Chapter 2 Human Factors & Pilot Performance

CHAPTER 2: HUMAN FACTORS &
PILOT PERFORMANCE
PPL
Joseph Okolla
1 PPL Human performance

ACCELERATION
 LINEAR ACCELERATION
 reflects a change of speed in a straight line.
 Occurs during take-off, landing, or in level flight when a
throttle setting is changed.
 RADIAL ACCELERATION (CENTRIPETAL)
 result of a change in direction such as when a pilot performs a
sharp turn, pushes over into a dive, or pulls out of a dive
 ANGULAR ACCELERATION
 results from a simultaneous change in both speed and direction,
which happens in spins and climbing turns.
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ACCELERATION cont…
 G forces
 Pilot experiences a combination of these accelerations due to
input to the flight controls
 G forces described as
 Gx –force acting on the body from chest to back
 e.g +Gx experienced during take-off roll as the throttle is advanced
 The force pushes the pilot back into the seat as a/c accelerates
 -Gx force from back to chest encountered during landing as the throttle is
closed
 Gy force acting from shoulder to shoulder & encountered during
aileron rolls
 Gz gravitational force applied to the vertical axis of the body i.e from
head to foot
 +Gz realized when pilot pulls out a dive or pulls into an inside loop
 -Gz travels from foot to head experienced when pilot pushes over into a dive

ACCELERATION cont..
 Factors determining effect of acceleration on human
body
 SHORT TERM ACCELERATION
 This refers to impact acceleration forces lasting less
than one second.
 Forces body can withstand directly related to own
strength:
 In the vertical axis the body can withstand 25G
 In the fore and aft axis the body can withstand 45G
 In the lateral (side) axis the body can withstand 10-15G
 Any force above these levels causes injury.
ACCELERATION cont..
 LONG TERM ACCELERATION
 Refers to forces lasting more than one
second
 Human beings used to the effects of gravity.
 Flying subjects the body to acceleration
forces that are much different than those
encountered on the ground.
 The value of long term acceleration is
usually given as either “positive G” or
5
“negative G”.
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ACCELERATION cont..
 Positive G
 Perceived as an increase in body weight, the
higher the positive G value, the harder it
becomes to move freely.
 High G forces displace organs from their normal
positions.
 Positive G drives blood to the lower half of the body,
decreasing blood pressure in the head.
 At high G loading, the eyes and the brain are starved of
blood.
ACCELERATION cont..
 As G increases, pilots notice the effect on the eyes first, as
greyout
 a gradual greying of the vision, followed by
unconsciousness.
 Greyout appears at approximately 3.5G if the
pilot is totally relaxed.
 By tensing leg and abdominal muscles, a pilot can delay
greyout and unconsciousness until as much as 7-8G.
 Many factors including hypoxia,
hyperventilation, heat, low blood sugar,
smoking, and alcohol decrease G tolerance.
ACCELERATION cont..
 LONG TERM ACCELERATION cont..
 Negative G
 Effects of negative G opposite to those of positive G.
 Negative G manoeuvres in an aircraft are much more
uncomfortable than positive G manoeuvres.
 Facial pain occurs and
 in extreme cases, small blood vessels can burst.
 Negative G associated with the term “redout”
 Lower eyelid pushes up under the eye.
 Maximum negative G is considered to be –3G, and then for
short periods only.

MOTION SICKNESS
 Motion sickness is a normal and direct manifestation of
sensory functions.
 No one with a normal vestibular apparatus is completely
immune and
 Motion arises when exposed to real or apparent motion of an
unfamiliar kind.
 Occurs not only in normal flying but also in space or at sea.
 Some individuals experience it in a car or on a train.
 Motion sickness is caused by a mismatch between the visual
and vestibular signals.
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MOTION SICKNESS
 The symptoms of motion sickness are:
 Nausea.
 Hyperventilation.
 Vomiting.
 Pallor.
 Cold sweating.
 Headache.
 Depression.

COPING WITH MOTION SICKNESS
 If motion sickness experienced there number of strategies to
give relief.
 Keep the head still if possible, as movement aggravates the
vestibular system.
 Visual mismatching can be reduced by closing the eyes but this
is obviously not acceptable for aircrew.
 Being relieved of look-out duty, with its continuous head movements will
help, as will concentrating on flying the aircraft.
 Go for steady progress in aircraft manoeuvres. Opening the air
vents will help in the majority of cases.
 Medication may help but always consult an aviation doctor
before taking any drugs before flying.
 Hyoscine is the normal drug prescribed for air sickness.

