PracticalShipbuilding 10483371

P R A C TI C AL
SH I P BU I L D I N G
A T R E A T I SE
T H E S T R U C TU RA L D E S I G N A N D B U I L D I N G
OF MO D E R N S T E E L V E S S E L S
TH E WO R K O F C O N S TR U C TI O N , F R O M TH E MAK I N G
O F TH E RA W MA T E R I A L T O T H E E QUIPPED
V E S S E L, I N C LU D I N G SU BSE Q U E NT
U P - KE E P A ND R EP AI R S .
A . C A MP B E L L H O L MS
M E MB E R O F T H E I N S T I T UT I O N O F N AA A H
V L RC I
I T E C T S A N D O F T H E I N ST T U T I O N
OF E NG I N E ER S A ND SH I P B U I L DE RS IN SCO T L A ND
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S U RVE YO R T O L LO Y D S R EG I S T E R O F S H I P P I NG
IN T WO VO L UM E S
V O LU M E I . T E XT
LONG MA NS , GREEN , A ND CO .
3 9 P A TE R N O STE R R O W , LO NDON
N E W Y O R K A N D B O M BAY
1 0
9 4
A ll rz g/z ts r eser ved
P R E FA C E
IN
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sub mitting this work to the public I do so with the hope that it will
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find the sphe re of use fulness the contemplation o f which has been my sole
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impulse in writing it I believe it will be found use ful in many quarters i f

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only from the circumstance that there is no other published work dealing
in an exhaustive way with the practical questions and operations o f modern
shipbuilding I have attempted to supply this want so that those who
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desire to obtain full in formation may do so readily by a mere perusal o f

these pages I n the absence of b ooks the only way to obtain trustworthy
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knowledge of the various procedures adopted in the designing and

construction o f ships and o f the reasons governing them is by close
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personal observation and reflection a method which o f course requires

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m u ch time and a great deal of patience .
I have endeavoured throughout the book to avoid all abstruse questions

o f theory and to make the explanations so c lea r that they may b e easily
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understood by all intelligent readers w hatever their previous training

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B ooks on the theoretical questions of naval architecture are numerous so ,
that those who wish to obtain accurate and full knowledge o f this kind
may readily do so While avoiding anything o f an ab struse nature I have
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described in a popular way those fun damental matters o f theory which

govern the structural design and without which an intellig ent appreciation
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o f the subject would be impossible I have extracted much in formation

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o f a standard character from the technical papers published by the various
engineering and shipbuilding societies and where any matter is o f such

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special interest as to merit a closer study re ference is made to di fferent

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sources which w ill supply it . x
The plan o f the b ook is briefly as follows : Firstly attention is given ,
to the fundamental matters which govern the structural design the various
stresses to which the hull is exposed their straining tendency and the
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di fferent structural designs by which the necessary strength to resist them

may be secured Secondly each important part o f the hull is considered
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by itsel f and each one from three points o f View v i z its purp ose in the
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structure and the particular stresses and straining e ff ects to which it

is liable ; the various formations adopted in its design with the rules ,
governing them as regards scantlings and strength ; and a description o f

the actual work of making it in the shipyard and fitting it in the ship .
A s a description o f the actu al work o f the shipyard is reading o f a special

character it is dealt with separately in the second part of the book the
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vi P R E FA CE .
sequence generally being thus better preserved A s Lloyd s rules represent

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and govern it may be said all merchant shipbuilding practice they are
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frequently re ferred to and explained the numerous sketches in the book

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o f plates being practically all d rawn in con formity therewith .
There will be found chapters on corrosion launching etc and on the , , .

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w ork o f the drawing o ffi c e — —

that most important department where ,
previous to the actual building work the qualities o f the ship are decided
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upon and every part designed and measured on paper The manufacture
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and mechanical quali ties o f mild steel are also dealt w ith at some length ,
a proper kno wledge o f this being an important matter to those whose duty
it is to deal with the material in the shipyard Finally I may say that .
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every impor tant matter a ffecting ship construction has received more or
less detailed attention .
A s I have aime d at making the book use ful fo r purposes o f refer

ence as well as fo r systematic or general study I have added a very ,
complete alphabetical index ; and to facilitate the complete study of any

particular subj ect I have re ferred when dealing with it anywhere in the
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text to other par ts o f the book where it may be noticed in some other
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connection A t the beginning o f the book there will be found a list o f the
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chapters giving in outline the subject matter dealt with in each

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The writing o f this work and the preparation o f the numerous sketches
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have occupied all my leisure time fo r some years and as the art of ship ,
building has o f late made many advances t h e necessity o f presenting the

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book in a thoroughly up¢ o date state has greatly delayed its publication
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A . C A M P B EL L H O L MS .
M a rch , 1 904 .
C O N TE N TS
P A RT I .
C HA P TE R
I . a I NTR O D U C TO RY
IL O L O N G I T U D I NAL STR E S SE S, DES IGN A ND A R R A NG E ME NT
OF LO NG TU D NA LI I P A RTS , E TC . A rt . 6
I II . G TRA N SV E R SE I G N ND A RRA N G E M NT O F
S TR E SSE S, DES A E
TR A N SV E SE A RTS L O N G I TU D I N A L A ND TR N SV E R S E
R P , A
SY ST M S O F C N STR U C T I O N C O M A R D
E E TC
O P E , . A rt . 19
IV . C LA S I FI C A T I O N SO C I T I E S R U L E S O F C O N STR U C T I O N
S E , ,
M TH O D S O F A SS I G N I N G SC A N TL I N G S E TC
E , .
V . 0 D I FF N T TY P S O
ERE V S ELS TC E F E S , E .
VI . FR E E B O A R D , E TC
VI I . K E E L S, K EE LS O N S, E TC .
VI I I . F R A M E S , FR A M N G , I E TC .
IX . S DEI I ST U C T U RA L
STR N G E R S , R A R R A N G E M E N TS A G A N ST I
P A N T I N G C O LL I S I O N E TC
, , . Art IOI
X . SH E LL P LA T I N E TC G, .
XI . B EA M S , E TC .
XI I . P IL L A R S, E TC .
XI I I . D E C K S, D E C K P LA T N G , I E TC .
XI V . WATE R B A LL AST, D O U BL E B O TTO M S, DEEP TA N K S, OIL

FU E L TA N K S, E T C .
XV . WATE RT I G H T SU B D V S O N , I I I B U LK H E A D S , E TC .
X VI ; MA C H I N E RY CAS N G S , I DE C K O P E N N G S, I E TC . A rt . 219 20 1
X VI I . M A C H I N E RY SP A C E, C O AL B U N K E R S, C OAL NG I A R RA N G E
M E N TS, E TC . A rt . 2 28 2 07
X VI I I . E N G NE I A ND BO I LER S E A T N G S, I S H A FT STOO LS, SH A FT

TU B E , TU N N E L, P A D DLE W I NG S , E TC . A rt . 237 2 16
XI X . B ow A N D STE RN , S TE M A ND STE R N -FR A M E , P R O P E LL E R

B RA C K E TS, E TC .
R U D D ER S, E TC .
XX L . R IV E TE D I
JO N TS , R V E T N G , I I E TC .
XX I I . r I
C A U L K N G , TE ST N G I T A N K S, E TC .
XX I I I . WOO D D E C K S, C A U LK I NG ,
CE I LI NG , C AB N I B U L K H E AD S ,
S KY L I G H TS ,
E TC .
XX I V . B I LG E K E E LS , R O LL N G , F E N D E R S, I E TC .
XX V . B U L WA R K , R A I L, D EC K I I
F TT N G S , H A TC H WAY S, C A RG O
P O R TS , DE R R I C K S WI N C H ,
E S, E TC . A rt 3 5 7 .
335
C O N TE N TS .
CHA PTE R
P A GE
XX VI . M A STS A N D SP A R S, R I G G I NG M C , .
A r t 3 75
.
35 1
XX VI I . A N C H O R S, C A B LES , W I ND LA SS , B O ATS, DAV I TS ,
S TE E R NG I G EAR, E TC .
A rt 3 8 7
.
365
XX VI I I . WA TE RT I G H T DO O R S , MA N H O L E S , E TC .
A r t 40 7
.
3 83
XX I X . P U MP I NG A R R A N G E M E N TS, SC U P P E RS, FR E S H -WA TE R

TA N K S , F I RE S E RV C E , I WA TE R C LO SE TS , ASH
S H O O TS , E TC . A rt 4 1 7
.
39 0
XXX . VE N T I T I O N R R I G E RA TI O N I N SU LAT I O N S I D
LA ,
EF , ,
E
L I G H TS H EAT I N ETC
,
G, . A r t 440
.
410
XXX I . R US TI N G F W I NG
,
A NT I C O R O S I V E A N D A N T I
O L ,
- R
FO U L I N G P I N T COP P H A TH I N G
A C E M NT S, ER S E , E ,
A SP H A LT, E TC .
A rt 4 5 7
.
42 5
P AR T I I .
XXX I I . D RA W I NG O FI C A ND MO U LD LO FT O P E RAT I O N S
- F E -
,
L AY I N G O FF P E A R I N G TH E P LA NS O DE R I N G
-
,
R P , R
T H E M T R I AL E TC
A E , . A rt 4 78
.
44 9
X XX I I I . o BE N D 1 NG TH F AM S SC R I V
E BO DS B ND I NG R E ,
E AR ,
E
SLA BS, E TC . Ar t 48 3
.
459
XXX I V . TE M P LA TI N G , P R E P A R I NG C E LL U LA R D O U B LE B OTTO M
B Y TE M P L ATE , E TC .
XXX V . MA K I N G K E E L S, STE M, B U L K H EA D S, B EA M S , E TC .
XXX VI . A R R AN G N G I TH E STA G N G , I L AY NG I TH E K E E L,
E R E CT N G I A ND FA I I N G R TH E FRA M E S A ND
B E AM S, F TT N GI I K E E LSO N S, S DE I ST R I NG ERS ,
TA N K TO P , D E C K P LA T N G , I ETC . A r t 50 4
.
49 9
XX X VI I J S H E LL P LA T N G , I SHEER I NG TH E L A N D N G S, I P R E P AR
I NG A N D F TT N GI I TH E P LA T ES , FRA M E I
L N E RS,
FA I I N G T H SH
R TC E EL L , E . Art 5 19
.
5 16
XXX VI I I . M ST M A K I N G L AY I N G O FF TH STE N MO U LD I N G S
A ,
- E R , A rt 5 2 8
.
5 34
XXX I X . S H I P Y A RD M A C H I N TOO LS E A r t 5 30
.
54 1
XL . PR A R I N G TH E SL I P W Y S
EP L A U N C H I N G E TC A , , . A r t 5 43
.
55 1
XLI . ST E L M K I N G
E A M C H AN I CA L Q UA L I TI E S TE STS
,
E , ,
ST EELC A ST I N G S ST L N D I R O N FO R G I N G S ,
EE A ,
A N N E A L I N G E TC , . A r t 54 6
.
560
AP P E NDI X .
E LE M E NTA RY C O N S D E R AT O N S I I ON TH E STR E N G TH AND
I
ST FFN E SS O F B EA M S Art 5 72 .
587
I ND E X
P RA C T I C A L S H I P BU I L DI NG
C H A P TE R I
Ar t 1 . . U ntil
ab out 1 8 40 practically all vessels were of wood By that time .
great perfection had been attained in the use of this material but its possi ,
bi li ti e s in the matter of size were limited fo r although in s ome exceptional , ,
cases a length of 3 0 0 feet was attained fe w wood ships exceeded 2 0 0 feet , .
E ven when of this moderate si z e to make wood sea going Ships quite s trong ,
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enough is impracticable for as the numerous short pieces o f which they are
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composed can be but imperfectly connected the inevitable slipping or ,
stra i n i ng movement of each one upon its neighbour results in time i n a , ,
large and permanent deformation of the hull so much so that I n old ve s sels ,
the keel line often departs some feet from the straight bending upwards in ,
the middle or hogging a s it is termed A lthough many of those

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accustomed to wood s couted the idea of iron sea going vessels they had -
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soon to admit their superiority I t was forcibly demonstrated by the .
accidental stoppage o f some o f the early vessels during the launch which ,
involved their taking at low tide a bridge like position supported at either
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end or with a large portion overhanging ; and although subjected to such

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abnormal stress the hull s howed little or no Sign of bending No wood

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ship could have with s tood s uch trea tment when lying afloat immediately
after launching they were often found to have bent some inches from the
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straight The precise date at which iron was first u s ed fo r shipbuilding is

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unknown for to begin with it was employed in a tentative fashion for

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canal barges and the like .
A r t 2 The principal feature of the hull is the s h e ll p l a t i n g

. . I f the .
upper deck be regarded as a horizonta l portion thereo f then all other ,
structural parts are more or less subsidiary their purpose b eing to sti ffen ,
and support it I n small boats the shell plating alone may suffi ce excellent
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lifeboat s are made whose essential structure is two sheets of thin steel one ,
fo r each S ide pressed to the desired form and united to a continuous bar
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forming the keel stem and ste m post I n a large vessel the shell is com
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posed of numerous plates riveted together ; and although alone it might ,
fulfil the fundamental condition o f impenetrability to water so elementary ,
a structure would of course lack many other essential qualities The hull
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of a sea going vessel must have strength and rigi dity such that when deeply
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immersed by heavy masses o f cargo it will su ff er no deformation or excessive

stress The deforming forces may be very severe ; in a large vessel the
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fluid pressure tending to collapse the sides or force up the bottom may
amount to many thousands of tons ; and together with this ever present ,
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straining tendency the structure must withstand the enormous accentuation

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of stress caused by violent blows from stormy seas pitching and ro lling ,
B
2 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[Ar t 2
from side to Side and lying bridge like across the w aves Though sub
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j e c te d to these forces there must be per fect immunity

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from straining there
should be no perceptible bending either in the hull as a whole or in Its
component parts fo r i f there were the numerous riveted j oints might soon
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become loose admit water and finally give way Also in a steamer i f the
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machinery w ith its Sha fting etc were bolted to a hull not per fectly rigid i t
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could not run with the un failing precision so essential to the safe performance
of long voyages .
The thin shell plating requires to be sti ffened by interior fr a m e w o r k ,
disposed both transversely and longitudinally ; and further the two sides , , ,
thus sti ffened must be united by cross beams to hold them at fixed distance
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and support them against collapse Theoretically considered while main .

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taining the same general strength the arrangement o f the framework might ,
be greatly varied ; the same total strengthening e ffect could be given by

r i bs or f r a mes o f massive character but fe w in number z e placed at wide
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intervals or by numerous slender ones placed closer together I f the latter .
sy s tem were carried to exce s s the ultimate result would evidently be ,
equivalent to a mere thickening of the shell plating I f su fficiently thick .

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the shell might indeed become self supporting but o f course so great a
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thickness would be required as to render the vessel useless as a cargo

carrier Similarly i f the frames were very widely disposed and pro
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p o rti o na te l
y massive although they would preserve the form of the hull as
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a whole they would not give suffi cient local stiffness to the plating in order
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that this might not yield between them it would still require to be ,
excessively thick .
A r t 3 The m o s t e ffi c i en t c ar go v e s s e l is that w h ich — other qualities

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secure d ca n carry the greatest weight or bulk of cargo in proportion to

u
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her s ize and first cost Small size or tonnage is advantageous for it .
means that the rateable value upon which the dues —a constant source of
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—
exp nditure are charged is small ; if b ulk y light cargoes are carried how
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ever the vessel s size or tonnage also mea s ures her carrying capacity so
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that to be small is here no advantage A light hull involving a small .

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weight of structural material is advantageous because it not only reduces , ,
the first cost in the matter o f material but increa s es ever afterwards the ,
vessel s weight carrying or earning power ; for o f course every ton of

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weight saved in the hull permits o f the conveyance o f one ton more o f
cargo When competition is keen and freights may be just sufficient to pay
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interest on the ca pital outlay a small first cost is evidently essential to ,
commercial e fficiency .
C o s t o f c on s t r u c t i o n i s ma de up o f two item s — m a t e ri a l an d
w o r k m an sh i p The latter is the more important ; it i s dependent to a
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certa i n extent on the quantity o f material used but to a greater on ,

Si mpl i city o f construction zle whether the part s are few or numerous
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whether of Simple or complica ted form and whether easily and expeditiously ,
combined or otherwise The cheape s t s tructure is the one involving a

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m i n i mum of structural material and o f skilled labour With a given strength .
these two conditions are opposed if the one is great the other is small a ,
vessel built o f fe w parts which make up in massiveness what they lack in

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number or e ffi ciency of form and disposition (as in the imaginary case o f a

hull composed of a thick shell only ) would involve less skilled labour than ,
one havmg numerous parts slender but efficiently formed and disposed fo r , ,
the i r more specialized duties Such a vessel however would be costly in .

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raw material and in ferior as a cargo carrier So important are carrying .
capab i lities that it is always desira ble to reduce the weight o f the hull ,
even though the first cost be slightly increased by the greater number and
Ar t 5 ]
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P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
3
complexity of parts But there is a limit to the application o f this principle

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fo r although theoretically the necessary strength might be maintained with

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very slender parts the resulting structure would have little endurance ; it
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would be unable to withstand the e ffect o f wear and tear ; the wa s ting
tendency of corrosion and the bumps and blows of active service would
cause such ra pid de tcri ora ti o n as soon to involve costly repairs and Shorten
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the vessel s period of use ful existence I n warships where wear and tear
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are almost negligible factors a very slender structure is admis s ible I n ,
these vessels a light hull is essential and i s s ecured— o ften at high cost in
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workmanship—by slender parts disposed and associated in the most

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e fficient manner .
A r t 4 Notice in a general way the arrangement of the main framework

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of the hull ( see P late Th e t r a n s v er s e fr a m e s form continuous

ribs round the body o f the ship ; they give to the thin and yielding shell
plating the necessary lateral s ti ff ness and resist all stresses tending to ,
alter the form of the transverse sec t ions A lone however they would give .
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but imperfect rigidity ; if conjoined only through the medium of the shell
plating each one would practically be independent of those adjoining and
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so would only resist tho s e stresse s which directly a ffected it I n order .

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there fore that they may give a combined and consequently a powerful
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resistance they are united by lon gi t u d i n a l fr a m e s— the keelsons and

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Side stringers These bind them rigidly together so that no frame may
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strain or yield independently of those adj oining adjacent ones si multa ,
n e o usly resisting any forces tending to deflect the Sides or bottom .
A vessel s framework is thus composed o f two sets of frames ; the

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transverse and longitudinal The former are always dispo s ed in direct .
contact with the shell at intervals of about two feet They constitute the , .
main skeleton of the hull the shell plating and other parts b eing fitted to it ,
a s a groundwork The latter ( termed keels ons when on the bottom and
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si de or lzola s tr i nger s when on the side ) are fitted in contin u ous lengths
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within the transverse They are wider apart and form as it were a sup .
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le m e n tary skeleton I n large vessels or where superior strength is

p .
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required they are connected not merely to the inner surface o f the trans
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verse frames b u t extend zrzter eosta ll between them so as to connect to

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the Shell ( see P late The lower part o f each transverse frame lying ,
across the ship s bottom is made exceedingly strong compared with that
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on the side for the b ottom must sustain the weight o f heavy cargo and is
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liable to severe pressures through grounding or resting on the keel in dry

dock ; while elsewhere they are mere bars here they are formed of deep ,
plates termed floors For a similar reason the longitudinal frames of this
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part are made stronger than those on the Sides The one directly over the .
— n t ee l n v e t l e —
keel the ce r e k so or r i ca ke l is exceptionally mas s ive I t might .
be regarded a s the backbone of the vessel s bottom ’

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A r t 5 A ship is appropriately likened to a l a r ge flo a t i n g b e a m

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o r gi r d e r for b o th undergo bending stres s es

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of a similar nature and in 1
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a ship the structural material is to a large extent distributed agreeably with

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the principles governing girder design A lso every structural part of the .
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hull is introduced with a view to re s isting certain stresses more or less

definite and as these all tend to bend the part each when its capabilities
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are inve s tigated may b e regarded as a beam or girder A ccordi n gly to

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Thr o ugh o ut thi s w o rk the te r m i n th e n o w acce pte d se n se to

str ess wi ll be use d
den o te a n y fo rce ac ti n g up o n , a n d te n di n g to de fo r m , a bo d , a s a so th e c o rre sp on d i n g y l
y
i n tern al fo rce o f re si stan ce w h i c h th e bo d o pp o ses to such de fo r m a ti o n Th e te r m str a w , .
y
t o si gn if th e d e fo rmati on i n d uce d by th e e tern a l s tre ss o r fo rce ; o r , i n a co mpo un d x
p l v p v
s truc ture , th e re a ti e sli p i ng m o em en t th at m ay o cc ur betw i t i ts co m o n e n t
p ar ts x .
4 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 5
appreciate intelligently the manner in which a ship s hull in whole or in ’

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part resists de formation and the arrangement o f the various parts best
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suited to their special duties it is evident that a kno wledge o f the laws ,
governing a simple beam or girder is indispensable I n order therefore .

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that rea ders un familiar with these matters ma y grasp the necessary pri n
c i ple s the subject is treated in an elementary fashion in th e A ppendix
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To understand the particular purpose or usefulness o f the various , ,
component parts of the hull a knowledge of the s t r a i n i n g fo r c e s to which,
vessels are exposed a nd which there fore must be provided against is

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essential These forces may b e divided into two broad classes lon gi t u
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d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e The former tend to produce longitudinal de for

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o
mation bending the hull as a whole ; the latter to distort the form of the ,
t ransverse sections I n the following chapter it is intended to notice first

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how longitudinal bending stresses may arise and the circumstances which ,
govern the intensity o f their straining e ffect on the hti ll .

1
F i t or ti g i v ti g ti
n eres n th bj t f l gi tudi l b di g t
n es a on s o n fe su ec o on na en n s resses, r e ere n ce
m y b m d t th f l l w i g
a e a e o m g th
e
po
p o S i E n
J ,R d a M m on t tio er a e rs : r . . ee
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s e oi r o le
R y l S i ty
o a 871
oc e ,T 1 I t t t
.
q l A /i i t t
r a n s. F d 8 74 ; Si W
n s z n zon
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a oa
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rc ec s : rou e, 1 r
H Whi t
.
1 8 77 J h 1 8 74—77 ; Smi th 1 88 3 ; R d 1 89 T I ti t t f
—
e, o n, ea 0 ran s ns u i on o
1 8 78—
.
, , . .
E gin d S / ip lmi ld
n eer s an S tl d A i
z er s 79 ; B
zn i l 1 8 93 9 4
co an T : rn so n , es, . ra ns.
N t/ E t C z- t I ti t ti f E gi d Sl p/ m i ld w B g tr m d Pi d
8 88 —
or as oa s ns u on o n n eer s an a e er s o an an ,
1 8 9 ; K d l 1 892-9 3 en a , .
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
C H A P TE R I I .
Art . 6 a stranded vessel rested high and dry each end upon a
. If ,
rock as shown in Fig 4 P late I the hull forming a bridge girder would
, .
, , , ,
tend to sag i e bend downwards in the middle Th e fore and aft material
, . . .
- -
at the upper part would su ffer compressive stress tending to crush it or ,
make it buckle up ; and that on the lower part tensile stress tending to , ,
stretc h it or tear it across I n Fig 2 the opposite condition s are depicted . . .
H ere the ship tends to flag the stresses on the material being reversed ,
.
H o ggi n g a n d s a ggi n g s t r e s s e s are also experienced by every vessel

when afloat among waves and that they are identical with the above will ,
be evident fro m Figs 1 and 3 which depict a vessel floating amidst waves
.
,
o f exaggerated height Th e upward supporting pressure whether by rocks

.
,
or the buoyancy o f water must equal the weight of the hull and contents ,
but in the latter case owin g to its better fore and aft distribution the
,
- -
,
bending e ffect is of cour s e much less inten s e, ,

.
L o n gi t u di n al b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s of a permanent or chronic character

are also experienced by all vessels when floatin g a t r e s t i n s m o o th
w a t e r H o w brought about is forcibly illustrated by Figs 8 to 1 0 P late 1
. .
,
.
I n Fig 8 the weight over each barrel causes neither hogging nor
.
sagging stresses for the buoyant e ffect of the latter is equal to and
, ,
lies e x actly under each weight I n Fig 9 sagging stresses prevail

, . . ,
fo r while the buoyant e ffect acts at the ends of the plank the load ,
acts at the middle ; and conversely in Fig 1 0 hogging stre s ses prevail , , . .
I n a Ship precisely similar conditions may be experienced much less ,
in degree however ; fo r although the displacement varies throughout

,
the length it does so gradually every part of the hull and cargo receiving
,
some support— not neces s arily a balancing one — directly from belo w I f
,
.
,
for instance only one hold amidships were filled with heavy cargo and all
, ,
the others were empty it is clear that the weight o f the loaded compart
,
ment would not be balanced by its displacement ; it would have to be

borne in great part by upward forces of buoyancy acting elsewhere towards ,
the ves s el s ends and consequently the hull would tend to sag j ust a s if it
’
, , , ,
bridged the trough o f a wave Similarly if the end compartments were .

,
heavier than their displacements the excess o f weight would be borne by ,
the s urplus buoyancy o f the midship part and hogging stres s es would ,
prevail .
Th e severity o f h o ggi n g a n d s a ggi n g t e n d e n c i e s and their strainin g ,

e ffect on the hull depend on the length and height of the waves encountered
, ,
the ves s el s dimensions and her condition as to loading They are most
’
, .
intense when the waves are high and have a length from crest to cre s t , ,
equal to that of the Ship itself ; and they are greater in long shallow vessels ,
than in shorter deeper ones A s j ust seen the weight and distribution of
, .
,
the cargo have a commanding influence ; heavy weights towards the bow
and ste m or absence o f weight amidships intensify hogging s tresses and
, ,
an excess of weight amidships accentuates those of a sagging nature ,

[Ar t 6
A ccording to the loading some parts of the hull may su ffer sagging stres s es
,
and others hogging ones I n all vessels the extreme ends are heavi er than
.
the local displacement ; here there fore there is a permanent hogg i ng , ,
tendency When loaded uni formly with homogeneous cargo the wei ght
. ,
and corresponding displacement in way of each cargo bold are u sually fa i rly
well balanced I n the region o f the machinery however the hull and con
. , ,
tents— the engines boiler s and coal — usually represent a lesser we i ght than
, ,
the local load displacement the di fference becoming more marked towards,
the end of a voyage when the coals are con sumed from the bunker s A n d
,
. ,
on the other hand when the vessel is in light trim the weight of the
, ,
machinery section is heavier than the local displacement I n light h i gh

‘
.
,
powered channel steamers the concentrated weight o f machinery am i dsh i ps

, ,
and the unloaded buoyant ends may result in severe s agging stresses ;
, ,
those of a hogging nature contrary to what is usual being less important

, ,
.
I f the cargo is not uniformly distributed but is composed o f heavy isolated , ,
weights the resulting stresses on the hull may b e exceptionally severe ; i f

,
exceedingly localized the tendency may be not so much to bend the hull
,
fore and a ft a s to shear it in two transversely I f fo r instance empty and ,

.
, ,
hea vily laden hold s occurred alternately the b ottom o f the hull in way of , ,
the former being subject to an upward s ea pressure entirely unbalanced

,
from within would tend to move upwards from bulkhead to bulkhead and
, ,
contrariwise in way o f th e latter Th ese tendencies moreover would be .

, ,
accentuated and reduced as the water pre s sure in way o f each hold was
increased or diminished by variations in the draught due to passing waves ,
or as the weight carried was virtually increased by vertical movements of

the vessel .
A rt 7
. I f when subj ected to h o ggi n g o r s a ggi n g s t r e s s e s the
.
, ,
position o f the supporting pressure s and the weight o f the hull are known ,
it is a comparatively simple matter t o c o m p u t e t h e b en d i n g m o m en t

and the intensity o f the resulting s tresses tensile and compressive which , ,
the structural material will su ffer At an early period of iron shipbuilding .
such investigations were made b u t to simpli fy the calculation the hull was , , ,
as su med to occupy a high and dry position poised upon a rock amidship ,
or on one at either end as in Figs 2 and 4 P late 1 O f course no vessel

, .
, .
,
could withstand so severe an ordeal ; even i f strong enough to resist the

resulting bending tendency the hull would b e crushed and penetrated by ,
the intense local pressure of the rocks V essels are often accidentally .
stranded on a bank but a s they are usually fairly well water borne the
, ,
e ffect of inequalities in the support is m inimized To attempt to provide .
them with sufficient strength to withstand the bending stresses incurred by

so remote a contingency as a girder like position high and dry between -
,
supports would evidently be quite inexpedient for the hull would be so

, ,
heavy as to have little e fficiency for its legitimate work .
When a flo a t i n s t i ll w a t e r it is a simple though laborious matter , , ,
t o c a l c u l a t e with preci s ion fo r any condition o f loadi n g the bending

, ,
moments and corresponding st r e s s e s W h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l of the hull

w i ll s u ff e r ; and unless the loading b e very abnormal these chronic
, ,
stresses are usually o f minor importance Such calculations however are .

, ,
o f little practical value fo r they give minimum stresses whereas what it is

, ,
d esire d to know is the m o s t s evere stress the structure is likely to su ffer ,
when heavily laden and while rising and falling amidst high waves I n .
v e stiga ti o n s toward s this end are frequently made but while very instr uctive ,
as indicating how the severity o f the stresses may be a ffected by di fferences

i n dimensions and conditions of loading they are unreliable as giving , ,
quantitively the actual s tres s es su ffered by or the strength required in any

, , ,
Art 8 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
7
particular ship ; for not only are importan t conditions as to length and
height of wave arbitrarily chosen but many complex matters regarding wave ,
structure and vertical movements of the hull not susceptible of mathematical ,
treatment and which greatly influence the re s ults are o f necessity neglected , .
I f the mo s t severe bending moment that a ship would s u ffer in actual

service were known it would be a simple matter so to design the structure
,
o f the hull that it w ould have the precise s trength compatible with any
chosen margin of safety Treating the ve s sel as a girder poised high and .
, ,
dry between supports then if the hull were prismatic and uniformly loaded
, , ,
the bending moment amidships in foot tons would be one eighth of the ,
-
,
-
vessel s weight multiplied by her length Numerous calculations indicate

’
.
that in the case of a loaded ship afloat amid waves O f the largest Size likely ,
to be encountered the maximum bending moment will rarely exceed one

,
thirtieth of her weight multiplied by her length Taking this as a basis it .

,
is found that in most well constructed Ships the strength of the hull is -
su ffi cient to leave a fair margin of sa fety under all but very abnormal con
d iti o n s a tensile strength o f seven tons per square inch of the steel being
,
seldom attained .
I t may b e noticed here that the l o n gi t u d i n a l b e n d i n g e ff ect o f

hogging and sagging stresses is little more than a tendency for though the
tensile and compressive stresses set ti p in the structu ral material may
approach the elastic li mi t o f the steel the hull is so deep and rigid that the ,
resulting d e fle c t i o n fr o m t h e s t r a i gh t is very small probably not more ,
than a fe w inches even in a long vessel .

1
I n the investigation above re ferred to the vessel is commonly assumed ,
to be loaded with homogeneous cargo and to be poised on the crest of a ,
wave o f her own length and in height one t wentieth of her length When ,
-
.
so circumstanced the bending s tress is a hogging one ; and it is usually

,
more severe than the corresponding sagging stress chiefly owing to the fact ,
that a fter a long voyage when the midship coal b unkers are empty the ,
’
,
hull is disproportionately heavy towards the ends just where it receives the ,
least support I n making the ca lculation an outline o f the wave is drawn
.
,
2
,
in such a position with regard to the hull that the irregular volume which
it cuts o ff is equal to the displacement in still water The forces of buoyancy .
and the opposed weight o f each small contig uous transverse section of the , ,
hull are then computed and their di fferences being obtained the bending , ,
moment at any part can at once be ascertained I t is then a comparatively .
simple though laborious matter to ascertain by treating the Ship as a

, , ,
girder the tensile or compressive stre s ses that the structural material will
,
su ffer at any particular pa rt .
Art 8 But the assumption that a ves s el displaces the same volume o f
. .
water on the crest or hollow of a wave as in still water is not correct The .
b u o y an t e ffe c t of the water forming the u p p e r p a rt o f a w a v e is less

than that of still water and accordingly to obtain an e qual support the , , , ,
hull must sink deeper ; and conversely the water in the lo w e r p a r t is , ,
more buoyant so that a lesser immersion is required for the same e ffect
,
.
R efined investigations in which this is taken account of Show t hat the ,

3
,
1
A n a cc o un t o f so me p ra c ti cal e pe ri men ts i n thi s di re cti o n w ill b e fo und i n Mr x .
l
P hil ip s p ap e r, Tr a n s I n stztn ti on of N a v a l A r c/zi tects , 1 8 9 1
’
. an d a th e o r e ti ca l co n si d e r a
j p l
ti o n o f th e sub ec t w i l be fo un d i n a a pe by M r S tan bur a n d th e late Mr R r
ead , . y .
Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N av a l A r c/ci tects , 1 8 94

.
Th e a ctua w o rk o f th ese c alcula ti o n s i s w e de scri be d i n Si r W H VVhi te s an d

.
2
l ’
ll . .
vl
Mr Th ea rle s w o rks o n n a a ar chi tec ture , a s a so i n so m e o f the pape rs a lrea d c i te d ,
.
’
l y
n o tabl y
th a t o f th e la te M r ohn , Tr a n s .J
I n sti tuti on of N a v a l A r c/z ztects , 1 8 7 7 , a n d o f
.
. l
P ro f Bi e s , Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on of E ng z n eer s a n a S / np bn i la er s i n S cotla n d, 1 8 93 94
.
’ ’
-
.
3
See M r Sm i th s p ap e r, Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N a va l A r ch i tects, 1 88 3
’
. . .
Art 8
8 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[
actual sa gging moment may only be about one half that found by cru der -
calc ulations and while hogging stresses are also found to be less the
, ,
,
di fference in their case is only about half as great These very large .
discrepancies explain satisfactorily how it is that vessels wh i ch by ord i nary ,
calculations would appear to be liable to a stress on the upper works

exceeding ten tons per square inch so rarely how gns of by ser ous
S S i i t i
,
straining .
I t may be readily shown how the water of a wave crest and that o f th e -
hollow have respectively a smaller and a greater buoyant e ect than st ll ff i
w ater . The buoyant e ff ect of a fluid depends on its we i ght ; salt water 15
more buoyant than fresh because it is heavier ; mercury 15 so heavy that ,
lead floats in it A bucket o f water when shot into the air has Vi rtually , ,
—
.
no weight during the flight a piece of iron or cork also Vi rtually Wi thout
weight —will remain wherever it may hap pen to be at or below the surface ,
.
I n the same way a man jumping over a fence with a we i ght on h i s back
,
will feel no pressure or weight while in the air I f a mas s of anyth i ng

, ,
. ,
att ached to a cord be swung round in a vertical circle its we i ght when at
, ,
the bottom o f the swing as evidenced by the pull on the cord may be very, ,
much greater than the actu al while at the top it may appear to have no
weight at all No w in accordance with the tr oc/zoi a a l wave theory now — ,
’
.
,
accepted as the correct one— every particle of water in a wave moves I n a

vertic l circle and so as in the case o f the cord and weight the part i cles
a , , ,
forming the upper hal f or crest su ff er a virtual reduction of weight and

, , ,
those of the bottom an increase The orbital motion is Slo w so that the .
,
loss and increase in weight is not so great as in the suggested case of the
cord and weigh t or the bucket of water moving freely under the force of
gravity but it is suffici e nt to a ffect appreciably its power o f supporting a
,
vessel s hull ; to receive the required support this must sink more deeply
’
,
in the crest and less deeply in the hollo w I t follows there fore that when .
, ,
a vessel lies across a wave crest the support given at the deeply immersed -
,
’
midship part and that at the little immersed ends are rendered le s s
unequal and consequently the bending e ffect on the hti ll i s less intense
, , ,
and similarly when astride the wave hollow .
A part from its e ffect on the buoyancy of wave water the circum s ta nce -
,
that a m a ss o sc i ll a t i n g i n a v e r t i c al p a t h v i r t u ally l o s e s a n d
, ,
g a i n s i n w e i gh t may have a commanding e,

f
f ect on the longitudinal
bending stresses su ffered by a ship when moving up and down amidst
waves A s the hull rises to the upper part o f the wave and then begins to
.
descend it is virtually lighter and in consequence su ff ers less bending

, , , ,
stress ; a n d similarly when it descends into the trough and begins to

, ,
ascend it is heavier and su ffers more This phenomenon will be familiar

, .
to any one who ha s been at sea in rough weather Standing towards the .
end o f the vessel one may be almost lifted o ff the deck at the top of an
,
upward heave and at the bottom feel one s s elf abnormally ponderous
,
’
.
Similarly everything on board and the vessel itsel f is subject to a like

, , ,
e ffect Small sailing boats heel over and more readily capsize when on a
.
-
wave crest their virtual lightne s s having the e ffect of a loss o f ballast
-
, .
I n the case o f a large vessel floating amid waves the u p a n d d o w n ,
m o v e m en t o f t h e h u l l as a whole is of course Slow and steady ; she , , , ,
does not rise to the waves like a raft I t may happen ho w ever should a .
, ,
suitable series o f high waves be encountered that although not rising much , ,
to the first She may do so more and more as each succeeding one gives her
,
—
an additional impulse ju s t as a weight suspended by a piece o f elastic i f ,
subjecte d to small but suitably timed pushes will oscillate through gradually ,
i ncreasing distances The e ffect o f such movement on the bending stresses

.
Io Art 8
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[ .
( Art . A lthough
practical experience is thus the ruling factor in deciding
the most suitable structural design this nevertheless l s a rrange d l n con , , ,
formity with theoretical principles which when properly appl i ed are

o
, , ,
necessarily in agreement with practical experience .
Ar t 9 I t .is now .intended to notice i n a general w a y the s t r u c t u r a l , ,
s
d e i gn of ships large and small ( see P late ,
i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o the
lo n gi t u d i n a l s t r e s s e s just considered A ll vessels resemble more or
—
. ,
less a large box girder i e one which is a hollow square In sect on a

,
-
, .
i .
design typical o f strength and rigidity I n small vessel s the lo ngi tudl nal .
stresses are usually unimportant and so in their structural des ign no spec i al ,
regard is given to girder principles ; their upper flange i n the i r aspect as a ,
box girder may only be partially represented by a marg i nal stri p of de ck

-
,
plating the deck stmnger and the conj oined sneer str oke ( a wood deck i s
,
'
disregarded in questions o f strength Art I n such vessels the strength , .
and sti ffness require d to give a substantial hull t hat will resist the wear and ,
tear bumps and blows and local stresses o f active service amply sat i sfy
, , ,
those o f longitudinal strength A s dimensions increase however so also . , ,
do the longitudinal stresses and in the arrangement and di spo smon of the ,
structural material it becomes necessary to give special regard to g i rder

principles G reater strength is introduced where most required M by
. , .
completing the upper flange so that the deck like the bottom becomes a , , ,
plated surface The hull is then practically a tapered tub e a form well
. ,
adapted to resist stresses of all kinds .
A r t 10 A girder o f uniform section when overloaded at the middle

. .
, ,
fails at the part where the bending e ffect is greatest i e at the centre o f ,
. .
gravity o f th e load The centre o f gravity o f a load ed ship is practically

.
amidships and so here the stresses are greatest ; thence they gradually
,
diminish disappearing at the bow and ste m I t follo w s that t h e h u ll

, .
s h o u ld b e s t r o n ge s t a m i d s h i p s and in practice it is made s o fo r , ,
towards the ends it tapers in breadth and the shell and all lo n gitudinal ,
parts are reduced in thickness Further when a vessel is just o f a size to .

,
require additional strength the extra structural m aterial is mostly placed ,
on the midship portion ; thus w hen deck plating is first called fo r only the
’
, ,
’
midship part is plated ( see P late 8 6 ) with increased dimensions the entire ,
deck is plated and then a s econd and a third plated deck may be
,
similarly introduced .
I f the strength d iminished from midships towards the ends in the same ’
gradual fashion as the longitudinal bending moments the hull would be ,
equally tried throughout t e it would be no more liable to strain at one , . .
point than an o the r The strength however does not decrease in this
'
.
, ,
gradual way and although generally speaking it is disproportionately great

, , ,
towards the ends the weakest spot may owing to d i sc o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e

, ,
fo re a n d a ft m a t e r i a l be located some distance from midships

- -
,
This
’
.
may result from the presence of a deck erection ; in way o f a m i d s h i p ’
b r i d ge h o u s e for instance ( Fig 1 P late

-
,
the hull is stronger fo r it is .
, ,
deeper and is assisted by the longi tudinal material of the bri dge ; but just
at the ends of the latter there is an abrupt stoppage o f longitudinal material
and a sudden reduction in depth and so although the bending moment , ,
may be smaller here than amidships the hull may nevertheless be more ,
severely tried But further the mere abruptness o f the discontinuity may
.
’
, ,
cause an intense concentration of stress j ust as a nick in a stick is a ready ,
source o f fract ure .
A t e n d e n c y t o s t r a i n at such points is constantly observed partic a ,
la rly in large vessels and those which cross the stormy North A tlantic .
A t t h e e n d s o f t h e b r i d ge the rivets in the joint s o f the sheer strake

Ar t 1 0]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 11
and bul wark plating may become loose or more rarely the plates may , , ,
fracture I n large ve s sels indications o f straining are s ometimes observed

.
in the riveting o f the gunwale bar or in the rivets connecting the bul wark ,
to the sheer strake and those in the fore and aft seams of the bridge side
,
- - -
plating The bulwark rail being the highest part of the hull at this its
.
, ,
wea kest section is one o f the first parts to indicate exce s sive stress by
, ,
fracturing or by straining of its rivet connection s Such locali z ation of .
stress is provided against by doubling the sheer strake fo r about twenty feet
across the weak spot— the ends o f the bridge poop or quarter deck ( Fi g , ,
-
.
I 3 P late I
, A lso the bulwark plate which unites with the bridge side is
,
made thicker and is connected to the sheer strake by a double row of

,
rivet s ; the bridge landings are double riveted at this part and in large ,
vessels the deck stringer plate may be doubled and the end j oints in this ,
locality quadruple riveted instead of treble Care should be observed not .
to increase the natural weakness o f this spot by piercing the bulwark plate
th large freeing ports i f it is it should be locally doubled I t is common , .
to find the bulwark plate cracked the fracture originating at the sharp , ,
square corners o f the port A lso if there is no bulwark the lower strake .
, ,
o f the bridge side plating should extend for a fe w feet beyond the bridge
-
,
so as to avoid too sudden a discontinuity I t is well also that all such .

