens and
(Mann–Whitney U 5 61.5, P 5 0.544 for d13C and pigs, were foddered on millet, sorghum and/or sugarcane
U 5 62.5, P 5 0.583 for d15N). This is not the same as by-products; the cats possibly hunted rodents that would
saying that Christian households always ate together, have scavenged C4 resources.
only that their overall diet did not differ greatly or, at
least, any differences are not observable isotopically CONCLUSION
with these sample sizes. Likewise, there is no written
evidence to suggest that female and male mudejares had Overall, the isotopic results presented here point to a
a different diet; though special arrangements were made complex, mixed C3/C4-based economy. The isotopic signa-
for women during pregnancy or lactation (Aubaile-Salle- tures of the animals sampled from Benipeixcar show a
nave, 1997; Garcıa S anchez, 2006). Again, the insuffi- surprising degree of separation between species and
cient sample number prevents meaningful comparison within species, and our interpretation is that certain
between sexes among mudejares. animals are likely to have grazed particular pastures
and/or were deliberately fed significant quantities of C4
Implications for animal husbandry strategies at plants, a feeding regime which may be linked to their
Gandıa use as traction animals in sugarcane agriculture. Nota-
bly, the use of C4 crops in the study area was not
This case study has also demonstrated significant dif- restricted to cattle; chickens, cats and the single pig
ferences in nitrogen values between ovicaprids and cat- sample all exhibited enriched d13C values that probably
tle. This may be due, on the one hand, to the stocking of reflect the availability of C4 foodstuffs either through
deliberate foddering or scavenging. While the use of C4 of Christian colonisation and conversion which would be
plants to fodder animals has previously been hypothe- interesting to compare. The “slow shipwreck” of Islam on
sized for this period, as mentioned above, the data here the Iberian Peninsula (Braudel 1976, 781) is potentially
represent some of the first clear isotopic evidence for one with an intriguing archaeological signature but
this practice in medieval Europe. there is still a considerable way to go before the full con-
We have also shown that both the Christian popula- tribution of stable isotope techniques is fully realised.
tion from Gandıa and the mudejares from Benipeixcar
consumed significant amounts of C4 plants directly and/ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
or indirectly, with some individuals exhibiting an enrich-
The authors thank Josefa Pascual (SIAM, Valencia),
ment in both carbon and nitrogen which suggests an
Joan Cardona, and the Archaeological Museum in Gandıa,
input of marine protein into their diets. In addition,
Isabel Collado, Francisco Puchalt and Cristina Vidal
there are significant differences in both carbon and
(Valencia University) and Antonio Hern andez Pardos
nitrogen values between the two faith communities, indi-
(Acrotera, Albarracın) who granted permission to study
cating dietary differences which may be linked to the
the collections. Thanks are also due to Olaf Nehlich and
differing cultural and/or socio-economic status of the two
Mike Richards (MPI-EVA) for consultation and collagen
populations. After weighing up the available historical
preparation and analysis; to Wim van Neer (Royal Belgian
and archaeological evidence, we have suggested that
Institute of Natural Sciences), who identified the fish
mudejares on the whole may have eaten more fish from
remains; and Oliver Craig (University of York) is also
the Mediterranean and relied more heavily on C4 resour-
thanked for his advice.
ces, stemming from their involvement in the cultivation
and processing of sugarcane, a C4 crop, or from a cul-
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