CABIN PRESSURISATION
 Ensures that effective altitude to which occupants are actually
exposed much lower than altitude at which the aircraft is
flying
 Pressurisation of commercial airliner flying
 At 30,000 ft produce an internal cabin pressure equivalent to
about 6,000 ft with a maximum of 8,000 ft
 Rate of change of cabin pressure restricted to
 500 ft/min in the ascent
 300 ft/min in descent to minimize passenger discomfort

DECOMPRESSION
 When cabin pressure decreases
 Cabin occupants are no longer protected from the dangers of
high altitudes
 An increased risk of hypoxia, decompression, illness, and
hypothermia.

PHYSIOLOGICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF RAPID DECOMPRESSION
 Initial signs of hypoxia include:
 Stomach pain due to gas expansion
 Tingling sensation in the hands and feet
 Cyanosis (blue discoloration of the lips and fingernails)
 Increased rate of breathing
 Headache
 Nausea
 Light-headedness
 Dizziness
 Sweating
 Irritability
 Euphoria
 Ear discomfort.

PHYSIOLOGICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF RAPID DECOMPRESSION Cont..
 These symptoms become more pronounced with the
lack of oxygen, for example:
 Impaired vision
 Impaired judgment
 Impaired motor skills (not able to coordinate body
movements)
 Drowsiness
 Slurred speech
 Memory loss
 Difficulty to concentrate.
CABIN PRESSURISATION LOST
 Actions when cabin pressurisation lost
 OXYGEN REGULATOR
 Reduces the oxygen pressure to a breathable level.
 May include diluter demand to dilute the supplemental oxygen with
ambient air, extending the duration of the oxygen supply.
 Automatic positive pressure regulators necessary for flights above 30
000 feet.
 OXYGEN MASKS
 Full face mask provides a seal to the outside atmosphere.
 Considered essential in smoke-filled cabins conditions.
 Passenger oxygen masks not as efficient.
 Delivers 100% oxygen continuously.
 There is no seal to the outside atmosphere and as such there is no smoke
protection.
FLYING AND DIVING
 Diving before flight increases the risk of decompression
sickness.
 Using compressed air under pressure increases the body's store
of nitrogen.
 As an ascent is made, nitrogen comes out of solution causing
decompression sickness.
 Do not fly within 12 hours of swimming with compressed air.
 Do not fly within 24 hours of SCUBA diving if a depth of 30 ft
has been exceeded.
 After diving
 Decompression sickness can occur as low as 6000 ft.
 Modern passenger jets pressurised to altitudes between 6000 - 8000 ft.

DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
 Decompression sickness
 Caused by inert gases
 Nitrogen, coming out of solution into the body's tissues due to
exposure to reduced atmospheric pressure
 Breathing air at sea level nitrogen normally saturates the body.
 As the ambient pressure decreases due to increasing altitude,
the body becomes super-saturated with nitrogen.
 Some of nitrogen can come out of solution as bubbles in joints, the skin,
or the chest.
 Depending on the location and the extent of bubble formation, the
symptoms can vary.

EFFECTS OF DECOMPRESSION
SICKNESS
 The common names for decompression sickness and their
location in the body are listed below:
 Bends Painful joints such as the knees or elbows
 Creeps Itching in the skin possibly accompanied by a rash.
 Chokes Pain in the chest with a dry hacking cough.
 Nervous System Effects Possible paralysis and a loss of
vision.
 Staggers Loss of balance similar to the actions of a drunk.
 Collapse Unconsciousness, possibly death.