, ,
termi n al plates should be tapered or curved and the rail bar should be ,
connected by a bracket to the bridge bulkhead ( Figs 1 3 1 5 P late .

-
,
A b ri d ge h o u s e is usually regarded a s a m e r e s u p e r s t r u c t u re 0 11
-
the hull proper ; not only is it o f Slender construction but in its structural , ,
design continuity o f fore and aft strength is not always s tudied ; it s side
,
- -
plating fo r instance may o ften be cut almost entirely away by large gang
, ,
way doors ( see Figs 7 and 8 P late No w not only may such a deck
.
, ,
erection seriously a ffect by its di s continuity the strength of the hull but
, , , ,
when it admits of the stowage o f additional cargo its pre s ence may result ,
in a considerable augmentation of the longi tudinal bending forces I n such .
cases there fore it may be necessary to double the entire midship portion
, ,
’
o f the Sheer strake ( Fig 7 P late I n vessels of extreme proportions

long and shallow—the longitudinal bending tendency may be so severe
.
,
that even a short midship s uperstructure may s eriously augment them ;

’
accordingly in such cases ( when the bridge exceeds one fi fth the vessel s
,
-
’
length ) Lloyd s R ules require the sheer strake to b e doubled fo r hal f

’
the vessel s length ’

I f however the bridge house is substantially
.
, ,
-
constructed then the Sheer strake need not b e doubled in way of it ( see
,
Fig 8 P late
.
,
With a n e x t en s i v e m i d s h i p s u p e r s t r u c t u r e however it becomes

’
, ,
practicable and o f course very desirable to build i t so substantially and

, , , ,
of such uni form strength that instead o f being a source o f weakness , ,
necessitating rein forcement o f the hull proper below it m a y s t r e n gt h e n ,
th e e n ti r e s tr u c t u r e This superior system o f bridge house construction

.
-
is now generally adopted and so greatly does it increase the structural ,
efficiency of the hull that it may permit ( by statute regulation ) o f a smaller

,
freeboard The modifications in the usual construction consist in plating

.
the bridge deck slightly thickening the side plating double in place o f sin gle
, ,
riveting the landings and treble riveting the end joints ,

.
I n vessels whose le n gth is great compared with their depth the a ppli ,
cation o f the above principle o f calling upon a midship bridge house to ,

’
-
contribute longitudinal strength to the hull becomes almost imperative ,

.
Lloyd s R ules regard the matter in this way fo r they require such vessels
’
( those over I 3 depths in length ) to have a substantial superstructure extending

over hal f the length amidships .
Art 11
12 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[
Ar t 11 . . There
is yet another weakness sometimes observed in vessels ,
which have a s u p e r s tr u c t u r e o f li gh t s h e lt e r o r sh a d e d e c k t yp e I t - .
is a well known principle that should the addition to a girder of a slender

-
,
outer flange increase the moment o f inertia o f the cross section les s than i t -
increases the distance o f the outermost layer from the neutral axis such ,
ad dition will not increase the strength o f the girder ; for when subjected to ,
a gradually increasing load the slender outer flange will su ffer excessive ,
stress and fracture at an early period and the resulting increase in duty or , ,
greater stress thro w n upon the remaining material o f the n o w shallower

girder will still be less than that experienced by the slender flange when it
,
fractured so that further loading will be necessary to complete the failure

,
o f the girder I n accordance with this principle the thin material of a

.
,
li ght superstructure built upon a full scantlinged hull may su ffer a more
severe stress per square inch than would the upper plating ( sheer strake ,
etc ) o f the hull below were the light superstructure not there ; that is to
.
,
say contrary to what is usual in a girder should the upper part o f the hull
, ,
fracture the remaining part below while having a slightly greater duty
, , ,
would nevertheless su ffer a smaller stres s per square inch than the part
, ,
just fractured did I n vessels having a long bridge house or shelter deck
.
-
this weakness is sometime s observed the thin deck or side plating of the ,
erection straining or fracturing while the stout plating of the hull below ,
shows no Sign of stress .

1
Th e fact that in large vessels a light superstructure while itself

, , ,
suffering excessive longitudinal s tress may not contribute use ful longi ,
tudi n a l strength to the hull is sometimes kept in view the possibility of

,
rupture with its inconvenient and damaging e ffects being anticipated by

, ,
introducing in the structural design breaks in the fore and aft continuity o f ,
- -
the light erection I t is obvious however that this is an unsatis factory

.
, ,
expedient fo r between the breaks the original conditions still prevail and
, ,
the break s themselve s may cause undesirable co n centration o f stres s on the

hull proper The proper remedy i s to increase the massiveness and
.
maintain the continuity of the superstructure and this is the method n o w ,
generally adopted .
A lthough in the upper part of the hull signs of s t r ai n i n g b y e x c e s

, ,
s i v e t e n s i l e s t r e s s are not uncommon evidence o f e x c e s s i v e c o m ,
p r e s s i v e s t r e s s is comparatively rare This is no doubt due to the fact .
that considerably more yielding may occur in the latter case for parts ,
seriously strained may shirk the stress by buckling U nder tension a taut .
,
part cannot shirk its work ; it must resist stretch or fracture But it is , , .
possible that weakne s s such as is shown by strained joints an d loosened

r i vets may sometimes be as much the result of exce ss ive compression as of
excessive tension ; fo r o f course a s a vessel passes over high waves each , , ,
plate and each j oint is one moment a ffected by the one kind of stress and
the next by the other O f course in the case of well fitte d butted joints .
,
-
the ri vets are Spared any participation in stresse s of compression Some .
i nteresting cases of excessive compressive stress at the upper works are on -
record O n e of these a light paddle steamer designed for navigating

.
,
- 2
smooth waters on making her passage out across the Ba y o f Bisca y met
, , ,
Wi th long waves and broke in two apparently from excessive compressive ,
Se c M r P ur i s p ap e r,
. v
O n Me ej ect of dep t/t on t i l e s tr engt/t of a g i r der to r es i s t
’
ben di ng s tr a w s , ”
Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on qf N a v a l A r c/z i tects , 1 8 7 8 ; a lso Mr B i e s pa p e r ,
.
’
. l
O n Me st r eng t/t of la rg e I n st/t n tzon of E ng i n eers a n d S/ u é n i lcler s i n S cot la n d,
p
I S9S- 9 4 .
S ee the a te M r lohn s
’
p ap e r ,
“
O n Me s t/ a zn s o
. J f i r on sl aps , Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on of .
N a va l A 1 8 77 .
Ar t 1 2]
stress at the upper works the structure here being in no way fitted to with
-
,
stand severe stress Another case is that of an oil steamer built with a .
-
,
l
light Shade deck superstructure I n this ve s sel the sagging tendency pro
-
.
,
duce d in still water by filling the midship oil tank s while the others were
’
empty was such as to impose a stress o f five tons per square inch on the
thin shade deck stringer plate H ad it been a tensional stress it would not
-
.
,
have declared itsel f but bei n g compressive it was sufli c i en t to cause the , , ,
thin plate to buckle down between the beams The same e ffect ( due to .
loading amidships) has frequently been observed in shelter deck vessels -
and those having long bridge houses O f course as just noticed the -
.
, ,
actual failure o f a light superstructure would not n eces s arily a ffect the
integrity of the main structure below .
A r t 12 C onsider now the s e matters which a ffect the c a p a b i l i t i e s

. .
o f t h e d i ff e r en t p ar t s o f t h e h u ll i n r e s i s t i n g t e n s i l e a n d c o m
p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s Th e m echanical qualities of the structural ma t erial

.
are of cour s e an important factor Their influence is more marked under

, , .
tension than under compression Thus s teel i s a very superior material to .

,
iron more reliable and uniform in every respect ; but although under
,
tension it i s about 5 0 per cent stronger under compression the one may .
,
be about as capable as the oth e r When subjected to severe tensile stress .

,
any brittleness or in feriority would greatly prejudice the sa fety of the

structure whereas under compression it might have little appreciable
,
e ffect C ast iron for instance is very brittle yet when resisting com
.
, , ,
pre s sive stress as a column or pillar it is s uperior to wrought iron Never

, , .
thele ss when the material o f a ship i s subj ected to excessive compressive

,
s tress toughness is still a valuable quality ; for when Slender parts are
,
s ubjected to exce s sive endwise compres sion they fail by side bending
or buckling long before the ultimate crushing strength of the material is
,
reached and in the case of a tough material such as steel should actual
, ,
buckling occur it does not at once fracture in the disastrous fashion

,
common to inferior iron The m ild steel o f the present day is practically .
invariable in its excellent qualitie s and so in considering the strength o f , ,
di ff erent ships they may in respect of material be regarded a s identical

, , , .
When a single part is subjected to t en s i le s t r e ss it s resi s tance per ,
square inch o f sectional area is the same whether it b e thick or thin a ,
flexible plate or a rigid bar I n a structure however made up of numerous .

, ,
p a rt s it is an important condition towards e ff ective resistance that all sh o u l d

,
li e di r e c t l y i n t h e li n e o f s t r e ss ; fo r if not only those that did would ,
o ffer resistance any that were bent or b u ckled could give none until pulled
taut which of cours e would not happen until the adj oining ones taut in
, , , ,
the first instance had stretched or fractured The condition of s uch a

, .
structure might be likened to two mooring chains only one o f which is -

,
taut I n the case of thin deck plating for instance supported by beams
.
, ,
four feet apart it is common to find that some o f the strakes do not lie
,
flat but a ss ume wavy undulations between the beams The stringer plate
, .
,
on the other hand is usually quite fair for it is held so by its attachment
, ,
to the sheer strake and being extra thick tends naturally to con form to, , ,
the fair surfac e o f the beams A ccordingly it i s always doubt ful that thin .
,
deck plating would give under severe stress an e ffective resistance ; the , ,
stringer plate would but it might receive little assistance from the adjoining
,
material To ensure a maximum of effi ciency there fore it is evidently an

.
, ,
important matter that the component parts o f the structure should be well
put together fairly with one another , .
S M S O K d ll p p
ee r.
“
St i
. . t k t m en T a N t/ E t
’
s a e r, r a n s on an s ea er s ,
”
r ans . or z- as
Coas t I n st/tu iti on o
f E ngi n eer s a nd S lz ip bn i laer s for 1 89 9 3
2 -
'
.
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G [Ar t 1 2
I 4
.
In the case of c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s th e resistance o f

f ered i s also ,
proportionate to the s e c ti on a l a r e a but i t i s even more dependent on

. .
,
other matters A direct disposition in the line o f stress i s here essent i al
.
,
for a part subjected to compressive stress is practically a p i llar, and o f ,
course a bent pillar is of little value When un fa i r parts are sub j ected to
,
.
tension the conditions as the taut ones stretch tend to i mprove whereas
.
, , ,
, ,
in the ca se o f compression any straining aggravates matters R es i stance ,

.
to compression unlike that to tension is greatly influenced by the s t i ffn e s s

, ,
o r l a t e r a l r i gi d i t y o f the part a quality governed by i ts th i ckness or

.
sectional form and by its length between fixe d points When shell or deck .
plating is subj ected to endwise compression each part of a strake between ,
two frames or beams acts like a pillar ; if the dista nce between i s small the ,
pillar is Short and there fore strong The compressive strength o f a stri p
,
.
o f plating so long as the distance between fixed po m t s hes between say

, , ,
5 0 and 1 0 0 times the thickness varies practically as the t h i ckness and , ,
inversely as the length This holds good there fore fo r such plated .
, ,
surfaces as are found in ships say plating inch thick held by frames or , ,
beams at intervals o f 2 to 4 feet A ccording to a rough rule given by .
R ankin the strength in tons per square inch may then b e taken as equal to
,
4 0 0 multiplied by the thickness and divided by the length in inches T h e .
compressive strength of deck plating per square inch o f its sectional area
may there fore be doubled either by placing the beam s twice as close
, ,
together or by doubling its thickness The greater strength due to a double .
thickness occurs of course at every landing and when these owing to

, , , ,
narrowness in the s trakes are numerous the resisting capabilities o f the , ,
surface may b e greatly increased The most e ffective way of increasing the .
effi ciency of thin plating under compres s ion is to stiffen it by union with
rigid fore and a ft parts E ven when the latter are discontinuous and are
- -
.
,
therefore incapable themselves of o ffering resistance they s o sti ffen the ,
contiguous zone of plating as to make it impossible for it to shirk its work

by side bending ; failure would therefore occur by cru sh ing and con , , , ,
sequently only under inten s e s tress I n the case o f the Shell plating this
, .
e ffective reinforcement is well secured by the intercostal connection of the

various keelsons side and deck stringers in the case o f deck plating there
, ,
may be no corresponding parts except in large vessels where as noticed , , ,
later intercostal girders are fitted under the beams

, .
Ar t 13 Notice now the c o m p a r a t i v e e ffi c i e n c y o f t h e b o t t o m

. .
an d t o p p a r t s o f th e h u ll i n r e s i s t i n g the tensile and compressive

stresse s due to lo n gi t u di n al b e n d i n g fo r c e s The position of the .
neutral axis decides which flange o f a girder shall su ffer the more severe
stress it is the one more distant therefrom The neutral axi s ( as regards .
longitudinal stress ) is a horizontal line pa s sing through the centre of

gravity O f the cross sectional area of the longit udinally disposed material
-
.
I f therefore the upper part o f a ve s sel s hull were identical with the lower
’
, , ,
it w ould be at mid depth but the upper part is much less massive fo r
-
,
there may be no deck plating and i f there is it is thinner than the bottom , ,
shell plat i ng and much o f it may be cut away by the hatchway s and
, ,
moreover there are here no counterparts o f the continuous keelsons

, ,
lo ngi tudi n a ls or inner bottom , O wing there fore to the preponderance o f .

, ,
material at the bottom of the hull the centre o f gravity or neutral axis is ,
always nearer the b ottom than the top No w although the sectional area .
,
above and below may be unequal the total tensile stress a ff ecting one or ,
the other ( due to hoggi n g or sagging tendencies in the hull ) m ust equal at
all times the total compressive stress ( otherwise one would prevail and ,
result in a lengthening or s hortening o f the hull) consequ ently owing to ,

Art 1 4 ]. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . 15
the lesser material above the average s tres s per square inch must be more
,
intense here than below A lso the maximum stress located at the top .
, ,
edge of the sheer strake is greater than the maximu m below acting at the
, ,
lower edge o f the keel for it is proportional in either case to their respective
,
distances from the neutral axis ( Art I t is thus clear that what .
ever be the tendency o f the hull to hog or to sag the stresses tensile or , , ,
compressive will be more intense at the upper part But further in the
,
.
, ,
case o f the bottom not only are they less severe but the structural material
, ,
is better disposed to resist them the frames are always about 2 feet apart ,
whereas the deck beam s may b e four which means as already seen that , , ,
the bottom plating might sustain without b u ckling about twice the com
pressive stress that the deck plating could and this irrespective of the ,
greater s trength per square inch due to its greater thickness and the valuable
sti ffening e ffect o f the intercostal keel s on s As already seen hogging .
,
s tresses are usually more severe than sagging ones and as it happen s that ,
the upper part o f the hull suff ers at all times more than the bottom tension ,
o f the upper works may be regarded as the most critical longitudinal

-
stress .
A ssuming that the material is equally e fficient under tension and com
pression the m o s t e ffi c i e n t gi r d e r is that in which the n e u t r a l a x i s i s
,
a t m i d d e p t h fo r here both flanges will su ffer the same stress and at the
-
, ,
critical moment of failure both will give their ut most resistance I f the .
neutral axis were at say one third the depth from the bottom as it might
, ,
-
,
be in a Ship the upper flange would su ffer at all times twice the stress o f
, , ,
the lower and accordingly at a critical moment when the girder was about
, , , ,
to fail the lower one altho ugh perfectly capable would be unable to exert
, , ,
more than hal f its power A lthough in a ship when regarded as a girder .
, ,
there may thus be a serious discrepancy in the strength o f the top and
bottom there is none when its all round duties as a ship are considered
,
-
.
Th e bottom must be massive and strong fo r when in dry dock it ha s to , , ,
sustain the entire hull and s hould accidental groundi n g occur the pressures
, , ,
may be local and intense ; to quali fy it therefore fo r such exceptional , ,
stresses a large margin o f strength is evidently essential I n the case of

, .
the upper part there is no demand for such massiveness fo r here the ,
govern i ng requirement is a su ffi ciency of strength to resist the specialized

stresses of tension and compression which act i ng only In one direction and , , ,
having in most vessels a comparatively limited range o f intensity may be ,
provided against by less massive struc tural parts .
A r t 14 A s vessels i n c r e a s e i n s i z e so do the b e n d i n g t e n d en c i e s
. .
,
and resulting stresses of tension and compression b e c o m e m o r e i n t en s e .
A S already noticed in passing from a small to a large vessel a large

, ,
augmentation o f strength is obtained by plating the deck otherwi s e perhaps ,
only planked which procedure apart from the increased strength due to the
, ,
added material improves the e ffi ciency o f the hull as a girder by reducing
,
the discrepancy in the massiveness o f its top and bottom flanges The .
proportion which a vessel s length bears to her depth is the governing ’
element in deciding whether or not the deck s hould be plated ; fo r of ,
course if the depth were increased and the length unaltered the hull would
, ,
gain greatly in strength Apart however from relative dimensions the .

1
, , ,
1
I n a so li d r ectan g ular bea m th e stre ng th ari es a s the squa re o f th e d e p th , but i n a v
bo x -gi rd er , such as a sh i p, i t d o es n o t i n crease so rap i d , fo r he re an i n c r ease i n d e p th ly
do es n o t Si m i a r l ly I l
n c re ase th e se cti o n a a re a o f th e m a ter i a l ; th e stre ng th o f th e side s do e s
i n cr e ase a s th e s ua re o f th e d e th , fo r th e
q p a re re a i n th em se y
es s e n d er re c ta n g u a r lly lv l l
be a ms, but t ha t o f the to p an d bo tto m i s o n ly
i n c re ase d by re aso n o f th e gr e a te r di stan c e
o r le v e r a e o f th e se
g p a r ts fr o m th e n eutra a i s, t e s i m p a s th e d e th
p l x . . ly .
Art 1 4
16 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[
absolute si z e of the hull also governs the requirements as to plated decks
in a large vessel fo r instance t wo or three may be required not necessari ly
, , ,
fo r longitudinal strength but fo r the general rigidity transverse and

, ,
longitudinal w hich as rigid hori z ontal diaphragms they a fford

, , ,
.
When a vessel s length is Slightly increased without a corresponding

’
increase in depth it becomes necessary apart from the introduction o f so

, ,
prominent a structural feature as a plated deck to make other additions , ,
with the specialized object o f maintaining the longitudinal strengt h The .
scantlings tabulated in L l o y d s R u l e s are based on the assumption that ’
vessels built thereto are o f normal proportions I f the length exceeds .
eleven times the depth the vessel is sai d to be of e x t r e m e p r o p o r t i o n s ”
—
,
and according to the degree o f disproportion i n conjunction with the

,
—
absolute size of the hull extra strength is required The additional .
material is only applied to the midship portion o f the hull and principally ’
,
at the gunwale I t takes the form o f increased thickness o f Sheer strake

.
and deck stringer in extreme cases both o f these as also the strake below ,
the sheer may be doubled ( see Figs 1 2 to 1 4 P late

,
A s the upper sheer .
,
strake does at all times the most work and under exce s sive longitudinal ,
stress is the first part to fail it may be regarded as the mo s t vulnerable part
,
o f the hull and Should evidently be the first to be strengthened A s

, .
already seen a prompt and e ffective resistance fro m the deck plating is not
,
always assured but in the case of the deck stringer plate connected as it
,
-
,
is to the sheer strake its e ffi ciency under stress is little inferior to that o f
,
the latter and more especially if it b e thick ( see A rt

, .
Ar t 1 5 To give e ff ective resistance the fl a n ge s o f a gi r d e r must

. .
,
be rigidly united to and well stiffened by the web I f a b n o r m a l ly

, ,
.
W i d e as in Fig 9 A P late I 3 the marginal parts remote from the web

,
.
, , , ,
would not act in concert with the central portion in direct union ; they
would be free to shirk their work by vertical stra ining or buckling To .
secure e fficiency in such a girder another web might b e introduced making , ,
it o f b ox section ( Fig 9C) or the flanges might b e supported and sti ffened
.
,
by vertical staple angles and longitudinal edge bars ( Fig 9B) The bottom . .
o a ship
f — —
viewed as the lower flange is particularly e fficient because it is ,
well sti ffened by the keelsons or lon gitudin als and is held to its work
between the ve s sel s sides —the webs —by the rigid floors The deck on
,
’
.
,
the other hand resembles an abnormally wide and ill supported flange
,
-
.
A s a mere deck platform it is well sustained by the beams but the

-
, ,
flexibility of the plating between the beams and of the beams themselves , ,
is incompatib le with an immediate and unflinching re s i stance to such

s tresses as are conveyed thereto only through the medium o f the vessel s ’
side s ; the marginal parts contiguous to and rigidly held by the sides
, , ,
act in prompt concert therewith ; but toward s the centre the c o operation -
becomes less and less perfect I n large vessels where a special degree o f .
,
e ffi ciency is required this matter receives particular attention I n the

, .
55. G r ea t E aster n the upper deck was composed of two plated surfaces ,
held apart by longitudinal webs as in a double bottom I n large modern , .
vessels and long shallow channel steamers keelson like intercostal

, , , ,
-
stringers are fitted below the deck ( see Fig 1 8 P late 1 2 and P late .
, ,
When firmly held by pillars the e ffi ciency of the deck as an upper flange ,
is increased fo r it is then fixedly held in the line of stress and the

, ,
flexible plating between the beams sti ff ened by it s direct connection with ,
the str ingers cannot shirk compression by buckling I n large passenger

, .
vessels there is u s ually a long midship deck house the mere union o f ’
-
,
which with the deck plating may greatly increase the effi ciency of the latter ,
and just at that part of the hull where it is most desired .

Art 1 8
[
.
Itshould be observed that the most severe longitudinal bending
stresses occur when a vessel is lying across waves and as steamers do not ,
usually roll unless more o r le ss broadside o n it is unlikely that they would _

-
,
be experienced simultaneously with an excessive heel S ai li n g sh i p s .

-
,
on the o ther hand having a c h r o n i c l i s t may often experience the s e

, ,
conditions C ompared with s teamers however they do not s u ffer such

.
, ,
severe bending stresses fo r their proportion o f length to depth is less ,
extreme and their cargo is usually well distributed fore and aft I n
,
.
steamers the buoyant midship machinery space may as already seen

‘
’
, ,
greatly augment longitudinal stresses .
A lthough the h o ggi n g a n d s a ggi n g fo r c e s e x p er i en c e d b y a

s a i li n g s h i p may never be excessive it may happen i f they should occur
-
, ,
simultaneously with an excessive heel that the hull would su ff er as a result , ,
o f such concurrence severe transverse stresses o f a racking nature I f

, .
,
when heeled over by the wind a ship should at the same time lie acr oss and , ,
plunge into the trough s of the waves the uppermost gunwale and lower ,
most bilge being unconnected by a rigid vertical web would tend to shirk
, ,
the resulting tensile and compressive stresses by approaching one another ,
.i e the hull would tend to collap s e as a whole opening and closing the
.
, ,
opposite angles of the midship section I n the ab s ence of bulkheads this ’

.
tendency can only be re sisted by the sti f fness o f the connection o f the deck
with the Sides and that of the sides with the bottom .
The foregoing emphasises the i m p o r t a n c e o f c o n c en t r a t i n g

s t r uc t u r a l m a t er i a l a t t h e gu n w a le a n d bi l ge I n this respec t .
sailing ships receive special attention The beam knees are made extra
-
.
stron g and in those over a certain size the bilge strakes are systematically
, , ,
thickened ; also in those who s e small size does not necessitate a plated
,
deck the beams are rendered more e ffective by diagonal bracing ( Art
, .
1 5 3 and P late
From what has now been seen o f lon gitudinal bending stresse s it is .
evident that in viewing a s h i p a s a gi r d e r it must be as one o f a ,
u n i q u e t yp e A girder fo r land purposes is designed to withstand

.
specified bending loads in o n e position whereas in a Ship the forces to , , ,
which the hull may b e exposed have no fixed magnitude direction or , ,
point of application I n the former weight o f structure is comparatively.

,
unimportant ; the two flan ges may b e designed with precision to possess , ,
any specified margin of strength and in the case of a compound girder , , ,
even the properties of the s teel may be suitably chosen— h arder and sti ffer
fo r parts subject only to c o m pre ssi on A large ship on the other hand .
l
J
, ,
must preserve its girder like qualities no m atter how it m ay be support ed -

, ,
inclined or tossed about by the waves and whether a cargo ves s el whose
, , ,
dead weight carrying capacity is paramount or a pa s s enger vessel requiring

-
,
speed the weight o f the structure must be the m inimum compatible with
,
ample stren gth against all combinations of stress .
w h i v tig t d thi
o n es ubj t f u d th t th
a e tr th m t i l f th hul l l u t
s s ec , o n a e s ess o n e a er a o e , c e o a
h ggi g f r
o n tt i d m xim m t
o ce , a gl
a ne f 3 0 f m th u p i g h t
a a d th t i t wu a an a n e o
°
ro e r , an a as
th t g t r th wh i th up i gh t S P f B l
’
en 20 p er . c en . re a e
p p anT en n e r . ee ro . i e s a e r, rans .
f E g
’ ’
I t t ti
ns i u on o S /ifl i l
n i S tl d 1 89 3 94
z n eer s a n a z nz a er s n co an ,
-
.
th w hi l t l f mi g th
1
I n f th
e F th B idg
c ase th
o t g th e f th or r e, e e s re n o e s ee or n e
t i m mb i ft m t i l t i i g 19 p t f b th t f m i
g th
e n s on e e rs s a so a er a co n a n n er cen . o car on , a or n e
co mp i m mb
re ss o n t i 23 pe t gi g t il tr g th
e rs co n a n s f b ut 3 1 % d er cen .
, vi n a en s e s en o a o an
35 5 t p tiv ly
o ns r es ec e .
Ar t 1 9 ]
. P P A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 19
C H A P TER III .
A r t 1 9 Tr an sv e rs e s t r e s s es tend to produce deformation of the hull

. .
by forcing its surface in or out , or by racking the form of the cross-sections

in their application and e ffects they may b e widespread or local — more
usuall y they are local Their tendencies are illustrated in exaggerated
.
form in P late 2 They may be variously caused by resting on keel-blocks

.
in dry dock or by grounding ; by the pre s sure of the s ea on the sides and
bottom ; by the weight o f localized masse s of cargo not balanced by sea
pressure from w ithout ; by the local collapsing e ffects o f blows st ruck by
the waves accentuated by the vessel s plunging movements ; by rolling o f
,
’
the hull and the racking pressures of broadside waves I t is intended to .
notice first those stresses which a ffect the bottom and ho w the structure is ,
here arranged to meet them .
Th e b o t t o m is es pecially li a bl e t o s ev e r e p r e s s u r e s ; in dry dock

the whole weight of the ship o ften with considerable weight s on b oard is
, ,
borne through the keel ; and at sea the fully laden hull is supported by
water pressure acting for the most part on the flat of the bottom I n all
, , .
vessel s there is a chance o f running ashore on a rocky or s tony bottom ,
but as the forces then brought to bear may be quite irresistible it would ,
evidently be absurd to consider them in the design With many vessels .

,
especially small ones grounding is a common occurrence but only on the

, ,
so ft bottom of tidal rivers or harbours where the supporting e ffect may be ,
no more trying than that experienced in dry dock The chance of touching .
a bank or bar i s one common to all vessels and while in s ome cases no ,
inj ury may re sult in others the bottom may be seriously damaged d ue
, ,
either to bumping by the waves or to the circumstances o f a falling tide, ,
heavy localized cargo or the hard unaccommodating nature of the bottom

, , .
A s thi s however like the previous case o f r unning ashore is a contingency

, , ,
that should never a nd may never occur it hardly warrants consideration in

, , ,
the d esign I n practice there fore while providing a strong bottom it is

.
, , ,
not sought to secure complete immunity from such accidents ; su ffi cient
strength to re s ist the stresses d ue to docking or grounding on a smooth ,
bottom in stil l water being regarded as a sufficiently high standard

,
.
I n the following the b o tt o m fr a m e w o r k o f a ve s sel not having a

,
double bottom ( such as is still adopted in sailing ships see P late s 1 0 0 and -
101
) will be specially considered for it illustrates better the kind
,
of
structural strength that is actually required Double bottom framework is .

-
specially considered in Art 1 7 0 onward A s already seen the bottom

. .
,
framework i s specially massive while above the bilge each frame i s a com
p ara ti v e ly slender bar those on the bottom
,
take the form of deep plate
girders ( the floors ) spanning the distance from b i l ge to b i lge A greeably
,
.
with their duty as girders they taper towards the i r ends be i ng deepest at
, ,
the centre where the bending moment due to such pressu res as may be
, ,
occasioned by resting on the keel is greatest The stra i n i n g e ffect s to ,

.
which they are liable are illustrated in Fig 3 P late 2 wh i ch dep i cts
.
.
, ,
Art 1 9
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[
complete collapse o f a vessel s bottom through excessive groun ding pressure ’
and although such a pronounced case o f fa i lure is o f course rare stra n ng

i i
, , ,
of the same nature is not uncommon .
U nder local pressure the flo o r s alone would not act effic i ently or in
concert and so to this end the k e el s o n s are introduced : on e at the

, , ,
centre and except in very small vessels two at each side The i r pri mary
, ,
.
purpose is to strengthen the bottom against local pressures through the r i

,
binding e ffect on the floors ; by tying these together they establ i sh con
t i n ui ty among adjacent ones so that upward or downward thr sts local u i n
,
,
their application and directly a ffecting only a fe w may be distri buted and ,
met by the combined resistance o f several over a wide area The centre .
keelson being directly over the keel w here upward pressures are most
, ,
intense is more power ful than the others ; it forms an internal keel and
,
, ,
with the keel proper may be regarded as the backbone o f the vessel s
’
bottom A lso from its large sectional area it a ffords considerable

.
, ,
longitudinal s trength to the hull as a whole A lthough the floors are most .
capable in resisting vertical pressures they would not alone stand up to ,
their work under severe stress th e y would shirk resistance by tr ipp i ng t e ,

. .
folding over sideways ( as shown Fig 4 P late The keelsons check , .

,
this tendency to a large extent for by holding the upper edges at a fixed , ,
distance all must trip together U nder severe pressure however the
,
.
, ,
floors though held against tripping would develop a tendency to buckle or

, ,
bend sideways ( as shown Fig and as immediately such bending began

, .
, ,
their resistance would rapidly decrease it i s very necessary to check it at ,
the out s et This is accomplished by fitting small fore and aft plates termed
.
- -
,
“
intercostal plates betwixt the floors ( as shown Fig ,
”
These are , .
incorporated with the side keelsons o f all vessels excepting very small ones ,
( in which o f course the floors are comparatively Shallow) their upper edges
, , ,
being united to the keelson bars and their lower to the shell by Short , ,
angle s They are not connected to the floors but as their edges are fitted
in clo s e contact therewith—an essential feature — they are perfectly efficient
.
,
in holding them upright .
A part from the increased effi ciency which i n t e r c o s t a l p l a t e s give to

the floors they e n orm o usly i n c r e a s e t h e s t r e n gt h a n d s t i ffn e s s o f
,
.
t h e k e e l s on as a fore and a ft sti ffening rib to the bottom - A n ordinary

-
.
side keelson placed merely on the tops o f the floors ( Fig 6 P late
,
is .
,
flexi ble and so can o ff er but poor resistance to deflecting stresses ; but
,
when united to the Shell by intercostal plates ( Fig 7 ) it is at once tran s .
formed into a deep rigid girder the top flange o f which is formed by the
, ,
continuous bars the lower by the contiguous strip of s hell plating and the
, ,
web by the intercostal plates Although the latter may have no fore and .
-
a ft continuity they nevertheless have all the necessary attributes o f a web

, ,
i c they prevent any relative fore —

. . and aft movement of the two flanges ; -
they necessitate mutual c o operation so that when exposed to a bending -

,
force tending to upheave the bottom while the upper flange is subjected to ,
tension only the lower su ffers only compression A connection to the

, .
floors by means o f short vertical angles ( a s in Fig

, would of course .
, ,
increase the strength of the keelson owing to the fore and aft continuity so ,
- -
established but with ordinary shallow floors the connection would be but
a poor one When fitted in conjunction with the important centre keel s on
.
a connection is alway s made .
I n t e r c o s t a l p l a t e s have also an important d u t y a s r e ga r d s t h e

s h e ll ; as already noticed they sti ffen it against the buckling tendency
resulting from fore and—
,
a ft compressive stresses-
They also support it .
against local pressures due to grounding As a result o f this not in frequent .

Ar t 21 ]
casualty the thin shell plating ma y be set up in wavy undulations between

,
the frames the latter declaring themselves like the ribs o f a lean animal
,
( Fig 6 P late 3 ) and o f course when fixedly held by interco s tal plates
.
, , , ,
such de formation may be prevented or greatly reduced .
A r t 2 0 The t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s e s whi ch a v e ssel may su ffer t h r o u gh

. .
s i t t i n g o n h e r k e el in a loaded or partly loaded condition have been

, ,
investigated and with interesting results ,

Fig 3 P late 2 illustrates in .
1
.
, ,
exaggerated form the straining tendencies that were found to exist as

regards the floors and bilge The cargo in the holds tends to bend down .
the ends of the floors and to increase the curvature of the bilge this action
is aided by the weight of tween deck cargo and that o f the upper part of ’
-
the hull itsel f all o f which is transmitted to the ends o f the floors vi a the
, ,
Sides and bilge The m agnitude o f the stresses su ff ered at each point of
.
the floor bilge and side were computed for vessels o f di fferent sizes when
, , ,
light and when loaded up to the lower deck b eam s with coal I t was
, .
found that in a small vessel of 1 6 0 tons the tensile stress at the upper edge
o f the floor at the centre line was about 2 tons per square inch when light
, , ,
and 8 3 when loaded and in one o f 2 90 0 ton s 3 and 7 tons The , .
resulting deflection of the floor was found to be small about inch ,

.
The tension gradually decreases towards the bilge disappearing a t the lower ,
part o f the curve here there is neither tension nor compression but only a ,
shearing force due to the w eight supported Thence upwards the inner .
, ,
edge o f the frame bar su ffers compression due to the closing tendency o f ,
the cur ve of the bilge ; this gradually increa s es ( w ith sudden accentuations
at the termination o f the floor or reverse bar) the maximum when light , ,
and when loaded being for the small vessel 2 and 4 8 tons and for the
, , , , ,
large and
,
tons Above the bilge the compressive stres s gradually
.
diminishes disappearing at the beam knee, .
I n v e s se ls h a v i n g s h a llo w flo o r s evidence o f severe tensile stress ,
at the top edges o f the floors is often observed as a r e s ult o f gr o u n d i n g

in s mall iron vessels it is common to find the reverse frames fractured and ,
the floors cracked down from the upper edge ; and the fracture usually
occurs at joints o f the reverse bar at limber holes or at rivet holes for the , ,
connection o f the wash plates to the floors The above investigation .
indicates the necessity of maintaining the strength of the frame and reverse
bar at the bilge by an upward extension o f the floor plates I n cases
,
.
where the bottom is set up by grounding the occurrence o f exces sive com ,
pressive stress at the bilge is o ften Shown by buckling of the inner edge o f
the frame and more particularly the inner edge o f any web frames that
,
may occur at this part for of course being deeper than the frames they , , , ,
suffer more stress When a floor plate bends upwards in the middle its
. ,
ends at the bilge may be conceived to act as pi vots the Shallow frame bar ,
ha ving little restraining or holding effect When therefore instead o f .

, ,
tapering the floor and stopping it at the bilge it is continued in its full ,
depth round the bilge and up the side as a web frame ( Fig 2 P late 7 ,
.
, ,
and Fig 7 P late . its resisti n g capabilities are at once greatly

,
increased fo r it then acts a s a beam whose ends are fi xed instead o f free .
( A s noticed A r t 5 75 the fixing o,

f the ends
. o f a uni formly loaded beam
,
makes it about 5 0 per cent stronger and fi ve times as sti ff or I n the case . , ,
o f a beam loaded only at the centre twice as strong and four t i mes as ,
sti ff ).
A r t 2 1 The s t r e s s e s i m p o s e d o n a v e s s e l s b o t t o m through
’
. .
1
See
p b y th e aa te M r aR ea d , a n d
pe r e l
n ki ns, T r a ns I n s ti tu ti on o
.
f N av a l J .
A r c/ ntect s , 1 88 2 , On Me t r a n sv er se s tr a i n s of i r on nzer cna n t vessels ; a so o n e b y l

Mr . B ruh n, read i n 1 90 1 ,
J .
“
On Me tr a n sv er se str eng th of slaps
”
.
[Ar t 21
resting on her keel are r e d u c e d very considerably b y t h e p i llar s .
Without these all the upper weights tween deck cargo deck houses etc
, ,
’
-
,
-
, .
,
would be transmitted to the ends of the floors vi a the vessel s side s and ’
bilge ; but with a central row o f pillars that portion of the weight lying
, ,
over them is transmitted direct to the keel A s however the beam s are .
, ,
comparatively flexible much o f the weight they support would as before , , ,
be transmitted down the sides I n vessels of considerable beam a row of .
pillars is usually fitted on each side ; these are also useful in reducing
the transverse stresses on the bottom and bilge ; for as by their means ,
much o f the top weight otherwise transmitted to the ends o f the floors
—
, ,
is conveyed to them near the keel where the counter balancing pressure -
occurs —i t is productive o f a comparatively small bending moment .
A rt 2 2 I t is now intended to notice the s i d e fr a m i n g the stres s es

. .
,
a ffecting it and the na tu re o f the resistance which it o ffers The bottom

,
.
of the hull as just seen is liable to occasionable pressures o f an intense

, ,
character to meet which a large margin of strength is required The sides

,
.
are never so severely tried fo r they are subj ect only to sea pressures o f a ,
collapsing or racking nature and to the concussive effects of blows struck ,
by the waves These may often be severe but a s they are widespread i n
.
,
their application a ffecting large areas they may be provided against by

, ,
framework o f a less massive description than that required for the bottom .
O f course the Sides like the bottom are also exposed to accidental
, , ,
pressures of an intense character due to collisions o f all kinds but as these ,
may be practically irresistible it would evidently be inexpedient to provide ,
against them by special m assiveness in the framing .
Th e side framing unlike that of the b ottom i s formed of comparatively , ,
flexible bars — the frames— backed up and bound together by the side or hold
stringers When strained laterally the thin shell plating can o ffer little
.
,
resi s ta nce ; to provide this is the special duty o f the frames But although .
the shell in itself is perfectly flexible its mere union with the frames at once ,
gives to these an immense increase o f strength and sti ffness for the strip ,
of plating covering each one really becomes part of it forming a wide outer ,
flange and greatly increasing its strength and sti ffness ( Fig 1 1 P late .
,
The entire side of the ship might indeed be regarded as compo s ed of a , ,
contiguous series of flat girder like hoops ,

-
.
When sti ffened by the transverse frames and held at a fixed distance by
the various decks the vessel s sides are well able under normal conditions
,
’
, ,
to resist all collapsing and straining tendencies I f now in a t wo d eck .

, ,
-
vessel the lo w e r d e c k b e a m s are s u p p r e s s e d it is evident that the

,
-
,
s ides being deprived o f their support could not give the s ame unyielding
, ,
resistance The upper deck beams would prevent any collapse at this part
.
-
,
but the sides below might pant i e bulge in and out independently ( Fig ,
1
. . .
4 P late
, and when the vessel rolled they might sway together from side to
“
side or rack as it is termed ( Fig I t will be observed that although
”
both kinds o f straining — panting and racking —are similar in that both
, , .
,
i nvolve bending o f the side yet the former may occur locally and on one
, ,
S i de only whereas the latter involves more widespread deformation an d

, ,
requires that both sides shall strain alike .
The s t r e n gt h r e q u i r e d i n t h e s i d e fr a m e s depends on their length

between the two fixed points of support the floors and the deck (A and , ,
B Fig 4 P late
, . i f doubled in length say by the omission o f a deck
, , ,
at mid depth they would only b e hal f as strong and only one eighth as
-
,
-
O di i ly th t m P
r na r t i mpl y d i , f r i g t th
e t i i g t d
er i t th
an s e o e n re e r n o e s ra n n en en c e s a e
A t b t it i v i tl y d i ptiv x p i i t w i l l b u d
r . u as s a co n en en escr e e ress o n , e se
h e re i n I ts Wi d e r se n se .
Ar t 23 ] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 23
sti ff i e they would deflect eight times more under the same bending
, . .
pressure ( I t should b e observ ed that as water pressure is distributed the

.
, ,
longer frame would su ffer a greater pres s ure than either short one ) I t is .
evident there fore that a vessel s design a s regards the number o f decks
, ,
’
, ,
has a commanding influence in deciding the s trength required in the

framing fo r according as there may or may not b e a lo wer deck the side
, , ,
frames may be short and strong or long and yielding , .
The sc a n t li n gs o f t h e fr a m e s as tabulated in L l o y d s r u l e s are ’
governed by a numeral which is practically the girth o f the vessel s midship ,

’ ’
frame from gunwale to gunwale ( Art

, N o w although in two vessels .
,
this measurement ( and consequently the scantling s of the frames ) might b e

identical yet in the one the breadth might be small and the depth large
, ,
cau s ing the frames of the b ottom to b e short and those of the s ide long , ,
and v i ce ver s ; in the other I n such cases as regards differences in the

”
e .
,
length o f the bottom frames special reinforcement s are not usually necessary , ,
fo r as the floors have a large margin o f strength any s mall increa s e in their ,
duty would not materially a ffect their general e fficiency I n the case of .
the side frames however as their strength is more clo s ely proportioned to
, ,
what is actually required under normal conditions even a small increase in ,
the depth o f the vessel s side may so increase their duty as to necessita te ’
rein forcements ( the suppression o f a deck is of course another matter to , ,
that under consideration ; the former involves so large an increase in the

‘
depth o f side as to greatly augment the duty o f the framework n ec essi ,
tating as noticed later additional beam s or modifications in the framework)

, , .
Lloyd s rules provide fo r this by their special requirements as to side

’
stringers the number and size o f which is regulated by the depth o f the
,
unsupported s ide in the hold These requirements are exhibited graphically .
in P late 4 .
A rt 2 3 I t will b e well to notice here the di fference and relative value

. .
o f the two qualities s t r en gt h v e r s u s s t i ffn e s s or rigidity rts and

(,
A 5 7 3 .
The strength of a beam is meas u red by the greate s t load it can

support without breaking or becoming permanently misshapen ; sti ff ness
represents its unyieldingness or its resistance to bending under stresses , ,
within the elastic limit o f the material ( should the stress exceed the elastic
limit or in the case of steel about hal f the ultimate strength the material
, , , ,
of the beam would stretch permanently the quality of ductility coming into ,
play ) Sti ffness is therefore a very di fferent quality from strength Two
.
, , .
beams might be equally strong and yet di ffer greatly in s ti ffness ; fo r ,
instance a rectangular bea m 4 inches deep by 4 inches broad has the

,
same s trength as one 2 inches deep and 1 6 inches broad but under the ,
same load it will deflect only hal f as much I f the first is reduced in .
breadth to three inches it w ill only have three quarters o f the strength of ,
-
the other but it will s till b e sti ff er deflecting only two third s as much
, ,
-
.
A lso variations n the size o f a beam may a ffect the strength very di ff er
,
i
ently from the sti ffness ; thus while to reduce the length o f a beam by ,
hal f would double its strength it would increase its sti ffness eight times , ,
i e it would only de flect one eighth as much under the same load
. .
-
.
I n a watertight structure like a Ship composed o f numerous parts ,
riveted together s t i ffn e s s o r r i gi d i t y is n o le s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n

,
s t r en gth fo r should perceptible yielding occur the riveting and caulking

, , ,
might su ffer P arts which are associated together for the purpose of
.
resisting the same stress should as fa r as possible be similarly sti ff ; fo r i f , ,
not the br unt of the work would fall on the sti ffer Thus in the case o f
, .
,
the two beams ab ove mentioned i f placed side by side so as to assist each ,
other in resi s ting bending pressures the e ffi ciency of the combination would ,
[Ar t 23
be very poor ; fo r although equally strong the more flexible one would
, ,
only give half the resistance o f the other I f compelled by their union .
to deflect alike the sti ffer would break ( or bend permanently) when the
,
other wa s only strained to h alf the breaking point ; and O f course the , ,
premature failure o f one would at once involve that o f the other .
Ar t 2 4 Notice now the re l a t i v e e ffi c i e n c y o f the t wo sets of

. .
frames longit udinal and transverse i e o f fr a m e s v e r s u s s i d e s t r i n ge r s

, ,
. . ,
in sti ffening the Shell plating an d supporting the sides against de forming
forces . I t is evident that t h e m o s t e ffi c i e n t s t i ffen e r is the one which
is strongest and sti ffest the former quality varying as the length inversely
, , ,
and the latter a s the cube o f the length inversely N ow the tran s verse , .
,
frames are Short compare d with the side stringers for they only extend ,
from bilge to deck whereas the stringers span the long di s tance from bulk
,
head to bulkhead or where as in sailing ships there are no bulkhea d s

, ,
-
, ,
their length is practically that of the ship I f for instance in a hold 6 0 .

, ,
feet long between bulkheads and 1 5 feet deep there were say only one , , , ,
frame and one Side stringer identical in scantlings then although b oth
, , ,
parts when under pressure from without would necessarily yield alike the
, , ,
frame being one fourth the length of the stringer would give 6 4 times
,
-
,
more resistance I t is clear there fore that light side stringers on account
.
, , ,
of their great length and consequent elasticity cannot by them s elves give ,
much resistance to widespread straining forces This however is not their .

, ,
function their principal duty is to give local support through their binding
e ffect on the transverse frame s I f fo r instance only one frame of a series.
, ,
happened to be subj ected to intense pre s sure it would in yielding at once , , ,
be backed up by the side stringer which being connected to a nd supported , ,
by the un s trained frame on either side wou ld in this short length be so , , ,
sti ff that rather than yield it would force these two frames to yield and these ,
in turn would similarly a ffect the adjacent ones so that the resistance to ,
the local pressure would be distributed and result in a minimum stress and
straining of the side .
The form or d e s i gn o f t h e s i d e s t r i n ge r s has o f course an i m , ,
portant e ffect on their strength and sti ff ness The s ti ffness of a beam o f .
rectangular section increases as the cube of its depth ; so that when a

stringer is formed of a wide plate ( as shown Fig 1 2 P late 4) it becomes ,
.
,
a very sti ff girder having greater individual strength than a number o f

,
smaller ones composed o f mere bars and having perhaps a greater com , , ,
bi n e d sectional area When so stiff and strong it is capable apart from

.
,
its mere binding e ffect on the frames o f a ffording direct and useful support ,
to the Side over large areas O n the other hand a s the principal purpose
, .
,
o f the stringers is so to unite the frames as to neces s itate mutual and simul
tan e ous action it is evident that a large number placed more closely
, ,
together may owing to the distribution of their s ti ffening e ffect give a

, , ,
better general result I n later vessels built to L loyd s rules on the deep
.
’
fra me system a reduction is o ften made in the strength o f the side stringers
, ,
and a s uitable increase made in the strength of the more important frames ,
the latter being increased in depth as described in Art 2 6 ( see Fig 1 ,

. .
,
P late 5 5 and P late ,
The above considerations as to the comparative e fficiency of s tringers

and frames apply also to the flo ors a n d k ee ls on s The r e l at i ve .
i m p o r t a n c e o f these two parts i s sometimes misapprehended thus if as , ,
a result o f grounding the bottom should be s et up from bilge to bilge ( so

,
as to bend the floors upwards say by an inch or so at the centre ) the keel, , ,
naturally assumes an upward curve and as it is this deviation from the ,
fam i l i ar straight line that alone catches the eye it is commonly as s umed
,
[Ar t 25
athwartship compressive stress the beam acting like a strut tends to bend , , ,
laterally and in doing so may impose a severe side stress on the rivets
,
nearest the edge o f the stringer the gusset plates by virtually shorten i ng ,
the beam improve its e fficiency as a strut and permit of a more extensive
, ,
rivet attachment The stringer also benefits by the gussets fo r when

.
,
subj ected to lateral bending pressures from without tending to deflect it ,
between the beams the greatest b ending moment and straining e ffect is
,
concentrated at each beam tending to cripple the inner edge o f the plate , ,
and o f course the gusset plates give valuable additional strength just at
, ,
these points They have also the e ffect o f reducing the length o f the
.
stringer between each pair o f beams thus increasi n g its e fficiency as a ,
supporting girder to the side .
Ar t 2 6 C onsider now the d e e p fr a m e s y s t e m of providing the

. .
-
necessary transverse strength where in the absence of a lower deck the sides , ,
would be too deep for ordinary framing ( see P late 4 also Fig 6 P late 6 , .
, ,
and P lates 1 0 3 1 0 4 and I n this as also in the web frame system all
, , ,
-
,
beams in the hold are dispensed with the framing itself being so increased ,
in strength as to make the vessel s side s self supporting I n facilitating the ’

-
.
stowage of cargo the entire absence of beams in the hold may o f course
, , ,
be very ad vantageous The deep — frame system consists simply in uni formly
.
increasing the strength of all the frames longitudinal and transverse I t is , .
evident that if their scantlings are increased in proper proportion to the

greater depth of side requiring support the e fficiency of the structure will ,
be undisturbed by the suppression of the lower deck D eep frames are .
merely those of ordinary type increased in depth by about 5 0 per cent .
Th ey may li ke ordinary frames be o f Z ( built or solid ) channel or bulb

, , , ,
angle section ; when composed of frame and reverse bar both parts are ,
usually of the same size The sti ffness of a rectangular beam increases as .
t he cube o f its depth when o f Z or channel section the increase is not so

rapid fo r of course the sectional are a o f the flanges the most effective
, , , ,
parts does not alter I t lies between the cub e and the square Thus if a
, . .
,
X 1 Z frame b e increased in depth to 9 inches i e made

" "
6 x x , . .
0 per cent deeper while only 2 per cent heavier it will b e per cent
5 .
5 , 7 5 .
, .
stronger and 2 times as rigid ; under the sa me load it will only deflect
1
;
two fi fths as much

-
.
I n supporting the sides therefore a comparatively small increase in the , ,
depth of the frames may greatly increase their e fficiency But as the with .
dra wal o f the lower d eck may increase the depth of side in the hold by
5 0 per cent an increase of 5 0 per cent in that o f the frames is evidently
.
, .
not excessive fo r as the side is subj ect to distributed sea pressure the
, ,
ben ding load on the frames may vary as the area o f side and so might also ,
be 5 0 per cent greater With a view to increasing still further the strength
. .
and sti ffness of such deep frames their span from bilge to deck is reduced ,
somewhat by raising the tops o f the floors higher up on the bilge and by ,
increasing slightly the depth of the beam knees Whereas with ordinary -
.
framing the ends o f the floors need only extend upwards to twice their
normal or rule depth at the keel with deep frames Lloyd s rules require
, , , ,
’
them to rise 2 5 per cent higher This refe rs to the bracket floors in . .
conjunction with a double bottom ( see P late i f deep frames are employed
i n conjunction with ordinary shallow floo rs they are made still deeper ,
Lloyd s rules require them to be half an inch deeper hat this is proper
(
’
) T .
i s obvious fo r owing to the gradually tapered ends of the floors

, , ( see Figs .
I and 2 P late the frames only begin to receive rigid support there from
,
at a point below their extreme ends and so are virtually longer I t is , .
ev i dent that to secure the fullest advantage of the great s trength o f deep
o
Ar t 27 ]
frames , their attachment to the deck beams should be greater than that
required with those o f ordinary type ; with this obj ect there fore and also , ,
to minimize the span of the frames Lloyd s rules require the beam knees ,
’
of the lo west deck to be 2 0 per cent deeper i e three in place of two and .
, . .
a half times the depth o f the beams This is not required fo r the upper .
deck beams i n vessels having two decks for o f cour s e the Special strength , , ,
of deep framing I S not called for above the second deck .
I n order that the s i d e s t r i n ge rs a s s o c i a t e d W i t h d e e p fr a m e s

may give a proportionate backing up or binding e ffect they must be -
,
similarly strengthened Lloyd s requirements in this respect are illustrated .

’
in P late 4 The form of the side stringers adopted in practice varies con
.
side rably ; some di ff erent designs are illustrated in Fig 1 P late 5 5 and .
, ,
P late 1 0 5 U sually all are made alike the supporting e ffect being then
.
,
uniformly distributed I n View o f the fact that the frames unlike the side.
,
stringers are capable o f re s isting racking stres s es and owing to their

, , ,
comparative shortness are much more e fficient in resisting collap s ing ,
stres s es ( Art Lloyd s R egister permits o f a large reduction in the

.
’
scantlings o f the stringers provided the scantlings of the frames are slightly ,
increased Such distribution of material is advanta geous to the general

.
strength o f the hull due to the fact just noticed namely that owing to the
, , , ,
greater capabilities of the frames a slight increa s e in their depth or massive ,
ness may give to the hull much more general strength than is lost by even
a large redu ction in the scantlings o f the comparatively ineffi cient Side
stringers The rule generally observed in this matter is to associate a 3 3
.
or 5 0 per cent reduction in the sectional area or massiveness o f the side

.
stringers w i th an increase o f 1 inch or 1 95 inches in the depth o f the frames .
A s shown in Fig I P late 5 5 and P late 1 0 5 the stringers when reduced in

.
, , , ,
sca ntlings in this way may be composed o f a Single large angle bar and ,
an interco s tal plate ; and Lloyd s R egi s ter permits in such cases of the ’
, ,
usual 1ti g being dispensed with the incorporation o f so shallow a stringer ,
with the vessel s side being ample without it I t is evident that this method
’
.
of construction greatly simplifies the building work .
Th e d e e p fr a m e as also the web frame syste mo f constru ction ha s an

,
-
,
important a d v a n t a ge o v e r th e h o l d b e a m sy s t e m in that the side ,
is not only strengthened against collapsing or panting tendencies but also ,
against Side racking With hold beams although the fore and aft line o f .
,
- -
great rigidity which they establish may thoroughly check any panting
movement of the sides it cannot prevent them from racking together side ,
way s i n the manner Shown in Figs 8 and 9 P late 2 Each hold beam
, .
,
.
,
by grasping the frame checks the tendency locally but the stringer plate , ,
between them can give little resi stance for it is free to twist and incline ,
with the side

Art 2 7 Th e w e b —
.
. fr a m e s y s t e m of constru ction is similar to the

.
ast in that the framework is so strengthened as to render the two sides

,
sel f s upporting but in place of uni formly increasing the strength o f every
-
, ,
frame only every fourth fifth or sixth is increased but very largely fo r
, , , , , ,
by means of a deep web plate it is trans formed from a com paratively ,
flexible bar into a strong and rigid girder ( shown in section i n Fig 1 0
I t Is evident that the strength and sti f
, , .
,
P late 6 and P late ,

fness o f such
frames i s very great ; in supporting the side they might almost b e regarded ,
as inflexible buttress es Their s i ze and distance apart is governed by their .
length or span i e the vessel s depth below the lowest deck Lloyd s
, . .
’
.
’
requirements i n this respect are illustrated in P late 4 and a description o f ,
the practical details will be found l n A rt 9 9 . .
Each web frame gives a vertical line o f almost perfect sti ffness but i f ,
Ar t 27
[
they stood alone the vessel s sides between being sti ffened only by
,
’
,
ordinary framing would be flexible as be fore The associ at i on o f such

,
.
local sti ffness and flexibility would of course be very improper ; under , ,
severe pressure the flexible parts would yield and where checked at each , ,
rigid point straining w ould occur resulting in loose rivets leak i ness or
.
, , , ,
fractured parts Th e necessary distribution of the support i ng e ffect 18

.
secured not by ordinary side strin gers but by placing between th e web
, ,
frames power ful fore and a ft girders in co nstruction practically i dent i cal
- -
,
with the web frames themselves and in number according to the depth o f ,
side ( see P lates 4 an d I n supporting the intermediate frames these ,
serve a similar purpose to the light stringers employed with ord i nary
framing ( they are still referred to as “
side but whereas the
primary duty of the latter is to sti ff en the side by means of their bind i ng
e ffect on contiguous frames that of the former is to act the distinctive part
,
o f a girder They are fi tted in short lengths between each pair of web
.
frames which in s uppor ting their ends act the part o f piers and as they
, , , ,
are identical in ma s sivenes s with the web frames the side is rendered ,
uni formly rigid a n d strong throughout When so wide as 1 8 inches .

,
they require vertical support to hold them to their work square with the ,
side and so for this purpose a bracket plate i s introduced midway between
, ,
each web ( Fig 1 0 P late 4 and Fig 1 1 P late 7 ) should the latter how
.
, , .
, ,
ever be only 8 feet apart such support is unnecessary fo r in so Short a , ,
distance the face angles a fford ample lateral sti ffness Various forms o f .
S ide stringers are adopted ; some of them are Shown in Fig 1 P late 7 and .
, ,
are described in Art 1 0 3 . .
Wh e r e t h e s tri n ge r s a n d w eb fr a m e s i n t er se c t the continuity of ,
one or the other must be sacrificed i e the w eb frames may be continuous , . .
and the stringers be severed or vi ce ver sa Formerly the one method ,

.
was as common as the other and sometimes a compromise w as effected ,
by making the p late continuous and cutting the angles in the one and ,
contrariwise in the other No w the web frame s are always preserved .

,
intact and evidently this is the proper plan fo r they form short girders
, , ,
and are therefore capable o f resisting both panting and racking o f the
, ,
side whereas the stringers being long and flexible can alone give but poor
, , ,
resistance against collapse and none at all against racking To sever the
, .
frames there fore would be unwise fo r it would hurt them greatly both as
, , ,
supporting girders to the side and as rigid piers for the en ds o f the stringers .
I t is sometimes argu ed that continuity in the stringers would improve the

longitudinal strength of the hull but they are not introduced to give longi
tud i n al strength and as they are near the neutral axi s they would in any
, ,
case be o f little service A lthough completely severed at each web

, .
frame they are o f course well jointed ( see P late

, , so as to secure at least
,
the longi tudinal strength of the light continuous s tringers that would b e ,
fitted i f the ves s el had ordinary frames and although the strength at each
j oint may not be equal to that o f the intact stringer it is ample in holding ,
their end s when they exercise their girder like duty o f resisting pressures -
from without .
A rt 2 8 A s indicated in P late 4 the web or deep frame system ( as

. .
,
-
set forth in Lloyd s rules ) permits o f the suppression o f one lower deck ;
’
and so as vessels with ordinary framing when over 2 4 feet dee p require
, , ,
a third deck ( or tier o f beams ) this is the largest whose entire side below ,
the upper deck may be supported without beams I n v e s s el s o v e r .
2 4 fe e t d e e p there fore ( this depth i s now o ften exceeded) a

, ,
s e c o n d t i e r o f c lo s e l
y sp a c e d b e a m s is required for the trans
verse strength o f the hull and this irrespective O f the type o f framing , , .
Ar t 29]
Such tier of beams is not necessarily laid as a platform fo r ca rgo ( s ee the

open tier of beams in Figs I and 6 P late but in vessels exceeding
.
,
a certain size a second plated deck is required fo r the longitudinal and

general strength o f the hull A n y of the foregoing s ystems o f framing may
.
then be employed as be fore b ut as a substitute for the third tier o f beams ,
normal ly required The requirements as to web frames and side stringers

.
are governed by the ve s sel s depth amidship s ; the depth at the ends ’
owing to the sheer may be much greater but although the frames are not
, , ,
increased an additional side stringer may have to b e introduced and at

, , ,
“
the extreme fore end panting beam s ( see P late , I n way of a
quarter deck the vessel s depth is usually increa s ed by 4 feet ( Arts 5 0 and
-
’
and in order that the framing— o f whatever type— of this part may
.
be properly proportioned its arrangement is regulated by the midship ,

’
depth plus the height of quarter deck ( s ee P lates 1 0 4 and A t this -
part of the hull the maximum depth admitting of a single deck is 2 8 in

place of 2 4 feet ; but when 2 4 feet is exceeded special reinforcements
are required for not only must every fourth frame b e an 1 8 inch web
,
-
and an additional side stringer be fitted but at lea s t four powerful hold ,
beams must be introduced and further to limit the racking stresses which , ,
with sides so deep might be excessive a tran s verse bulkhead is required

, ,
in this region dividing in two the a fter hold

, .
The floor plate web frame and conjoined deck beam may b e regarded
, ,
as forming together a rigid hoop encircling the body o f the hull and ,
capable o f bestowing great strength against all transverse stresses and the ,
better to fulfil this ideal those beams to which the tops of the web frames
,
connect are made extra strong and are provided with large bracket knees .
Web frames are also largely employed to maintain the transverse strength
where locally prejudiced by the severance of numerous deck beams as in ,
way of the machinery space and large hatchways (A rt .
Ar t 2 9 The question as to which of the three the h o ld b e a m d e e p

. .
,
-
,
fr a m e o r w e b fr a m e s y s t e m is the best is one not readily answered
,
-
,
.
The choic e re s t s with the owner and is u s ually decided by the special ,
requirements o f the ves s el s trade Web or deep frames have a great ’

.
advan tage over hold beams in that they leave a clearer hold space fo r ,
cargo ; except when carrying bulk cargoes s uch as grain or coal the , ,
presence of beams in the hold causes trouble in loadin g and disc harg i ng ,
and gives rise to br oken stowage i e vacant Spaces amid s t the cargo I n , . . .
some cases when specially large mas ses such as machinery must b e
, , ,
carried it is found necessary to cut portions of the beams away jointing

, ,
them temporarily for the voyage—a n obj ectionable expedient because care ,
may not always be taken to reunite them e ffi ciently C ompared with web .
or deep fram e s hold beams may give—i n proportion to the weight o f

,
material used greater support to the Side against mere horizontal

-
pres s ures A s regard s racking stresses however they are in ferior C o m

.
,
.
paring the deep—

,
frame with the web frame system as regards cargo s towage -

,
there is little to choose between the former has the advantage of reducing
—
the tonnage this being measured to the inner edge of the frames or sparring .
I t is also superior in that the only projecting parts inter fering with the stowage
space are the side stringers between which cargo may o ften be stowed ; ,
with web frames the s mall rectangular spaces betwixt the webs and stringers
is usually lo s t .
The deep frame system is structurally superior to the w e b in that as all

-
,
frames are identical they are all equally efficient ; under stress they all
a
strain alike and contribute the same resistance With web frames there is .
an association o f flexible and rigid parts When exposed to severe stress . ,

S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 29
30 P RA C TI CA L .
[
w hile the unyielding web frames might be strained beyond their endurance
( t h e elastic limit o f the steel ) the flexible intermediate frames might
, su ffer
little stress but simply bear upon the rigid webs through the medium o f
,
the side stringers Nevertheless in vie w o f the high e fficiency which

. ,
accompanies any increase in the depth dimension of a girder it is probable ,
that in proportion to the weight o f material use d the web frame system may
, ,
-
give greater general strength and sti ffness The deep frame system is .
-
becoming more and more popular I t has the important advantage o f

—
.
—
simplicity for as all frames are alike simple bars they may be formed in
,
the same expeditious fashion and as the side stringers are continuous they -
,
involve a minimu m of labour We b frames on the other hand are so .

, ,
di fferent from the others that they have to be made independently ; they
thus involve additional labour and special fitting work is required at the ,
joints o f the Side stringers .
I n the design o f some large modern vessels the great strength and
rigidity obtainable from deep web frames receives special attention To .
secure it in ample degree web frames 4 feet and even 5 feet deep pierced
, , , ,
with large lightening holes are all fitted fore and aft at intervals o f 2 0 or
,
- -
,
3 0 feet ( see Fig 6 P late. T hey,

are not as with ordinary webs , ,
associated with correspondingly deep side stringers and they are fitted not , ,
merely below the lowest deck but right up to the gunwale When so deep , .
they act more in the manner o f transverse bulkheads or diaphragm s than , ,

“
as girder s ( they are often referred to as p a r ti a l butkkea a s and thu s give ’
immense rigid i ty to the hull as a whole ; so much so as to relieve the

ordinary frames of much of this duty leaving them the subordinate one o f ,
giving local sti ffness to the shell plating in view of which it becomes ,
admissible to reduce their n umber by an increased spacing I n large high .
powered vessels web frames o f this type are often fitted in way of the
machinery s pace in the t ween decks where a maximum of transverse
’
,
rigidity is required ( A rt 9 6 and Fig 5 P late .

,
.
,
A r t 3 0 Th e s i d e fr a m i n g i n t h e u p p er t w e e n d e c k s has a
’
. .
lesser duty than that b elow for it is not subj ect to sea pressure it has no, ,
’
tween deck cargo to s upport and owing to the shortness of the span
-
, ,
between the two decks compared with that bet ween the lower deck and the
vessel s bottom the frames are naturally sti ffer and stronger The stresses
’
,
.
to which thi s part of the side is liable are the occasional local pressures due
to blows from the waves or flying ma s ses of water moving at high velocity ,
and horizontal racking stresse s due t o rolling These may often be severe .
,
and in certain types o f vessels must b e provided again s t but in most cases ,
lighter framing suffices fo r this part The reduction is usually made by .
stopping alternate reverse bars at the second deck or tier of beam s I n , .
the ca s e o f an awning deck vessel a still greater reduction i s admissible ,
fo r in these all the reverse bars may stop short at the second deck the ,
frames above being mere angle bars and similarly with the side framing of
a bridge or poop I n an awning deck vessel as the upper tween deck
.
‘
-
,
’
-
portion o f the hull stands well above the sea level it is little exposed to the ,
violence of the waves and as the awning deck is not intended to s upport
,
heavy weights such as deck cargoes a light construction throughout is

—
, ,
admissible L arge sailing ships unlike s teamers are specially liable to

.
, ,
racking stresses ; they have no transverse bulkheads and when heeled ,
forcibly over by the masts with one side submerged to the gunwale and the
,
other well out o f the water the upper part o f the hull may su ffer severe one
,
sided pressure o f a racking nature in such vessels there fore no reduction , ,
is made in the side framing of the t w een decks ’

.
Th e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d e c k s has of course an important , ,

Ar t 3 0]
.
31
bearing on the strength of the vessel s side A s regards stres s es o f a

.
’
.
collapsing nature due to sea pressure the best position fo r the second
, ,
deck ( in a vessel having two) would evidently be at or below mid depth , ,

-
but in the absence of special compensation there are several circumstances

which may render such a position undesirable I n a large cargo vessel so .
great a weight of cargo might be placed upon the tween deck as to ’
necessitate extra power ful beams and pillars and should grounding occur , ,
the stresses su ffered by the framing at the bilge in supporting s o much

weight might b e excessive Further large ves s els require a second plated
.
,
deck and of course for the purpose of longitudinal strength it should be

, , , ,
placed not at mid depth i e near the neutral axis but near the t 0p o f the
-
, . .
,
hull I n practice the distance b etween decks is u s u ally li m i t e d t o 8 fe e t

.
,
thi s being the maximu m height of side which with the u sual framing , ,
is found to b e compatible with su fficient strength and s ti ffnes s I n many .
vessels however 8 feet is exceeded the side framing being suitably

, , ,
rein forced I n passenger vessels for in s tance where ample head room in
.
, ,
-
the cabin spaces is very desirable the second deck may be as much as 1 0 ,
feet below the upper ; but in such cases not only must the full strength of ,
the frames be maintained but a powerful s ide stringer or web frames must
,
be introduced bet ween the two decks I n ca rgo vessels having a similar . .
height of t ween decks the scantlings o f the beams o f the second deck
’
and o f the pillaring must be increased to enable the deck to support ,
the large mass o f tween—deck cargo ’

.
When the frames are o f solid type i e o f Z channel or bulb angle , . .

, ,
-
section they cannot be so readily reduced in mas s iveness in the upper t ween
,
’
decks as when they are composed of frame angle and rever s e bar fo r the ,
inner flange must be cut o ff ( see P late Sometimes this is done ,
but more u s ually it is not in which case advantage may be taken of the
,
superabundant strength by slightly increasing the height between decks ,
this in many cases being advantageous as regards the stowage o f cargo .
Similarly with deep frames ; in large ve s sels their greater strength is only
called for by the absence o f a third deck and so ( as in the case o f web ,
frames ) their full depth need not be maintained above the second ; here
al s o advantage is o ften taken of the circumstance by increasing the tween ’
deck height a foot or s o beyond the usua l limit of 8 feet .
The s t o p p i n g o f a lt ern a t e r e v e r s e b ars at the second deck i s n o t

c on d u c i v e t o e ffi c i e n c y fo r with an alternation o f flexible and rigid
, ,
frames the side does not receive a uni form sti ffening e ff ect under excessive
,
stress the slender frames bendi n g readily escape the work and throw it on
, ,
the sti ffer ones This of course is undesirable and is only admissible on
.
, , ,
the s core o f simplicity and expediency ; fo r while to stop all reverse bars
at the second deck would too much reduce the strength to extend all to the ,
upper deck would create an excess When the upper deck beams are .
-
placed on alternate frames the frames between having their ends unco n
, ,
n e c te d are less e fficient than the others

, R egarding the frames as beams .
,
spanning the distance from deck to deck while those at the beams have ,
both ends fixed the others have only one ; and accordingly i f both were
, , ,
o f equal scantlings and were subj ected to a distributed load the la tte r
'
would only be about two thirds as strong and hal f as sti ff The discrepancy
-
.
may be minimized by the circumstance that the frames which are

rendered s trong by the b eam atta chment are those whose strength is
reduced by the absence o f a reverse bar Nevertheless it is evidently .
,
wrong so to dispose the beams because it neglects the possibility of ,
securing a high degree of transverse strength ; for by placing them on the

strong frames the greater capabilities o f the latter are utilized not only
, ,
32 P R A C TI CA L SH IPB UILD IN G .
[Art 3 0
as sti ffeners to the side but as formi ng with the beams rigid knees ,
against racking stresses I n sailing ships it is not uncommon as a result o f

.
-
,
racking stresses fo r the slender frame angle to fracture j ust below the beam
,
knee i f there w ere a reverse bar on the frame this could not happen ( see
I n view o f the above Lloyd s rules now require the upper deck
’
-
A rt .
,
beams to be on the strong frames I n warships and extra deep single deck .
-
'
vessels the tops o f all frames are connected to the deck stringer if not b y
, ,
b eams then by bracket plates or lugs A bracket not only increases the
,
.
e fficiency o f the frame but that o f the stringer plate also for being held , ,
thereby rigidly in line its e ffi ciency under longitudinal compressive stress
,
is greatly improved When the beams are placed on every frame as is often
.
,
the case each frame is of course well held and when all the frames are
, , , ,
maintained of full scantlings the very desirable condition o f uniformity in ,
strength and stiffness is secured .
A s already noticed the limiti n g depth o f 2 4 feet fo r single deck vessels

,
-
is n o w o ften exceeded a depth exceeding 2 8 feet being often attained , .
I n such cases the strength o f side to resist the collapsing e ffect of sea
pressure and the racking and straining tendency of rolling movement at
,
sea may be secured either by extra strong deep framing or by web frames
,
-
,
or widely spaced hold beams The hold beam system is the lig htest .
-
,
especially w hen the beam s are placed about mid depth fo r as the vessel s -
,
’
sides are then supported well under water where the greatest sea pressure ,
occurs ( the centre of fluid pressure is at two thirds the depth of side below -
the waterline) the side frames are relieved of so much stress that a large
,
reduction in their scantlin gs becomes admissible The shortening o f the .
lower part of the frames is of course accompanied by an increa s e in their , ,
strength and sti ffness the former varying as the length inversely and the
,
latter as the cube o f the length inversely I f web frames are employed in .
conjunction with bold b eams a still further reduction in the scantlings of ,
the intermediate frames may be made I n vessels so constructed the hold .
beams web frames and pillars may be ad vantageously de s igned in the

, ,
manner illustrated in P late 1 1 1 D eep framing if adopted must be very .

, ,
massive to secure the necessary rigidity o f side I n a vessel 2 8 % feet deep .

,
fo r instance a suitable size for the frames and reverse bars is 8 by 3 5 by

,
1 inch making a girder 1 2 ; inches deep the reverse bars being doubled
,
3
,
with a by 3 1 by l inch back bar and extra deep beam knees being
; z
.
-
,
fitted The side stringers in such a case might be four in number each
.
,
formed o f a 6 by 6 by g inch an gle bar and an intercostal plate ( as shown fl-

,
in P late V essels of the above type are of course only suitable fo r , ,
cargoes not liable to be damaged by pressure ; and it is well to ob s erve

that the tank top should be well sti ffened and supported so that it may ,
not strain under the heavy load of superincumbent cargo .
A r t 3 1 N otice now more particularly the n ature o f r a c ki n g s t r e s s e s

. .
, ,
and their s training effect on the structure They may be variously caused 5 .
through the vessel rolling in a sea way and perhaps su ffering at the same -
time longitudinal bending stresses ( see A rt 1 8 ) or as a result o f an e x cessive .
heel through shifting o f the cargo in h eavy weather ; or they mi ght occur
,
through taking the ground with a heavy list when loaded Figs 8 and 9 . .
,
P late 2 depict a vessel rolling heavily at sea the de formation of the trans
, ,
verse sections due to the racking stresses so induced being shown in

, ,
greatly exaggerated form Towards the end o f each side swing the .
momentum o f the mass of the upper part of the hull and o f the tween ’
deck cargo is not all brought up by directly opposed water pressure but ,
by pressure acting lower do wn ; the top weights thus tend to continue

their movement and carry with them the upper part o f the hull causing it ,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G [Ar t 3 2
34
.
racking force it could bear without injury is doubled I n either case i f ,

. ,
the length o f the side were altered the deflection would vary as the cube ,
o f such alteration and the strength as the first power inversely For .
instance if the depth were reduced by half the deflection under the same
, ,
force would be one eighth Fig 1 2 shows two s uch

- half depth sect i ons. .
-
superposed forming as shown the section o f a ves s el having a second

deck at mid height and as the deflection of each 15 one—
, , ,
-
,
e i ghth of the full
depth section ( Fig that of both combined is one quarter that I S to
.
-
say the introduction of a second beam at mid depth has the e ffect o i
,
-
_
reducing the racking de formation to one quarter of what it would be Wi th -
one deck Similarly if the second deck were at one third the depth from
. ,
-
the top one quarter would become one third

,
- - .
A r t 3 3 I t is evident that mere s trength of side framing is not n e c e s

. .
sa ri ly accompanied by a good r e s i s t an c e t o r a c k i n g for if the c o rn e r ,
c o n n e c t i on s were weak say pivoted there would be none Theoreti cally , ,

. ,
the s trengt h of a part designed to resist a b ending s tress should be pro

portioned at each point to the relative intensity of the bending moment .
A t mid depth o f the side in Fig 1 1 P late 2 there is no bending moment

-
.
, ,
( the frame here is straight for a short distance ) and so evidently as regards , , ,
racking stresses strength at this point would b e of no value Thence the

,
.
bending moment gradually increases it attains the maxim u m at the corners ,
and so for the greatest efficiency the strength here should also b e greatest
, ,
.
Th e corners are therefore the vulnerable parts and as noticed later their
, , , , ,
e fficiency is care fully considered e s pecially where severe racking stresses ,
may be anticipated a s where the second deck is s uppre s sed in favour of

,
web or deep frames .
I f a frame a n d its conjoined beam formed one bar with sharply bent
corner the strength in one respect would be perfect for the material would
, , , ,
be continuous without break or weak spot V irtually however there

, .
, ,
w ould b e a weak spot because when exposed to a stress tending to open , ,
the angle o f the deck with the side fracture would occur in the corner and , ,
while the b ending moment would be greatest at this point the strength or ,
mo ment of resistance of the frame and beam would be no greater here than
elsewhere Further the mere abruptness of the j unction o f the frame with
.
,
the beam would create a w eakness for the straining tendency would b e ,
concentrated at this point The introduction of a beam knee at once

,
.
greatly increases the e ffi ciency because although not altering the intensity , ,
o f th e external straining forces it relieves the frame where formerly most ,
severely tried The vulnerable place is then in the frame or beam at the
.
extremities o f the knee but as there is here no sharp angular juncture and ,
as at these points the external racking force has a lesser bending e ffect one ,
which formerly would have been exce s sive may n o w be o f comparatively

little importance .
Th e r i v e t s b i n d i n g t h e b e a m k n e e to the frame are the medium

through which all stresses a ffecting the one are conveyed to the other ; they
must there fore b e properly proportioned to the work Theoretically a s .
,
regards racking stresses only two rivets might sufli c e one at the top of the , ,
knee and one at the bottom ( Fig 1 P late their su ffi ciency however .
, , ,
would depen d on their distance apart i e the depth of the knee I f two , . . .
feet apart instead o f one they would resist without fail ure twice the racking ,
force fo r their leverage or moment of resistance would be twice as great

, , , .
But o f course there must be numerous rivet s for they are exposed to
, , ,
various direct and indirect shearing stresses and apart from the question ,
o f str ength the t w o faying surfaces must b e b ound intimately together A rts
,
( .
2 8 9 and
Ar t 3 4 ]
35
U nder a racking or panting force tending to alter the angle of the deck
with the side the lo w e s t r i v e t i n e a c h b e a m k n e e suffers the greatest
,
stress I n Fig 1 P late 2 the frame may be regarded as a simple lever

. .
, , .
F is the external force say sea pressure ; the lower rivet subj ect to a , , ,
shearing force f is the fulcrum ; while the re s istance f o ffered by the

, ,
2
,
upper one (i e the shearing force affecting it) is the load I t is at once
. . .
evident that the shearing force at the lower rivet or fulcru m is equal to , ,
the other two combined for it is the only one acting against them to the , ,
right I f the three forces are equidistant as shown the lower rivet must
.
, ,
suffer twice the stress o f the u pper ; if the lower rivet b e placed twice as
near the u pper one as shown in Fig 2 and the force F be the same the ,
.
, ,
stress on both rivets will b e increased : that on the lower one will be
doubled and that on the upper trebled I f a third rivet were introduced
, .
j u st above the lower one the pair might be regarded a s together forming ,
the fulcrum ; but although the lower one would be much relieved it wo u ld ,
s till suffer the greatest stress I t is evident there fore that to s ecure a goo d .
, ,
attachment of the frames to the deck a epzlz i n file 5m m kn ees giving them a ,
’ ‘
,
widespread grip of the frames is essential , .
I n the case of s a i li n g s h i p s it is common to find after a trying -

, ,
voyage that the r i v e t i n g o f t h e m i d s h i p b e a m kn e e s has become

,
’
loose and more particularly the lower rivets The beams at the ends o f
,
.
the midship hatch ways are the most li a ble t o s t r a i n in this way due to
’
,
the greater work imposed on them by the absence o f adjoining through

beams also those in way o f the masts where subj ect to special thrusting ,
e ffects Evidence o f the continued working or sliding of the beam knees

.
-
on the frames is often given by small accumulation s o f po wdered rust lying

on the edges o f the sparring directly under them A s a rule the upper .
deck beams s u ffer more than the lower owing to the greater exposure of ,
the upper part of the hull to racking pressures as the ship heels over in the
waves M ore rarely in place of the rivets the frame just below the knee
.
, ,
( i f not provided with a reverse bar ) or the knee itsel f gives way ; in the ,
case of the knee the fracture occurs in the throat it may be in consequence
, ,
of inferior welding or of the knee being badly formed with a throat too sharp
, ,
-
.
and narrow The lower deck beams restrain the frame s above them as
.
-
well as b elow ; here however the upper rivets in the knees s till su ffer less , ,
than the lower for they are relieved of excessive stre s s by the gu nwale bar
,
attachment to the side I n some of the early iron ships the stringer plate .
on the t ween deck beams had no intercos tal c onnection to the side but
’
-
,
merely one rivet at each frame in the continuous gumvale bar ; c o n se

quently as a greater duty was imposed on the beam knee rivets they
,
-
,
strained and the upper ones being unassisted su ffered like the lower
, , , .
When the beam knee i s a trian gu lar bracket plate with a rivet connection ,
to the beam as well a s to the frame ( Fig 6 P late~

what has just been .
,
noticed with regard to the latter applies equally to the former ; as a rule ,
however the attachment to the beam is more secure Various practical

,
.
details in connection with beam knees will be found in Art 1 3 3 . .
Ar t 3 4 The foregoing considerations regarding the e ffi ciency of the

. .
connection of the fr a m e s to the beam s also apply to t h e i r u n i o n w i t h

t h e flo o r s but as the floors take a much more exten s ive grip of
,
the frame the tendency to strain is here much less pronounced This
,
.
is especially the case with ordinary floors fo r owing to their gradual taper ,
there is no sudden discontinuity in sti ffness or flexibility and so little , ,
tendency to locali z ation o f stress With a double bottom the brackets .

,
connecting the side frames to the margin plate resemble the beam knees -
,
but being large and having numerous rivets they are naturally more
, ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G [A t 3 4
36 . r
efficien t When a weakness does exist it is in the c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e

, ,
br a c k e t t o t h e t a n k m ar gi n p l a t e I n vessels o f moderate size th i s .
is made with a single angle bar which being short can only take seven or , , ,
eight rivets When subjected to a racking force tending to open the angle
.
o f the bilge ( Fi g 8 P late th e shell plating holds the lower edge of the
.
,
bracket plate so that while the contigu ous lower rivet s experience little
, ,
stre s s the upper ones may suffer much When pulled away from the
,
.
margin plate the s hort angle bar connecting the bracket tends to stra i n
, ,
as shown in Figs 9 and 1 0 P late 1 7 and as a re s ult the watertightness o f

.
, , , ,
the rivets in the distorted flange may be prejudiced I n consequ ence o f .
heavy weather and a trying condition of loading it is not uncommon to ,
find that straining has occurred at these places causing leakines s in the ,
tank and more particularly in way of web frames whose great rigidity
, ,
accentuates the prejudicial e ffect o f an y weakness I n large vessel s the .
bracket connection is made with double angle s ( fo r half length amidships -

,
or all fore and a ft) which give of cour s e a double holding effect ; and , ,
L loyd s rules require that certain of the bracket s at intervals ( Art 1 9 2 and
’
.
,
Fig 1 5 P late
.
,
shall have gu ss et plates connecting their upper edges to
the tank top The latter are mo s t e ffi cient for they bind the top edge s o f
.
,
the brackets j ust a s the shell plating does the-lower A nd web frame s mu s t
, .
either have a gusset plate or double angle connection -

.
A n y tendency to strain by racking is chiefly confined to the mid s hip

’
portion of the hull ; towards the ends the transverse s ection s become
triangular a form which cannot rack R acking tendencies are most
, .
e ffi ciently checked by the transverse bulkhead s ; for as these form rigid
diaphragms across the hull they entirely prevent alteration of the trans ,
verse sections i n their vicinity A ll large steamers have midship bulk .

’
heads and consequently unless the stresses are so severe as to cause

, , ,
these to Spring or bend any racking that occurs can only b e of a local ,
character .
Art 3 5 S a i li n g sh i p s are partic ularly liable to r a c k i n g s t r e s s e s

. .
-
,
and as they have no midship b u lkheads the structu re is peculiarly sus ’

,
c ept ible to their straining influence Forced over by the wind acting .
through the masts the top part of the hull is s ubject to a chronic thru s t to
,
leeward The heeling force i s often severe s ometimes so excessive a s to

.
,
force the ve s sel on her beam ends i e with a heel s o great as partly to i m , . .
mers e the deck This condition is often accompa nied or caused by

.
, ,
shifting of the cargo and may therefore b e permanent unles s the cargo , , , ,
b e trimmed back or the masts go overboard Such a circumstance usually .
occurs in heavy weather when the straining effect on the hull must be ,
severe ; and should longitudinal bending s tres s e s s upervene their effect , ,
owing to the uprai s ed gu nwale and depre ss ed bilge may greatly accentuate ,
the tendency to transverse deformation C a s ualties o f this s ort more or .

,
less critical are not infrequent and in order that the hull may withstand
, ,
them without inj ury a s it should do if well and s trongly built special care , ,
must be observed to secure ample transverse strength more particularly at ,
the bilge and gunwale The structural design of a large sailing ship di ffers .
-
from that of a steamer in two important m atters ; there are no midship

’
bulkheads and only two tiers o f beam s A s shown in P late 4 while a

, .
,
steamer when over 2 4 feet deep requires a third tier o f beams or an

, ,
e quivalent in spe cially strong framing a sailing ship does not until over -
feet deep —a depth seldom attained in sailing ships

,
28 ; I t is evident -
.
,
there fore that in the ab sence of these important parts the hull o f a large
, , ,
sailing ship must have other compensating structural features and more
-
,
especially those which will provide strength again s t racking .