CAUSES OF DECOMPRESSION
SICKNESS
 Altitude
 Cabin altitudes greater than 18 000 ft. Above 25 000 ft the chances of suffering from
decompression sickness are greatly increased.
 Duration
 The longer a person is at altitude the more likely the chance of decompression sickness.
 Age
 Age seems to affect the onset of decompression sickness.
 Weight
 Obese and overweight people are more susceptible.
 Diving
 Diving allows the body to “super saturate” with nitrogen. An increased altitude allows this
nitrogen to come out of solution.
 Rate of Climb
 A faster rate of climb brings a faster onset of symptoms.
 Exercise
 The parts of the body used most in exercise are those that are most susceptible.
 Other Factors
 Fatigue, alcohol, hypoxia and cold
PREVENTION & TREATMENT OF
DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
 Decompression sickness is avoidable with
 pre-oxygenation (breathing 100% oxygen before flight) and
then breathing 100% oxygen during flight.
 Saturation of the body with oxygen reduces the nitrogen
saturation thus reducing the risk of decompression sickness.
 If decompression sickness does occur:
 Descend immediately
 Land as soon as possible
 Use 100% Oxygen
 Keep the patient warm
 Recompress the patient in a barometric chamber after landing if
required
 Do not rub affected parts
BAROTRAUMA
 Pain caused by expansion and contraction due
 to outside pressure changes
 Air trapped in the cavities of the body
 e.g. within intestine, middle ear, sinuses or teeth

TYPES OF BAROTRAUMA
 OTIC (Middle ear) BAROTRAUMA
 Pressure normally equalised across the eardrum by
Eustachian Tube from middle ear to the back of the
mouth/nose
 Problem rare in the climb when air passes from the
middle ear to atmosphere
 Most problems in descent with air attempting to return
to the middle ear
 Eustachian Tube allows air to escape with relative ease on
ascent but restricts air entering the middle ear in
descent

TYPES OF BAROTRAUMA cont..
 OTIC BAROTRAUMA cont..
 Occurs mainly at lower levels where pressure changes fast
 Problem increased when one has cold or any other condition causing
mucous membrane lining of Eustachian Tube inflamed or swell
 One or both ears can be affected and cause
 Pain (gradual or sudden)
 Temporary deafness
 Tinnitus (a ringing in the ears)
 Rupture and bleeding of the ear drum in extreme cases (may cause
deafness)
 Having suffered one need to return to perfect health before resuming
flying

 BAROTRAUMA OF THE TEETH (AERODONTALGIA)
 Healthy teeth do not contain air but gas pockets can form in old or
poor fillings or abscesses
 Most common in ascent as gas expands & can cause severe tooth pain
 Good dental care and hygiene can prevent the problem
 GASTRO-INTESTINAL BAROTRAUMA
 Gastro-intestinal tract, in effect a tube from the mouth to the anus
 Air can be swallowed with food & digestive processes produce gas
 Gas in the stomach can escape through the mouth at the other end gas
in the large intestine readily vented to the outside
 Main problem is in small intestine
 Expands causing discomfort & pain may be sufficiently severe to cause
fainting
 Occasionally the wall of the intestine may tear

 GASTRO-INTESTINAL BAROTRAUMA cont..
 No easy way to relieve the symptoms during flight except by
descending
 Effects greatly reduced by:
 Avoid foods which are high gas producers (raw apples, cabbage,
cauliflower, celery, cucumber, beer, beans, any highly spiced food such as
curries) before flight
 Eating slowly & not rushing meals especially just before flight
 Eating smaller portions (less swallowed air)
 Not using chewing gum (less swallowed air)

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

VISION
THE ANATOMY OF THE EYE
 Light from an object enters the eye through the cornea and then
continues through the pupil.
 The opening (dilation) and closing (constriction) of the pupil is
controlled by the iris, which is the colored part of the eye.
 The function of the pupil is similar to that of the diaphragm of a
photographic camera: to control the amount of light
FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EYE

The lens
It is located behind the pupil and its function is to focus light on the
surface of the retina.

VISION cont…
FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EYE cont…
 THE CORNEA
 Light enters the eye through the Cornea
 Acts as a fixed focusing device and responsible for between 70%
and 80% of the total focusing ability of the eye.
 The focusing is achieved by the shape of the cornea bending the
incoming light rays.
 THE IRIS
 Amount of light allowed to enter the eye controlled by the iris,
the coloured part of the eye, which acts as a diaphragm.
 THE PUPIL
 The size changes rapidly to cater for changing light levels.
 THE FOVEA
 The central part of the retina, composed only of cone cells. Anything that needs to be
examined in detail is automatically brought to focus on the fovea.

VISION cont…
FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EYE cont…
 THE RETINA
 The inner layer of the eyeball that contains photosensitive cells
called rods and cones.
 Records image.
 THE CONES
 Located in higher concentrations than rods in the central area of
the retina.
 Used for day or high-intensity light vision.
 Involved with central vision to detect detail, perceive color, and
identify far-away objects.
 THE RODS
 Located mainly in the periphery of the retina
 Used for low-light intensity or night vision and
 Cannot be used to detect detail or to perceive color.