Ar t 3 7 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
37
The following are some o f the s t r u c t u r a l fe a t u r e s p e c u li a r t o

s a i li n g s h i p s, and which are required by Lloyd s rules I n the first place ,
-
’
.
owing to the method o f computing the numerals ( see A rt the scantlings .
of both the framing and shell plating of large ships are heavier throughout
than in steamers The top -side , being specially subj ect to one sided
.
-
pressures from the sea and fro m the mast s , i s s trengthened ( in s hips o ver
7 5 framing numeral ) by extending all the reverse frames to the upper deck .
A lso , further to sti ffen the upper deck against extensive s ide bending , such
a s is indicated in Fig 7 , P late I , the deck beams , if not plated , are brace d
.
by diagonal ties ( see P late 8 6 and Art which at once give great .
strength and rigidity to the deck surface against bending in its own plane .
A ll o f the beam knees are made three times the depth of the beam instead ,
o f two and a half times as in steamers The beams of the s econd and
, .
third deck s are made extra strong being one inch deeper than those of ,
the upper deck Further in large ships ( over . plating numeral) to

, ,
strengthen and s ti ffen the bilge the shell plating around it is increased in ,
thickness by one twentieth o f an inch An d in still larger ve s sels the

-
.
, ,
strake o f shell plating in way of the beams of the second deck is thickened
by the same amount .
I t is only in large ships that the above rein forcements are introduced ,
for it is only in these that the particular stre s se s they are intended to meet
assume importa nce A s noticed in Art 4 2 the intensity of well—
. defi n ed .
,
transverse and longitudinal stres s es increases much more rapidly than the
dimen s ions o f the hull I n a sm a ll v e s s e l they are comparatively un
.
~
important so that if designed only with regard to them and with the same
, ,
margin of strength as a l ar ge v e s s e l the structure would be s o slender ,
as to have little endurance against the deteriorating e ffects of w e ar a n d

t e a r and the vario us undefined local stresses the bumps and blows to , ,
which small cargo vessels are particularly liable The severity o f s uch wear .
and tear is much the same in b oth large and small vessels so that while ,
in the former with their more massive structure it may be unimportant

, , ,
in the latter with their comparatively slender hulls it is so important as

, ,
practically to govern the scantlings A ccordingly in pro portion to her .

,
size a small cargo vessel i s necessarily more stoutly built her superior
, ,
all round s trength providing adventitiously as it were a good margin

-
, ,
against stresses which in a large one might be critical , ,

.
A r t 3 6 V essels which trade in the tropics are often provided with

. .
a li gh t sh a d e d e c k o r p e r m a n e n t aw n i n g ( Fig 5 P late I t is .
,
open around the sides with provision perhaps fo r closing it with shutters
, , ,
in heavy weather and is upborne by the rail stanchions by pillars and

, , ,
by the machinery casings or deck houses No w although such parts are -

.
,
well able to support the vertical weight of the deck they can give little ,
s t a b ili t y a ga i n s t s i d e s t re s s e s : should the vessel roll the whole flying ,
supers tructure would tend to sway from side to side I n such cases the .
necessary transverse strength may b e provided by disposing some o f the

’
tween deck pillars diagonally ( Art 1 3
-
.
Ar t 3 7 Notice now the s t r u c t u r al fe a t u r e s o f t h e u p p e r d e c k

. . .
The beams have a complex d uty ; as j oists they support the deck against ,
the pre s sures that may be sustained from cargo or from ma s ses o f water ,
falling thereon in heavy weather as ties and struts they support and hold ,
at fixed dis tance the vessel s sides and by their rigid union therewith ’
, , ,
check racking tendencies in the transverse sections They have a further .
duty for when the hull is exposed to forces tending to bend it in the
,
plane of the deck they must act the part o f a c o n n e c t i n g W e b fo r t h e

—
,
u p p e r p o r t i on o f th e s i d e s a s fla n g s the vessel s bottom serving

e
’
[Ar t 3 7
the same purpo s e for the lower Such a bending tendency ( in the plane of .
th e deck ) would occur if the vessel lay on her beam ends ( Fi g 1 1 .

,
P late it is distinct from hogging or sagging which refer to bending ,
vertically in the upright I t might also occur in heavy weather through

, . ,
waves becoming momentarily heaped up on one si de or locally through , , ,
the side pres s ure of the masts I n steamers the tendency may not often .
occur but in sailing ships it is more or less chronic and may often b e
,
-
,
severe .
To analyze the d u t y o f t h e d e c k fr a m i n g in resisting lateral

de formation o f the upper portion o f the hull it will be convenient to ,
imagine the ex t re m e c a s e o f a v e s s e l lyi n g c o m p l e t e l y o v e r on

h e r s i d e say poised on the crest of a buoyant wave as in Fig 1 1
, , ,
.
,
P late 1 I f the deck were plated it would like the bottom b e quite
.
, ,
e fficient as a web and the b ox girder like aspect of the hull however ,
- -
,
inclined would be well maintained When the deck is not plated however
,
.
, ,
the beam s alone would not form an efficient web The principal duty of .
the web o f a girder is ( 1 ) to hold the two flange s at a fixed distance

a part and ( 2 ) to prevent any relative longitudinal straining or slipping
,
m ovement b etween them .
Figs 5 and 6 P late 1 represent part o f the deck of a ship acting like a
.
, , ,
deep girder in which the sheer strakes ( or top side plating ) form the
,
-
flanges and the deck beams the connecting web No w it is clear th at

,
.
, ,
although the parallel beams conform to the first of the above requirements ,
they do not to the s econd for while they hold the two flange s together ,
and compel the same de formation or curvature in each yet they permit o f ,
relative fore and aft movement ; this is shown in Fig 6 where it will be
- -
.
,
observed that the ends o f the beams are no longer squarely opposite
each other i e squarely as regards the centre line ( see beam D E) I n
, . .
'
.
consequence of this there is an entire lack of lateral rigidity in the deck

surface ; its resistance— i n the ab s ence o f stringer plates — is simply that
,
of the thin t0p side plating to bending s ideways which of course is -

, , ,
practically zero .
N otice now the e ff ect of introducing d i a go n a l t i e p l a t e s as shown in ,
Fig 1 2 P late 1 A s a connectin g web for the two s ides the combination
.
, .
,
of beams and ties i s now perfect ( as regards the bending tendency shown
in Fi g for it prevent s any relative longitudinal movement and is now
.
,
capable o f transmitting longitudinal s tresses from one side to the other .
Should the deck su ffer deflection a s s hown in Fig 1 3 the two flanges ,
.
,
assume no longer the same curvature but form the arc s of concentric ,
circles and as the beams form radii thereto they remain square to them
, , ,
and to t h e centre line and further w hile the one flange has su ffered com ,
pression and has shortened the other has s u ffered tension and has lengthened ,
( the compressive and tensile forces due to the pull o f the ties are shown
by the s mall arrow s c and t ) that is to say the entire deck surface may ,
n o w be regarded as one deep girder h aving its neutral axis at the centre ,
line No w while the resistance o f a plate to bending on its flat may b e

.
,
inappreciable to s tretch or compress it ever so little demands a stress o f

, , ,
many tons per square inch ; and as it is the introduction o f t he diagonal

ties that has brought ab out this change of conditions their value in giving ,
lateral rigidity to the deck sur face i s at once apparent .
I n resisting the distortion shown in Fig 1 3 P late 1 the tie s all su ff er .

, ,
tension ( their pull or resistance to the tensile force is shown by the arrows
T) ; fo r while the rectangu lar space A BC D in Fig 6 has racked so that .
,
the distance between points A and C has increased the distance between ,
corresponding points in Fig 1 3 has not altered Each diagonal tie acts of . .
,
Ar t 3 8 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
39
course the well known part of the sloping cross bar in a barre d gate I n
,
- -
.
Fig 1 3 only one set o f parallel diagonals is shown and this would su ffice
.
,
if the bending tendency were al ways in the particular direction indicated ;

but i f it were reversed then in preventing an approach o f such points as
, ,
A and C ( as ha s occurred with the points B and D Fig the ties would , .
suffer compression instead o f tension and while a slender plate is per fectly
e ffi cient as a tie it is quite otherwise if a s a strut it is affected by com
, , ,
pression To provide therefore rigidity under either circumstance two

.
, , ,
systems of ties are required crossing one another as shown in Fig 1 4 ,

. .
I n the foregoing to simplify matters it is assumed that there are no

, ,
deck stringers That these however are very essential is obvious for if
.
, , ,
the thin top-s ide plating s tood alone it would buckle and shirk its work ,
under quite a small compressive stre ss Each stringer and combined sheer .
strake form s a s trong T section girder but although very capable in resisting
-
local deflection their great length would be incompatible with an unyielding

,
resistance to the widespread bending tendency depicted in Fig 7 P late 1 .

,
.
I f united by beams alone the resistance o f the deck to bending in its own ,
plane would still be that o f two long flexible girders each having its own ,
neutral axis and each yielding in the same fashion Nevertheles s in the
, .
,
absence of diagonal ties the deck stringer plates take their place in a ,
measure ; for by holding the beam ends square to the side they prevent
, ,
their free movement as parallel connecting links so that should relative ,
fore and a ft st raining of the two sides occur it m u st be accompanied by

- -
,
a double bend in each beam as shown in Fig 7 ; and it is evident ,

.
that their resistance to such deformation ( shown by the small arrows )

has the same e ff ect as that of diagonal ties for it places the one ,
stringer in compression and the other in tension The e fficiency o f the .
stringers in this respect d epends on their b readth ; i f narrow the un

, , ,
covered beam s between them being long and flexible would give little , ,
resistance to slight lateral straining o f the kind shown in Fig 7 ; if very .
wide so as to leave only a small portion of the beams uncovered the s e in

, , ,
this s hort length would b e sti ff and unyielding I f between tw o such wide
, .
,
stringers a fe w o f the beam spaces were plated the cross plating w ould
, ,
-
evidently be equivalent to diagonal bracing .
The necessity for d i a go n a lly b r a c i n g t h e b e a m s only arises i n

s a i l i n g v e s s e l s I n s t e a m e r s the normal po sition is upright so that
-
.
,
the chance of severe longitudinal bending s tres s e s in the plane of the deck
is remote ; of course in large and long vessels when labouring in heavy
, ,
seas the tendency to twist an d bend in all direction s may be pronounced

, ,
but in such the nece s sity for diagonal bracing i s anticipated by the require
,
ment s of lon gitudinal and general strength which involve the entire ,
plating of one or more decks I n the case of a light shade or shelter .
deck however diagonal ties may b e very beneficial Sailing ships as

, ,
.
-
,
already noticed are subject to di fferent conditions ; forced over on their

,
beam ends in stormy s eas the tendency o f the upper works to rack and , ,
thus bend the deck surface i n its own plane may o ften b e great In ,
.
very small ships the general strength and rigidity of the hull is su fficient
withou t diagonal deck ties ; when over a certain si z e plat i ng
numeral ) they become essential ( see P late I n some of the earl i er
iron s hips the ab s ence o f such bracing was indicated by straining o f th e
deck planks starting of the caulking and leakiness
, ,
.
Ar t 3 8 . I n large w o o d s h i p s a n d c o m p o s i t e v e s s e ls Si m i lar
.
d i a go n a l b r a c i n g is required o n t h e s i d e s to strengthen the hull aga i nst

hogging tendencies I n wood ships longitudinal strength is difficult to
.
secure for as they are composed of numerous planks only united as a

, ,
[Ar t 3 8
continuous s urface through the indirect medium timber frames of i ll-j ointed ,
longitudinal bending stresses are at once accompanied by marked fore an d -
a ft straining tendencies in the di fferent planks each one sl i d i ng endw i se on ,
its neighbour J ust as a beam composed o f detached hori zontal layers ( see
.
Fig 2 P late 1 1 4 ) is deficient both in strength and rigid i ty so in a wood

.
, ,
ship is the comparative freedom o f the di fferent parts to slide or strain upon
each other incompatib le with these qualities With such pronounced .
straining of the various parts the de formation soon becomes permanent ,
the hull gradually departs from the straight so that it is not uncommon in ,
old ships to find the original keel line hollowed up amidships by a couple
o f feet the sheer line o f the deck having b ecome round in place of hollow
,
.
I f the tendency to such sl i ding movement of the planks were prevented the ,
strength and rigidity of the hull would at once be greatly increased ; it is

checked to a great extent by the frictional resistance o f the caulking the ,
perfection o f which in woo d ships is almost as necessary fo r the rigidity

, ,
o f the hull as it is for watertightness I t is found fo r instance t h at the

.
, ,
tendency to alter shape by hogging b ecomes more pronounced as the

caulking becomes so ft I n the later days of wood shipbuilding th e e ffective
.
m ethod o f binding the various parallel parts — frames and side planks
together by diagonal bracing was adopted I n some of the earlier wood .
ships diagonally disposed logs were fitted within the timber frames and in ,
some the very e fli c i en t plan was adopted of doublin g the outside planking
diagonally Latterly flat iron bars were employed fitted diagonally from
.
,
bilge to deck bet ween the planking and the frames A s wood ships only .
su ffer de formation from hogging stresses only one set of parallel diagonals
is employed sloping upwards towards midship in both the forward and
,
after bodies I n composite ve ss els yacht s and the like a double system of
.
, ,
diagonal ties is employed in such there is of course no shell plating only , , ,
a sheer strake and a strak e of plating at the bilge a n d between these the ,
diagonal ties are fitted being riveted thereto and to the various frames
, .
A r t 3 9 A s a s equel to the consideration o f the t w o k i n d s o f

. .
s t re s s es l o n gi t u d i n a l a n d t r a n sv e r s e it will be well to notice in how

, ,
far the one more than the other should go v e rn a v e s s el s s t r u c t u r a l

, ,
’
d e s i gn This question wa s much discussed in the early days of iron

.
shipbuilding ; at that time the question how to secure su fficient lo n gitu

dinal strength held a prominent position fo r in the prevailing wood ships ,
it s solution had been found di fficult if not impossible A t that time as .

,
now the strength o f a vessel in i tsaspect as a long girder was frequently

, , ,
investigated The conditions assumed however were abnormally severe

.
, , ,
a strength su fficient to withstand a hig h and dry position poised upon ,
rocks being often taken a s a proper an d desirable standard I t wa s found

, .
,
of course that when built on the u sual transverse s ystem large vessels coul d
, ,
not satisfy s uch a te s t ; but even u nder more normal conditions when , ,
lying across high waves theoretical investigations indicated that the stresses
,
approached dangerously near the elastic limit of the iron To secure the .
1
strength apparently lacking it was urged that i f much if not all o f the , , ,
framing material usually arranged as transverse ribs were disposed longi

tudi n ally it would while still supporting and sti ff ening the shell contribute
, ,
advantageously to the longitudinal strength Scott Russell the d esigner o f .

,
the G r ea t E a ster n and of some of the earliest iron vessels was an earnest ,
advocate o f the longitudinal system he u rged the abolition of al l 2
S ee the la te M r o hn s a e r,
p p O n Me si r e/15 1 1; o i r on s kips ,
. J f
’ ”
Tm m I n sti tuti on 7
.
of N a v a l A r c / utects 1 8
'
, 74 .
’
ll
Se e Sco tt R usse s A fw a l A r r/1 1735 111” , also th e Tr a n s I m l z l u ti on of N a v a l .
'
A r c/z ztect v, 1 8 6 2
'
.
42 P R A C TI CA L S H I B B UI L D I N G . [Ar t 3 9
and bilge to deck makes them very superior in the matter of strength and
-
sti ffne s s to longitudinal ones ; and they are we ll disposed to resist tran s
verse racking stresses against which th e latter are practically useless
,
.
When c e ll u l a r d o u ble b o tt o ms first came into vogue a mod i fied

form o f the longitudinal system was adopted for the bottom framework .
Th e ordinary system o f framing had in any case to be modified the two , ,
bottoms required to b e rigidly united and when this was effected chiefly by ,
c on t i n u o u s lo n gi t u d i n al p l a t e s the cross sectional area and longi

,
tudi na l s trength o f the hull were increased ( Fig 6 P late This method .
,
of double bottom construction is still adopted i n warships and fo r a con

-
,
si de rable period it met with general favour in merchant vessels As noticed .
in A rt 1 7 8 its principal features are the suppression of about half the number
.
,
o f transverse frames ( or floors ) placing them twice as far apart and disposing
‘
, ,
the material so withdrawn in longitudinal plates continuous or intercostal ,

.
O f late year s however it has been realized that vessels so built a re not
, ,
more e flfic i en t than others having all the frames disposed transversely at the
u s ual intervals ( Fig 4 P late . Weight for weight vessels built on the
, ,
former system may have slightly greater longitudinal strength but the ,
latter are not deficient in this quality When longitu dinal weakness is .
indicated it is at the top of the hull where a little additional material is

, ,
more e ffective than a great deal at the b ottom O n the other hand to .
,
with s tand the ordinary contingency o f grounding with the least chance or ,
injury a maximum of strength in the bottom is always desirable With

, .
a purely t r an sv er se ar r an ge m en t of the framing this is secured in ,
the highest degree Traversing the bottom from bilge to bilge a frame
.
,
forms a short girder and so is b oth s tronger and sti ffer than a long fore
,
and a ft one and when all are so disposed at the usual close intervals the
-
, ,
shell plating is much better able to withstand s evere upward pressures

without buckling and bending I n large and long vessels which are not.
,
liable to touch the bottom and which require a maximum of longitudinal

,
strength a fore and aft disposi t ion o f s ome of the bottom framework may
,
- -
b e advantageous fo r having several plated decks and thick top side

, ,
-
platin g their neutral axi s may be at mid depth i e there is little di s crepancy
,
-
, . .
in the strength o f the upper and lower parts of the hull and so whether , ,
placed at the top or bottom any addition al longitudinal material is ,
thoroughly effective .
C H A P TE R I V .
Art 4 0 The
. s tructu ral design and scantling s of practically all merchant
.
ve s sels are go verned by rules drawn up by the various c la s s i fi c a t i on o r

r e gi s t r a t i o n s o c i e t i e s O f such institutions L l o yd s R e gi s t e r o f
’
.
B r i t i sh a n d F o r ei gn S h i p p i n g may be regarded as the parent ; it i s by

fa r the most in fluential for o f the total tonnage of all existing vessel s in the
,
world ( s teamers and sailing ships of 1 0 0 tons and above ) almo s t two third s has
- -
been built in con formity with Lloyd s ru les and more than one half continues ’
,
-
to bear Lloyd s clas s Towards a prope r appreciation of the use fulne s s

’
.
o f this society and how m u ch it has advanced the practice of naval

,
architecture and the interest s o f shipping it will be well to notice briefly ,
its history I t originated about the middle of the seventeenth centu ry in a

.
body of underwriters who met together in a co ffee house in L ondon ,

-
,
owned by one Edward Lloyd For convenience in tran sacting their .
in surance busine ss they kept a list or register of the ve ss els which came
,
u nder their notice in which the merit s or demerits of each one were
,
denoted by s ymbol s so that although without personal knowledge of their

, ,
condition members might gain an idea of the risk involved sho uld an
,
insurance be s ought on either hull or cargo A t first merely hand written .

-
lists the s e record s a ss umed later the form of a regi s ter book of which
, ,
publication the earliest copy extant is one current for the year 1 7 6 4 A t .
that period the s ociety con s i s ted of u nderwriters only ; each member had a
copy of the regi s ter but only for hi s own us e and he was forb idden to
, ,
part with it .
Since the above early period the s ociety ha s undergone m any changes .
As now constitu ted ( the present con s titution date s from 1 8 3 4) it may be
regarded a s repre s enting the shipping community of the U nited K ing
dom for it con s ists of a committee o f merchants underwriter s and
, , ,
shipowner s elected periodically i n London and the principal outports

, .
C orrespondingly with the greater variety o f intere s ts repre s ented its s phere ,
of u sefulness ha s greatly extended I t publishe s annually a register book .

,
which contains a s is well known an accurate and detailed description of

, ,
practically every ves s el afloat over 1 0 0 ton s or smaller if holding Lloyd s ,

’
class ; against each one i s marked the pa rticu lar class s he holds with the
society also the date when last s urveyed and found in an e ffi cient s tate
,
.
To keep the b ook up to date fortnightly supplement s are distributed , ,
giving any alteration s i n class or surveys and repairs that may have been ,
made Thi s b ook holds a unique position and is referred to throughout

.
,
the world by all connected with s hipping .
The society al s o publi s hes ( an n ually as regards s teel ve ssels) a book o f

r u l e s fo r t h e c on s t r u c t i o n o f w o o d c o m p o s i t e i r o n a n d s t e e l
, , , ,
v e s s e ls al s o one for yacht s fo r which cla s s of vessel there is a separate

, ,
regi s ter book I n every large s hipping port throughout the world there
.
are stationed practical surveyors whose unprejudiced services are at the ,
dispo s al of shipowner s for s upervising either the construction o f ves sels or

,
their re pa ir A lso to ensure that the steel u s ed in the construction o f

.
,
Art 40
[
cla s sed vessels shall be per fect in quality surveyors are stationed at the ,
various steel works to test the raw material be fore it is delivered to the
shipyards To ensure that the condition and seaworthiness o f classed
.
vessels are maintained they are examined periodically and upon the result
, ,
o f such survey depends the continuance o f their class These examina .
tions are termed special surveys They are made every four years the — .
”
first when the vessel is four years old the secon d when eight years old , ,
and the third when twelve years old The thoroughness o f each survey .
D
increases with the age o f the vessel ; the third is particularly severe the ,
condition o f the vessel being so thoroughly looked into and made good ,
where de fective as to perm i t o f her class being maintained subsequently

,
by another series of surveys beginning as be fore with a N o 1 The , , ,

. .
second No 3 special sur vey is the most severe of all for when the
.
,
vessel attains this age it is considered advisable to drill two or three holes
in every strake of shell platin g to ascertain to what extent corrosion may ,
have reduced the th ickness I t is interesting to note that in vessels of this

.
age which have been well kept up there may b e little or no reduction in ,
the thickness of the shell plating The various requirement s of the special .
surveys are detailed in Lloyd s published rules ’

.
Llo y d s h i gh e s t c l a s s signified by the symbol A I has long been

’
, ,
proverbial as symbolical o f per fection I n the case o f a steel or iron .
vessel a numeral is prefixed 1 00 95 or 90 A vessel classed 1 OGA I is , , , .
one which con forms to the society s highest standard of strength and ’
e fficiency I f built with slightly thinner plating or should deterioration not

.
,
have been made good by repairs she may only be eligible fo r the 9DA class , ,
P ractically all s ea going vessels are built to the highest 1 OGA I class and
-
,
are maintained therein by making good deterioration For general trading .
purposes a lower class is a ser i ous impediment fo r it not only involves ,
high i nsurance p remiums b ut may disquali fy the vessel fo r certa i n cargoes

,
a
.
The above classification is given to vessels which — as formerly stated— are

fit for the conveyance of dry and peris hable goods to and from all parts ,
o f the world M any vessels however are built fo r special purposes fo r

”
.
, , ,
river or channel service ; and as in such the strength and massiveness o f

bull ordinarily required would be unnecessary they are built of lighter ,
scantlings Such vessels may still hold Lloyd s A 1 class but there is no
.
’
numeral prefixed and appended thereto is a note o f the limited trading

,
fo r which as classed vessels they are eligible ; and moreover the main
, , , ,
te n an c e of a minimum freeb oard may be a condition o f such classification .
O f the symbol Al the letter A re fers to the hull the figure 1 to the
, ,
equipment Should a vessel be deficient in anchors cables etc the

.
, ,
.
,
figure 1 is omitted .
For w o o d s h i p s the s ymb ols o f c l a s si fi c a t i on are more elaborate ,
because of the ma ny di ff erent kinds of timber o f varying durability of

which they may be built and o f the inevitable deterioration which occurs
,
with age Steel and iron do not deteriorate ; they may thin away by
.
corro s ion but this may be prevented or i f not it may be seen and rectified :
, , , ,
in s uch vessels there fore age gives little or no clue to their strength
, ,
and stoutness The age of a wood ship on the other hand may indicate
.
, ,
fairly well her condition A ll timber rots or loses its pristine stoutness and
.
,
the iron bolts and wood treenails become less and less trustworthy Teak .
is the most durable of timbers V essels built o f it are supposed to remain .
good fo r sixteen years ; i f built o f fir only fo r eight The former receive , .
the class 1 6 A 1 the latter 8 A1 A t the expiration o f these periods the

, .
class expires ; they may then receive a lower one i f the hull is found on ,
examination to b e good or is made so

, , .
Ar t 4 0]
45
In the
d a ys o f Lloyd s R e gi s t e r there was no system o f
e a r ly
’
r u le s for r e gu l a t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n Th e wood ships of that period .
were clas s ed according to their age , the e fficiency o f their construc t ion
being only regarded in so far that only London -built ships —which had a
—
reputation for excellence were eligible for the highest class Later, with .
a view to basing the cla s s more fairly on the merits of the s hip rules of ,
construction were drawn up adherence to which was necessary to render ,
the vessel eligible for the highest cla s s A n d to ensure that the rule s were .
carried out and that the workman s hip was good the s ociety engaged a
, ,
s ta ff of practical s urveyors .
Th e fi r s t i ron v e s s el clas s ed with Lloyd s R egister was the S i r i us of

’
1 8 0 tons built in 1 8 3 7 ; but iron ships had been built for some time
,
previously With so novel a s tructural material a considerable diversity

.
,
o f building practice prevailed and some time elapsed be fore sufficient ,
experience had accumulated to indicate precisely what were the best

methods of construction and what scantlings were compatible with a
‘
,
strong and effi cient hull By 1 8 5 4 however Lloyd s R egister found it

.
, ,
’
practicable and desirable to draw up rules to be observed in the constru o

tion o f iron vessels intended for their classification I n accordance with
these rule s iron vessels were classed —like those of wood— for a term o f
.
years twelve nine and six the particular one depending on the thickness
, , ,
o f the shell plating and on the frame spacing Th e scantlings then in vogue .
were exceedingly massive This was a natural consequence of the

.
experimental nature of the material for experience was lacking as to its

ability to withstand corrosion ; and the intense loca l pressures that might
be occasioned by grounding while easily with s tood by stout oaken planks , ,
seemed likely to be critical in the case of thin iron plating Some ten .
years later the first rules were greatly modified the scantlings which were ,
found to give unneces s ary strength much in excess o f that possessed by ,
wood ships were reduced and as it was observed that deterioration

,
by corrosion was preventable and was not governed by age or time , ,
classifica tion by year s was abandoned .
I n 1 8 7 0 an important alteration wa s made in the rules U ntil then the .
scantlings were tabulated on the b a s i s o f t h e u n d e r d e c k t on n a ge ; -
they were ta b u lated in gr a d e s one set of scantlings for all vessels ran ging ,
between 6 0 0 and 8 0 0 ton s another for those between 8 0 0 and 1 0 0 0 and

, ,
so on so that a shipb u ilder wishing to construct a vessel say of 7 0 0 tons , ,
would find the appropriate scantlings under the 6 0 0 ton grade This -
.
tonnage basis was found to be inconvenient however and led to difli culti e s , , ,
fo r until a ship wa s completed and me asured by the Board of Trade o ffi cials
her preci s e tonnag e wa s uncerta i n I t sometimes happened fo r instance .
, ,
that a vessel built under a certain grade would sub s equently upon ,
measurement be found to be larger than expected placing her i n a higher

, ,
grade requ iring la rger scantlin g s To avoid such di ffi cu lties to simplify the
, .
,
application of the rules and b etter to take account o f di fferences in the

,
proportionate dimensions of ships of s imilar size the present method ,
described later—o f grading the scantlings under n umer als or n umber s was
inaugurated Since 1 8 7 0 numerous alterations have been made in the
.
rules making them more specific and deta iled tabulating the scantlings
, , ,
and stat i ng requirements where formerly le ft to the discretion of the builder .
Such alterations w ere of course only made when w arranted by matured

, ,
experience and they followed as a natural course upon the adoption of

, , ,
new and widely di fferent types o f vessels .

1
Th ul l u l ly ; th f t lv l m y b pu h d f 5
1
e prb i h d
es a re u s e an n a o se o r s ee e sse s a e rc a se or s.
pe r co
py .
Art 4 0
[ .
classification society such as Lloyd s R egister is in a po s ition to

A
’
a cquire experience of a most practical and valuable sort ; fo r it n o t only

supervises the construction of many hundreds of vessels in each year but ,
sub s equently throughout their existence has them u nder con s tant survey
, ,
.
Should any weakness or defects develop whether due to i n suffic ren t ,
scantlings bad workman s hip materi al or design the circum s tance i s care
, , , ,
fully considered and recorded H aving in this way con s tantly u nder .
, ,
observation many thou sand s o f vessels of all size s and types the practical ,
.
knowledge acquired empowers the society to s tate with as s urance what is

required and what should be avoided in a sound s tructural design I t is .
sometimes u rged that the shipbuilder s hould be the best j udge of what
are the best methods of construction and of how much s trength a ship ,
shou ld have ; but to build and lau nch a ship does not prove her a
success ; it is only a fter some years of active service having carried all ,
sorts of cargoes in all kinds o f weathers that the e fficiency of the structure ,
may be said to be proved I n bui lding a ve ss el o f unfam i li ar s iz e and .

’
’
type both the builder and the owner find in Lloyd s rules trus tworthy
,
’
data founded on wide and matured experience I t is sometimes a s serted .
that by formulating fixed rules clas s ification societie s tend to restrict design
, ,
and hinder progr es s But departures from the ru le s in the b u ilding of

.
cla s sed vessels are only debarred when they tend to redu ce strength and
encroach on the margin of safety found by experience to be the minimum
compatible with a sou nd and e ffi cient s hip Many high class vessels are .
-
built with very considerable modifications from the methods of con s truction
set forth in the rules but these are usually in the direction of increased ,
strength and efficiency I t is evident that where there is any doubt as to .
the e fficiency of departures from the usual practice a classification society ,
must exercise caution and circumspection ; representing a s it does the , ,
interests of owne rs underwriters merchant s and the general public it is

, , , ,
not for it to foster or originate new and untried schemes .
Ar t 4 1 The numerals or numbers under which the scantlings in

. .
, ,
Lloyd s rules are tabulated are of two kinds The fi r s t t r an s v e r se o r

’
.
,
fr a m i n g n um e r a l is the number obtained by the addition of the ve s sel s

’
,
depth hal f breadth and half girth I t will be o bs erved that this is practically
, , .
1
equivalent to the vessel s girth or the length of the midship frame f rom ’ ’
gunwale to gunwale These number s are tabulated for ves s els of gradually
.
increasing size and under each one are given the scantlings (foun d by
,
experience to be appropriate to each size of vessel or rather to each , , ,
grou p of vessels of such slightly different sizes as are comprised between

consecu tive numerals ) of all tran s ver s ely dispo s ed parts the frames and ,
their s pacing the reverse bars floors pillars and transverse bulkheads
, , , ,
.
I t is evident that the transverse dimensions of the hull mu s t be the proper

basis for deciding the particular grade or set of scantlings to which the ,
transver s ely dispo s ed parts should conform .
The se c on d l o n gi t u di n a l o r p l a t i n g n um er a l is simply the

, ,
transverse one multiplied by the ve ss el s length ( measured from the back of ’
the stem to the front o f the ru dder post ) Thi s number it will be observed .
, ,
represents the s urface area in square feet of a parallel sided trough having -
,
a cross s ection roughly that o f the vessel s midship section i f m u ltiplied

, ,
’ ’
by a suitable fraction ( about it would give the area of the vessel s shell 1
’
It h b u g d th t
as fix d p p ti f th h h uld b i l d d i th b v
ee n r e a a e ro or on o e s ee r s o e nc u e n e a o e
m u m
e a s re t th t v l h vi g x iv h r d whi h th f m y l d x t
e n s, so a e sse s a n e c ess e s ee , an c , er e o r e , a oa e ra
d pl y
ee d uff xt t
an s m yh v
er e di g ly l g
ra s ress , tl i g d i a i a e c o rres on n ar e s can n s an v ce ver s r
p
in th f th
e case o h v i g l i ttl o seh Th ab f hn i tu t d kv l
e o r no s ee r . e a se n ce o s e er n rre - e c esse s
15 t k a u t f i
e n a cc o m i g th
n om l d i t i p b b l th t th
n ea sur n b v p p l e nu e ra s, a n s ro a e a e a o e ro o sa
W 11 1 b
soon d pt d f ll v
e a l
o e or a esse s.
Ar t 42] P R A C TI CA L S H I P -B UI L D I N G . 47
plating U nder this numeral are tabulated the scantlings of al l longitudinal

.
parts the shell plating keel keelsons deck stringers etc

, , , , ,
.
The following tab le gives the dimensions of ves s el s which correspond ,
roughly with di fferent numerals

,
.
1 51
; N umbe r . 2n d N umbe r .
It must not be s upposed as is sometimes done that the thickness of the , ,
shell plati ng or other s cantlings are based in the first instance on the mere , ,
m a gn i t u d e o f t h e n um e r a l s ; for instance the shell plating of a vessel ,
w hose second number is is not twice as thick as it is in one having a

numeral of There is no fixed relation in the former it i s 5 inch 1
, ,
i n the latter 5 1 Th e scantlings appropriate to various sizes and types of

5
3
.
vessels were decided in the beginning more or le s s tentatively or empirically ,
and in cou rse of time as dictated by experience they were suitably modi
, ,
fi ed . The numerals may be regarded merely a s a mean s of identification ,
to indicate as it were the general size o f the vessel and what scantlings
, , ,
are in her case appropriate I f all vessels though varying in s ize were o f .
, ,
identical proportion s and form it would be a matter of indi fference what the ,
numerals were ; a single dimension the length breadth or depth or the , , , ,
volume or tonnage, would serve equally well as a mean s of proclaiming the

size and what s cantlings would b e the most appropriate But ves s els vary
, .
greatly in form and it is therefore no ea s y matter to devise numeral s which

, ,
while simple of application will form in all ca s es a theoretically correct basis ,

.
Art 4 2 B e fore con s idering the appropriateness of any particular system

. .
o f numerals it will be well to notice h o w t h e s c a n t li n gs o f l o n gi t u d i n a l

,
p a r t s viewing
,
the hull theoretically as a girder s h o u l d b e g o v e r n e d b y ,
v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e di m e n s i on s When poi sed upon wave s as in .

,
Fig 1 P late 1 the bending moment may be taken as proportional to the

.
, ,
shaded area multiplied by the distance AB i e the volume of the hull , . .
deprived of buoyant s upport multiplied by the distance o f its centre of

gravity from midship s I f now the ves s el s length be increased say
’
.
1
, ,
’
,
doubled then the volume or weight represented by the shaded area having
, , , ,
one of it s dimensions doubled would be t wice as large ; and o f course , ,
the distance AB—between similarly situated points would also be doubled

,
The bending moment would there fore be twice doubled or four times ,
um d h r th t ll v l f l ly l d w i th th m h m g
1
It i s ass e e e a a u
e ss e s a re g u a en e sa e o o en e o s c ar o .
Also , th t th l a g th f th
e w v i
en q u l i o l l t
e th t f tha esh i p b u ts e h t a n a c ase s o a o e s as s or
w av es m y b m u h t p th
a e l g c i t w i ll b
s ee er um d th t th h i gh t i
an on t t
o n e s, e ass e a e e s c o n s an .
8 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 42
.
[
greater i e it varies as the square of the length I n order now that
,
. . .
, ,
the fore and aft material o f the hull while resisting this greater bending
- -
,
moment may su ffer no more stress per square inch i ts cross sectional
, ,
-
area must be incre a sed in the same proportion i e it must be four times , . .
greater A ssociated with a double length this would mean that the weight
.
,
of the hull ( neglecting some transverse parts ) would be eight times greater ;
that is to say it would vary as the cube o f the length
,
1
.
I f now the b r e a d t h o f a ship b e i n c r e a s e d say doubled the bending

, , , ,
moment would also b e double d fo r the shaded area ( Fig 1 P late

being t wice as broad —athwartships — would represent an unsupported
, .
,
volume twice as large and heavy ; that is to say the bending moment ,
varies simply as the breadth I n the case of variations in the dimension .
o f d p t/
i it is evident that these would not alter the bending moment fo r
e , ,
when poised upon the same wave the volume represented by the shaded
area would b e una ffected by the depth o f the hull above or below it .
A lso should both the breadth and depth be altered the bending moment
, ,
would still only vary as the breadth .
N otice now h o w t h e s t r e n gth o f t h e h u l l w o u l d b e a ffe c t e d b y

a simultaneous v a ri a t i o n i n b r e a d t h a n d d e p t h A ssume that both .
are doubled then if the thickness o f fore and a ft parts were unaltered their
,
- -
,
cross sectional area would also be doubled for the deck and bottom would
-
,
be twice as wide and the sides t wice as deep But their moment o f resist .
ance i e the strength of the hull as a girder would be four times greater
, . .
, ,
fo r not only would the hori z ontal plating be o f double area but being , ,
twice as fa r from the neutral axis it would have the advantage o f a double ,
leverage and in the case of the sides as they really form deep girders o f ,
rectangular section their strength ( which in a rectangular beam varies as

, , ,
the square o f the depth ) when doubled in depth would also be four times , ,
greater ( Art 5 7 3 ) that is to say with the sa me thickness of fore and a ft

.
,
- -
parts the longitudinal strength o f the hull would vary as the square of the
,
increase in the vessel s depth and breadth dimensions No w it has j ust ’

.
,
been seen that the external bending moment varying only with the breadth , ,
would be twice as great and so with a hull four times as stro n g the , , ,
material would only suffer half the stress per square inch To secure .
equality there fore the thickness of fore and aft parts in the enlarged
, ,
- -
vessel would require t o be reduced by half ; that is to say the t/zi cé ness ,
would very i n ver sely as the increase in breadth and depth the secti on a l ,
a r ea or w a g/i t bei ng con s ta n t .
thus appears that if it be desired to maintain the same longitudinal

It
strength in a vessel enlarged proportionately in b oth breadth and depth ,
the cross sectional area or w eight of the longitudinal material need not be
-
, ,
increased the greater bending moment due to the larger breadth being met
,
by the greater leverage of most o f the material about the neutral axis .
A lso it has j ust been seen that an i n cr ea se i n Zengtfi in volves an increase in

,
the sectional area of fore and aft parts proportional to the square o f such - -
increase and this observe is the case whether only the length be increased
, , ,
or with it the breadth and depth the increase in the latter dimensions not ,
involving any variation in the sectional area To secure in such a case .

, ,
the proper sectional area o f material the increase in the t/zi ckn ess of the ,
plating would depend on how much the breadth and depth were increased
i f they were not altered and the length were doubled it would be four ,
,
Se e Fron de Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N a v a l A r c/z i tects , 1 8 74

’
s pa
p e r, . I n thi s i n e sti . v
ga ti o n Fr o ud e a ssum e d tha t the w av e s a ri e d i n h e i gh t as w e l as i n v
e n g th , an d , l l
conse ue n t
q ly
, th e b e n d i n g m o m e n t w a s s h o w n to ar a s th e Mi n i [fore/er o f th e e n th ,
g v y l
a n d th e w e i h t o f th e h u
g a s the f ou r t/c power ll .
5 0 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[Art 4 3
Ar t 4 3 m a x i mum w e i gh t o f c a r go that a vessel may be

. . The
c alled upon to carry should o f course have a governing influence on the , ,
strength required i n the hull for i t is upon the displacement or weight o f ,
the hull that the intensity o f the hogging sagging and various transverse , ,
stresses in great part depends For instance i f two similar vessels o f equal .
,
strength were loaded the one with a heavy cargo and the other with ,
a light one it is evident that i f the di ff erence in draught or displacement

,
were considerable the latter would have a much larger margin of strength ; ,
i f su fficient i n the one it would b e unnecessarily large in the other If ,

.
employed only for light cargoes such a vessel could not b e regarded a s ,
an e fficient one for her purpose for with lighte r scan tlin gs she might have , ,
‘
,
ample strength and her first cost would be less or with the same outlay
,
a larger vessel might be built having greater stowage room or earning ,
capacity for light bulky cargoes ,

.
To meet such cases o f vessels o f similar dimensions carrying di fferent ,
loads it has often been suggested that in place of tabulating the scantling s
, ,
under dimensions or numerals it would be better to employ the maximum ,
displacement But although a d i s p l a c e m e n t b a s i s ha s much to reco m

.
1
mend i r its superiority a s a substitute for Lloyd s numerals would be very

,
’
doubt ful for it takes no account o f a vessel s relative dimensions which

,
’
, ,
as just seen have a commanding influence on the stresse s also to obtain

, ,
the displacement involves a somewhat tedious calculation whereas to ,
compute the numerals is simplicity itself A lthough displacement is not .
Lloyd s basis for scantlings it is specially regarded in the general scheme

’
o f their rules fo r to suit di fferent trades di ff erent types of vessels are

, , ,
prescribed and for each one special rules o f construction giving varying
, ,
degrees o f strength .
A r t 4 4 I n t a b l e s o f s c a n t li n gs a particular size in any one

. .
structural part must o f necessity serve fo r a gr o u p o f v e s s e ls not all

exactly alike in point of si e Thus fo r a vessel 2 0 0 feet long the roper z
p ,
.
thickness of shell plati ng i s about inch and fo r one 4 0 0 feet long % i n c h

2
2 0
-
, g
o
.
Now between such vessels there might b e any number of i n te rm e dia te

,
sizes and as there only a di erence of inch between the plating of the
,
i s f
f i
o
4
0
largest and of the smallest the question arises how to assign an appropriate , ,
thickne s s to all ? I as in loyd s rules

f L — inch be taken as the s m a l le s t ’ 1
--
, , 2 0
u n i t o f m e a s u r e m en t then the multitudinous intermediate vessels might ,
b e divided into four groups or grades one comprising vessels between 2 0 0 , ,
and 2 5 0 feet another those between 2 5 0 and 3 0 0 feet and so on all

, , ,
vessels in any one group having the same thickness of shell I f instead of
—
.
,
1 — inch were cho s en a s the unit of measurement a s is done by the
5 0, 0 (
British C orporation ) the range in s ize of the ves s els comprised in each ,
group would b e reduced and theoretical per fection more clo s ely ap ,
p ro ache d i f the thickness could b e measured in hair breadths it might -
be attained Th e que s tion i s one of practical expediency I n the actual

. .
work o f checkin g scantling s there i s o ften di fficulty in di s cerning with

accuracy even so comparatively large a variation as 5 inch I n the rolling 1
7,
.
operations at the steel works to produce a wide plate of one preci s e thick ,
ness throughout is practically impossible the marginal parts may be thinner

or thicker than the central portion by 5 inch ( Art To requi re that 1
3
.
the structural material of a ship should conform to size s given in fortieths

o f an inch would lead to trouble
; disputes might arise as to the real
thickne s s Evidently therefore little or no practical good would follow
.
, ,
from the adoption o f a smaller unit than inch .
th l t M Wi l l m D y pp
1 ”
S ee e O Ll y d
a e m r l. Tm I ti t ti ia en n
’
s a er, n o
’
s nu er a s, nt ns u on
qf N l A /t t
ava 8 77 l tw p p r by th l t M J h th m v l m
r c z z ee s , 1 a so o a e s e a e r . o n in e sa e o u e.
Ar t 4 5 ] P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
51
When the si z e o f a vessel is such that she just over step s a gr a de and
becomes liable for heavier scantlings it is sometimes argued that i t is ,
un fair that so small an increase in dimensions should necessitate so much

greater strength ; an extra inch in the length beam or depth fo r instance , , , ,
should not really necessitate additional thickness i n the shell plating or i f , ,
it did then the slightly smaller vessel not having it could only be regarded
, , ,
as too weak But it is evident that as a vessel gradually increases in si z e

.
,
by steps no matter h o w small there must arrive a period when some

, ,
additional thickness in the structural parts becomes neces sary The .
scantlings moreover are fixed not with theoretical nicety but more or
, , , ,
less empirically ; they provide a con s iderable margin o f strength and so ,
what might appear to be an inconsistency when viewed critically from the ,
point o f view of strength only is not so in reality , .
Lloyd s rules are so schemed that despite the comparatively large

’
,
L inch unit o f measurement the increase in the strength o f hull or weight
QO ,
o f structural material involved by slightly increased dimensions is small .
I n the case fo r instance of two ve ss els which di ffered from each other
, ,
only by one grade and which there fore were not very dissimilar in point
, , ,
of si z e it would evidently b e quite improper to make the entire shell

—
,
plating of the la rger inch thicker than that o f the smaller fo r if 5 inch
2 0
1
, ,
thick in the latter the increase would be 1 0 per cent Such sudden
, .
variations are o f co u rse avoided I n the case o f the shell the

, , .
,
additional thickness required in each grade is not applied throughout ,
but only to a fe w of the more important strakes ; s everal grades may

be overstepped be fore a general increase of 5 inch is required A n d 1
5 . ,
moreover further to avoid any suddenness in the increase o f s cantlings

, ,
di fferent structural parts are placed under diff erent numerals so that while ,
a slight increase in the vessel s dimensions may entail no extra thickness in ’
say the shell it may necessitate stronger keelsons or thicker deck plating
, ,
.
I n this way variations in the weight or strength of st ru cture may be almost

,
as gradual as variations in dimensions .
A r t 4 5 Beside s L loyd s R egister there are some e ight other classi fi ca

’
. .
,
tion societies all of which publish register books and rules o f construction
,
1
the latter however is in most case s a more or less modified copy o f Lloyd s
, ,
’
rules Lloyd s R egister has seld o m stood alone in this country ; for merly
.
’
there was the Liverpool U nderwriters R egistry ( amalgamated with Lloyd s ’ ’
in 1 8 8 5 ) and now there is the recently established British C orporation

of G lasgow O f the foreign societies the French Bureau V eritas
.
, ,
established in 1 8 2 8 is the most influential Throughout this work Lloyd s

, .
,
’
rules which represent or govern practically all merchant ship building are
, ,
constantly referred to ; but where points of di ff erence worthy o f notice , ,
occur between these and the methods advocated by the Bureau V eritas
and British C o rporation they are cited The rules of the latter societies ,
.
do not di ffer essentially from those of Lloyd s ; that this should b e so ’
is natural for the latter re present e x peri en tal capital accumulated from
, ,
the practice and at th e expense o f the entire shipping community ; to

, ,
differ greatly therefrom would mean something n ovel and untried and ,
there fore untrustworthy .
The B u r e a u V e r i t a s recognize similar types to those presented in

Lloyd s rules They have a di fferent system o f numerals ; the scantlings
’
.
o f longitudinal parts are tabulated under the cubic number i e the vessel s
’
. .
,
length multiplied by her breadth and depth ; and the transverse under the ,
Tlze B r z ti s/z Corpor a ti on , B u r ea u Ver i tas , Ger in a n i sc/fer Lloy d, N eder l an a sc/z e
’
1
Ver ce nzlgi ng v a n A ss u r a a eu r en , N ors ke Ver i ta s, R ecor d cf A mer i ca n a n d For ei g n

r ’
S kippi ng , R egi str o I ta li a n o, Ver i ta s A us tr e Unga r z co .