VISION cont…
 VISUAL ACUITY
 Measure of central vision and the figures above are a
means of measuring visual acuity.
 Ability to discriminate at varying distances.
 An individual with an acuity of 20/20 vision should be
able to see at 20 feet that which the so-called normal
person is capable of seeing at this range.
 Sometimes expressed in metres (6/6).
 THE BLIND SPOT

 The point on the retina where the optic nerve enters
the eyeball has no covering of light-detecting cells.
 Any image falling on this point will not be detected.
VISION cont…
 VISUAL DEFFECTS
 Hypermetropia,
 Eyeball shorter than normal which means that the image is
formed behind the retina
 Cornea and the lens cannot use their combined focusing ability to
compensate for this,
 Blurred vision will result when looking at close objects.
 A convex lens will overcome this refractive error by bending the light
inwards before it meets the cornea
 Myopia,
 Eyeball longer than normal & image formed in front of the retina
 If the accommodation of the lens cannot counteract this then
distant objects are blurred
 A concave lens corrects the situation by bending the light
outwards before it hits the cornea. .
VISION cont…
VISUAL DEFECTS cont…
 ASTIGMATISM
 The light rays do not all come to a single focal point on the retina,
 instead some focus on the retina and some focus in front of or behind it.
 Caused by a non-uniform curvature of the cornea
 Can be corrected by using a special spherical cylindrical lens;
 CATARACTS
 Clouding of the lens, which prevents a clear, sharp image being produced.
 This clouding results in blurred images.
 PRESBYCUSIS
 Degenerative condition of the macula (the central retina).
 Caused by the hardening of the arteries that nourish the retina.
 Deprives the retinal tissue of the nutrients and oxygen that it needs to function
and causes a deterioration in central vision.
 GLAUCOMA
 The eye produces a clear fluid (aqueous humor) that fills the space between the
cornea and the iris.
PPL Human performance
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VISION cont…
CONTACT LENSES
 Provide better peripheral vision and are not subject to
misting.
 But there are a number of problems ;
 As the cornea does not have its own blood supply, it
obtains its oxygen from the ambient air.
 Mild hypoxia and dehydration ,Cabin decompression may
result in bubble formation under the contact lens.
 The lens may be dislodged by careless rubbing of the eyes

VISION cont…
 COLOUR BLINDNESS
 Total colour blindness is a bar to the issue of a flying
licence.
 Caused by a defect in the structure of the colour
sensitive cones in the retina
 MONOCULAR AND BINOCULAR VISION
 Binocular vision not essential for flying and
 There are many one-eyed (monocular) pilots, currently
flying with a class II medical certificate.
 A pilot losing an eye takes some time for the brain to
learn to compensate for the loss of binocular vision

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
VISUAL ILLUSIONS
RUNWAY PERSPECTIVE
 Upsloping Runway:
 The runway may look “high” and the aircraft look higher than it really is.
The pilot may compensate with an approach that is too low.
 Downsloping Runway:
 The runway may look “low” and the aircraft look lower than it really is.
The pilot may compensate with an approach that is too high.
 Narrow Runway:
 The runway may look “high” and the aircraft look higher than it really is.
The pilot may compensate with an approach that is too low.
 Wide Runway:
 The runway may look “low” and the aircraft look higher than it really is.
The pilot may compensate with an approach that is too high

Within the
picture is
an old lady
and a
young lady.

ILLUSION CAUSED BY WATER LAYER ON
SCREEN

NIGHT VISUAL ILLUSIONS
 AUTOKINESIS:
 Illusion of a stationery point of light that appears to be moving (eg. a
Star looks like it is moving).
 GROUND LIGHT CONFUSION:
 A pilot may confuse the lights on the ground as a constellation of
stars.
 Black Hole: Occurs on a night approach over blackness (unlit area)
to an aerodrome that is lit up. Pilot may make an approach that is too
low.
 EMPTY FIELD MYOPIA & FOCAL TRAPS
 Empty Field Myopia describes the pilot experience of staring blankly
into an empty sky, and missing a potential collision with another
aircraft. The eye naturally focuses 1 to 2 metres in front