P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G [Ar t 4 5
52 .
breadth plus the depth They place a premium on bulkheads fo r if

. ,
su ffi cient in number to give immunity from foundering should the hull be

perforated between them the circumstance is indicated in the vessel s
,
’
class ; similarly those vessels are signalized whose bows are strengthened
,
to resist end ou collision or impact with ice The tables of scantl i ng s are
-
,
.
threefold ; one set for steel vessels another fo r those of superior iron , ,
and another for tho s e o f common iron the scantlings becoming greater i n ,
each case .
Th e rules o f the B ri t i s h C o rp o r a t i o n present many po m ts of i nterest

0
and novelty They only deal with steel and iron vessels and they have
. ,
only one class BS or British Standard

“
,
“
,
”
They do not recognize .
”
di fferent types such as three deck spar deck or awning deck but a fr e e
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
b o a r d i s a c o n d i t i on o f c l a s s i fi c a t i o n and having presented certain , ,
standard scantlings adherence to which will permit of the minimum free

,
board allowed by the L oad line A c t reductions there from are admitted
-
,
subj ect to a suitably increased freeboard The scantlings are tabulated on .
a special system ; the basis for di fferent parts being those dimensions o f
the hull ( taken separately ) which directly a ffect the duty o f each part .
Thus the thickness o f the shell plating and the scantlings of keels and
,
keelsons are decided by the vessel s length only ; but to provide against ’
the greater longitudinal stresses that accompany increased beam the ,
number of side keelsons and requirements as to deck plating and stringers

are regulated by this dimension the deck material being also governed by ,
the length The spacing o f the frames is regulated by the vessel s depth
.
’
it varies gradually from 2 0 inches in a vessel 8 feet deep having shell plating ,
thick to 2 9 inches in one 4 4 feet deep having shell plating

,
inch ,
thick ; an increase of 5 3 inch in the thickness permits of the frame spacing

1 -
being increased by one inch provided the general transverse strength is main
,
t a i n e d ; and i f contrari w ise the plating is made thinner the frame spacing
, , ,
-
must be reduced The scantlings of the frames and floors are determined
.
by the vessel s breadth they vary however fo r each breadth according as

’
, , ,
the depth o f the hull is great or small They specify a system o f bulkhea d .
construction which di ffers considerably from that generally adopted and

as presented in Lloyd s rules it is similar to that advocated by the Bulk
’
head C ommittee ( A rt Their tabulated scan tlings are regarded as

.
applicable to all vessels whose length does not exceed 1 4 time s the depth ,
and whose depth is not less than 5 5 per cent o f the breadth ; Lloyd s .
’
tables assume a maximum length o f 1 1 depths but a special table is ,
provided giving the additions n ecessary should such proportions be

,
exceeded They do not require bulkhead liners unle s s the spacing of

.
the rivets in the bulkhead frame angles is less than 5 diameters and they di ffer ,
con s iderably from Lloyd s rules as regards the distribution and scantlings
’
of the deck plating and deck stringer plates ( A r t .

Ar t 4 6 ]
. P R A C TI CA L UI L D I N G .
53
C H A P TE R V .
Ar t . 46 . I n describing
the various m o d e rn t yp e s o f v e s s e ls it will ,
be instru ctive to notice the cause s which governed the steps of their
development The first steam vessels were designed in much the same
.
fashion as the sailing ships of that period They had a flush upper deck -
.
,
and in the absence of a second deck a tier o f hold beams A t the bow
, , .
they had an anchor deck or low monkey forecastle and a ft there might , ,
be a raised quarter deck ( Fig 1 A P late Subsequently it was found

-
.
,
necessary to place the machinery openings at a higher level than the upper
d eck ( Art and so fo r this purpose casings were built and to protect
.
, , , ,
these a bridge deck enclosed at the ship s side but usually open at the
, ,
’
ends Then to increase the carrying capacity and improve the ves s el s
.
,
’
weatherly qualities the quarter deck and forecastle were increased in height
,
-
,
to form a poop and top gallant forecastle ( Fig 1 P late The largest -
.
,
vessels o f that period were about 2 5 0 feet by 3 3 feet by 1 74 feet but later , ,
when greater carrying capacity was desired they were increased in size by ,
simply adding 7 feet to their height so as to give an additional deck To , .
increase the depth only was thought to b e advantageous fo r at that time ,
the idea prevailed that the dimension o f breadth was the one most particularly
governing the vessel s resistance and that to increase it would entail great
’
loss of speed .
With so large an increase in the depth the hull became very strong as ,
a girder and as the freeboard was usually high due to the circumstance
, ,
that to maintain s u ffi cient stability only light goods could b e carried in
, ,
the upper tween decks ( owing to their small beam these ves s els i f fully
’
, ,
loaded with homogeneous cargo could not remain upright ) the total weight , ,
carried and stresses endured by the hull were not increased proportionately .
A ccordingly L loyd s R egister modified their rules fo r such vessels by

’
, ,
basi n g the scantlings on the transverse numeral reduced by 7 feet which ,
w as practically equivalent to discounting ha lf the height of the additional

u pper tween decks This modification only applied to this type o f vessel
’
. ,
e to steamers whose depth to the second deck exceeded 1 7 feet and which
.
,
had three decks or two and a tier o f hold beams This is known as the
,
.
“
t h r e e d e c k r u le
- it is still in force but whereas formerly two laid , , ,
decks was a condition of the 7 feet deduction the second may now be ,
d ispensed with ( i e w hen not required as a plated deck fo r structural

. .
strength) if the transverse framing b e in accordance with an unreduced

numeral and all the reverse frames be extende d to the upper deck other
,
wise i f a suitable minimum freeboard be maintained the rule may be

, ,
applied without modification V essels built under this three deck rule as .
-
,
also those which owing to their small depth are not eligible there for are
, , ,
regarded as vessels o f full scantlings they are the strongest type presented
in Lloyd s rules I t will be observed that as sailing ships are not eligible
’
.
-
fo r the three deck rule i e the 7 feet reduction in the numeral the scantlings
-
, . . ,
o f those over 2 4 feet in depth are in excess of those in steamers .

P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G [Ar t 4 6
4 .
I t wa s found ,
a s a result o f numerous losses that vessels of the above ,
narrow deep model were dangerous and as with greater knowledge i t

, ,
1
became apparent that breadth was not d isadvantageous as regards speed ,
the proportions of vessels gradually improved A s n o w proport i oned .

2
,
with a depth between 5 0 and 6 0 per cent o f the breadth i n place of 7 0 . , ,
the question o f stability has little influence in limiting the depth of loadl ng
0
V essels built on the three deck rule are suited for the carriage o f heavy -
,
dead weight cargoes for being built to Lloyd s maximum scantlings they
- 3
, ,
’
are so strong that though loaded to the deepest draught ( which o f course
, , ,
is limited to what w ill leave a freeboard compatible w ith weatherly qualities ) ,
the hull will suffer no undue stress .
A r t 4 7 Later as over sea trades became more specialized and the

. .
,
-
,
desire grew to employ in each service ves s els specially adapted thereto a ,
“
new type known as the s p a r d e c k was introduced The primary
,
” -
,
.
purpose o f these ve s sels was the conveyance of passenger s the upper t ween ,
’
decks being appropriated for their use to the exclu s ion of cargo C arrying ,
.
so little weight and floating with a high freeb oard a lighter s tru cture
, ,
throughout was admissible and accordingly Lloyd s R egister modified , , ,

’
their rules by measuring the numeral to the second deck A specially light .
construction was allowed fo r the upper tween deck part of the hull ( thin ’
-
plating supported only by alternate frames ) conditional however to no

, , , ,
cargo being carried above the second deck ; and to limit the loading it , ,
was recommended that the freeboard from the second deck should not
b e less than 3 inches for each foot o f bold depth below the s ame .
Subsequently the occasional necessity to carry cargo in the upper tween

’
decks and thus to overload the hull led to the scantlings o f this part being
, ,
increased the top side plating was thickened slightly and the framing here
-
,
made of ordinary strength This type of vessel is still known a s a .
“
spar decker -
B eing o f rather lighter s cantlings than a
.
” “
three decker -
,
”
it is especially suited fo r the carriage of a lighter and bulkier class of

goods a full cargo o f which will leave the ship with a somewhat higher
,
freeboard I t is also suited fo r passenger vessels because a high free

.
,
board is essential for the comfort o f the passengers and not being loaded , ,
,
—
heavily the hull may be amply strong unless of course it be a large , ,
A tlantic liner in which class o f vessel the heaviest scantlings are desirable
, .
Lloyd s spar deck rule only applies to vessels whose depth exceeds 1 7 feet to
’
-
the s econd deck for if less deep the light upper tween deck structure would
, , ,
’
-
represent so large a portion o f the hull as to a ffect prej udicially the general
strength A s in the case o f three deck vessels Lloyd s rules n o w permit
.
-
,
’
o f spar deckers having only a tier o f beams for the lower deck a suitable
-
,
increase being made in the frames A n d many modern vessels o f this .
type are built with rather heavier scantling s so that as in the case of , ,
three deck vessels they may load to the deepe s t draught allowed by the
-
,
L oad line A ct -
.
Ar t 4 8 To take the place of the original spar deck vessel i e one having
. .
-
, . .
a very light upper tween deck the a w n i n g d e c k t yp e w as introduce d

’
,
-
( Fig 5 P late 2
.
, Th e primary purpose o f this type of vessel was the conveyance
of natives from port to port in the East for whose com fort large ventilating ,
1
S M t ll p p
ee T I ti t ti
ar e
f N
’
lsA / i t
a t 1 880
er, O M u
ra n s . ns u o no ava rc z ec s , ,
n e ca ses
f
o u n sea z oor t/ nn es s zn n zer c/
2
z a n t stea mer s
”
.
Se e Fro ude s pap e r , ’

O n t/z e comp a r a ti v e r esi s ta n ce o
f l o n g s /
z p f
z s o s eve r al t
ypes ,
Tr a n s I n sti tut i on of N a v a l A r c/zi tects , 1 8 6
.
7 .
1
A “ ’
a eacl -zc'
ezg/
z t ca r o
g
”
i s o n e w h i ch o c c up ies, i n p ro p o r ti o n to i ts w e i gh t, s o i t t e l l
sp a ce , th a t the a m o un t c a r r i e d i s o n ly l
i mi te d by th e esse s d i sp a c e me n t o r th e d e p th
’
v l l
to w h i c h th e h u ll
m a y be i mm e rse d ; if so i gh t a n d b u k th a t th e a m o un t ca rri ed i s l l y
li m i ted b l
y the ve sse s i n te r n a c a p a c i t , i t i s te rme d a
’
l y
mea su r e/n ea t ca rg o
”
.
Art 49 ]. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
55
openings were pierced in the top side plating Subse quently as in the -
.
,
previous ca se owners often found it desirable to carry cargo in the upper

,
’
t ween decks which led to the structure being enclosed and s trengthened
, ,
as in the modern awning deck vessel The main di fference between an -

.
awning deck and a spar deck vessel is that the former has more slender
- -
upper work s ; the to p side plating is thinner the tween deck frames have ,
’
-
no reverse bars and the awning d eck and its beams are lighter The hull
,
.
proper may be regarded as limited to the portion below the second deck
here it is o f full scantlings the numerals and proportions b eing taken to ,
this deck The portion above may be regarded as a mere superstructure

.
,
to increase the ves s el s capacity for light goods passengers or cattle l t

’
, ,
.
is not intended that it shall contribute a full measure of use ful strength to
the hull and unless s pecially de s igned it is disregarded in que s tion o f
, ,
strength To load such a ve s sel deeply in the water a s in one of full

.
,
scantlings would be i nadmissible for in heavy weather the structure might

, ,
be s eriously strained To preclude thi s danger ( one readily incurred

.
,
becau se the upper or awning deck being well out of the water would give , ,
an appearance o f sa fe loadin g) Lloyd s R egi s ter at one time required that ,

’
hinged freeing po rts s hould be cut in the side ab ove the second deck for , ,
not being watertight they had the desired e ffect of limiting the depth o f
,
loading to some distance below this deck Latterly however as these .

, ,
were sometimes found to be closed tight the maintenance of a minimum ,
freeboard was made a condition o f classification a diamond shape d ,

-
freeboard m ark being painted on the ve s sel s side I n the case of

’
.
full scantli nged three deck and spar deck vessels Lloyd s rules do not
-
,
-
,
-
,
’
speci fy a freeboard as a condition of class but a s noticed later all British , ,
vessels are now required ( by the M erchant Shipping A c t of 1 8 90) to conform

to an approved minimum freeboard .
A rt 4 9 A s h a d e o r s h e lt e r d e c k a s fitted in pas s enger ves s els

. .
,
which trade in the tropics is merely a flying deck or permanent awning , ,
supported at the vessel s sides by an extension o f the stanchions of an open

’
ra i l and it may be fitted only locally or all fore and aft Such a deck is , .
better described as a shade deck

“
A shelter deck a s now commonly .
,
adopted in large vessels is a s uperstructure extending continuously all fore

,
and aft ( see Fig 7 P late 2 0 Fig 6 P late 2 6 and P late 1 1 0 ) it is u s ually
.
,
.
, ,
o f substantial construction so as to confer u s eful longitudinal strength on the ,
hull The peculiar feature o f such a superstructure is that the tween deck
.
’
-
s pace it encloses i s not included in the vessel s register tonnage thi s ’
omission being allowed by the exi s ting tonnage laws on the simple condi ,
tion that somewhere in the deck an opening i s made with no p er manent .
mea ns of closing it and that no pa rt of the tween deck space is pa rtitioned

,
’
o ff or enclo s ed in a permanent manner The necessary opening (generally .
referred to as the tonnage O pening ) may be formed by one of the hatch

“ ”
ways us ually the after most which may or may not have coamings formerly
, ,
coamings were not provided but now they generally are these being , ,
permitted by the Board of Trade i f no permanent means are pro ,
v i de d o f closing the opening with hatches and tarpaulins as in an ordinary ,
ha tchway I n other cases a small O pening or special h atch way is pro

.
v i de d about four feet long and half the beam o f the ship at that part) in
, ( ,
breadth .
The shelter deck type of vessel originated in the A t l a n t i c c a t t le t r a d e

- .
I n the earlier vessels e n gaged in this trade the cattle on the upper deck
w ere only partially protected by a rough temporary shed like erect on
i , ,
-
o f deals which was sometimes washed away

,
Later greater secur i ty .
,
and comfort for the cattle were secured by building a light permanent ,
56 P R A C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G .
[Art 4 9
superstructure or shelter deck having breaks at one or two places ( over which
, ,
a temporary deck could be laid ) w ith large gang way doors in the side fo r the ,
convenient loading of cattle and cargo A s now constructed the shelter .

,
deck is usually a substantial continuous superstructure having two or three , ,
small doors in the side for loading cattle ( Fig 4 P late All the frames .
,
are carried up and web frames introduced or some of the reverse frames
,
carried up to give the required transver s e strength against racking or

s waying tendencies which in the ab sence of transverse bulkheads might
, , ,
be pron ounced and in order to a fford useful longitudinal strength to the ,
hull the deck is usually plated for hal f or full length and the side plating
, , ,
thickened beyond that necessary for a mere superstructure a suitable ,
reduction being made in the thickness o f the top side plating of the hull -
below H aving the great advantage of providing a large cargo space on a

.
small registered tonnage shelter deck super s tructures are now extensively ,
-
adopted in both cargo and passenger vessels the latter having usually a ,
’
midship bridge house ( superposed on the shelter deck ) for the acc o mm o
-
dation of the passengers ( Fig 7 P late .

,
A r t 5 0 Th e w e ll d e c k t yp e of vessel ( Fig 2 P late 2 0 and Figs

. .
-
.
, , .
2 and 3 P late 2 6 originated with the desire to ncre a se the capacity of the
)
, i
a fter hold for with the machinery situated amidships the greater finenes s
, ,
o f the a fter lines and the space occupied by the shaft tunnel made it so
,
much smaller than the fore hold that when both were full of homogeneous
cargo such as coal or grain the vessel trimmed by the bow Accordingly
, , .
,
to increase the capacity of the a fter hold the expedient was adopted of ,
adding to its depth by raising the upper deck ( or qua r ter a ecle as the after
,
-
’
,
part of the upper deck was formerly termed ) some 3 or 4 feet higher than
elsewhere A t first the bridge house ( at the after end of which the raised
.
-
quarter deck terminates ) although enclosed at the sides to protect the

-
,
machinery ca s ing was le ft open at the end s ; but subsequently to increa s e

, ,
the weatherly qualities and s afety o f the ship bulkheads were fitted at ,
either end with or without doorways Later the bridge wa s extended

, .
,
in length for ward to provide additional space for light cargo or for the
, ,
cabins formerly located aft in a s hort poop or a further raised quarter

, ,
deck on the quarter deck proper ( Fig 2 P late -

.
,
The forward extension of the bridge house reduced the space between it -
and the end of the forecastle which forming with the bulwarks practically , ,
a square pit in the weather deck and in heavy weather b eing constantly ,
full of water was appropriately termed the w e!

,
“
I n some o f the later
vessel s of this type the well i s reduced to very small dimensions having a ,
length perhaps only one tenth that of the vessel I t is an obj ectionable -
.
feature ; for as it form s a deep cleft in an otherwise continuous super

,
s t ructure it s acrifices possibilities of longitudinal strength ; but as these

,
vessels are of moderate size and as the well is remote from midships ,
’
,
this is u sually a minor consideration A l s o the front bulkhead o f the .

,
bridge forms a target for the waves and with the upper deck in the well ,
constantly inundated the hatchway al ways placed here is undesirably , , ,
exposed to sea pressure I n some o f the latest vessels of this type these . ,
obj ections were met by suppressing the well by j oining the bridge and ,
forecastle decks ( Fig 5 P late 2 0 and Fig 4 P late Such vessels are
.
, ,
.
,
termed p ar ti a l a w n i ng decker s
“
I n some fe w case s in place o f coveri ng .
”
,
in the well the curious plan wa s adopted of raising the upper deck within
,
it s boundary by some four feet the advantage b eing the greater height of
the upper deck above the sea level and th e reduc ed depth or capacity o f , ,
the well for sea water Such vessels are termed r a i sed f ore .
I t should be observed that when the well is long it is even more

5 8 P RA C TI CA L S H IPB UIL DIN G .
[Art 5 1
advantages are claimed for the design particularly its suitab i lity fo r carry ,
ing bulk grain A s this cargo demands certain s tructural provi s ion s it
. ,
will b e well to notice its peculiarities .

‘
Ar t 5 2 I n loading gr a i n it is endeavoured as far a s practicable to

. .
, ,
fill completely all space s in the hold s for if this b e not done the whole , ,
ma s s flowing almost like water m ay sh i ft with the rollin g and jerking of

, ,
the ve s sel and settling down on one s ide ca u s e a dan gerous list ; m an y
, , ,
vessels have been lost from this cause To ens u re in an ordinary vessel .
, ,
that all spaces are lfille d is a di ffi cult matter for when the grain is poured ,
in through a fe w isolated hatchways it will not flow everywhere out to the ,
sides and rise up under the gu nwale it mu s t be trimmed by hand I f .
there is a tween deck it is us ually pierced ( at the sides where remote

’
,
from the hatchway s ) with tr i mmi ng notes two or three feet square through , ,
which the grain may b e poured s o as to bring it clo s e up to the deck

( Fig 2 P late.
,
But even when the hold is filled quite full the grain ,
tends to subside or settle so that at the end of a voyage its surface may ,
b e one or two feet lower than at the start ; in which ca s e the resulting
vacant spaces giving play as it were permit the whole mass to flow to one
, , ,
side To mitigate the dangerous heeling e ffect of such shifting all vessels
.
,
which carry grain in bulk must be provided with s h i fti n g b o ar d s t e a ,

. .
fore and aft centre line partition in the holds U sually it i s formed of
- - -
.
portable boards but sometimes it is a permanent iron bulkhead ( Art

,
.
To provide against the settling of the grain it is usual in two deck vessels , ,
-
,
to construct f eeder s or grain re s ervoir s These are simply wooden or , .
plated trunkwa ys built around the various hatchways between the upper
and second decks ; they are filled with grain which falls automatically to ,
fill any vacant spaces that may form b elow I n ordinary one deck vessels .
-
feeders cannot be provided ; in these therefore it is not attempted to fill , ,
the holds quite full of loo s e grain but a s pace is left and shifting provided , ,
against by covering the s urface of the grain with matting and board s and ,
laying u pon these b ags o f grain For a similar rea s on loose grain i s not .
carried in upper tween deck spaces Turret deck ve s sels owing to their
’
-
.
-
,
rounded gunwales and numerous hatchways may b e filled quite full of ,
grain witho u t any hand trimming and despite their having only one deck , ,
they carry it with safety for the capacio us central trunkway forms a most ,
e fficient feeder .
A r t 5 3 Structurally the t urr e t d e c k d e s i gn has cer tain advantages ;

. .
,
-
i n an ordinary vessel owing to the sheer the shallowe s t part of the hull is , ,
am i dships j us t where for longitudinal strength it should b e deepest ; in

, , ,
a turret deck vessel the depth is uniform for there is no sheer ; as against
-
,
th i s, however a larger freeboard is required for weatherly qualitie s I n an

, .
ord i nary ves s el the deck plating is thin and doe s not contribute it s full ,
quota o f lon git udinal strength ; in a tu rret deck vessel it is thick like the -
Si des and owing to it s double curvature i s naturally sti ff and capable under
,
b oth tension and compre ss ion E ach side of the continuous superstructure .
,
i f regarded as representing the sheer strake of an ordinary vessel is remote

,
from the neutral axis and so in this re s pect is well placed for longi tu dinal
,
strength ; but a s there is no rigid web uniting it with the bottom of the
hull it is doubtful i f it can be regarded as possessing the full value of a
,
sheer s trake I f the depth of the hull be reckoned to the top of the super
.
structure o r turret deck then owing to the corrugations formed by the , ,
gunwale i t s tran s verse strength is naturally good ; an ordina ry vessel with

.
, ,
Elg
1
F p p thi
or bj t tha f P f
e rs o n d th l t P f
s su ec , se e o se o ro esso r ar, an e a e ro esso r
J ki i th T
en ns, I ti tuti
n
f
o N l A e/ t t 1 8 8 M t l
r a n s.
7; l 1 8 80
nsd M on a va
'
r c zz ee s , ar e
’
s, an r
L ttl
, .
’
i 1 8 96
e s, .
Ar t 5 4] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
59
a flat side of the s ame depth would require a second deck or special side , ,
stringer s and extra s trong framing I n ordinary vessels to sti ffen the deck .
,
and di s tribute the supporting e ffect o f the pillars fore and aft stringers are ,
- -
fitted under the beams in a turret deck vessel the deep sides o f the super -
,
structure a fford such excellent vertical rigidity to the deck that only a few
widely spaced strong built pillars may suffice —a circumstance greatly
,
facilitating the stowage of packages in the hold ( P late 1 1 I n s ome of these

vessels the machinery is placed at the s tern and in their constru ction many ,
simplifications and novelties are introduced tending to reduce the weight ,
and the fir s t cost of the hull H aving a small tonnage and in proportion . , ,
to their size a light hull they are particularly suited fo r dead weight
, ,
-
cargoes and having special facilitie s for loading and di s charging they are
, ,
economical in working expenses They appear to behave well at sea and .

,
though waves may wash over the low lying s ide portions of the deck it is -
,
said that the high turret deck remains fairly dry and offer s a sa fe working ,
platform .
The t r u n k d e c k t yp e of s teamer is similar to the turret deck one

1 - -
just described in that there is a continuous central erection on the upper

,
deck open to the hold in this case however the gunwale i s not rounded
, , ,
( late
P Trunk deck ves s els are practically o f ordinary design except
-
,
that they have what might be described as a continuous hatchway having ,
coamings about 7 feet high decked over on the top Like turret deck , .
-
vessels they are s uitable for carrying grain in bulk the trunk forming an ,
excellent feeder The design is also employed in some cases fo r steamers

.
, ,
which carry oil in bulk .
A r t 5 4 V essels which carry p e t r o l e um i n b u lk are of special

. .
design 2
Formerly this oil was shipped in barrels or metal cases an i n con
.
,
v e n i e n t method owing to the cost of the barrels and the labour and time
,
required to load and d ischarge also because s o much hold space wa s lost ,
through broken stowage that the vessel s full ca rrying power wa s not avail ’
able The first innovation was the building within the hull of permanent
.
tanks the oil being loaded and discharged therefrom by pumping Later
, .
the tanks were made of large size the containing walls forming an inner ,
skin of the hull This was found to be un suita ble for it was a di fficult
.
,
matter to make the inner walls oil tight and the leakage into the confined -
,
spaces between the two walls caused dangerous accumulation s of explo s ive
gas Subsequently the present simple method was adopted of ca rrying the
.
oil in the vessel s holds these being made of small size by means of
’
, ,
numerous bulkheads so that each one forms a separate oil tight tank
,
-
( P late I n the structural design of oil ve ss els there are three matters
requiring special attention— strength in the hull safety from explosion due ,
to leakage and consequent accumulation s of oil gas and stability A fluid -

.
cargo is a very trying one it does not like a solid one lie inert upon the , ,
botto m framework but pre ss es in all directions not upon the framework
, , ,
but on the vessel s platin g ; it possesse s moreover should it move abou t

’
, , ,
disruptive powers which may prove disa s trou s .
When the ve s sel is at re s t the inten s ity of the pressure tendin g to burst
,
the containing walls o f the o i l t an k s ( the bulkheads vessel s s ides and the ,
’
deck forming the tank top) depends on the depth of the oil ; when at sea
-
,
e sse s w il be fo un d i n a p ape r by M r W H o k, i n the

v l l
1
A descrip ti o n o f these . .
Tr a n s I n s ti tuti on of N av a l A r e/zi teets , 1 898

. .
2
v
Fo r i nstructi e p ap er s o n o i l-sh i p s, se e the Tr a n s I n s ti tu ti on of N a v a l A r e/nteets .
ll
Ma r te , 1 8 8 7 an d 1 8 94 ; M r E dri dge, 1 8 92 l
M r H ok , 1 89 5 The Tr a n s
—
. . . .
I n s tztn tz on of E ngi n eer s a n d Sni on i lders i n S cotla n d,

p e n ki n s , 1 8 8 8 8 9 Th e Tr a n s J . .
N or t/i -E ast Coast I n sti tuti on of E ng i n eer s a n d S nzpbui lder s , Mr Ke n da , 1 892 93 . l -

.
[Ar t 54
however this press ure may be enormo usly increased by lively motion o f
,
the ves s el So long as the oil is confined i e entirely fills the tanks its
.
, . .
,
pres s ure though intense is of a s tatical or steady character readily provided

, , ,
against Should a tank not be quite full however the oil b eing free to
. , , ,
move becomes a dangerous live load when put in fore and aft and trans
,
- - -
verse motion by the pitching and rolling of the vessel the battering force ,
exerted by so large a mass dashing from bulkhead to bulkhead and side to ,
side may be almost irresistible To prevent therefore such a dangerous

,
.
, ,
occurrence provision is made for keeping the tanks at all times quite full
, ,
by constru cting over each one an exp a n s i on tr nn/c ( Fig 1 1 P late i e a .

,
. .
casing or vertical extension of the tank which being partly filled with oil , , ,
acts as a reservoir or feeder All fluids expand and contract with heat and .
cold ( oil does so more than water ) so that without a reservoir any increase , , ,
of temperature occurring during the voyage w ould result either in the burst
ing of the tank or in a loss of oil and a fall in temperature would so lo wer
its surface as to give freedom of motion with the abo ve result O f course , .
,
as the expansion trunks are small freedom of the oil within them is un ,
important Formerly they were made of small size one for each tank now
.
,
they are usually built as a continuous central casing By this arrangement .
the strength of the deck and o f the structure generally is greatly improved
the large openings permit o f b etter ventilation when the tanks are empty ,
and o f cargoes other than oil being more readily stowed .
I n the earlier days of bulk oil vessels the di s r u p t i v e p o w e r o f fr e e -

,
fl u i d i n a t a n k was not sufficiently reali z ed and as a consequence the , , ,
structure often suffered serious damage When the vessel is loaded with .
oil there is little danger fo r the tanks are then qu i te full and the bulkheads
, , ,
having fluid pressure on both sides su ffer little s tress excepting the , ,
terminal bulkheads at bow and stern which however being double have , , , ,
naturally great strength The most trying condition is usually experienced .
during the vessel s return voyage empty to the oil loading port when a
’
, ,
-
,
fe w of the oil tanks are filled with water for ballasting purposes I f they .
were filled before putting to sea no evil would result but not in frequently , ,
with a view to making a fast pas s age a vessel may start light and meeting , , ,
heavy weather to improve the weatherly qualities additional tanks may b e

, ,
run up and as she may then be in lively motion w ith serious consequences
, , ,
during the filling When a tank is say hal f filled the straining e ffect of
.
, , ,
the water dashing from bulkhead to bulkhead and side to side may be
, ,
very excessive more especially in the case o f the bulkheads separating an

,
empty from a full tank where the pressure is all on one side To subj ect ,
.
a tank to such an ordeal is o f course quite improper but as the contingency , , ,
is always probable it must be provided against as far as practicable by

, ,
making the tank s small and the structure strong A reduction in the si z e of .
a tank at once diminishes the disruptive power of free fluid w i thin it i f it

were a mere cell the fluid having little weight and no scope fo r action could
, , ,
do no harm The larger the fluid mass and the longer the tank or distance
.
,
through which it may move and acquire momentum the more irresistible ,
is its disruptive power The tanks in any particular vessel might b e made .
small by introducing numerous transverse divisional bulkheads the trans ,
verse strength o f the hull benefiting adventitiously by the support ; but

though small in volume their athwartship dimension in a broad ship would , , ,
be too g reat I n practice therefore not only are they made short fore and
.
, ,
a ft but each tank is divided into two by a longitudinal central bulkhead

,
( Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late

.
,
A l o n gi t u d i n a l b u l kh e a d is a n e s s e n t i a l fe a t u r e o f a n o i l s h i p .
I t is u s e ful in many ways fo r it not only reduces the transverse size of the ,
Ar t 5 4]
. P R A C TI C A L S HI P B UI L D I N G . 61
tanks minimizing the dangerous con s equences o f free side movement in

,
the fluid but strengthens the transverse bulkheads and reduces in a very
, ,
e ffective manner the dangerous heeling e ffects to which these vessels may
be exposed I f a tank extended from side to side then during the filling
.
,
or discharging operations when only partially filled the fluid flowing to , , ,
one s ide might i f the ship were in unstable trim give her a serious list a
, , , ,
circumstance greatly emphasi z ed should several tanks be filled or emptied

simultaneously The comparative heeling e ffects of fluid in a tank with
.
,
and without a central division is depicted in Figs 1 6 and 1 7 P late 2 1 , .

, .
I n Fig 1 6 the inclining tendency due to the wedge shaped mass o f fluid
.
-
A having shi fted over to B is measured by its volume multiplied by the ,
distance AB through which its centre of gravity has moved I n Fig 1 7

, . .
there are two wedges whose combined area or volume is only hal f tha t
,
of the single one in Fig 1 6 ; and a s the distance through which they have
.
moved is also only half their movement or heeling e ffect is one quarter ,
of that in Fig 1 6 (assuming the same angle o f heel) that is to say the
.
, ,
central division while halving the size o f the tank reduces the heeling
, ,
tendency of free fluid to one quarter ( assuming the vessel to b e heeled -
over to the same extent in either case ) ; to produce the same e ffect by
reducing the length dimension of the tank would require that it should be
divided into four .
A longitudinal bulkhead also serves a use ful purpose in supporting the

transverse ones I n its absence each o f these would pre s ent s o large an
.
area to fluid pressure dynamical and statica l as to require a very massive

, ,
construction When supported on either side by a fore and a ft division

.
- -
,
each bulkhead b ecomes practically two o f half area ; ho ri z ontal sti ffeners
become eight times as sti ff twice as strong and liable only to half the , ,
bending pressure A lso extending from keel to deck a continuous fore

.
, ,
and aft bulkhead adds great longitudinal strength and sti ffness to the
-
hull I t is strongly constructed like the transverse ones ( Fi gs 1 0 and 1 1

. .
,
P late for although it need not at any time be exposed to large one sided -
pressures it is liable to the concussive e ffects just noticed I n the earlier

,
.
vessels it was not stron gly built and in some cases it burst away I t may ,
.
or may not be quite oil tight the special care required to make it perfectly
-
so is not usually observed fo r unlike the transverse divisions it is never , , ,
required that a tank on one side o f it shall remain permanently full and ,
on the other quite empty U sually there is a valve at the bottom so that .
, ,
when required the port and starboard tanks may b e made one
, .
The w o r km a n s h i p and arrangement o f the various s t r uc t u r a l

d e t a i ls o f o i l v e ss e ls require special attention This was not at fir s t .
su fficiently realized ; the s cantlings were the same as those adopted in

ordinary ve s sels and it was anticipated that with so many additional sup
, ,
porting bulkhead s the transverse strength would be ample But although

, .
the general strength of the hull was s ufficient the local straining e ffect o f ,
the fluid cargo was found to b e so exceptionally severe that n umerous

substantial rein forcements had to be made The experience thus gained .
,
although unsatisfactory to those financially concerned ha s proved valuable ,
to naval architects for of course more may b e learned from a single

, , ,
failure than from any number of succes s es The various local weaknes s es .
ob servable in the fir s t oil vessels provided use ful lesson s in showing the
weak spots and th e straining tendencies prevailing not on ly in oil ships but , ,
in similar s tructural parts o f ordinary vessels .
A s now con s tructed oil vessels are perfectly strong and able to ,
-
withstand all but very improper treatment The s cantlin gs of the frames .
and plating are much the same as those adopted in ordinary vessels ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 5 4
62 .
[
but in the bulkheads a n d other parts much greater strength is provided .
The transverse strength is naturally superior on account o f the numerous ,
transverse bulkheads placed usually at intervals o f 2 5 to 3 5 feet ; so

,
great however are the local panting and racking e ffects o f a fluid cargo
, , ,
that it is found necessary to place between each o f these t wo or three

power ful web frames ( Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late I n some of the earlier
.
,
vessels it was attempted to support the sides by hold beams but owing ,
to the local nature o f their holding e ffect they were found to be very
in ferior to web frames ; the rivets in the vicinity o f the beam ends strained
and slackened and local panting movement o f the side was in s u ffi ciently
,
checked The parts requiring particular attention are the bracket plates
.
connecting the side stringers to the bulkheads and those holding the ends
o f the bulkhead sti ffeners A t first these were made small as in ordinary
.
,
vessels but they were found to be inadequate the rivets could not hold
, ,
them and so to increase the connect i on they were made ab out twice the
, , ,
us ual s ize .
A fl u i d c a r go is one particularly t ryi n g o n t h e r i v e t i n g and in ,
oil ships therefore thi s requires special attention Whether it be steady or

, ,
.
concussive the bursting pressure on the containing walls of a tank take s e ffect
,
only on the plating and as it is the framework that gives the resistance all
, ,
pressures have to be conveyed thereto through the rivets placing them ,
in tensional s tress tending to pull o ff their heads and points elongate and
, ,
slacken them I t is found necessary therefore to increase the number o f

.
, ,
rivets by a closer spacing throughout This is also nece ssary for the sake
, .
o f oil tightness ( Art

-
Further care must be taken that all rivets
.
,
are perfectly sound ; any lack of coincidence i n the rivet holes although ,
perhap s not appreciably a ffecting the soundness or watertightness of the

rivet s in ordinary cases is inadmissible in oil tight work To ensure sound
,
-
.
rivets three ply j oints are avoided wherever practicable ( Art

,
-
.
I n the design of an o i l v e s s e l the avoidance o f ri s k o f e x p lo s i o n is

an important matter P etroleum itsel f is harmles s a light plunged therein
.
,
being immediately extin gu ished ; it is the vapour which it emits tha t is

dangerous if mixed with air in suitable proportions it will explode on comin g
in contact with a naked light The most dangerous period is when an oil .
tank has j ust been emptied for the vapour which arises from the large ,
internal surface damp with oil i f not at once removed or enormously

, ,
d iluted with air may form a highly explo s ive mixture

,
Formerly this .
circumstance was not reali z ed workmen entered newly emptied and ill ,
ventilated oil tank s with naked lights and many lives were lo s t N ow of , .
,
course precautions are observed ; ventilation o f the mo s t approved kind is

,
employed and naked lights prohibited ( Art

, .
D uring the conveyance of an oil cargo explosion can only occur as a ,
re s ult of leakage The only place s into which oil ma y leak are the tween
.
’
deck spaces above the oil compartments and the holds at the bow and
stem The greatest care is therefore observed to secure oil tightness i n
.
-
the parts of the tank s b ounding these spaces— the deck forming the crown
o f the tank the expansion trunks and the terminal bulkheads I n the
, ,
.
case o f the terminal bulkheads absolute freedom from leakage is i m ,
p e ra ti ve more particularly in the a fter one which divides the oil tanks
, ,
from the boiler room Should even a small quantity of oil find it s way
.
into this space abounding in fire and heat the explosive gases evaporati ng
, ,
therefrom would be a serious danger in some of the earlier ves s els ,
disasters occurred from this cause To provide against it it is the .