ILLUSIONS
 FLICKER VERTIGO –
 A flickering light at a constant frequency may cause dizziness, nausea
and in extreme cases convulsions and unconsciousness .Sun shining in
the propeller on approach
 Change in power can help
 GRAVEYARD SPIN –
 recovery from a spin and create the illusion of spinning in the
opposite direction. The disoriented pilot returns the aircraft to its
original spin
 FALSE HORIZON –
 Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon and some patterns of
ground lights can create the illusion of not being aligned correctly
with the actual horizon
 Leads to a dangerous attitude

SUNGLASSES
 Sunglasses help safeguard a pilot’s most important
sensory asset – vision.
 A quality pair of sunglasses is essential in the cockpit
environment to optimize visual performance.
 Sunglasses reduce the effects of harsh sunlight, decrease
eye fatigue, and protect ocular tissues from exposure to
harmful solar radiation. Additionally, they protect the pilot’s
eyes from impact with objects (i.e., flying debris from a
bird strike, sudden decompression, or aerobatic
maneuvers).
 Sunglasses can also aid the dark adaptation process,
 delayed by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight

FUNCTIONS OF THE EAR
 The ear performs two quite different functions.
 Detect sounds by receiving vibrations in the air, and
 Responsible for balance and sensing acceleration.
 The ear has three divisions:
 outer ear,
 middle ear, and
 inner ear.
 These act to receive vibrations from the air and turn these signals into
nerve impulses that the brain can recognize as sounds.

EAR
 The ear is divided into three sections, the outer,
middle, and inner ear.
 OUTER EAR
 Directs sounds, collected by the pinna, through the auditory
canal (Meatus) and onto the eardrum.
 The sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate.
 THE MIDDLE EAR
 The ear drum - or tympanum –
 separates the outer and middle ear.
 Connected to the ear drum is a linkage of three small bones the
ossicles (the malleus, incus and stapes) which transmit the
vibrations across the middle ear, (filled with air) to the inner ear
which is filled with liquid.

EAR cont…
 THE INNER EAR
 The diaphragm attached to the stapes causes
the fluid in the cochlea to vibrate.
 Inside the cochlea there is a fine membrane
covered with tiny hair-like cells.
 The movement of the cells dependent on the volume
and pitch of the original sound.
 The amount and frequency of displacement detected
by the auditory nerve which leads directly to the
cortex of the brain where the tiny electrical currents
are decoded into sound patterns.

THE EAR AND BALANCE
 SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
 These are three semicircular canals filled with liquid and
arranged in three planes at 90º to each other.
 Detect angular accelerations greater than 0.5°/sec².
 Within are fine hair-like cells which bend as the liquid in the
canals moves in relation to the walls of the canals.
 Movement generates small electric currents which are passed to the
cerebellum (the second smaller division of the brain).
 Cerebellum has the ability to predict the loss of balance and
compensate.
 E.g stepping onto an escalator muscles work pushing the body forward
instinctively to avoid losing balance. Thus the cerebellum has a major part to
play in both balance and coordination.

THE EAR AND BALANCE cont…
 Otoliths
 Literally ‘stones in the ears’ are small grains of chalk embedded
in a fleshy medium containing hair cells, located at the base of
the semicircular canals.
 Detects tilting of the head and linear acceleration and are
contained within chambers known as utricles and saccules.
 Acceleration greater than 0.1 m/s² causes the hair cells to bend
and bending interpreted by the brain to determine the new
position of the head.
 Gives rise to a problem when a pilot experiences linear
acceleration/deceleration.
 As acceleration takes place the otoliths are moved backwards giving the
signals to the brain that the head is tilting backwards

VESTIBULAR APPARATUS

OPERATIONS OF OTOLITHS & SEMI-
CIRCULAR CANALS

ORIENTATION
 This is ability to determine your position in space and
achieved by some combination of three senses
 Vision
 Most powerful sense of all
 Balance
 The vestibular sense (gravity, acceleration and angular acceleration)
 Seat-of-the-pants
 Bodily feel or the proprioceptive (components of the nervous system and
located under the skin (subcutaneous) in the neck and the major parts of
the body) sense