,
invariable practice to form a c o fi e r d a m by building d u p li c a t e b u lk '
h e a d s with a space between us u ally 4 feet in width

, This a ffords
,
.
Art 5 4]
per fect security for should oil leak through the first bulkhead it would
, ,
have a second to pass before entering the boiler room ; and as with smal l ,
leakage there would be no depth or pressure o f oil i n the co fferdam the

, ,
chance o f its pa s sing the s econd is remote To provide against even this .
chance it is a common practice to fill the space betwixt the bulkheads

,
with water fo r then any oil leaking through would float harmlessly to the
,
surface Similar co fferdam bulkheads are built between the oil tanks and
.
the forward hold .
O i l vessels may b e of three deck spar deck or awning deck type and in
-
,
-
,
-
,
some cases the trunk deck system of const ruction is adopted They have
-
.
usually two decks the second forming the tank top and the upper one -
sheltering it from the sun —

, ,
a point sometime s urged as important Th e .
’
tween deck space permit s of lo fty well protected expansion trunks and
-
,
-
,
provides useful space for coal bunker s or for carg o other than oil I n these .
vessels some top weight is de s irable fo r with all tanks full they are usually
,
so sti ff as to be uneasy at sea the structure su ffering in consequence ( Art

,
.
The machinery space is prac t ically always at the stern to place it

amidships is inconvenient and costly fo r it involves additional co fferdam
,
bulkheads and as the shaft tunnel passes through the a fter oil tanks it forms
, ,
an element o f danger from oil leakage A fe w sailing ships have been built
.
-
for the conveyance of oil in bulk The majority are small and carry the
.
,
oil right up to the upper deck ; a few however are of large size having , , , ,
as in steamers a tween deck space ab ove the oil Such vessels are
,
’
-
.
undesirably sti ff at sea the compact low lying cargo causing too great a
, ,
-
m etacentric height .
[Art 55
C H AP TE R V I .
Ar t 5 5 . .question of fr e eb o a r d has alway s been a prominent one

The .
The fact that many losse s have occurred through overloading whether from ,
ignorance or wit h the knowledge o f those responsible is one o f public ,
interest P rior to 1 8 90 owners and captains were practically free to load

.
1
their vessels as deeply as they pleased except of course they were clearly , , ,
unseaworthy when they were liable to b e detained by the Board o f Trade

,
- -
o ffi cials I n 1 8 76 to check in some measure the prevailing danger to li fe

.
,
and property it wa s enacted in P arliament that all vessels should have a

,
freeboard mark painted on the side re ferred to usually as the P lim s oll ,
mark but as the choice of its position was the owner s its presence was ’
not always a guarantee of safe loading A rough rule formerly u sed for .
estimating the freeboard was to make it a fraction o f the vessel s depth ; ’
from 1 to 4 inches for each foot in the depth o f hold according as the
1
7, ,
vessel was of the smallest or largest size A t one time L loyd s U nder .
’
zo r i ter s A ss oci a ti on recommended a minimum freeboard of 3 inches per

’
foot of hol d this being long known as L loyd s R ule A s this method
“ ’ ”
, .
of computation takes no account o f the vessel s proportions or form above ’
and below water it was not at all satis factory while giving an appropriate
,
freeboard in one vessel it might give quite the reverse in another

, .
With a View to assisting shipowners in estimating appropriate free

boards for their vessels and to assigning with fairness those for awning
,
deck vessels ( required as a condition of classifica tion ) Lloyd s R egister ,

’
issued in 1 8 8 2 tables of freeboard These were based on the general .
average of the best cu rrent loading practice ascertained by wide investiga ,
tion and consultation with shipowners and others and took account , ,
comprehensively of all the governing elements in the s tructural design and

,
form of the hull They were largely made use of by shipowners for
.
,
besides giving them com fortable assurance a s to the sa fety o f their ships ,
it was o ften to their real advantage by permitting a deeper loading than ,
they formerly thought compatible with safety With a vie w to rendering .
compulsory an adherence to a minimum freeboard the Board of Trade ,
appointed in 1 8 8 3 the L o a d li n e C o mm i t t e e ( an authoritative b ody

, ,
-
in which was represented the B oard of Trade the A dmiralty classificatio n , ,
societies naval architects shipbuilders and shipowners ) to investigate

, , , ,
and ascertain whether or not it were practicable and desirable to frame

fixed rules for freeb oard which while preventing dangerou s overloadin g
, , ,
would not unduly interfere with trade After extensive research it was .
found to be b oth feasible and de s irable and in collaboration w ith Lloyd s

’
, ,
R egister tables of freeboard were drawn up which practically were those

, , , ,
will b f u d i M M t ll
1
A i t ’
n ti g u t
n eres f th f
n b d qu ti
a cc o n o e re e o ar es on e o n n r . ar e s
Man si o n H o use pa p e D ece mb er, 1 88 6 ,
r o f 1 6 th R evi ew of Me H i story of tne L oa d-li n e
Questi on an d hi s p ap e rs i n th e Tr a n s I n s ti tuti on of N a v a l A r e/z i teets , 1 8 74 an d 1 8 8 2
. .
A l so se e th e R ep or t of tbe Loa d-li n e Conz nn ttee, a n d subseque n t e plan a to r p amp hle ts x y .

[Art 5 7
below the upper deck ) for vessels o f varying si z e ( as measured by their depth )
in each class The strength of the hull is assumed equal to that prevailing
.
in vessels of Lloyd s 1 00A three deck class ( as constructed in accordance

’
,
-
with the rules current in 1 8 8 5 ) i f less the tabulated freeboards are ,
increased The reserve buoyancy required ( for vessels of the first division )
.
varies from about 2 0 per cent in a small vessel 6 feet deep giving about .
,
9 inches o f freeboard to 35 per cent in a large one

, 3 5 feet deep giving . ,
about 1 0 feet o f freeboard I t is evident that the freeboard o f a large .
vessel mus t be much greater in proportion to her depth than that o f a small
one fo r the latter may rise to each individual wave and having a smaller
, , ,
fore and a ft moment of inertia may do so in a fashion so lively as to

- -
,
preserve a dry deck but a large vessel may embrace in her length several
waves which having in divi dually little li fting power may surge high up
, ,
-
,
upon her sides The length of the hull is an important feature in regu
.
lating the freeboard if while preserving the same percenta ge of reserve ,
buoyancy the length were conceived to be indefinitely increased the hull

, ,
would not rise at all to the wave s ; to preserve a dry deck the freeboard
would have to equal them in height ( or rather half their height from trou gh , , ,
to crest) The familiar case o f a floating log or spar suggests itself when
.
lying end on to small waves each portion as a wave passes becomes com
-
,
p le te ly submerged a small le n gth cut from the same spar would float with
the same freeboard or reserve buoyancy but would ride over each wave ,
.
Th e tabulated freeboards assume a stan dard length— for steamers twelve

times the depth and for ships ten times i f greater or less the freeb oards
, ,
are increased or diminished .
To simpli fy the a p p li c a t i o n o f t h e t a ble s not only is the percentage ,
o f reserve buo yancy required for each size of vessel given but al s o the free ,
boards which give approximately this percenta ge Thi s presentation o f the .
double data is feasible because owing to the general similarity in the form of
, ,
all vessels a horizonta l plane or waterline placed at the sa me proportionate

,
height will divide the hull into two volumes h earin g to one another in , ,
each case practically the same proportion This similarity of relation only
, .
holds when the hulls are equally full or fine fo r of course if one vessel had , , ,
rectangular sections throughout and another triangular a freeboard of half ,
the depth while giving in the one 5 0 per cent o f reserve buoyancy would
, .
,
give in the other 7 5 per cent Such discrepancies are provided fo r how .
,
ever by tabulating s eparate freeboards fo r vessels of varying degrees of

,
fulness Th e tabulated freeboards assume a certain standard mean sheer

.
( which in inches equals the ve ss el s length plus 1 0 0 divided by 1 0 ) so that

’
,
should a vessel have greater or less they would give a percentage o f reserve ,
buoyancy in excess or short of that required I n such cases therefore the .

, ,
freeboard is modified being reduced if the s heer i s in exce s s of the ,
standard and increased if otherwi s e

, .
Th e freeboard required in s a i l i n g sh i p s is slightly greater tha n in -
steamers more especially i n tho se of small size I n ships a good free

,
'
.
,
board is valuable in that a s it is accompanied by stability it reduces the , ,
chance of beam end casualties An d the correspondingly large buoyant

-
.
power is also valuable for owing to the high bulwarks the deck may hold
, , _ ,
a large volume o f water which not only tends to sub merge the hull but , , ,
by acting the part of a shifting deck load may cause a se rious li s t -

, .
A s p ar d e c k v e s se l is not one of full s cantlings the structure being

-
,
somewhat lighter throughout A ccording to the actual scantlings the .

,
longitudinal and transverse stren gth may vary very considerably here there ,
fore the freeboard is governed by the strength o f the hull rather than by
,
weatherly qualities I n those o f normal strength ( as per Lloyd s rules for

.
’
Ar t 5 8 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 67
1 8 85) the freeboard allowed is that suitable for a vessel o f full scantlings ,
increased for a small vessel by about 5 0 per cent and for a large one by .
,
about 1 0 per cent The di fference is smaller i n large vessels becau s e the
.
,
discrepancy in strength becomes with increasing dimen s ions less pro , ,
n o un c e d Many spar deck vessels are now constructed with heavier top
.
-
side plating and frames than is specified in Lloyd s rules in which case ’
their freeboard may be red u ced to that of a three deck full s cantlinged - -
vessel .
Ar t 5 8 D e c k e re c t i on s such as a poop or forecastle are most

. .
, ,
influential in promoting weatherly qualities particularly i f the sheer be ,
small for they not only assist in lifting the vessel s ends to the advancing
,
’
waves but by acting a s breakwaters prevent them fro m leaping on board

, , ,
and rolling freely along the deck A forecastle is of more value in this .
respect than a poop for under ordinary circumstances the waves are
,
encountered by the bow and their tendency to break on b oard and sweep ,
the deck is here intensified by the forward progress of the ship I n the .
case of sailing ships however it is not uncommon when running before the
-
, ,
wind for high following waves moving fa s ter than the s hip to break over , ,
the stern ( a mishap known as to the danger of the ship and

crew ; su ch chance is of cour s e minimized by the presence of a poop or
, , ,
quarter deck The machinery openings ( engine room skylight ventilators

-
.
-
, ,
and fiddle y gratings) are vulnerable points being more or less permanently
-
open should seas inundate the deck water might pas s below with dangerous
, ,
consequences (Art A ccordingly practically all sea going ve s sels are

.
,
-
provided with a bridg e— house which not only protects the machinery ,
casings but places the fiddley openings at a safe height well above the
, ,
upper deck I f there is no bridge or if it is imperfectly constru cted the

.
,
freeboard is increased .
Deck erections are disregarded in estimating the reserve buoyancy for ,
apart from their slender constru ction they may have open door ways sky , ,
lights etc and before they could contrib u te a full measure o f buoyant
, .
,
effect they wou ld require to be submerged Their capabilities in assisting .
to lift the vessel to the waves and in keeping water o ff the deck depend on
their length and height whether or not they are enclosed by bulkheads at
,
their end s and on their general strength

, .
I n an a w n i n g d e c k v e ss e l although the upper tween deck portion

’
of the hull has very considerable buoyant and protective power it is not , ,
on account o f its slender construct i on included 1n the primary estimate of ,
reserve buoyancy but is regarded merely as an all fore and aft deck erec
,
- -
tion I n s uch vessel s the freeboard is taken from the second deck this
.
,
being regarded a s the upper one of the hu ll proper I t is of course much .

, ,
smaller than that necessary for a flush deck full scantlinged vessel having -
,
-
,
the same dimensions as the hull proper of the awning decker The -
,
di fference varies from about 5 0 to 2 5 per cent according as the vessel is .

,
small or large being less in the latter because with a deep hul l and hig h
, ,
freeboard the height o f the awning deck erection and the importance of
,
- -
its buoyant and protective e ffects becomes relatively less I f the awning .
deck superstructure is built with special strength a still smaller freeboard

i s permissible .
A p o o p b r i d ge o r for e c a s t l e may be regarded as isolated portions

, ,
of a complete awning deck superstructure A s they leave much of the -
.
low lying upper deck exposed to the sea their e ffect in promoting weatherly
-
,
a n d buoyan t qualities is o f course inferior and so the large reduction in

. ,
freeboard allowed fo r a continuous awning deck is modified I t is reduced -

.
rather more than in strict proportion to the length o f the upper deck
[Art 5 8
covered by the detached erections I f for instance they covered altogether .

, ,
6 0 per cent of the vessel s length then not 6 0 but 5 0 per cent o f the
’
.
.
, , ,
awning deck reduction would be made The freeboard so ob ta ined may

-
be increased i f the structural design of the erections is imperfect —i f open

.
at their ends for instance so that seas flooding the deck may freely enter
, , , ,
and flood the enclosed space ; or if a forecastle is less than 6 feet high or ,
a quarter deck less than 4 feet for in such cases their lifting power and
-
,
protective e ffects are in ferior ( a poop and quarter— deck rank alike if over
e t in height the actual computation of freeboard — as assigned
4 f e ) I n
under the A ct—numerous other features o f the de s ign a ffecting in however

.
small a degree the safety and weatherly qualities of the vesse l are taken ,
into account .
I n w e ll d e c k v e s s e l s the erection s are e x te n sw e

-
Were it not fo r .
the portion of the upper deck exposed in the well they might b e regarded ,
as equivalent to an awning deck erection ( for freeboard purposes a raised

-
quarter deck although really forming the upper deck i s re cko n e d as an

-
, ,
'
erection) I n these ve s sels therefore the freeboard to the upper deck

.
, ,
may b e small little more than that admissible in an awning decker A s

, .
the upper deck in the well may be near the sea level it i s particularly ,
liable in heavy weather to be inundated by the wave s ; this however is , ,
counted upon and special provision made to mitigate any evils which
,
might result the precise freeboard depending on the extent of such pro
,
vision Thus to permit of the rapid exit of water from the well ( which
.
, ,
acting as an additional load may have a most prejudicial e ff ect on the,
vessel s weatherly qualities ) large freeing ports are cut in the bulwark the
’
coamings o f the hatchway in the well are made extra high so as to leave ,
less room fo r water and place the hatch covers at a higher level ; and to ,
permit o f the crew passing with sa fety from bridge to forecastle an ,
elevated gangway is fitted Should waves break over the bows which
.
, ,
owing to the low freeboard they may o ften do the bulkhead forming the
, ,
front of the bridge becomes a sort of target and for the sa fety o f the ship , , ,
therefore it must be strongly built Sometimes it is constructed with

, .
special s trength in which case a reduction in freeboard is allowed A still

, .
further reduction may be made if the bridge house is s o long as one half - -
the length of the ship and is so substantially built as to contribute useful

,
strength to the hull .

Ar t 5 9]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
9
C H AP TE R V I I .
Ar t 5 9
. ve s sel s k e e l is sometimes familiarly described a s the back
. A
’
bone o f the hull and agreeably with this conception it is commonly

, , ,
regarded as a structural part o f special im portance I n the early days .
o f iron shipbuilding its construction received an extravagant degree of

a ttention numerous complicated formations being proposed and tri ed
,
.
1
I ts primary purpose is to sti ffen the vessel s bottom by giving to the

’
,
detached ribs or frames lying across it fore and— aft continuity so that all -
,
.
may s hare alike in resisting local pressures from grounding or dock i ng

.
I t has another function important however only in wood ve s sels ,

In , ,
.
these it al ways proj ects beyond the skin planking so that being the lowest , ,
part it acts as a fender or rubbing piece should the vessel touch the
, ,
-
,
ground This is important in a wood ship b ecause the soft plankmg

.
.
, ,
sheathed with felt and thin copper could not endure even gentle rubb i ng ,
contact with a hard bottom The keel itself would su ffer and fray .
away and to protect it therefore a false keel is provided i e a plank

, , , ,
. . ,
bolted in a semi secure fashion to the bottom of the keel proper I n steel
- .
vessels as the skin plating is not readily damaged by mere contact w rth
,
the ground the usefulness o f an external keel ( P late 1 0 1 ) disappears i n

,
great measure so much s o that it is now usually dispensed with altogether

, ,
its place being taken by a thick central s trake of shell plating termed the ,
“
fla t plate keel to which there is united internally an upright plate
”
-
, ,
termed the vertical plate keel ( P late -

”
A n external b a r k e e l or “
h a n gi n g k e e l
”
as it is somet i mes
, ,
de s criptively termed ha s certain advantages ( see P late ,
From l ts
massiveness and great local sti ffness it is well adapted to di strlbute the ,
severe local pre s sures that may result from grounding on a stony bottom .
I n such a contingency it preserves to a considerable extent the th i n , ,
yielding plating from contact and perhaps from indentation or perfo rat1o n ,
.
I t is also beneficial to s ome extent in checking rolling tendenc i es i ts

, , ,
action in this respect being similar to tha t of a bilge keel ( Art 3 5 .
I t is objectionabl e however in that the ves s el s draught is increased by

’
, ,
its depth o ften an important matter where in consequence o f shallo w

, , ,
harbours bar s or canals a slight exce s s of draught may disquali fy a vessel

, , ,
for certain trades And its exposed position renders it liable to damage
.
in case of violent contact with the ground it is sometimes bent over to ,
one side .
F l a t p l a t e k e e ls are adopted principally with a view to m 1n 1m1z 1 ng

-
the draught I n such a case the lesser fitnes s o f the vessel to t ake a stony
.
bottom without injury is disregarded and properly fo r gro un dm g except , , ,
on a smooth bar or the muddy bottom o f a harbour or river is a casualty ,
1
So me o f these e arl yk l e e s a re i llu t
s ra ted an d descri bed i n Si r E .
J . Reed
’
s wo kr on
Shi pbuildi n g .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B U1] DI A G A
[ t 5 9
'
70 . . r
so little likely to occur that it does not warrant special features in the
design especially i f to the detriment of other qualities
,
.
I n many large modern vessels a c o m bi n a t i o n o f a b ar a n d fla t

p l a t e k e e l is adopted ( P late H ere a flat and vertical plate keel -
are fitted in the usual way but riveted outside there is an ordinary bar , , ,
keel lyin g on its side This is an excellent arrangement ; the massive .
bar gives great local rigidity and serves as a substantial fender U nlike ,
.
an ordinary hanging keel it is compact and not liable to damage and , ,
increases but little the vessel s draught ; further by g iving great s ti ffness ’
,
and strength it permits of a less massive fla t plate keel Sometimes in

,
-
.
,
place o f a massive bar a mere strip o f plating g inch or 1 inch thick is

, ,
;
,
substituted ( P late Thi s does not con fer much keel like s trength -
,
but serves usefully as a r nooing p i eee t

.
A r t 6 0 A lthough familiarly described as the backbone o f the vessel s

’
. .
bottom the keel itsel f only fulfils a minor part of the duties involved
,
.
C onsidering the great size and weight o f a loaded ship it is evident that ,
a bar keel although ma s si v e in itself would alone b e qui te inadequate to

, ,
distribute unyieldingly the intense local pre s sure s to which it may be

exposed To withs tand without bending the upward pre s sures due to
.
, ,
—
grounding or even ordinary sea pressures acting on the extensive area o f
the vessel s bottom —a fore and aft girder of great strength and stiffness
,
’
- -
is required I n wood ships the necessary strength is s ecured by what i s

.
practically a duplication of the keel i e a k e els o n ( a stout log like the , . .

,
keel proper) is superposed on the cross timber floors over but not in —
,
—
contact with the keel being united thereto by long bolt s passing through,
the floors I n iron and s teel vessels a similar construction wa s and is

.
,
still adopted but here the keelson is compo s ed of plates and bars in the
, , ,
form usually o f a powerful I s ection girder ( P late Being deeper -
than a bar keel and having its material more e ffi ciently dispo s ed the
, ,
keelson is really the stronger of the two A s noticed later other arrange .
,
ment s are commonly adopted wherein the keel and keelson are conjoined
as one ( P late 5 ) but whatever the design the re s ult sought is a powerful ,
c e n t r e li n e gi r d e r I t should be observed that in regarding a bar keel

-
.
,
as a fore and aft beam or girder it cannot properly b e considered alone

- -
, ,
for rigidly attached thereto are the garboard strakes which not only ,
increase its thicknes s or sectional area a s a bar but form wide flanges on ,
either side ( see Fig 6 P late .

,
A r t 6 1 Before describing the variou s arra n gements of centre line

. .
-
girders i t will be well to examine the e ffi c i en cy o f the fundamental one

,
j ust noticed i e a d e t a c h e d k e el a n d k e els on as adopted in sailing

, . .
,
ships and in steamers not having a double bottom ( Fig 1 P late

, It .
,
may be readily s ho wn that as regards strength and s ti ffness the arrange , ,
ment is n o t very efficient The combined strength o f two similar beams .

,
so long as they are disconnected is only double that o f one ; whethe r ,
placed side by side or one on top o f the other they act independently as
, ,
separate beam s I f however when superposed t hey are united as one

.
, , , ,
the important element o f depth is at once introduced The strength of a .
solid rectangular beam varie s as the square o f its depth and its sti ffness ,
as the cube ; by uniting t wo such beams therefore the strength of the , ,
combination would be four times that of one of them and the stiffness or , ,
resistance to deflection eight times greater I f a further advantage due to , .
the importance of depth were desired then instead o f fixing the two , ,
beams the one directly upon the other they might be disposed some
, ,
d i stance apart vertically and conj oined by a thin distance piece or web
, ,
-
.
Th1 s arrangement would form a typical girder fo r there would be an upper ,

Ar t 6 2]. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
7:
and a lower flange and a connecting web I n resisting bending stresses .

,
each one has difle re n t an d specialized duties while the one flange su ffers
f
\
tension throughout the other i s only a ffected by com pression The duty
, .
‘
o f the web is to hold the two flanges at fixed di s tan ce and prevent any ,
relative fore and a ft slipping movement T0 do thi s it need have no

- -
.
longitu dinal strength or continuity ; an arrangement of cross diagonal ,
links forming the well known la tti ce gi r der would serve the purpose ( Fig 6
,
- -
, .
,
P late
A d e t a c h e d k e e l a n d k e els on arrangement ( Fig 1 P late 3 ) does .
,
not therefore form a s might at first sight appear a girder of which the
, , , ,
keelson and keel are the top and bottom members respectively for there ,
is n o p r o p e r c o n n e c t i n g w e b The floors although holding them at .

,
fixed distance lack one of the attributes of a web for being parallel they
, , , ,
are incapable o f checking relative fore and aft movement o f the two parts - -
.
They cannot convey fore and aft stre s ses from the one to the other with a - -
solid or lattice link web a stre s s on the keel —due to a deflecting force
-
,
whether tensile or compressive is at once communicated to the keelson , ,
and immediately sets up in it a corresponding stress of reverse character .
When conj oined only by parallel floors the two parts cannot c c operate ; they ,
-
act independently each one contributing only its own comparatively small
,
beam like strength That this is so is shown by the diagram Fig 2

-
. .
,
P late 3 H ere the floors have communicated an upheaving force f rom

.
the keel to the keelson causing both parts to deflect in precisely the same
,
way ; they have evidently acted as se parate beams each with its o wn ,
neutral axis fo r in each one the upper layers have stretched and the lower
,
ones compres s ed ; also a great amount o f relative longitudinal slipping,
movement has occurred as i s shown by the fact that the end floors and ,
the ends o f the keel and keelson are no longer in one straight line Fig 3 . .
depic ts the same keel and keelson conjoined by intercostal plates and it
will be observed that here the conditions are quite altered for while the ,
entire keel has suffered c ompression and has shortened the keelson has ,
su ffer ed tension and has lengthened b odily by the same amount ; the
material at the neutral axis shown by the dotted line has of course neither , , , ,
stretched nor shortened .
A r t 6 2 I t is clear therefore that t o s e cu r e t h e f u ll e ffi c i e n c y o f

. .
, ,
t h e k e e l a n d k e e ls o n t h e y mu s t b e c o n j o i n e d b y a ri gi d w e b
,
.
I n practice this is sometimes done by fitting intercostal plates between the

fl oors ( Fig 3 P
. late 3 and ,
Figs 8 and 1 1 P late By
,
their means the .
,
keelson and the keel— with its attached garboard plates — are at once
transformed from independent parts into the top and bottom members
o f one deep girder possessing very superior strength and rigidity
,
Th e .
intercostal plates have a further bene ficial e ffect i n that they prevent any ,
approach of the keel and keelson U nder an excessive upheaving or .
crushing pre s sure acting upon the keel the floors would develop a tendency ,
to trip or buckle ( Fig s 4 and 6 P late 3 ) and o f course when held erect
.
, , ,
by intercostal plates such yielding is most e fficiently checked This is an

,
.
important matter for , in cases of damage to the bottom through grounding

, ,
failure o f the floors by side bending is a common result .
With a b a r k e el the i n t e r c o st a l s have no direct connection thereto .
As sep arate b ea m s, the m a te r i al i n e a ch suffe rs b o th te n si o n an d co m pressi o n , the

l o w e r h alf bei n g a ffe c te d by th e o n e an d the upp e r by th e o t her n e a r th e n ut ra l a x i s
e
( a t m i d -d e th
p ) t h e m a t e ri a suffe rs i ttle o r n o l
s t re s s, an d l
so i s c o m p a ratw e ly i n e ffecti e v .
ly
Wh en the tw o be am s fo rm separate the upp er an d ow er ange s o f a gi rder, a ll o f th e l fl
m a te ri al i n e a ch i s a ffec ted by on e o r the o the r , te n si o n o r co mpressi on , an d so I S
l
th o ro ugh y e ffe cti e v .
72 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
[Ar t 62
There is a very substantial indirect one however ; fo r the garboard strakes , ,
which are really in one with the keel are well connected to every floor by ,
double frame angles ( the frame angle and heel piece) and the floor s i n -
, ,
turn are united to and rigidly held by the intercost al plates ( Figs 8 and
,
.
1 1 ,
P late I ntercostal plates are practically always fitted in way o f the
side keelsons ( Fig 7 P late 3 and P late 1 0 1 ) here they have a d i rect
.
, ,
connection to the shell and keelson but not usually any to the floors , .
They are therefore entirely wanting in fore and aft continuity ; but this as
, ,
- -
,
already seen is not essential in the web of a gird er I n preventing

,
.
relative longitudinal straining between the strake o f shell plating and the
keelson ( the upper and lower flanges) they are pe rfectly capable .
I n View o f the greater e fficiency secured by an intercostal plate con -
n ec t i o n between an otherwise detached keel and keelson L loyd s rules

’
,
permit o f a slight reduction in the scantlings of the keelson This will b e .
observed on c omparing A and B Fig 7 P late 5 N evertheless in vessels ,

.
, .
,
having a bar keel and shallow floors the detached keel and keelson arrange ,
ment is nearly always adopted ; in sailing ships it is almost universal -

.
I t may be observed that in practical shipbuilding to adopt the most , ,
theoretically perfect arrangement of parts is not always expedient ; the

result usually aimed at i s an arrangement that combines in the maximum ,
degree the qualities o f simplicity of construction and of ample strength

,
.
A r t 6 3 A more per fect arrangement o f keel and keelson is that in

. .
which the two parts are conj oine d not by intercostal plates but by a , ,
“
continuous v e r t i c a l p l a t e k e e l o r th r o u gh p l a t e ( Figs 1 2 to 1 5
” -
, .
,
P late This method involves considerable modifications for the floors , ,
instead of passing across the keel are now severed and united on either ,
side to the vertical plate keel ; and in place o f an ordinary bar keel one of
-
,
side bar type or a flat plate keel is employed Whatever the type o f keel
-
,
-
, .
,
this through plate arrangement makes a very perfect centre line girder the
- -
continuous web not only acts e ffi ciently as a j oining medium but unlike , ,
intercostal plates con fers co n siderable girder like strength But w hile
,
-
.
perfect as regards longitudinal strength it is not always so when transverse ,
strength is considered fo r the floors are all severed at the centre line , ,
and i f only connected thereto by short vertical angles and by the foundation
plate o f the keelson as shown in Figs 1 2 to 1 4 the strength o f the con, .
,
t i n uo us floor is not regained But although the severance o f the floors .
reduces the strength o f the vessel s bottom this is largely made up for by ’
the much greater strength o f the centre line girder Thus in th e case of -
.
,
an ordinary detached keel and keelson the keelson lying ab ove the floors , , ,
can only begin to exercise resistance to up ward thrusts when the latter
yield su ffi ciently to throw a s tress upon it H ere the floors are directly .
called upon to transmit the thrust whereas when the keel and keelson are ,
united as one the deep and powerful girder so formed exercises at once
,
its full resistance to u pward deflecting pressures quite independently o f the ,
floors .
The through plate construction is not often adopted in vessels having

-
ordinary shallow floors ; not only on account o f the meagreness and

generally unsatis factory nature o f the connection but beca use of the ,
increased workmanship involved I n vessels which carry oil in bulk the .
floors are al ways o f shallow type butted on either side o f a through plate ,
-
keel ( P late 2 6 ) but here the arrangement is particularly convenient fo r ,
the continuous vertical keel forms a suitable lower m argin for the central
fore and a ft bulkhead always fitted i n the s e vessels
- -
The bulkhead
, .
I th n ly d y f i h ip b i l d i g b
e e ar k l w
a s m ti m f m d w i th
o ro n s u n , ar ee s ere so e es or e a
v th upp dg t l pl t
.
gro o e in w i th e bb t th id
er et t k th i t
e, o r a ra e on e s e, o a e e n e rco s a a e s.
74 PR A C TICA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 6 4
amidships where this is wide than towards the ends where it is narrow
, , ,
.
A ccordingly the scantlings o f the keelson are always reduced towards the
,
ends I f its function as a backbone to the vessel s bottom were alone

.
’
considered it is evident that in way o f the V shaped sections near the

,
-
b o w and stern where there is no flat bottom to s upport its usefulness

, ,
disappears Nevertheless it is usual to extend it as far forward and aft

.
,
as practicable for th e sharp fore foot and heel o f a fine ves s el are exposed
,
-
to side twisting stresses from impacts with the waves and i f composed
-
,
merely o f shell plating sti ffened by cross floors they might lack rigidity , ,
and ma s siveness Further in case the vessel should run aground bow o u
.
, ,
-
,
it is evident that the presence o f the keelson over the fore foot must assist -
in limiting possible damage .
N otice now the p r a c t i c al d e t a i ls o f the i n t e r c o s t al k e el s o n

shown in Figs 7 to 1 1 P late 5 The intercostal plate s are considerably
.
, .
thinner than the vertical plate o f the keelson for as a mere connecting , ,
web and as regards their duty in holding erect the floors Special strength
, ,
is not required For the same reason a s ingle angle connection to the
.
floors is sufficient The intercostal plates may be connected to the keel

.
son by extending them upwards between its lower angles ( Figs 8 and .
or by extending the keelson plate downwards notching it at each floor -

,
( Figs 9 and
. T h e former method being the simpler is the one , ,
usually adopted The latter involves extra rivets awkwardly placed and
.
, ,
the notching of the vertical plate causes points of weakness I n order .
that the intercostal plates may e fficiently transmit to the keelson upward
pressures acting on the keel their lower edges should evidently bear ,
upon it .
Ar t 6 5 A fla t p l a t e k e e l h aving little vertical rigidity must be

. .
-
, ,
sti ffened and strengthened by conjunction with an internal vertical plate -
keel which in vessels having ordi nary shallow floors may b e either o f
, , ,
through plate ( A Fig 1 2 P late 5 ) or intercostal type ( Fig

-
, . Th e , .
connection is made b y large double angles of keel s on size continuous or , ,
intercostal according as the vertical plate is contin u ous or intercostal .
Large angles are employed becau s e the e ffect of massiveness is important

at this part I n small coasting ves s els the intercostal plate arrangement is
.
-
usually adopted for although inferior as a centre line girder it is more

,
-
,
suitable in other respects The fact of a s mall coasting vessel having a .
flat plate keel implies that she navigate s shallow waters and is therefore
-
, , ,
liable to take the ground ; and as such ve s sels are usually of di spro po r
ti on ately large beam and thus require transverse rather than longitudinal
,
strength the b ottom must evidently benefit more by continuity in the

,
floors than by s u perior e ffi ciency in the centre line girder A lthough with -
.
,
a bar keel the intercostal plate s may be connected to the floors by a single
,
angle bar o f reverse frame size with a flat plate keel double angles should
-
,
-
,
be employed to minimize the prej udicial effect on the longitudinal strength

due to the discontinuity in the lower fore and aft angle s - -
.
Ar t 6 6 A t h r o u gh p l a t e k e e l ( Figs 1 2 to 1 5 P late
. . although -
.
,
serving the s ame purpose as an intercostal one has a greater respon s ibility , ,
for it must compen s ate by superior longitudinal strength for the loss o f
transverse strength caused by the severance o f the floors ; for this reason
L loyd s rules require it to be 5 3 inch thicker Th e connection o f the
’ 2
.
floors on either side of the vertical plate is by double angles of reverse

frame size Tw o angles give practically double the strength of one for they
.
,
share alike in any stress and the rivets are in double shear I t is evident ,
.
,
however that this short angle bar connection would not alone nearly
,
-
represent the strength o f the floor elsewhere for it would not make good ,
Art 6 7 ] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
75
the continuity o f the frame angle and reverse bar which are the most ,
e ffective parts of the floor as a transverse girder The frame angles are .
w ell tied across by the shell plating and a similar connection is provide d ,
fo r the reverse bars by fitting a central fore and a ft plate on the tops o f - -
the floor s ( Fig which forms a cross tie fo r their upper edges and
.
,
serves also a s an upper flange fo r the vertical keel plate ; and to con ,
n e c t it more securely to the tops o f the floors short doubling lugs are ,
fitted on either side Lloyd s rules require this plate to be the same thick
.
’
ness a nd three quarters the breadth of the garboard strake I n small

-
.
vessels it in itself serves as a su fficient keelson but in larger a bulb tee -
or I —
, , , ,
section keel s on i s superposed ( Figs 1 3 and in which case to .

,
avoid fitting the lower pair o f angles the horizontal plate is fitted in ,
two strips so a s to pe rmit of the vertical plate being extended upwards

,
between them I n some cases the better to unite the floors on either
.
,
side the vertica l plate is pierced so that a reverse frame lug may pass
,
through and thu s tie them together Such ties are well placed to resist
, .
transverse stresses due to grounding fo r the immediate e ffect of an up ,
heaving force on the keel is to strain the two half flo o rs asunder at their -
upper edge s With a side bar keel a similar tie ( or frame heel piece)
.
-
,
-
is s ometimes placed in way o f the frame angle ( or in a vessel having a ,
double bottom the frame angle may be continuous from margin plate to
,
margin plate) .
A r t 6 7 As a bar keel is only held in place by its union with the

. .
garboard strakes its incorporation with the internal framework is only

,
that due to the rivet s connecting the garboard strakes to the frames
( Fig .
5 P late
, j ust over the keel therefore the frame and garboard , ,
strake connection is specia lly importa nt and so although elsewhere a , ,
single frame angle is su ffi cient here a double one is required and is , ,

“
secured by fitting short angles acro ss the keel termed fr a m e h e el ,
p i e c e s ”
about
,
three feet long and the same si z e as the frame angles ,
( Fig . I f the floors do not actually bear upon the kee l upward ,
grounding pres su res acting upon the latter can only be transmitted by
the rivets connecting it to the garboard plates ; the tendency therefore , ,
is to shear or loosen them a result commonly observed after grounding ,

.
To relieve the keel rivets the floors s hould actually bear upon the keel ; ,
the floor plate s themselves do not do so however for to facilitate the , , ,
con s tru ctive work they are kept clear o f the heels o f the frame angles
,
.
The frame angles should take a bearing yet this they do not always do , ,
and even if they did their eff ect in backing up the keel and tran s mitting
,
pres sure s would be poor because b eing s evered at this point their ends, , ,
would be easily distorted The frame heel pieces on the other hand may .
-
, ,
be readily fitted so a s to bear upon the keel in which case they form kind ,
o f s tr ong t a cks for they back it up and convey upward pres s ures to the
, ,
floors to the relie f o f the keel rivets

, .
I t is only through the medium of the rivets connecting the frame

angle s to the floors that pressures from without are transmitted to the hull
and consequently after a grounding casualty it is common to find that
, , ,
where local pre s sures have occurred these rivets have loosened or shorn .
The heel piece s are use ful in this respect for by placing the frame rivets
-
, ,
in double s hear ( those over the keel where grounding pressures are most ,
likely to occur) they greatly increase their strength U nder e x c e ssw e . ,
upward crushing pressure the floors are liable to fail by side buckling the
,
heel pieces check this tendency by reason o f the more extensive and
-
,
stable attachment which they a fford the floors They are also use ful i n .
making good the loss of strength du e to the joint o f the frame angles
76 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
[Ar t 6 7
and the limber holes especially in old vessels where the latter may have
, ,
become enlarged and the floor plates thin by corrosion Further by .

,
reducing the clear frame space they increase the sti ffness o f the garboard ,
plates against s uch local grounding pressures as might cause indentation ;

in this respect they are equivalent to an increase in thickness but of , ,
course in any case the garboard strakes are thicker than the others They
, ,
.
are not fitted at the extreme ends o f the vessel but only for three quarter ,
-
length admidshi ps fo r owing to the sharp form of the transverse sections

, ,
at the ends neither the garboard plates nor floors require the special
,
sti ffening e ffects just noticed ; nor are they required when a through plate -
keel is adopted unless it is associated with a detached bar keel I n full

,
.
vessels the lower portions of the frame angles at the fore end are doubled
,
fo r the reasons mentioned in A rt 1 0 8 . .
Ar t 6 8 .I n a c e l l u l a r d o u b le b o t t o m the c e n t r e gi r d er or
.
,
v e r t i c a l k e e l is always a continuous plate ; and here of course there is

, , ,
no transvers e weakness fo r the great depth of the floors permits o f an ,
excellent attachment of their ends and the inner bottom or tank top , ,
-
plating ties together very thoro ughly their upper edge s ( P late 8
, ,
The ,
keel proper in vessels having a cell ular double b ottom may be of flat plate
, ,
-
,
side bar or ordinary bar type When of the last description there is no
-
, .
,
direct connection with the vertical plate and a more thorough indirect one ,
must therefore be secured by fitting heel piece s to the frames and by

, ,
-
,
doubling the angles connecting the end s of the floors to the vertical keel .
A r t 6 9 Together with the centre keelson there are four other keel
. .
,
sons two on either side ( P late

, O n e of these the b i lge k e el s o n ,
is placed near the ends of the floors j ust below the bilge ; and the other , ,
the s i d e k e e l s o n between this and the centre ( in very s mall vessels thi s
,
one is not required) I n small vessels both the side and bilge keelsons
.
are formed o f two angle bars riveted back to back ( Fig 5 P late -
, .
,
When over a certain size plating numeral ) the side keelson is

strengthened by the ad dition o f intercostal plates ( Fig it is a more .
important keelson than that at the bilge for being situated on the flat , ,
part of the bottom its duties are similar to those of the centre keelson i e
, ,
. .
it serves as a backb one sti ffening the flat part of the bottom against up ,
heaving pressures The intercostals not only strengthen it as a fore a n d a ft

.
~ ~
girder but much improve the e fficiency o f the floors and shell plating
, .
They trans form the keel s on fro m a mere tie ( holding the tops of the floors
at fixed dis tance) into a powerful girder o f which they are the web the , ,
conj oining strip of shell plating the lower flange and the keelson angles ,
the upper one They have not usually any connection to the floors and
.
,
in ord er there fore t hat they may b e e ffective in holding them erect their
, , ,
edges must fit in actual contact therewith A s they are connected to the .
shell by short angle bars they so sti ffen the conj oined strake as to give ,
it much of the effectiveness of a flat pla te kee l They are discontinued -

‘
towards the vessel s ends fo r the floors becoming short do not require
’
, , ,
vertical support ; and the bottom departing from the flat does not require , ,
special sti ffening I n vessels of full form however they are carried right
.
, ,
forward to the collision bulkhead for they are required here to sti ffen the ,
shell against the special panting stresses described in A rt 1 0 8 . .
A r t 7 0 I n l a r ge v e s s e l s o f e x t r e m e p r o p o r t i o n s ( having shallow
. .
floors ) in which the hull begins to require additional longitudinal strength

the k e e ls o n s are the parts —below the neutral axis — that are called upon
, ,
to contribute it the extent o f the rein forcement being dependent on the

,
si z e o f the vessel and on how much the length is disproportionate to the

,
depth I n a small vessel just over eleven depths in length the only
.
, ,
Ar t 7 3 ]
77
rein forcement is the addition o f a bulb bar to the bilge keelson in a large
one having a len gth so disproportionate as thirteen times the depth both
, ,
the side and bilge keelsons are formed as I girders each with an inter ,
costal connection to the shell and the depth of the centre keelson is ,
increased by 2 5 per cent These rein forcements are only required over .
the midship portion of the h ull for one hal f or two fifths of the length
’
,
- -
.
A r t 7 1 I n the d e s i gn o f t h e k e e l s o n s various arrangements are

. .
adopted Thus instead o f a bulb plate and double angles it i s common

.
, ,
to substitute two bulb angle s ( see D and E Fig 4 P late 5 ) this is , .

,
advantageous in that there is one part less to fit and shorter rivets

, , .
Sometimes in small vessels in place o f double angles bac k to back a

, , ,
large single angle or channel bar is employed with advantage economically ,
( Fig 7 P late
.
, A s already noticed the keelsons are connected to ,
the floors by four rivets at each one keelson lugs being fitted fo r the ,
purpose Sometimes to avoid fitting lugs the reverse frame flanges of

.
, ,
-
the bars forming a keelson or stringer are made wide enough each to take
two rivets abreast in the reverse frame only ( B Fig 2 P late 5 and Fig 1
, , .
, , .
,
P late This is not quite so e fficient structurally the line o f four rivets ,
across the two bars causing a local weakness .
A r t 7 2 I n resisting upheaving pressures on the bottom the t r an s

. .
,
v e rs e b u lkh e a d s are most e ffective they not only give direct resistance ,
but acting like the piers of a bridge s u p p o r t th e k e e l s o n s a t v a r i o u s

, ,
p o i n t s trans forming them from long and flexible parts into comparatively
,
short and rigid girders This is o ften seen in ca ses o f damage through .
grounding fo r where the bottom ( in vessels having shallow floors ) may b e

,
set up from the straight the position of a transverse bulkhead may usually
,
be discerned by the presence o f a prominent transverse ridge ( Fig 1 5 .

,
P late I n s a i l i n g-s h i p s there are n o m i d s h i p b u lk h e a d s so that ’

, ,
compared with steamers the b ottom is less capable o f gesi sti ng upheaving ,
forces ; and as the keelsons are unsupported from end to end they form ,
long flexible girders and so are not very capable of resisting deflecting
,
pressures For this reason they are made stronger than those in steamers
. .
P late 4 illustrates Lloyd s requirement s ; the additions from the normal

’
double angle formation are only required amid ships and only in large
-
,
vessels ( over plating numeral) .
A r t 7 3 I n vessels which are so small as not to require an intercostal

. .
connection to the side keelson w a s h p l a t e s ar e fitted ( P late These ,
resemble intercostal plates but they are not structural parts for their , ,
purpose is merely to check the violent wash of bilge water with its resulting ,
scari fying action on the cement and floors They are not required towards .
the ends for owing to the tran sverse slope o f the bottom bilge wa ter
, , ,
cannot wash from s ide to side ; nor are they required where there is a
vertical plate keel They may b e riveted to the floors to the shell or
-
. , ,
to a fore and aft angle bar fitted like a keelson for the purpose ( Fig
- -
, ,
.
7 P late
, The last plan is the best for the plates are ea s ily fitted ,
and riveted and by keeping their lower edges about one inch above the
, ,
cement the desired condition of a large yet restricted passage for the b i lge
, , ,
water is at once provided To rivet them to the floors i s obj ectionable i n . ,
that these are weakened by the rivet holes I n case s of damage to the .
bottom it is common to find the floors of small vessels fractured at such

,
places Wash plates are subject to rapid corrosion and attrition so that
. ,
although thin plates might serve they would have little endurance ; they ,
should therefore be fairly substantial— Lloyd s rules sp ec i fy a thi ckne ss ’
equal to that o f the bulkheads Formerly as a substitute fo r wash plates .

, ,
short pieces o f plank were jammed be tween the floors I n small ve s sels .
Art 7 3
[
whose trade involves frequent grounding in harbour it is well so to design ,
the wash plates that they may contribute useful strength to the bottom .
By connecting them to the shell and to a double angle keel s on they may -
,
be converted at little additional expense into a val uable s tructural part

, , ,
greatly increasing the strength o f the bottom .
A r t 7 4 Small c o a s t i n g v e s s e l s w h i c h lo a d i n t i d al h a r b o u rs
. .
often take the ground at their loading berths I n some cases the gr ound .
ma y be neither smooth nor level and a s the tide may leave the ve s sel ,
almost high and dry perhaps when heavily loaded the bottom although , , ,
su fficiently strong fo r all legitimate afloat stresses may su ffer deformation ,

.
I t is common in such vessels to find the shell plating set up in wavy

, ,
undulations between the frames and in those having shallow floors that , , ,
the whole bottom has moved up in places Small vessels not having a .
double bottom and which owing to the machinery being at the stern have
, , ,
only one lon g hold are the most liable to suffer inj ury ; fo r the keel and
,
keelsons being deprived for so long a distance of the support of tran s verse
,
bulkheads deflect readily and give but poor assistance to the shallow
, ,
floors I n such vessels therefore which by the necessities of their trade

.
, ,
may require to load or discharge on the grou nd the s t r en gth o f t h e ,
b o t t o m sh o u ld b e i n c r e a s e d beyond what is u sually necessary The .
additional strength i s most advantageously applied in the form of stronger

floors and reverse bars and in thicker s hell plating and the addition of , ,
an intercostal side keelson where as in these small vessels there may be , , ,
none at once greatly increases the s trength and stiffness of the bottom
,
.
Art 7 5 Notice now some p r a c t i c a l d e t a i l s in connection with

. .
, ,
b ar k e e l s They are co mposed of separate lengths scarph j ointed the

.
, ,
di fferent parts varying in length from 3 0 to 6 0 feet u sually s ome multiple ,
of the length of the garboard plates ( Art They may b e of s t e e l o r .
i r o n for ge d o r r o ll e d
,
Formerly only forged iron was u sed ; now .
, ,
rolled bars are largely employed for they are cheaper and no less efficient , ,
When rolled they are usually of steel for bars of this material unlike those
, , ,
of iron may be obtained of practically any length this being limited merely
, ,
by the qu estion of convenience in transport and manipulation in the ,
shipyard From the point of view of e fficiency regarding the keel as a

.
,
massive sti ffening and protecting ridge there is little to choose b etween ,
steel and iron ; steel however being the stronger is the better material , , ,
.
C ompari n g forged with rolled bars there is again little di fference forged ,
material is generally harder and sti ffer but not being homogeneous it is , , ,
less tru s tworthy and is m u ch mor e costly A rolled steel bar has much
, .
greater ductility than a forged iron one ; it may b e bent and twisted
without fracture and although such ductility may not be advantageou s in a
,
keel the perfect uniformity of the material the long lengths procurable and
, , ,
the correspondingly small number of j oints as also its greater cheapne ss .
, ,
are suffi ciently pronounced advantage s .
The di fferent l e n gt h s o f k e e l are sc a rp h j o i n t e d ( Fig 1 1 P late .

,
Lloyd s rules require the length o f the scarphs to be nine times the
’
thickness ; those of the British C orporation specify three times the depth
of the keel The scarphs are machined so as to fit with perfect conta ct
.
throughout The holes i n the various lengths are drilled before the keel is
.
laid but to ensure that those in the scarphs may b e precisely opposite each
,
other they are left blank in one of the parts and are drilled through after
, ,
they are fitted together To minimi z e this drilling which is usually done .
,
by hand the holes left blank are those in the thin half o f each s carph I t
, .
i s i mportant that the holes s hould b e fair for owing to the large size of the
.
, ,
r i vets the hammer blows have little staving e ffect on their s hanks so that
, ,
Art 7 6 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
79
cavities remaining unfilled might re s ult in unsound rivets — a not uncommon

, ,
condition in keel rivets When the keel i s laid the di fferent joints m u st be
.
,
rigidly united This is done by small supplementary ta ck r i vets The

. .
ordinary rivet holes cannot b e u sed for they are required fo r the garboard ,
plates and to bolt them would interfere with the fitting of the latter The
, .
tack rivets are usually placed near the upper edge of the keel so that their ,
closing e ffect being concentrated here may permit of the top of the scarph
, ,
being caulked before the garboard plate s are fitted .
The smallest s i z e o f k e e l b a r given in Lloyd s rule s i s 6 by 1 5 inche s

’
,
and the largest 1 2 by 3 3 inches I n fulfilling its purpo s e a s a ma s sive .
fender or sti ffening ridge the preci s e dimensions of the keel so long as the
, ,
sectional area is maintained are unimportant Sometimes it is reduced in ,

.
size and the garboard strake s which may be regarded as outlying flanges
, , ,
proportionately increased in thickne s s The garboard plate s are always .
double riveted to the keel ; if very large treble riveting is sometimes ,
adopted The ri v e t s may be arranged in c h a i n o r z i gz a g fashion

. .
With zigzag riveting the cross sectional area of the keel i s not reduced by
,
two holes abreast ; but care should be observed that the butts of the
garboard plates do not foul the rivets I n small keels a zigzag disposition .
is advantageo us in that it enables the two rows of rivets to be placed closer

,
together K eel rivets are never less than 4 inch diameter With chain
.
;
.
riveting thi s would necessitate an overlap in the garboard plate and keel
of inches ; but in a 6 inch keel there is only about 4— 3
5 inches
-
available ,
on account o f the knuckle of the garboard plate and because to prevent , ,
injury to the lower caulked edge of the latter it must be kept clear of the ,
bottom of the keel ( Fig 6 P late 8 I t is for this reason that s mall keels
.
,
are so much deeper in proportion to their thickness than large ones .
I n c o a st i n g v e s s e l s which o ften touch the ground particula rly those ,
which frequently creep up rivers at low tide the b o t t o m o f t h e k ee l ,
gradually w e ar s aw ay so much so that in those of considerable age the

,
shanks of the lower rivets b ecome exposed This occurs principally at the .
after end owing to the prevailing trim by the stern I t i s remedied by

, .
fitting sh o e p l a t e s t e U shaped plates embracing the keel I n s u ch

,
. .
-
.
vessels this wasting action should b e provided against by making the keel
deeper so that it may project well below the edge of the garboard plates
,
.
With a flat plate keel it is well to fit a rubbing strip at the after end as
-
, ,
shown in P late 1 0 5 I n small vessels such a s steam trawlers and yachts

.
, , ,
the keel and stem are often formed of a stout bul b bar ( A Fig 4 P late , .
,
Th e bulb protects the edges of the g arboard s trakes and provides substance ,
fo r the ab ove wearing action Th e s cantlings o f such a keel are usually .
the normal increased by the bulb

, .
A r t 7 6 S i d e b a r k e e ls are pr i ncipally adopted in vessels having a

. .
-
cellular double bottom and in which a hanging keel is desired ( Figs 3, ,

.
and 7 P late 8 5 ) otherwise it may be adopted with ordinary floors and a

,
through plate keel arrangement ( Figs 1 2 to 1 5 P late

-
Structurally a .
, ,
side bar keel i s particularly e fficient for being absolutely rigid it is

-
, , ,
capable of tran s mitting inten s e local pressures without any straining of

contiguous parts I t is objectio n able in that being composed o f five
.
,
di fferent thickne s ses it i s not easy to secure fair rivet holes and so u nd
,
rivets A s special care is required to fit and drill the variou s parts it is

.
,
somewhat costly in workmanship and in case o f damage to the bottom , ,
through grounding repairs are d i ffi cult and costly The size o f the side
, .
bars is such that when combined with the vertical plate keel the external
,
-
,
keel so formed may b e the size o f an ordinary bar The di fferent lengths of .
side bar are merely butt j ointed ( Fig 7 P late this is admissible .
, ,
o P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 7 6
because wi th five di fferent thicknesses a complete discontinuity in one

, ,
does not materially reduce the strength o f the w hole Th e joints o f .

,
course should be disposed as fa r apart as practicable The side bars or

,
.
,
slabs as they are sometimes termed are usually o f rolled material steel
,
”
, ,
or iron R olled iron bars cannot be obtained in long lengths and it may
. ,
be necessary there fore to avoid too great a contiguity in the joints to w eld
, , ,
t wo or three together as a preliminary process The edges o f a rolled bar

,
.
are slightly rounded and so to secure a good caulk the lower edge of the
, , ,
vertical plate should be kept about 5 inch up from the bottom o f the keel
this also protects the caulking from wear and tear d ue to contact w ith the
ground ( see Fig To bind the side bars to the vertical keel until the
.
garboard plates clamp all together small tack rivets are introduced at ,
intervals o f about 2 feet Th e di fferent methods of fitting the side bars .
and drilling the holes are described in A rt 5 0 0 . .
A r t 7 7 A fla t p l a t e k e e l is merely a centrally disposed strake o f

. .
-
shell plating ( P late To fit it for its more important duties it is ,
made thicker than the ordinary shell by ab out 5 0 per cent which with .
, ,
the sti ffening and supporting e ffect of the internal vertical plate gives it all ,
the rigidity necessary to with s tand local pressure I t is usually disposed as .
an outside strake but not invariably Th e outside position is advantageous

, .
in that however flat the vessel s bottom it occupies a lower level than the
,
’
contiguous garboard strakes the latter are then less likely to take contact
with the ground — a n —
important m tter as they are less capable of an
a
unyielding resistance Further in case of damage to the keel plates .

,
through grounding they are when placed outside more readily removed
, , ,
fo r repair ; but inasmuch as the lighter garb oard plates are even more
readily damaged by such a casualty this circumstance loses its impo rtance , .
Th e o utsi de position facilita tes the constructive work fo r the two lo w er ,
landing edges may be caulked w ithout the consecutive removal o f all the
keel blocks it avoids the necessity of tapering the garboard frame liners
when the keel plate is doubled the doubling being inside does not require , , ,
such careful fitting and caulking and it permits if required o f the keel , , ,
being fitted at a late period a fter the garb oard plates are in place ,
.
Th e s c a n tli n gs o f fla t p l a t e k e e l s given in L loyd s rules vary

’
-
from 3 0 by 5 5 inches in a small vessel to 3 6 by 1 g inches in the largest

3
.
When so great a thickness as 1 inch is exceede d it was formerly the ,
practice to double the keel plate ( fo r half length amidships ) making it -

,
altogether about 1 5 inches thick this avoids the difficulty of manipulating

such ma s sive material and also secures greater uniformity in strength I f ,
.
only connected by a single strap a joint may be regarded as an unavoidably ,
weak spot when there fore the required thi ckne s s o f keel is obtained by
, ,
two plates instead of one then as only one half of the material is jointed , ,
-
at one spot the inherent weakness at each joint is reduced by half

,
.
No w however a doubling is usually dispens e d with and compensation

, , ,
made by increasing the breadth and thickness of the keel and garboard
strakes and the thickness of the vertical keel When the thickness o f the .
keel plate does not much exceed 1 inch its joints are usually lapped like ,
other s of the shell and treble or quadruple riveted ( Figs 7 and 8 P late
,
.
,
1 8 and Fig 6 P late 1 0 2 otherwise they a re butted and strapped ( Figs

, .
) , 9 .
to 1 2 P late
, I n large vessels ( over plating numeral ) overlapped ,
butts are quadruple riveted and butted ones provided with treble r i veted ,
-
double straps ( Fig When the keel is an outside strake single straps
.
, ,
i f required are fitte d within as shown in Figs 9 or 1 0

, Towards the ,
. .
vessel s en d s the keel plate tapers in thickness by about 2 5 per cent the full
’
.
,
thickness being maintained fo r three fi fths of the length Such a reduction -

.
Art 7 8
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[
C H AP TE R V I I I .
Ar t . Formerly t h e fr a m e s were always made by riveting together

78 .
two angle bars the frame angle and reverse bar or reverse frame s u ch are
-
,
known as bui lt f r a mes ( B Fig 5 P late 6 and P late No w they are

, .
, ,
as often composed o f a single bar o f Z channel or bulb angle section ; , ,

-
such are known a s soti d f r a nzes ( C D and E Figs 5 and 6 P late , , , .

,
Th e built frame is s till largely employed for it has several advantage s ; in ,
the following it will be considered first .
“
The term frame when used in a general sense signifie s each com
”
,
—
,
bination of three part s the frame angle reverse bar and floor plate , , .
The built frame is convenient becaus e o f the independence of the reverse

bar ; this may be discontinued on the vessel s topside where a reduction in ’
strength i s admissible ( P late a n d it may leave the frame angle in
way of the floor plate where it would b e of no use and follo w the upper
, ,
edge of the floor where it is required for sti ffness and strength and as a
,
means o f attachment for the ceiling planking A lso individu ality in the .
,
“
frame and rever s e bar is advantageou s in the deep frames of large ”
vessels where a s ingle bar might b e too massive to manipulate ; when

,
s olid frames are adopted fo r instance the built formation i s o ften retained
, ,
for tho s e at the bow and stern in which the curvature and bevel may b e ,
con s iderable The reverse ba r may be regarded as a reinforcement fo r

.
the frame angle I n very s mall vessels the strength o f the latter may b e
.
ample without it ; in such it is merely fitted across the floor plate but as ,
strength is required at the bilge and a s to st 0 p it short where the floor ,
also terminate s would cause too sudden a reduction in strength it is ,
extended to the upper part of the bilge I n P late 1 0 0 the rever s e bar s are .
extended to the upper part of the bilge and to the gunwale altern ately .
A r t 7 9 A n angle bar alone is a ve ry ine fficient frame

. . Whether , , .
viewed as a rib of the bull or as a sti ffening bar fo r the thin shell plating , ,
a fr a m e i s e ss e n t i a lly a b e a m To b e e fficient therefore its cross .

, ,
sectional area should be symmetrical about its neutral axis or centre o f

gravity A single angle is n ot at all s ymmetrical about its neutral axis i f
.
bent as in Fig 1 1 P late 6 the material at the toe remote therefrom su ffers a
.
, , , ,
much greater stress per square inch than the larger mass forming the flange
having a small sectional area it readily draws out or under compressive , , ,
stre s s crinkles or buckles sideways ( the relative s training of the material

, ,
at the toe and heel is shown by the short dark lines T and H Fig , .
By providing an inner flange ( or bulb ) symmetry is at once e s tablished ; ,
the material on both edges being equidistant from the neutral axi s su ffers , ,
the same stress and by giv i ng an equal s hare of resistance the strength
, , ,
is greatly increased The importance o f mas s ing material at the inner

.
toe o f the frame angle b ecomes even more marked when the frame is
considered as it should be—i n conjunction with the s hell plating which
—
it sti ff ens A s noticed in A rt 2 2 each frame may b e regarded as
. .
,
Art 8 0]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . 83
compo s ed o f itsel f plus a strip o f shell plating a frame space in breadth

( Fig .1 1 P late ,
W ith a single frame angle the combination i s evidently ,
very ine ffi cient a s a beam for its neutral axis is practically coincident ,
with the wide outer flange ; the material here —by far the greater part
o f the whole — can su ffer little stress even when that at the inner toe o f the ,
frame angle is strained to the breaking point .
I t is clear there fore that in a sti ffening bar such as a frame the bulk
, , , ,
of the material should fo r the greatest e fficiency be concentrated at the

, ,
inner edge N evertheless in practice a single bar is sometimes the most

.
, ,
suitable formation in the case o f a small vessel fo r instance whose frames , ,
are single angle bars say 3 by 2 by T inches the addition o f an inner

,
1 6
o ,
flange or reverse bar would i ncrease the s trength but as this is already
, , ,
su fficient there would be little or no advantage in so doing and there

, ,
would be the disadva n tage of increased weight I t is true that while .

,
maintaining the same strength the addition o f an inner flange might by , ,
increasing the efficiency o f the frame permit o f so considerable a reduction ,
in its size or thickness as would re s ult in a reduction of the total weight ;

b ut in a cargo vessel a frame o f the above small si z e is as regards the ,
resistance o f wear and tear i f anything too slender already ( the width of , ,
the flanges must o f course be maintained for e fli ci en t riveting ) But even

, , .
in a large vessel having massive part s the comparatively i n efli ci en t single

, ,
angle bar is largely employed the frames in the upper tween deck s fo r ,
’
,
instance and alt ernate frame s in cellular double bottoms also bulkhead
, ,
stiffeners and deck beams are frequently formed o f single angle bars ,
-
.
H ere it is suitab le chiefly fo r reasons of economy I n practice s tructural .

,
refinements although conducing to greater theoretical effi ciency are not

, ,
always advantageous They would be i f while without seriously reducing

.
,
the general mas s iveness they so lessened the weight of s tructure as ,
sen s ibly to increase the ves s el s ca rrying or earning power I n most cases ’
.
,
however such refinements although perhaps increasing the e ffi ciency o f

, ,
the particular parts would not by increased lightness so appreciably

, , ,
improve that of the vessel fo r general trading as to warrant the increa s ed

cost o f construction involved by the modification I n ordinary shipbuilding .
i t is usually found more desirable to simpli fy and reduce the number a n d

variety of parts rather than to combine a larger number of lighter ones
,
fo r the s ake o f greater theoretical e fficiency I n practice there fore the .

, ,
nece s sary s trength is o ften secured by the simple method of giving massive
ness to the structural parts which though clumsy from a theoretical stand , ,
point is economical and has the advantage o f givi n g greater endurance o f

, ,
wear and tear I n merchant vessels the foregoing considerations greatly

.
govern the Structural design in warships to a much smaller extent ,
( A rt .
A r t 8 0 As already noticed , the fr a m e s m a y b e re ga r d e d fr o m t w o

. .
s t a n d -p o i n t s , as fo rming the skeleton o f the hull , m aintaining its transverse

form ; or a s mere stiffening bars to the slender shell , holding it against
the tendency to collapse under sea or other pressures To fit them fo r .
their duty i n the first of these a s pects the only requirement is that together , , ,
they shall be su fficiently strong With the same weight o f material this .
might be co mplied with by making each one very strong and their number
proportionately small or by employing lighter ones in l arger number i c
, , .
more closely spaced Their duty as mere sti ffeners to the shell requires
.
that they shall b e closely spaced in resisting bulgi n g tendencies th e ,
plati n g between them acts like a beam and as i n such the flexibility varies , , ,
as the cube o f the len gth a small reduction in the fra me spacing must ,
evidently have a marked i n flue n ce on the rigidity o f the shell Sti ffness in .
[Ar t 8 0
the shell is an important matter fo r any appreciable lateral straining would ,
be fatal to the integrity and watertightness o f the structure the various rivet ,
connections would soon loosen and the j oints leak I n the first iron vessels .
the frames were placed close together 1 6 or 1 8 inches instead o f the , ,
present 2 4 inches and the shell plating was thick This followed as a
,
.
natural conseque nce o f the habits o f thought acquired in building wood

ships for in these the timber frames supporting the thick planking were
, , ,
almost conj oined ( on the botto m they o ften were conjoined) and it appeared ,
that to support properly thin iron plating numerous closely spaced frames
, ,
were necessary .
Th e fr a m e s p a c i n g adopted in modern vessels o f ordinary construction

-
varies from 2 0 inches in a small one to 2 7 inches in a large one ; but a

2 4 or 2 5 inch spacing is that prevailing in the maj ority o f vessels
-
When .
so great as 2 6 inches Lloyd s rules require the rivets connecting the frames
,
’
to the shell to be spaced 6 dias apart instead o f the usual 7 dias This . .
is evidently proper for a wide frame spacing means a smaller number

,
-
of frames and there fore a smaller number o f rivets binding the shell to
, , ,
t he framework ; i f for instance the frames were made extra massive and
, ,
spaced 4 feet apart instead o f 2 feet then with only half the number , ,
o f frames the duty of the frame rivets whatever it might h e would b e

, , ,
doubled I n some vessels the normal frame spacing is exceeded usually

.
-
,
in large vessels where a 3 0 inch and even a 3 6 inch spacing is adopted

,
-
,
-
, .
I n such to maintain the general transverse strength prejudiced by the

, ,
—
smaller number of transverse parts the frames beams and pillar s a —
, ,
suitable increase is made in their scantlings the shell being thickened to ,
maintain its rigidity under the wider intervals o f support Th e same frame .
spacing is usually maintained all fore and a ft ; sometimes however it is , ,
reduced at the bo w especially if elsewhere it exceeds 2 4 inches for the

, ,
plating is then better able to resist impact with floating ice and the b o w ,
is strengthened generally against panting stresses and collision (A rts 1 0 7 .
and Th e frame space is measured in a fore and a ft line and it - - -

,
follows therefore that at the bow owing to the horizontal slant of the
, , , ,
sides the distance between the frames measured on the shell may b e much
, , ,
greater which constitutes another reason for a reduced spacing at this part
,
( see distance H K and H L Fig 7 P late I n vessels o f full form the , .

,
frame angles on the bottom are doubled aba ft the collision bulkhead fo r ,
the reason mentioned in Art 1 0 8 I n warships the frame spacing is usually . .

-
much greater than in merchant steamers ; it varies considerably even in

the same vessel ; amidships in way o f the cellular double b ottom where , ,
there are numerous lon gi tudin als it is usually 4 feet but towards the , ,
ends where the frames are mere bars it may be 3 feet or less while
, , , ,
to secure rigidity under the engine numerous additional frames may b e ,
introduced ( P late I n such vessels the transverse form is maintained

not by the frames alone but to a very large extent by the numerous bulk ,
heads and plated deck s .
A rt 8 1 A midships the two flanges of the frame angles are at right

. .
a ngles b ut towards the bow and stern owing to the inward slant of the
, ,
side they meet at an obtu se angle ( see Fig 7 P late

,
These fr a m e s .
,
“
are said to be b ev elle d ”
To dispose the frames everywher e at right .
angles to the shell would increase their e fficiency as sti ffeners fo r in , ,
resisting local collapse o f the side the transverse flange when not square , ,
to its work at once develops a tendency to shirk its duty by folding over
,
still further from the square as shown at A and C Fig 7 But although , ,
. .
greater effi ciency w ould be secured by a right angled disposition there are -
,
practical obj ections I n making the frames each one would have to be
.
,
Art 8 3 ]
t wisted throughout its leng th in order that it might conform to the varying
inward curve of the side ; and to distort in this way the frame bar while ,
maintaining its fair and proper curvative would not be easy A gain there , .
,
would be di ffi culty in connecting it to the straight across transverse parts -

,
the beams and floo rs ( F Fig I n any case excepting the frames near , .
,
the bow and stern the departure from the square i s so slight as not ,
appreciably to a ffect their general e fficiency I n some vessels havi ng very .
bluff bo w s a few of the terminal frames are worked on the square principle
,
here where the bevel would be excessive there is real advantage in so

, ,
doing I n wood ships the timbers at the bow and ste m are usually worked
.
square to the side such being termed cant timbers , .

”
The frames are so bevelled that the angle between their flanges is
obtuse i e the bevel is an o p en one I t follows there fore that all frame s
, . . .
, ,
forward of the flat midship portion o f the vessel must face aft and those ’
,
abaft it forward in the flat midship portion they may face either way A
,
’
.
shut or c l o s e b e v e l is objectionable in several respects the bevelling

” ”
work is d i fficult fo r even when done with care the heel o f the bar is sel d om
, , ,
in precisely the same plane as the flange ( A Fig 8 P late so that w hen , .
, ,
riveted to the shell the contact is imperfect A lso as the one flange masks .
,
the other it may be di fficult to punch the rivet holes and insert and hammer
,
up the rivets Th e bevel o f t he reverse bar is of co urse identical with that

.
, ,
“
o f the frame angle .
A r t 8 2 The fr a m e a n gl e s a r e fi t t e d i n o n e le n gt h from keel or

. .
tank margin plate to gunwale and this even in the largest vessel I t is ,
.
easier to make them so fo r steel bars are procurable o f any length and , ,
when in one piece the w hole may be heated and bent in one operation .
I n damage repair work to avoid renewing the entire frame angle j oints , ,
are o ften introduced connected by bosom pieces ( Art These are

,
.
not detrimental to the strength fo r as a rib or sti ffening bar a frame is , , ,
only subject to deflecting stresses and the presence o f a joint piece by , ,
doubling the sectional area of a considerable portion o f the frame really ,
increases its sti ffness Their clumsy patchwork appearance and the .
,
additional weight involved by the joint piece is o f course objectionable ; , ,
but this is more a matter of sentiment important nevertheless when the , , ,
sale o f the vessel is in question .
A rt 8 3 I n ordinary framing the r e v e r s e b a r is o f smaller scantlings

. .
,
than the frame angle ; the thickness is u s ually ab out the same but the .
latter has a wide and a narro w flange whereas in the reverse bar both ,
flanges are narrow The scantlings o f the frames required by Lloyd s .

’
rules fo r vessels o f varying si z e are given in P late 4 I n ordinary framing

, ,
.
the reverse bar is usually so fitted that its fore and a ft flange is flush with - -
the inner toe o f the frame ( B Fig 5 P late to secure the advantage , .
,
o f depth it would be better to make it project

,
retaining just sufficient ,
overlap fo r a proper connection as in the deep built frame shown at B , ,
Fig 6 ; but the constructive work is facilitated somewhat by the flush

.
disposition and it avoids the inaccessible crevices mentioned in Art 9 3

,
. .
I n many cases one flange o f the reverse bar is ha lf an inch wider than the
other when so it should be placed fore and aft fo r then the desirable
, , ,
condition just noticed of a concentration o f material at the inner edge is

secure d I n practice this advantage is usually neglected L loyd s rules
. .
’
require the full scantlings of the frame angles to be maintained fo r three

fi fths o f the vessel s length amidships to w ards the ends a reduction in ’
thickness is allowed o f 3 3 inch I n the case o f the reverse bars as massive 1

. ,
ness is important and as they are specially subj ect to deterioration no

, ,
reduction is made .
[Ar t 8 3
The like the frames are usually fitted i n o n e le n gth

r ev e r e s b ar s , ,
on either side I n the case of small vessels having ordinary floor s they
. ,
are sometimes worked in one length for both sides ; this may be readily
done for they are short and light and as they are usually without knuckle
, ,
at the centre line they may b e easily bent to shape with one heat I n
,
.
h —
other cases they may be worked i n t r e e p i e c e s a straight central one ,
extending across the floor from bilge keelson to bilge keelson and two ,
others from these points up wards The straight piece is fitted on the .
opposite side o f the floor plate so that the ends of the other two may ,
scarph with it and thus dispense with joint pieces and with two keelson
,
lugs The absence of a j oint over the keel is advantageous as regards

.
strength fo r it is here that the greatest tensional stress occurs when the
,
vessel sits on her keel an important matter in small coasting vessels which
, ,
are liable to take the ground (A rt When jointing a reverse bar ( which .
,
as in the case o f frame angles is practically only done in damage repairs ) , ,
it is a common practice to fit merely a flat strap on the fore and— a ft flanges -

,
taking only two rivets in either bar ( Fig 9 P late This does not make .
,
good the strength and as continuous s trength in the rever s e bar is

,
relatively quite as important as it is in the frame angle they should , ,
evidently be j ointed with no less efficiency ( Art

, .
A r t 8 4 I n very small vessels the r e v e r s e b a r s all t e r m i n a t e at the

. .
upper part of the bilge ; in rather larger alte rnate ones are continued ,
upwards to the gunwale ( P late in still larger they extend , ,
alternately the one to the gunwale and the other to the second deck
, ,
or to the hold stringer representing it U nder a quarter deck where the .

-
,
vessel s side is suddenly increased in depth they extend upwards to an

’
extent governed by the greater depth I n large sailing s hips they all .
-
extend to the upper deck ( P late and in large steamers of extreme

proportions all for half length amidships I n steamers of awning deck
, , .
-
type they all terminate at the second deck I n a poop bridge and fore .
, ,
castle only the frame angles are carried up I n the case of a forecastle .
,
however if the vessel is o f large size ( over

, plating n u meral ) alter ,
nate reverse bars are extended to the foreca s tle deck When plunging into .
head seas the bows are exposed to s evere co ncussive blows this becomes
,
more pronounced in large vessels fo r they lift less s martly to the waves , ,
and having greater speed and weatherly qualities are able to pursue their
, ,
course pounding through the waves with irresistible force H ence the
, .
neces sity in large vessels for s trong framing on the forecastle s ide .
O n t h e q u a r t e r s the s ides lie at an angle o ften approaching the

,
horizontal so that when plunging s tern under they are peculiarly liable to
, ,
-
,
blo ws o f a collapsing nature The frames moreover are here compara .

, ,
ti v e ly weak and flexible for lying at an angle their span from deck to , , ,
deck is long To provide therefore the necessary strength Lloyd s rules

.
,
’
require that at this part — aba ft the a fter peak bulkhead— all t h e r ev e r s e
, ,
fr a m e s in place of alternate ones shall e x t e n d t o t h e u p p e r d e c k but

, , ,
only in vessels over plating numeral The addition al stiffness so .
secured is also use ful in reducing the tendency to vibration which owing , ,
to the proximity of the propeller is here specially prono u nced I n some ,

.
vessels where the quarter i s particularly wide and flat the unsupported
, ,
side may be more than 1 2 feet wide between the decks When this is so .
,
the ordinary frames even when rein forced as above would have an , ,
excessive duty and in such cases there fore a double angle stringer should
, , ,
-
be fitted midway between the decks ; in large vessels it is worked inter

costally and is bracketed to the transom plate
, .
To strengthen the vessel s bottom u n d e r t h e m a c h i n e r y all the ’

,
Ar t 8 6 ]
floors of thi s region are provided with d o u ble r e v e r s e b ar s I n s mall .
vessels not having a double bottom the supplementary ones may stop ,
short at the bilge keelson but in larger they are carried round the bilge to
the bilge stringer I n large ves s els and in those of high power the side
.
, ,
framing o f the machinery space is s pecially rein forced by web frames

Art 6)
g
.
A t 85 . . is the term used in referring to the

Ri se of flo o r
sharpness of a ve s sel s bottom I n most vessels the frame s leave the keel
’
.
at a slight upward angle continuing in a straight line towards the bilge , ,
and then curving upwards ; the rise o f floor is the height which the
’
midship frame would attain if extended in a strai ght line to the half
breadth line ( the distance A B P late Many modern cargo vessels ,
are designed with practically no ri s e of floor the bottom being almo s t flat ,
fl —
i n so me ca s e s quite at amidships ( P late 1 0 6 ) in the maj ority however , ,
there is a ri s e o f from 6 to 1 2 inches in some of the older types of fine

lined sailing ships the rise of floor is as much a s 8 feet but these ves s els
-
,
are of course very in ferior a s cargo carrier s With a small rise the u pper
, , .
,
edge o f the midship floor plate may (when of shallow type) run across the
’
keel as a straight level line tapering and curving upwards towards the bilge
, ,
so as to j oin the frame without abruptness at an elevation o f twice its , ,
depth over the keel To preclude excessive taper Lloyd s rules require
.
,
’
the depth of the floor at three quarters the vessel s hal f beam from the ,
-
’
centre line to b e not less than hal f its depth over the keel I n a ves s el
, .
having a considerable rise o f floor this rule may require the upper edge o f ,
the plate to leave the centre line with an upward inclination ( P late
Formerly it was usually so inclined in all vessels in order to secure the ,
advantage of a reduced tonnage ; fo r at that time the measurements u sed

in computing the tonnage were taken in a stereotyped manner and as the ,
lowest breadth ordinates were measured on the top of the floor a slight ri se ,
made them zero I n fin e lined ve s sels such as yachts in which the lower
.
-
, ,
part of the mid s hip section is triangular the foregoing rule as to the
’
,
maintenance o f the depth of the floors near the head is inapplicable here
therefore they are simply made a little deeper and are carried s traight
,
across meeting the frame below the bilge ( Fig 1 4 P late

, I n such ve s sels .
,
there is no well defin e d bilge requiring the sti ffening e ffect of floor plates and
-
,
they are not subj ect to the severe tran s ver s e stresses o f cargo vessel s I t .
is only those floors that lie within one quarter of the vessel s length amid -
’
ships that run up the bilge to double their height at the keel Beyond this .
,
as the bilge disappears they rise less and less u ntil near the bow and , , ,
ste m they are carried straight across ( P late

, By levelling the floors in
this way towards the bo w and ste m a capacious hold and a maximum of ,
flat floor area is secured for the stowage of cargo .
A r t 8 6 I n s m all vessels the flo o r s being short and light may be

. .
, ,
fitted i n o n e p i e c e from bilge to bilge I n others the midship floors are .

’
fitted i n t w o p i e c e s for if in one they would be too long and cumbrous,
to manipulate on the bending slab s ( P lates 1 0 0 and The j oints may

be placed at the centre over the keel or at the side about three feet out , , , ,
alternate ones to port and starboard A s regards effi cien cy in resisting .
upheaving stresses the latter disposition is the better for regarding the
, , ,
j oints as weak spots they are then better distributed the line o f weakness
, ,
being zig z ag in place of straight fore and a ft The j oints are lapped and .
treble riveted ; if butted Lloyd s rules require double straps The full ,
’
.
t h i c k n e s s o f t h e flo o r s is maintained fo r three fi fth s o f the vessel s

’
-
”
length amidships beyond this it is reduced by 5 7 o r 5 inch U nder the

,
1
,
2
5
.
engine where mas s ive and rigid framing is essential all floors are increa s ed
, ,
[Art 8 7
in thickness by 7 1
5
inch ; and under the b oilers where corrosion may be ,
rapid by 3 inch
,
2
5
.
A rt the bow and ste m over the for e fo o t a n d h e e l the

. 87 . At ,
-
,
vessel s s ection s form a sharp V so that the flo o r p l a t e s lose their girder

’
like character H ere they are increased in depth and serve the useful
.
,
purpose of uniting the two sides wh ich being flat require a maximum of , , ,
support again s t panting stresses ( Fig 1 2 P late A t the extreme a ft e r .

,
e n d o f s c r e w v e s s e l s the frames meet at a more acute angle than at the

bow and in fine vessels they are swollen or bossed around the shaft tube
, , ,
( Fig
.
9 P late ,
T h e sides o f the hull have here an important duty in
holding the stern frame ; the forward post forms a bearing fo r the sha ft ,
and as it directly supports the overhanging propeller— a live load with

excessive vibrating tendencies— i t should be specially rigid ( Fig 8 .
,
P late With the sides of the ship close together and almost parallel ,
the hull narrow and fin like is not naturally w ell fitte d to con fer the
,
-
,
-
necessary tran s verse rigidity to the po s t ; it i s strengthened however as far , ,
as practicable by greatly increasing the depth of the floors so that the

, ,
sides instead of being two separate flexible surfaces are bound together as
, ,
one rigid whole Further the shell plating contiguous to the po s t and in
.
,
the vic inity of the tube is increased in thickness and in some ca ses the ,
frame angles in thi s region are doubled A s a result of inferior rigidity at .
this part the large rivets connecting the shell to the post o ften loosen or
,
break and s imilarly with the riveting of the adjacent frames and shell j oints
, .
Such weakness i s commonly observed a s a consequence of the breaking of

a propeller blade for with the loss of symmetry the centrifugal force and
, , ,
vibrating e ffect o f the propeller may b e exce s sive I n ordinary vessels the .
floors in way of the tube are fitted in two pieces one above and one below ,
the tube I n large fin e lined vessels ( particularly twin screw) where the
.
-
,
tube may be long one or more floors may be arranged to support it ; they
,
are thickened or locally doubled and may be accurately bored to take ,
contact with the su rface of the tube or clearance may be left and contact ,
secured by driving in wedges I n twin screw vessels hoops o f angle bar .

-
are sometime s fitted to secure a connection to the tube or the latter may ,
be provided with collars .
A r t 8 8 L loyd s rule s require the flo or p l a t e s ( when of ordinary

’
. .
shallow type ) to extend right down to the h e el o f t h e fr a m e a n gle leaving , ,
of course the small clearance necessary for the fitting of the shell For
, .
the mere purpose of a rivet connection the overlap of the floor plate ,
and frame angle need not exceed 3 inches and so with frames 45 or 5 , ,
inches deep the edge of the plate might b e kept well up from the heel
,
o f the bar A good overlap is advantageous however for as it is the

.
, , ,
lower margin of the floor that bears the brunt of grounding pressures the ,
double thickness gives massiveness to withstand i t —often while elsewhere ,
uninjured thi s marginal part o f the plate su ffer s distortion G rounding

, .
pressure s can only be conveyed to the floor p late by the rivets uniting it to
the frame angle an d consequently a fter grounding it is not uncommon to ,
find these rivets loosened or shorn due to the frame angle h aving been ,
forced upward over the face of the floor plate A wide overlap gives a .
more rigid union due to the more extensive faying surfaces the rivets of
, ,
course are reeled or slightly zigzagged so as to draw the two surfaces into
, ,
i n tl ma te contact late
( P
A r t 8 9 Where the o u t e r e n d s o r
. . h e ad s o f t h e flo o r s or tank
margin brackets pass b e t w e en t h e fr a m e a n d r ev e r s e b a r a tapered ,
l i ner is fitted ( see P late I n light scantlinged vessels the thin floor -
plate itsel f is sometimes thinned down by hammer and anvil and in other ,
.
[ .
s h a ft u there may be so little clearance between them and the tub e

t be,
that their projecting flanges may require to be cut away to clear it m such
case if several frames are cut they should b e doubled making them of
, , ,
T section or the boss plates should be thickened I n large high powered .

,
-
vessels it is common fo r the sake of rigidity to double systematically these

, ,
terminal frames M odern cargo vessels are usually so full that only the
.
a ftermost frame need be bossed and in such case it is common not to boss ,
it but to cut it away entirely in way of the tube

, .
A rt 9 2 A s already noticed to secure for the side stringers and

. .
,
keelsons a four rivet connection at each frame short reverse bar doublings
-
,
-
or k e e l s o n l u gs are fitted ( Fig 1 P late I n small vessels in which the .