HEARING
 Hearing loss
 Sound vibrations or pressure waves (noise) have two variable factors
may damage to the ear:
 Intensity of Sound depends on the amplitude of the sound waves and
registers as loudness.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second, or pitch.
 The frequency range of human hearing extends from 20 - 20 000
Hertz.
Frequecy Sound
50 - 100 Hz The hum from a mains voltage system
256 Hz Middle C on the piano
300 - 500 Hz Speech range
8000 Hz The upper level of the speech range
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HEARING
 Hearing loss cont..
 Sound intensity registered in decibels (dB). Noise rating given
below:
Decibels Sound
0 dB Threshold of hearing
15 dB Whisper
30 dB Conversation
45 dB Conversation in a busy office
60 dB An orchestra playing loud music
90 dB Pneumatic drill
120 dB Piston aircraft engine a few feet away
125 dB Disco
130 dB Jet aircraft noise a few feet away
150 dB Jet aircraft with afterburner selected
HEARING
 Hearing loss cont..
 Noises in excess of 85 dB can result in temporary hearing loss.
 Noises above 85 dB for more than 8 hours a day for an extended
period
 permanent hearing loss may occur.
 Noises above 120 dB for several hours a day over a 3-6 month
period
 causes Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) or deafness.
 Noises above 120 dB cause the following:
120 dB Discomfort to the ears.

140 dB Pain to the ears.

HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Hearing difficulties classified into three categories:
 CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS
 Any damage to the conducting system, the ossicles or
the ear drum, results in a degradation of hearing.
 Perforations of the ear drum may result in scarring of
the tissue thus reducing its ability to vibrate freely.
 A blow to the ear may cause damage to the small
bones in the middle ear again limiting the transfer of
vibrations.
 Modern surgery may help in some circumstances.
 Excessive wax or a tumour in the ear canal can also
cause conductive deafness

HEARING IMPAIRMENT cont…
 NOISE INDUCED HEARING LOSS (NIHL)
 Loud noises can damage the very sensitive membrane in
the cochlea and the fine structures on this membrane.
 Hearing may at first be temporary
 Continued exposure to loud noise in excess of 90 decibels
(dB) will result in permanent loss of hearing.
 The early symptoms are
 an inability to hear high pitched notes as these notes are normally
detected by the finer cells which suffer the greatest damage.
HEARING PROTECTION
 Hearing protection available,
 to a certain extent, by using ear plugs or ear defenders.
 Hearing protection should always be used for noise, of any
duration, above 115 dB.

HEARING IMPAIRMENT cont…
 PRESBYCUSIS
 Hearing deteriorates naturally as one grows older,
known as presbycusis.
 Affects ability to hear high pitch sounds first,
 may occur gradually from age 30 onwards.
 This natural decline made worse by Noise Induced
Hearing Loss it can obviously occur even sooner

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
ILLUSIONS
 SOMATOGRAVIC ILLUSION-
 Rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of
being in a nose-up attitude
 The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low or
dive attitude
 INVERSION ILLUSION-
 an abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can
create the illusion of tumbling backwards
 The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low
attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION cont…
ILLUSIONS
 LEANS/ SOMATOGYRAL –
 Correcting a banked attitude which has been entered
too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the
inner ear
 Creates the illusion of banking in the opposite direction
 CORIOLIS ILLUSION-
 An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant-rate
turn can create the illusion of rotation or movement in
an entirely different axis

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION cont…
ILLUSIONS
 ELEVATOR ILLUSION-
 An abrupt upward vertical acceleration caused by an updraft
can create the illusion of being in a climb
 The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low
attitude
 If in IMC
 BELIEVE YOUR INSTRUMENTS
 If in VMC
 LOOK OUT AT THE HORIZON

FLYING AND HEALTH
 One need determine if fit to fly or should seek medical attention. If you
think of the following question and answer, it will help you make a good
decision.
 Am I fit to fly?” Yes, I‘M SAFE!
 I--Illness
 Am I ill? Do I feel sick in any way?
 M--Medication
 I take drugs: will they impair my thinking, judgment or performance?
 S--Stress
 Am I mentally fit? Can I devote my full attention to flying?
 A--Alcohol
 When did I take the last drink? Am I suffering hangover effects?
 F--Fatigue
 Am I physically fatigued? Am I too tired to give 100%?
 E--Eating
 Am I hungry? Did I eat too much? Do I have indigestion?

OBESITY
 Obesity is the term for an excess of fatty tissue in the body.
 An individual who is obese is susceptible to:
 Heart attack.
 Hypertension (high blood pressure) with the higher risk of a stroke.
 Hypoxia at lower altitudes than normal.
 General circulation problems.
 Gout (painful inflamation of the joints due to an excess of uric acid).
 Osteoarthritis (wear and tear on the joints).
 Diabetes.
 G forces.
 Problems with joints and limbs due to weight.
 Decompression Sickness (DCS).
 Heavy sweating.
 Chest infections.
 Varicose veins.
 A reduced life expectancy.
 Obesity is defined as when a person is 20% or more above the recommended weight
for their height, or has a Body Mass Index (BMI) of greater than 30.
OBESITY cont..
 BODY MASS INDEX
 The Body Mass Index (BMI) is calculated as:
 BMI = Body mass/ Height2 (where Body Mass is in kg) &
(where Height is in metres)
BMI CATEGORY
MALE FEMALE
<20 <19 Underweight
20-25 19-24 Acceptable
>25-30 >24-29 Overweight
>30 >29 Obese

NUTRITION AND FOOD HYGIENE
 HEALTHY DIET
 A balanced diet foundation of good health.
 A high-carbohydrate/fibre and low-fat diet can reduce
the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes
and certain forms of cancer.
 Sources of carbohydrates include grains, vegetables,
nuts, potatoes and fruits and should make up more
than 50% of the calories consumed.
 The rest should come from lean meats and poultry,
fish and low-fat dairy products.
 Never miss breakfast - it is the most important meal
of the day. eat.

NUTRITION AND FOOD HYGIENE cont..
 Not eating regular meals or fasting can result in low
blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) (below about 50 mg per
100 ml of blood).
 Its symptoms are:
 Headache.
 Stomach pains.
 Lack of energy.
 Nervousness.
 Shaking.
 Sleepiness.
 Lack of concentration.
 Fainting.

PERSONAL HYGENE
 A high standard of hygiene essential if the body is to
remain healthy and free from infection. Some of the
elementary precautions are listed:
 Careful and daily cleansing of the body including
scalp, gums and teeth.
 Washing and drying hands after the use of the toilet.
 Ensure that eating utensils are scrupulously clean.
 Minor cuts and abrasions are promptly treated and
covered.
 Regular exercise.
 Balanced diet.

ALCOHOL
 Alcoholism is not easily recognized or defined.
 The World Health Organization definition is:
 “When the excessive use of alcohol repeatedly
damages a person’s physical, mental, or social life.”
 Any consumption above the following levels can
cause permanent damage to the body:
 Men - Five units daily
 21 units per week
 Women - Three units daily
 14 units per week

CARBON MONOXIDE
 Carbon monoxide has a very high affinity for hemoglobin, the
molecule in blood responsible for transporting oxygen
through the body.
 Carbon monoxide tightly attaches to the hemoglobin,
creating the compound carboxyhemoglobin, which prevents
oxygen from binding, thereby blocking its transport.
 Carbon monoxide is truly a hidden menace because by itself, it
is both a
 colorless and odorless gas.
 One would not be aware of its presence until
 symptoms developed, or during treatment when it is
determined that exposure had occurred.

SYMPTOMS OF CARBON MONOXIDE
 Headache, tightness across the forehead, dizziness and
nausea.
 Impaired vision.
 General feeling of lethargy or weakness.
 Impaired judgement.
 Personality change.
 Impaired memory.
 Slower breathing rate and weakening pulse rate.
 Loss of muscular power.
 Flushed cheeks and cherry-red lips.
 Convulsions.
 Death.

PROTECTION FROM CARBON
MONOXIDE
 Turn the cabin heat fully off.
 Increase the rate of cabin fresh air ventilation to the
maximum.
 Open windows if the flight profile and aircraft’s
operating manual permit such an action.
 If available (provided it does not represent a safety or
fire hazard), consider using supplemental oxygen.
 Land as promptly as possible.
 Do not hesitate to let Air Traffic Control know of your
concerns, and ask for vectors to the nearest airport.
 Once on the ground, seek medical attention.
 Before continuing the flight, have the aircraft inspected
by a certified mechanic.

Chapter 2 Human Factors & Pilot Performance

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Chapter 2 Human Factors & Pilot Performance

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CHAPTER 2: HUMAN FACTORS &

1 PPL Human performance

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FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EYE

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 THE BLIND SPOT

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120 dB Discomfort to the ears.

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