,
frames have no reverse bars and with frames of bulb angle section the ,
-
,
fitting o f two lugs is usually avoided by employing one having a flange wide
enough to ta ke two rivets in each fore and aft angle of the stringer in which - -
,
case they are made extra long so a s to take four rivets through the frames ,
( Fig
.
3 P late , I n ordinary lugs there are only two rivets connecting
them to the keelson or s tringer angles and so it might appear that fo r , ,
equality of s trength two would also su ffice for connecting them to the
,
reverse bar ; in practice however the latter connection is always made , ,
with three rivets for as it is through these rivet s that pressure s from
,
without are communicated to the keelson or s tringer they are subj ected to
—
,
a direct shearing stress whereas the two in the other flange taking the
—
,
keelson angles are a ffected by no stress at all I n vessels having shallow .
floors the centre keelson lug also serves a s a joint piece for the rever s e bars
,
it should therefore be su fficiently long to take several rivets in either end

, ,
of the latter this is particularly necessary when the floor plates are jointed
over the keel so as to reduce the accumulated weakne s s o f so many j oints
, .
The two end rivets should o f course fall near the ends o f the lug fo r any , , ,
excess of length beyond these represents useless material o ften great

carelessness i s displayed in this matter A s the fitting of the lugs is light .
and simple work it is generally entrusted to lads and as a result it is o ften

, , , ,
badly done ; the fore and aft flange may not lie fair with the reverse bar- -
,
and the b evelling may be inaccurate ; such discrepancies are often made
good in a clum s y manner by in s erting wa s hers or liners ( see Figs 7 to 1 0 , .
,
P late
A r t 9 3 D e e p fr a m e s are simply ordinary ones increased in depth
. .
by about 5 0 per cent They may be of built or solid type ( Fig 6 P late
. .
,
When built the frame angle and reverse bar are usually identical ( P late 1 0
,
the work of making the frames being facilitated when the two bars are
alike The overlap of the bars ( as required by L loyd s rules ) is 3 inches ;
.
’
in an ordinary single riveted joint with 5§ inch rivets it would be 2 ; inches ,

~
,
but in the case o f the frames there is the rounded toe and a margin o f ,
width is de s irable to allow fo r di s crepancies in the position of the holes ,
these being punched i n a rough and ready fashion Formerly the reverse .
bar was disposed as shown in Fig 1 5 P late 6 but now it is usually placed .
, ,
as shown at B Fig 6 or in P late 1 0 3 this disposition permitting of a better

‘ , .
, ,
connection of the beam knees and stringer lugs I f fitted as in Figs 1 5 and . .
1 6 P late 6 there occurs a vacant space or crevice between the projecting

, ,
flange of the reverse bars the beam knees and the stringer lugs I t is , , .
impossible to scale and paint these crevices properly and as a result s erious , , ,
corrosion may occur I n way o f the beam knees liner s are sometimes .
i ntroduced but unles s the proj ection is large there is insu fficient width to
, , ,
r i vet them properly I n very large vessels the frames may be so deep that
.
the projection o f the reverse bar beyond the frame angle may be sufficient
to take the lugs or beam knees ( Fig I n such ca s es however the .
, ,
Art 94] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1
rivets connecting the frame and reverse bar in way of the knees should be
more closely spaced the better to resist the thrusting and pulling e ffect of ,
the beams .
D e e p fr a m e s are not often employed i n vessels having sh allo w

flo o r s ; when they are the reverse bar may be jointed below the bilge ,
with a bar o f normal scantlings fitted across the floor ( Fig 2 P late ,
.
,
I n large vessels deep frames may be very massive in s ome they are ,
1 2 inches deep
; when so large it is not always practicable to employ solid
bars for they may be too heavy and sti ff to bend round the bilge and
,
manipulate in the u s ual way when over 1 0 inches deep the built formation
is usually adopted except in the case o f channel or Z frames fo r these may
, ,
be split at the bilge ( to form frame and reverse frame) where the sharp
curvature occurs ( see Figs 1 3 and Bulb angle frames are not often.
, ,
-
split for the bulb p ortion doe s not form an effi cient substitute for a
,
reverse frame .
A r t 9 4 O f fr a m e s o f s o li d s e c t i o n there are three varieties in

. .
general use — the Z c h a n n e l and b u lb a n gl e ( C D and E F ig 6 , ,

-
, , ,
.
,
P late A s regards e fficiency they are superior to a built frame ( B Fig , ,

.
fo r in the latter the double thickness due to the overlap being situated ,
near the neutral axis represents ill disposed m aterial ; with the same ,
-
sectional area there fore a Z or channel bar is the stronger The extra
, ,
1
.
material due to the double thickness at the overlap although inefficient , ,
does of course contribute stren gth and in order therefore to secure

, , , , ,
equality in strength a solid frame must either be thicker or deeper than a ,
built one A s tabulated in Lloyd s rules frames o f Z or channel bar are

.
’
,
from 5 3 to 5 3 inch thicker and when large 5 inch dee per

1 2
, , ,
.
A s a sti ffening bar a bulb angle frame is les s e ffi cient than a Z or ,

-
a channel fo r as the sectional area of the bulb is not equal to that of a

,
flange the neutral axis is not at mid depth the di fference however is
,
-
, ,
somewhat reduced by the circumstances that a flan ge is wounded by holes .
To secure there fore in a bulb angle frame the strength of a built one
, ,
-
, ,
it is made both thicker and deeper than would b e necessary for a Z or a

channel inch thicker and 1 inch deeper than a built frame) .
A s a substitute fo r built fr a m e s Z b a r s have long been employed , ,
but of late years they have been largely superseded by bulb angle and -
channel bars these being more convenient in several respects They were
, .
first adopted no doubt because o f their resemblance to the familiar built

, ,
frame C omparing a Z with a channel bar the latter i s the superior

.
,
theoretically fo r having greater symmetry o f section it is less liable under

, , , ,
severe stress to shirk its work by canting sideways ( C Fig 7 P late 6 )

, ,
.
,
this becomes more marked in those frames which are be velled for they ,
have as it were an initial cant To bend a Z frame to shape is awkward

, , . ,
fo r not lying flat on the slabs it must be propped up ; and its heel does
, ,
not touch the scrive line ( Figs 5 and 6 P late A channel bar may .
,
be easily manipulated for it lies flat on the bending slabs its heel touches , ,
the scrive and both flanges may be bevelled by hand simultaneously

,
.
The circum s tance that the inner flange o f a cha nnel frame has a close
bevel is not really objectionable ; it would be i f it were the shell flange ,
1
I i d i g th
n c o ns t th f b i lt v u li d f m u t mu t b t k f e , acco n s e a en o
—
er n e s re n o u s a so ra
g a ers
th i um t
e c rc th t th
s an ce tw g l b a t d be y w f
o an i v t e t u t d ars - c o n n ec e a ro o r e s ar e n o ni e
w i th p f t i gi di ty
er e c Th r ti l f th. ti g i v t i
e se c t qu l t th t f
on a are a o e c on n e c n r e s s no e a o a o
th e so l id b i th m l gi tudi l l i
ar n e sa d u d
e th l
on g i t u d i l
na h i
g t n e , an so , n er e on na s e ar n s ress
se t up by d fl ti g f a t h b ui l t f m y i l d m
e ec n o r ce , di ly th e lid f m l ra e e s o re r e a a n a so one o Si i ar
s ec ti on it i i th ti ffs ne t er so s
g A i t ti g t d y f t h i
n o r so s ro nubj t W ll b . n n e res n s u o s s ec i e
f u d i
o n
p p n a b y M S ta b
er u y d t h l t M r R . d T m man I rti t tian f N l e a e r. ea ,
. ns u on o ava
A r c/t i ta n , 1 8 94 .
Art 9 4
P I t A C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G [
’
92 .
fo r the contact of the faying surfaces might b e imperfect The fact that .
the inner flange o f a channel frame masks the other does not seriously
interfere with the shell riveting were the bar very shallo w it might but ,
such frames are usually employed in vessels of considerable size where ,
they are at least 6 inches deep so that a dolly or holding up hammer of , ,

-
,
special type may be readily used ( Figs 1 8 and 2 1 P late The rivet .
,
holes in a Z frame may be punched in any machine ; in the case o f a

channel bar a modification is required on account of the lower flange ( P late
,
With Z frames the beam knees and floor plates must b e fitted on the
,
side of the web next the shell flange and so by cramping the wid th of the , ,
shell flange may in the case o f small frames interfere with the riveting
, , ,
( Fig 3 P late
.
, With channel frame s the notches in the stringer ,
plate are smaller and permit of a better intercos tal shell connection ( Fig 5 .
,
P late 1 0 2 and Fig 1 P late

, .
,
A lthough b u lb a n gl e b a r s ha ve long been employed for beams

-
,
keelsons and bulkhead sti ffeners it is only comparatively recently that they
, ,
have been used for frames For this they are eminently suited however .
, ,
and the apparent blindness t o their advantages a ffords a curious illustration

of the conservative influence o f habit The absence of an inner flange .
was regarded as a disquali fying feature for it appeared to be incompatible ,
with a proper fixture o f the wood sparring also there appeared to be a ,
di fficulty in securing the usual four rivet connection for the side stringers - .
N either o f these matters are o f any importance for the sparring may b e ,
fixed by cleats i n the portable fashion now commonly adopted with all
,
types o f frami n g ( Fig 1 P late and by fitting an extra large lug the
.
, , ,
necessary stringer connection i s readily secured A lthough not long in .
general use for ordinary framing bulb angle bar s have long been employed ,
to a limited extent in cellular double bottoms for the alternate frames on ,
which there are no floor pla tes They are now very largely employed fo r .
the side frames of b oth large and small vessel s The formation has several .
important advantages : it is economical in workmanship for there is no ,
inner flange to bevel ; the bars are easily manipulated fo r they lie flat on ,
the bending slabs ; they may b e cut and punched like an ordinary angle
bar and when riveting the shell the bulb unlike a flange 15 never in the
, , , , ,
way A bulb moreover is an excellent substitute for a flange fo r being

.
, , , ,
massive it is better able to resist wear and tear A flange su ffers seriously
, .
from corrosion for as its back surface is not readily accessible it is seldom
, ,
properly sealed and painted ( Art A bulb o ffers a s mall surface to .
corro s ion so that the percenta ge o f material or strength lost is small and
, ,
as it may be kept well painted and free from scale there may be little or ,
no corrosion A s already seen when regarded theoretically as a sti ffening

.
, , ,
bar a bulb angle is somewhat less e fficient than a Z or a channel to secure

,
equality in strength there fore it must be some what heavier

, ,
.
Th e fo r m a n d p r o p o r t i o n s specified in L loyd s rules fo r b u lb a n gl e

’
-
a n d o t h e r b a r s are shown i n Figs 1 to 5 P late 7 4 I n their manu facture .

,
.
the flanges might be made thicker than the web but Lloyd s scantlings ,
’
assume an equal thickness throughout The web may be made o f almost .
any required depth ; 1 2 or 1 5 inches is about the large s t bar ordinarily

used i s shipbuilding ( fo r deck b eams) 0 1 the other hand there are . 1 ,
di fficulties o f manu facture which preclude in the flanges a greater breadth

than 3 1 to 4 inches I f required the t wo flanges o f a Z or a channel
; .
,
bar might be o f di fferent breadth ; in warships they sometime s are but not ,
in merchant vessels .
A r t 9 5 With built frames alternate reverse bars may b e discontinued

. .
,
in the upper tween decks ; with solid ones a s imilar reduction can only be
’
94 P R A C TI CA L S H I B B UI LD I N G .
[Ar t 96
region Evidently therefore it i s amid ships that the greatest e fficiency in

.
, ,
the s tructural design should prevail but unfortunately it is just here that , , ,
it is o ften most di ffi cult to s ecure fo r to make room for the engine and , ,
boilers and meet various requirements modifications very prejudicial to ,
the continuous rigidity and strength o f the hull have o ften to be made .
The lower deck or tier of beams is always largely if not entirely suppressed , , ,
numerous beams in the decks above must be severed to form the necessary
openings over the engine and boilers and in large vessels the plated decks , , ,
may be largely cut away ( see Fig 5 P late 8 P late 2 7 and Fig 1 P late .
, , , .
,
To restore the transverse strengt h and give general rigidity to the hull at
this important part the side framing is increa s ed in massiveness b y the
,
introduction of web frames which are extended not merely from the bilge ,
to the lowest deck as in the cargo holds but right up to the gunwale
, , .
I n the m a c h i n e r y s p a c e o f small lo w p o w e r e d v e s s e l s in which ,

-
,
the ordinary structure is little disturbed the side framing need be no more ,
massive than in the holds I n those over a certain size however .

,
plating numeral ) Lloyd s rules require three web frames to be fitted

,
’
.
With a machinery space of the average length this would place them 8 or ,
1 0 feet apart ; whereas if fitted in the cargo holds merely to make good ,
the absence of a lower tier of beam s they would b e from 1 2 to 1 6 feet ,
apart I n larger vessels web frames are required at intervals of 8 feet or

. , ,
less I n vessels constructed on the deep frame principle which of course

.
1 -
, , ,
i s equivalent to a regular series o f web frames a su ffi cient special reinforce ,
ment may b e obtained by only one or two deep web frames I t should be .
ob s erved that as the machinery space is usually short compared with a cargo
hold the end bulkheads are most e ffective in giving transverse rigidity
,
to the structure ; they compensa te in great measure for the absence o f

numerous beams .
The foregoing requirement s refer more particularly to cargo vessels ,
having engines o f moderate power I n large h i gh sp e e d o c e a n li n e r s .

,
-
,
having a m a c h i n e ry s p a c e extendin g over perhaps half the length still ,
greater rein forcements are ne cessa ry I n some o f these every alternate .
frame in w ay of the engines a nd every third in way o f the boi ler s is formed
, ,
as a web frame H ere they are introduced not only to strengthen the hull
.
,
—
but to reduce vibration a very important matter in a vessel carrying
numerous passengers on whose comfort her commercial success in great
,
part depends When the boilers are placed close to the vessel s sides
.
’
there may b e insu fficient space to fit web frames and in such cases the ,
ordinary frames when o f channel section are usually doubled This may
, , .
also b e necessary in the engine room of twin screw steamers fo r with two -
engine s abrea s t and extensive auxiliary machinery there may be in s u ffi cient

, ,
space athwartships for web frames I n such case the side stringe rs other .
,
wise of deep formation may require to be shallow and massive and, ,
perhaps increased in number I t should be remarked that framing material

—
.
—
arranged in this way shallow and massive is much less e ffi cient than
when in the form of deep girder like web frames ,
-
, .
I n v e s s e ls o f h i gh p o w e r the tendency o f the engine to cause

v i b r a t i o n of the hull is very marked ; to reduce it flexibility in the ,
structure must be avoided No t only must the b ottom fra m ework under .
the engine b e exceptionally masswe but the si d es o f the hull in this

'
vicinity should have rigidity in excess of that prevailing elsewhere J ust .
as vibrations in a flexible wand become more d ecided towards its extremities ,
so does the tendency of the bull to vibrate become more pronounced i n

Th B u e u t gi v
r ea g l rul asm l y th t i
e th m hi ry p
a th
en e ra e, n a e , a n e ac ne s ace e
w b f m
e ra h ll b
es s thi r d l
a t g th
e o ne - th if it w r g h ld
c o ser o e er an e e a car o o .
Ar t 9 7 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
95
parts remote fro m the engine seat The comparatively slender upper .
s tructure overlying the machinery space b eing deprived o f the tying e ffect ,
of through beams and pillar s is thu s particularly susceptible to vibration , ,
and in view of this it i s usual in large high powered ves s els not only to ,
-
,
pro vide numerous web frames but greatly to increase their e ffi ciency in ,
way of the tween decks by making them ab out twice as wide as below
’
,
( Fig 5 P late
.
,
When so wide they form diaphragms or partial bulk , ,
heads rather than girder like web frames I n a ffording rigidity against
,
- .
vibration and other straining tendencie s they are therefore particularly , , ,
efl i c i e n t for while perfectly supporting the side they hold the deck s at fixed
, , ,
angle therewith and by vertically uniting the various decks confer in high
, , ,
degree the quality of continuous rigidity s o effecti ve in checking vibration ,

.
To examine the hull of a large ocean liner conveys the impre s sion o f
solidity and strength quite incompatible with transver s e straining yet
—
,
—
when tossed about in stormy seas like any small vessel the apparently
ri gi d s truc ture give s constant evidence of stress and strain ; the u pper
work s amidships deck erection s bulkheads cabin partitions etc may

, , , , .
,
creak and s train quite perceptibly as the vessel labours and rolls from side
to side I n such vessel s not only is great longitudinal strength required
.
, ,
but in quite equal degree great transverse stiffness particularly in the

, , ,
topsides amidships and this is best secured by fitting wide partial bulk
,
heads o f the above description I t is evident that a mere increase in the .
scantlings of the side frames even though they were doubled in number , ,
would produce little o f this special binding e ffect .
A r t 9 7 I n way of l ar ge h a t c h w a ys where the ve s sel s s ides are

’
. .
,
deprived of the support o f numerous through beams conditions similar -
to those j ust noticed prevail I f the hatchway is of moderate size —say

,
les s than 2 6 feet long— the transverse strength may be su fficiently maintained
.
,
merely by increasing the scantlings of the end beam s ; if longer it may be ,
necessary to introduce web frames or to increase the strength o f the existing ,
frames by increasing their depth or fitting additional rever s e bars Th e .
additions actually required depend of course on how much of the structural , ,
strength longitu dinal and tran s verse is sacrificed I n the case of a hatchway
, , .
,
say 2 6 feet long one web frame at mid length might su ffi ce i f larger another
, ,
-
,
might be fitted at each end A web frame at mid length is well placed to.
-
resist the local racking or panting of the side that might result from the
ab s ence of through beam s ; and when at either end they are well placed
-
,
for distributing the inten s ified thrust or holding e ffect of the end b eams .
I n conjunction with the latter the rigid hoop-like e ff ect s o e ffective in , ,
preserving the transverse form i s well secured E vidence of the greater , .
tendency of a vessel s side to pant or rack in way o f long hatchways is

’
sometimes observed in the straining o f the rivets connecting the side frame -
bracket s to the tank margin plate ; those in consecutive frames on both ,
sides of the ship becoming loo s e and leaky while those clear o f the
, ,
hatchway may be unaffected On thi s account the s e angles s hould be .
doubled in way of large hatchways .
I n Sm all o n e d e c k v e sse l s t h e h a t c h w a ys are often so long and

-
wide that the deck plating o n either s ide is reduced to a narrow strip : -
When this is so its duty in a ff ording longitudinal strength and lateral

,
rigidity is greatly increased and so to fit it for its larger responsibilities

, , ,
it should not only b e made thicker but sh ould be well held in fixed ,
'
horizonta l position with regard to the side fo r of co u rse any yielding or , , ,
tendency to yield would at once redu ce its e fficiency I n ordinary cases .
the necessary s upport i s given by pillars But as pillars are in the way .
,
and are liable to displacement the better plan is now commonly adopted ,
[Ar t 9 7
of sub s tituting for the pillars large s weeping bracket plates as shown in ,
Fig 7 P late 8 These have evidently a better holding e ffect and if

.
, . ,
fitted in conjunction with web frames the whole is equivalent to the ,
m arginal part o f a bulkhead which by giving great transverse rigidity , , ,
increases the e fficiency o f b oth the deck and side .
A r t 9 8 We b fr a m e s are also introduced a t v a r i o u s p l a c e s as

. .
local reinforcements I n large high speed vessels they are s ometimes

.
-
fitted near the bo w below the lowest deck as a provision against the ,
excessive panting stresses which accompany fine lines and high speed
forcibly maintained in heavy weather I n some cases they are fitted at .
the a fter end to strengthen the side where owing to it s transverse slope , , ,
the distance from the lo west deck to the floors may be excessive I n twin .
screw vessels they are fitted to strengthen the bossed or overhanging part
o f the side ( Fig 5 P late They are also fitted at places where s udden
.
,
discontinuities o f structure and irregular distribution of weight might induce

concentration of stress and local straining A t the ends o f deep tank s fo r .
,
instance if the end bulkheads are not extended above the tank top a
, ,
marginal portion is in the form of a partial bulkhead or web frame

,
( Fig .
5 P late 24 and
,
Fig 4 P late ,
and in the ca s e of shelter
.
,
or awning deck vessels where the bulkheads may stop at the second
-
,
deck web frames must be fitted above this to the upper deck
,
.
When large cargo or coaling ports are cut in the topsides amidships ,
severing one or two frames it is usual to fit s hort web frames from deck ,
to deck so as to maintain the rigidity of side prej udiced by the severance

, ,
o f the frame s ( Fig 2 P late I n large sailing ships web frames are
.
,
-
fitted in the poop or bridge hous e under the rigging so that the lightly -
, ,
constructed s ides of these erection s may be relieved o f any exceptional

stre s s from the pull o f the rigging .
A r t 9 9 We b fr a m e s vary in s t r u c t u r a l d e s i gn ; some di fferent

. .
arrangements are shown in Fig 1 0 P late 6 and P late s 7 and 8 When of .

, , .
normal construction ( A an d C Fig 1 0 P late the web plate is of the ,

.
,
same thickness as and connects to an ordinary frame angle it s inner edge

, , ,
being sti ffened by a s i ngle large face angle or by two of reverse frame size ,
-
.
I n many cases the web frame shell angles are ma de o f 3 5 x 3 inch bars like
-
,
those on the floors of a double bottom ( B Fig 1 0 ) the large frame angle , .
,
however is adva n tageous in the case o f a vessel having two decks and in
, ,
which the web frames s top at the s econd for by merely extending it upwards , , ,
it serves as the tween deck frame it being admissible to dispense with

’
-
,
alternate reverse bars at this part When a web frame stops at a lower .
deck the frame above if of Z channel or bulb angle section may b e

, , , ,
-
,
scarphed with it ( Fig 1 P late or b e connected to the deck over the

.
,
web by a bracket or b e carried down unmodified in way of the web

,
frame ( Fig I n small ve s sels which carry coal ore etc a face bar of
.
, , .
,
ordinary light scantlings has little endurance being expo s ed to bumps and
blows it become s quickly battered and broken I n such there fore the
, .
, ,
face angles should be extra thick or a massive bulb bar or two half ro u nd ,
-
moul dings may be s ub s ti tu ted ( D and E Fig 1 0 P la te ,

.
,
When w e b fr a m e s are fitted in conjunction w i th sh all ow flo o rs ,
t h e i r breadth should b e well maintained at their juncture therewith the ,
contour of these particular floors being modified to s uit ( Fig 2 P late .

,
Very commonly it is convenient to taper them s o that witho u t interfering , ,
w ith the bilge keel s on the face angles may pass under it the one terminating
, ,
here and the other continuing a s the ordinary reverse bar ; thi s is also
,
advantageous in that it reduces the distu rbance of the ceiling planking and ,
inter feres less with the bottom of the hold as a platform for cargo .
[Art 9 9
bunker plating is thin however and although the bulkhead may be wide , , ,
this does not make up for its slenderne s s under pressure from withou t it
would readily buckle To give it therefore the s ti ffening e ffect of a stout
.
, ,
web frame it s marginal plate should be thickened and a v e rti cal sti ffe ner
,
placed near the s hell .
A r t 100 I n t w i n s c re w v e s s e ls if the shaft pierced the s loping

. .
-
,
side it would form a long oval hole severing mfin y frame s The blu ffer , .
the vessel the shorter would this oval hole b ecome ; if so bluff that the
,
side s tood s quare with the keel the shaft would enter it squarely and make ,
a circular hole so that the end o f the sha ft tube within might be s quarely
,
flanged thereto I n practice precisely this e ffect is secured by forming a

.
, (
local swelling on the ship s side ( Figs 6 and 7 P late having a square ’
.
,
acro s s termination through which the shaft may enter and to which the ,
end of the tube may be fixed There are di fferent methods of forming the .
swelling or b o s s i n g I n s mall blu ff vessels o f the barge type it may be

,
.
,
so short fore and aft that instead of mod i fying the hull a casting may be
, , , ,
fitted as shown in Fig 8 I n such ca ses the hull may be built as i f without
. .
provision fo r the shafts whereupo n these being lined o ff the necessary , , ,
oval hole may be cut s evering a s required one or two frames and the ,
wood pattern for the casting fitted out s ide .
I n l ar ger t w i n s c r e w v e s s e l s the forego in g method i s inapplica ble

-
,
for the casting would be too large and the hull too much weakened by the
severance of numerou s frame s H ere therefore the side of the ship is .
, ,
bossed The swelling begins at the first frame which would approach
.
inconve n iently near the s haft ; this one is only s lightly bo s sed but those ,
abaft it more and more ( Figs 6 and 7 P late Th e b o ss i n g may .

,
terminate at that frame whose local s welling i s so great that the shaft ,
pa s sing it may be quite clear of the ordinary s ide beyond ; a thick

,
transverse plate is then fitted across thi s frame completing the integrity ,
of the shell plating by uniting that surrounding the bossed frames with
that on the normal surface abaft them This plate suppo rts the after end .
of the tube which forming a bearing for the shaft must be very rig idly
, , ,
held I f the plate stood alone it would o f cour s e be incapable of giving

.
, ,
proper support to the tube but a high degree o f rigidity is at once secured
by placing within the h ull at this part a transverse bulkhead complete or ,
partial of which it may form a proj ecting portion ( Fig

, Sometimes as , ,
a s ubstitute fo r th e last bossed frame and tube plate a casting is employed , ,
having flanges to take the shell plating and large transverse palm s to take ,
the bulkhead Such castings are al ways adopted in wood sheathed ve s sels
.
-
in these it is made o f bronze so as to fulfil the necessary condition that at ,
no place under water may any o f the steel structure be expo sed ( Art .
When arranged as above a long portion of the shaft lies exposed ,
beyond the bossing and to support its outer end at the propeller a two leg
, , ,
-
p r o p e l l e r s t r u t is fitted as described in A r t 2 6 2 and illustrated in P late

, .
35 . I n many ca s es the outboard portion of the shaft is uncovered but in ,
high class ve s sels it is enca sed in a detachable t ube which by covering

-
, ,
irregu larities serves to reduce water disturbance ( Fig 7 P late

,
In .
,
practically all large vessels a simila r e ffect is now secured by extending

the bossing right aft to the propeller ( Figs 1 to and by fitting .
,
instead o f a clumsy two leg strut a single leg h o r i z o n t a l b r a c k e t as -

,
-
,
illustrated in P lates 3 6 3 7 3 8 I n this way there are no salient parts to , , .
create water resistance The after end of the shaft tube is supported by .
the bracket and its for ward end by one o f the bossed frames suitably
, ,
strengthened by a thick plate forming part of a transverse bulkhead and ,
to support the shaft b earings which fall within the bossing deep floor ,
Ar t 1 00]
99
plate s web frames or partial bulkheads are introduced Whe n the frame s
, , .
are sti ff and massive perhaps of 6 or 8 inch channel bars it would be a

,
-
,
di fficult matter to bend them to the sharp triple curvature requ ired at
some parts of the bossi ng I n such cases there fore they are n o t bent
.
, ,
out wards in the usual way ; they are where the swelling is small but
, ,
further a ft “here it is considerable they are carried s traight down or

, , ,
are made to clear the sha ft by an easy inward curve the place they wo uld ,
otherwise occupy on the outer swelling being taken by short independent

, ,
angle frames ( Fig 3 P late

.
,
Th e latter form a supplementary outer
framing for the bossed portion of the s ide the structural strength being
,
maintained by the continuous main frame s w ithin When the frame s are .
o f bu i lt type the frame angles may be bent outward s to form the bo s sing
, ,
the reverse bars being carried down with their ordinary curvature or set ,
in as required to clear the s haft I n some ca s e s the frames contig u ous to

.
the propeller bracket where the bossing becomes very thin and fin like
,
-
,
are ca rried straight down the shell plating occupying its usual position
, ,
and the plating of the boss being fitted as an external a ddition ; this
arrangement gives greater se c uri ty agai nst water entering the hull i n the
event o f fracture of the shaft and tu b e .
[Art 1 01
C H A P TE R I X .
Ar t . 1 01 number and massiveness o f the s i d e o r h o ld s tr i n ge r s

. The
depends on the depth o f the vessel s hold L loyd s rules in this respect ’
.
’
are exhibited graphically in P late 4 There are three distinct classes o r

side stri n ger —the ordinary which run continuously fore and aft wi thout
.
any special points of s upport ; those which are fitted in short lengths
between web frames ; and the wide stringer plates fitted in conjunction
with widely spaced hold beam s A lthough for convenience Lloyd s rules .
, ,
’
specify certain formation s others are frequently adopted which while

, , ,
giving equal strength satisfy other requirements o f the builders or owners

,
.
Some di fferent formations are shown in Figs 1 and 2 P late 5 Fig 1 .

,
.
,
P late 7 ; Figs 1 to 5 P late 9 ; Fig 1 P late 5 5 and P late 1 0 3

.
,
I t will .
, , .
b e observed that the number of component parts varies ; in some it is

reduced to a minimum by flanging or by employing channel or Z bars
, , ,
or bars of special massiveness When a plate is flanged Lloyd s rules .

,
’
require it to be of greater thickness for the reasons noticed in Art 1 8 4 I n . .
comparing the advantages of di fferently formed stringers there are several

matters to consider A s regards structural e fficiency tho s e are superior
.
,
which are most s ymmetrical That shown at A P late 1 0 3 fo r instance

.
, , ,
is more e fficient theoretically than that s hown at B or in Fig 2 ; fo r

, , ,
.
,
with a face bar above and below its lateral rigidity is greater i a under , ,
. .
horizontal bending forces there would be no initial tendency to cant or

fold over on the ship s side N everthele s s it is generally preferred to
’
,
.
place only one large face bar b elo w fo r owing to the fewer parts the , , ,
stringer is cheaper to construct ; the flush upper surface is advantageous

as regards cargo stowage fo r the salient edge of an upper angle is obstructive
,
and is readily battered and damaged and the trough like formation forms ,
-
a lodgment for water grain etc I n vessels which carry grain in bulk
, , .
,
holes are sometimes punched in such stringers so that the grain may fall ,
through and fill the empty spaces that might occur b elow ; and in some
cases the stringers are s loped downwards from the vessel s side so that ’
no grain may lodge thereon ( Fig 2 P late Th e latter arrangement .

,
is evidently not an e fficient one structurally fo r having a permanent cant , , ,
a tendency to increase it must occur with every lateral b ending force ; to

check the tendency supporting bracket plates must be fitted at close
,
intervals Th e intercostal plates o f the side stringers are fitted in long

.
lengths scored or notched to pass out bet ween the frames ( Fig 1 3 P late
, .
,
They not only act as a connecting web between the shell and
the strin ger bars but the contin u ous portion between the latter adds
,
useful sectional area to the whole ; to secure fully the latter advantage ,
ho wever the j oints o f the plate must be properly connected a matter

, ,
not always attended to .
A r t 1 02 I n the case of the w i d e s t r i n ger p l a t e fi t t e d i n c on

. .
j u n c t i o n Wi th h o l d b e a m s ( Figs 1 to 5 P late bracket plates are .

,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 1 03
2 .
[ .
t wo . only the fore and a ft strength of the face bars were considered
If - -
,
a simple parallel strap o f the sectional area o f the face bars might su ffice ,
but the diamond or gusset formation has a useful clamping e ffect giving ,
rigidity to the joint in all directions Lloyd s rules now permit o f the .
’
strap formation s hown in Fig 1 2 the efficiency of which is superior owing .

,
to the rivets being distributed with due regard to securing continuity o f

strength in the severed face bars At the bulkheads hal f diamonds or .
gussets are sometimes fitted one on either side connected by a short , ,
vertical angle or flange ; but it is better to fit a horizontal bracket here ,
for then both the stringer and bulkhead receive useful support ( Fig 9 .
,
P late I f the breadth of the side stringer is as great as 1 8 inches and ,
its span between web frames exceeds 8 feet it must be supported and ,
held to its work midway between the webs by a bracket placed either ,
ab ove or below ( Fig 1 1 P late .

,
A r t 1 04 . I n order that the strength of the s i d e s t ri n ge r s a n d

.
k e e l s o n s may b e maintained uniformly throughout Lloyd s rule s speci fy

’
, ,
in a general way that they shall pass th ro u gh t h e t r a n s v e r s e b u lk

,
h e a d s the watertigh tness o f the latter being secured by fitting angle

,
collars around the former ( Fig 7 P late 2 2 and Fig s 1 1 to 1 4 P late .

, , .
,
The work of fitting and caulking these collars is a s mall matter so long
as the stringers are merely double angle bar s ; if o f less simple section ,
however it is usual not to pass them through the bulkheads but to stop
, ,
them on either side so as to avoid extensive watertight collaring in which

,
case the continuity o f the stringer is made good by l a r ge b r a c k e t p l a t e s ,

h aving a double angle or large single angle connection to the bulkhead ( Figs
- -
.
9 and 1 0 P late 2 2 and Figs 8 and 9 P late 2

, When the s tringers are
, .
,
of the massive kind adopted with deep framing Lloyd s rules require these ,
’
brackets to b e twice the depth of the stringer within the face bars and ,
52,
inch thicker and that they shall be
, connected thereto by a double row
o f rivets I n any ca s e whether or not those extra strong s ide stringers
.
,
-
( and the wide stringer fitted in conjunction with widely spaced hold beams ) -
pierce the bulkheads Lloyd s rules require large gu sset s to be fitted to ,

’
d istribute the s up port given by the bulkhead to th e vessel s side ( Fig 8

’
.
,
P late I n cases where they have not been fitted the resulting con ,
centration of stres s ha s led to loosening of the riveting in the vicinity

of the bulkhead I n the bulkheads o f oil steamers where absolute oil
.
,
tightness i s essential it is usually preferred to sever all side stringers and

, ,
the keelsons a s well connecting them to the bulkhead s by b rackets ,

.
A n d the latter are made very large so that in addition to maintaining the ,
full strength of the fore and a ft parts the bulkheads may receive ample - -
,
support ( Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late . A n d further in oil ve ss els the shell

, , ,
lugs of interco s tal s tringers are doubled in the neighbourhood o f the

bulkhead or all fore and aft in large ta nks ( Fig
, .
A r t 1 05 The n um b er o f s i d e s t ri n gers specified in L loyd s rules

’
. .
refers to the mid s hip portion o f the hull as regard s the end portions
’
,
where owing to the sheer the depth of hold may considerably exceed that
, ,
amidships it is required that the distance between the stringers shall not
,
be greater than it i s amidships To comply with this in vessels having a .

,
double bottom an ad ditional stringer must be fitted at the fore end as

, ,
shown in P late 1 0 A s a ve ss el s girth at the ends i s les s than it is amid

.
’
ships it follow s that in vessel s not having a double bottom i f the side
, ,
keelsons and s tringers were all extended to the stem and s te m they would ,
approach one another too closely ; thi s is avoided by s topping the side
keelson some distance from the ends At the stem and stern where the .
,
stringer s o f opposite sides meet they are connected by V shaped gusset ,

-
Art 1 06 ]
. P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 1 03
plates termed b r e a s t h ook s ( P late

, Those at the stern are more
“
particularly referred to as c r u t c h e s ”
B reast bo o ks are use ful in tha t .
,
by holding fixedly the ends o f the s tringers and uniting the vessel s sides ’
immediately aba ft the massive stern bar they increase the strength and ,
rigidi ty of the stringers and of the bow generally .
Art 106 E n d o n c olli s i on a t s e a with other vessels or icebergs

. .
-
, ,
is a contingency to which all vessels are liable but as the forces brought
into play may be quite irresis tible it would evidently be impracticable and ,
inexpedien t to endeavour to provide against them by giving enormous

strength to the bow structure I n w a r s h i p s the injury which a striking
.
vessel inflicts on the one struck is an important means of o ffence and in ,
their de s ign i s always kept in view P ractically all warships are designed .
with the familiar r am bo w the proj ecting under water spur of which is,
-
well calcu lated to do a maximum of injury to the enemy and a minimum ,
to the attacking vessel ( Fig 2 P late 3 1 and Fig 2 P late . The

, , .
,
power o f ramming if exerci s ed at all would only be so at lo w speed s ;

, ,
even then the stre s ses arising from sudden interference with the momentum
,
o f s o large a mass would be very severe and consequently in the de s ign , , ,
o f a ram bow the greatest care must be observed to secure exceptional
strength No t only must the backward thrust due to the su dden stoppage
.
of the ship be provided against but also the subsequent wrenching or side ,
twisting e ffects due to the motion of the vessel struck The latter e ffect .
usually accompanies end o u collision and its consequen ces are o ften more
-
,
serious— to b oth ves s els— than those due to the first blow To resist the .
backward thru s t the stem is made immensely strong the shell plating
, ,
immediately abaft it being d oubled in thickness and rabbeted thereto ;

also the internal framework is very massively constructed thick breast
, ,
hooks being introd uced to tie together the sides and back up the stem .
Formerly ram stems were sharply formed the spur portion though , ,
measuring several feet fore and aft being only a few inches across to give ,
it there fore the nece s sary transverse strength a horizontal ram a m assive —
slab like breast hook —was fitted in line with the spur No w since it ha s
, , ,
- .
,
been realized that the bow or forward end o f a submerged body may ,
without increasing the resi s tance be exceedingly blu ff or full the spur is , ,
made several feet wide so that being spherical or bulbous in form it

, , ,
possesses great lateral strength ( Fig 2 P late .

,
I n m er c h a n t v e ss e l s although e n d o n c o lli s i on is only provided

,
-
against in very minor degree by strength of bo w its dangerous con ,
sequences are most e fficiently met by the introduction of a c olli s i o n

b u lkh e a d for when the bow collapse s this takes the place of the dama ged
,
side forming temporarily the watertight skin of the ship ( P lates 1 0 and
, , ,
To be useful the bulkhead must of course remain intact a condition

, , , ,
dependi n g on its distance aba ft the s tem and the extent to which the bo w
is likely to crush up The greater its distance from the seat of dis tu rbance
. ,
the smaller is the chance of its being injured and in practice L loyd s ,
’
requirement of one twentieth of the vessel s length is generally a ccepte d as

-
’
a minimum fairly compatible with sa fety While not endeavouring to bu i ld

O
the bow so stro n gly that it will withstand collision the strength usually ,
provided is su ffi cient to limit the damage to the portion before the bulk
head Many cases are on record of collisions at high speed with i cebergs
.
,
or other vessels in which although the bow has been crushed back almost
, , ,
to th e collision bulkhead this has remained intact and saved the ship
,
.
The stringers and connecting b re a st h oo k s are valuable i n stren gth

e n i n g the bow against collision the latter by rigi dly uniting the fle x 1ble
, ,
side plating abaft the massive stem bar ( P late e ffect a transm i ss i on of
.
1 04 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[Art 1 06 .
the first s hock over a con s iderable fore and aft portion of the bow A s a - - .
result of minor collisions when the stem bar receives an oblique blow it , ,
folds readily over the thin s hell plating on the one side crinkling up
,
concert i na fashion and on the other bending over with the stem The
,
.
breast hooks b y unitin g the two side s just aba ft the stem are most capable
, ,
in resisting such distortion The upper part of the stem is well backed up .
by the decks the s t ringer plate s of which form excellent breast hooks
,
.
Below the lowest deck Lloyd s rules require brea s t hooks to b e fitted
’
not more than 4 feet apart vertically ; and in large vessels ( over
plating numeral) to give rigidity to the upper part of the stem com
, ,
mensurate in some degree with the weight and possible momentum o f the
hull an additional breast hook is required between each deck thus placing
, ,
them at about 4 feet intervals throughout .
T0 support the stem bar properly the breast hooks should o f course , , ,
abut upon i t ; and to give the greatest sti ffening e ffect to the thin shell
plating they should be directly connected thereto The lower breast
,
.
hooks usually stop at one o f the deep floors some distance from the ,
stem fo r to fit them right up to the latter would result in inaccessible

,
spaces below The deep floors of cours e by tying the sides together
.
, , ,
dispense in some measure with the necessity fo r breast hooks A t the .
stern only s uch crutches are fitted as are required to unite the ends of the
,
stringers ; and in s teamers the deep floors required at this part usu ally
take their place the stringers being bracketed to the after peak bulkhead
,
-
.
L loyd s rules require the breast hooks to be the thickness of the midship
’
floor plates When the free edge is wide it should be sti ffened by an
.
angle bar or flange ( Fig 7 P late Sometimes the plate is cambe re d

.
,
to suit t he lie o f the stringers which it unites but it is evidently b etter

“ ”
,
that it should pass straight across .
A rt 1 07 Th e sides of the hull a t t h e b o w are liable to s pecial

. .
s t r e s s e s o f a c o ll a p s i n g o r p a n t i n g nature These occur as a result .
of violent pitching in heavy w ea ther ; fo r with the bow one moment ,
deeply submerged and the next raised quite out of the water the con ,
sequent alternation of intense pressure with no pressure at all tends to

make the sides move in and out or p a n t The collapsing pressures may , .
be very intense for not only are they cau s ed by the steady pressure of deep
,
i mmersion but by the dynamical effects of the vessel s movement i e the

,
’
, . .
forward motion of the hull combined with the downward plunge o f the
bow against advancing waves The intensity o f the s hocks depends much .
on the vessel s trim and on the design of the hull M odern full cargo
’
.
, ,
vessels when in ballast float so lightly on the water that should they
, , ,
encounter heavy weather such as occurs in the N orth A tlantic in winter ,
time the fore end may li ft so high and plunge with such violence
,
again s t advancing waves as to s uff er shocks of a most intense character ,
tending to collapse the sides and damage the bottom in way of the fore
When the vessel s sides at the bow are full or rot und they are not
,
foot
’
.
,
likely to receive blow s so forcible as when they are flat Further when o f .
,
the former type the structure is naturally better able to withstand severe
pressures for being rounded like an arch local collapse must involve
, , ,
widespread s training over a large area ; a flat surface similarly sti ffened , ,
might yield to a comparatively s mall pressure .
S a i li n g s h i p s are more liable to su ffer from p a n t i n g s t re sse s than

-
steamers ( except the latter encounter heavy head seas when in light trim ) ,
fo r their bows are usually flatter and bei n g shorter they are more liable , , ,
to pitch Also as they are constantly heeled over the panting pres s ure s
.
, ,
are not equally intense on b oth bow s for as the lee one presents a more ,
06 Art 1 07
P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[ .
overhanging counter being almost horizontal may sometimes receive severe

, ,
blows from the sea The structural reinforcements here introduced also
‘
.
,
those required at the bow above water are noticed in A rt 8 4 , ,

. .
A r t 108 There is an o t h e r c l a s s o f p a n t i n g s t r e s s distinct from

. .
those just noticed They occur as a consequence o f encountering h e a d

.
s e a s w h en i n l i gh t t r i m Th e fore foot of a lon g vessel when in light .

-
,
trim skims the surface so that it encounters advancing waves with a series
, ,
o f impingements When the surface of a fluid is struck flatly i t responds

.
,
'
almost like a solid and similarly with the flat part of the fore foot as it
,
-
meet s advancing waves To those on board the shocks so received by .

,
the hull may be so violent as to make it di ffi cult to stand on deck ; they

resemble those which might occur from the vessel striking a solid body An .
instructive example o f this wave pou nding action occurred in the case o f -
the R ussian circular yacht L i va di a The features of this vessel are , .
familiar ; her draught was small and her h ow was formed by a gradual ,
curving up of the bottom O n her maiden voyage across the Bay of .

,
B iscay she su ffered s erious injury and making water put into port when
, , , , ,
it was found that the shell plating under the bow was indented and cracked ,
and the framework distorted .

1
These peculiar e ffects are practically only noticed in m o d e rn v e s s e ls

o f f u ll fo r m particularly in those having a fl a t o r s p o o n li k e for e fo o t - - .
,
C ases o f damage are o ften observed in such vessels a fter crossing the
A tlantic in light trim in stormy weather The region a ff ected is the .
b o tto m c f the hull just aba ft the collision bulkhead U sually the results .
are limited to fractured cement loosened riveting and indented she ll , ,
plating the frames showing up in distinct ridges O nly two or three

, .
strakes next the keel are a ffected and as a rule only fo r a short fore and , , ,
-
a ft distance I n more pronounced cases the frames and floors may be bent
.
and broken The character of the injuries is often such that it is hard to
.
believe they have been caused by sea action they resemble what might be
occasioned by ru nning ashore bow o u or by str iking sunken wreckage -
, ,
and formerly this was sometime s erroneously assumed as the cause .
Small c o a s t i n g v e s s el s which have their m a c h i n e ry a t t h e s t e m , ,
and whose fore foot when running light is therefore nearly out o f the water
-
, , ,
are also liable to a simila r wave —pounding action and in their case even in , , ,
moderate weather I n these small vessels when running light it is almost

.
, ,
impossible to keep a steady course against head seas fo r the bow having , ,
no grip o f the water swerve s constantly to port or starboard To improve

, .
the navigable qualities and avoid at the same time the damaging e ffects ,
just noticed they are usually provided with a fore peak trimming tank
,
-
.
But although the filling of this by securing a more even trim may remedy , ,
these evils the concentrated load at either end of the hull el sewhere light
, ,
and buoyant may by causing violent pitching give rise to s training

, , ,
tendencie s equally serious A n additional feature of this continued wave .
action in these small vessels is the marked corrosion which occurs in the
lower caulking edges of the plates and the contiguous rivet points in the
vicinity of the fore foot This is no doubt due to the fact tha t the outward
-
.
, ,
and upward ru s h of the water and the blow struck by the ves s el s fore foot ,
’
-
as it plunges into and against the waves causes su ffi cient pantin g pressure ,
on the thin plating of the inner strakes as to start the caulking of the
landing edge strain the riveting and admit water into the joint A s
, ,
.
f th v y g w i ll b f u d i
1
A i t ti g
n u t
n e re s n a cc o
p pn b y oS i E J R d e o a e e o n n a a er r . . ee ,
an d l by C p t G ul ff i th T
a so o n e a I
. ti l ut f N o l A /
aei t t
,
88 1
n S i e r a f ts . ns zou o ava re z ee s , 1 . r
ll ly l ul d
“
E .
J R d.
y ee d m u h m
sa s, ly b
anut ti p t d th b
c w w or e m t rare , s re ea e , e o o se e o
w uld x p t t h pp fr m th hi p t i ki g
”
b ju t u h
e s s c as o n e o e k ec o a en o e s s r n a ro c .
Art 1 08 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 1 07
proving this it is found that when the strakes are arranged clinker fas hion
, ,
with the ca ulking edge upwards th e above e ffect is not observe d I t may
, .
also be due in some measure to eddies and the admixture o f air with the
water a similarly rapid wasting e ffect being often observed in the ca ulking
,
edge of lapped shell butts and in the p lating and riveting o f rudders
,
( Art .
Lloyd s rules now require special provision to be m ade against the

’
above stresses I n vesse ls which are o f full form at the fore foot or whose
.
-
,
tonnage coefficient exceeds 7 8 all the frame angles between the collision
'
bulkhead and one fifth the length from the stern must be doubled within the
-
d ouble bottom ( Fig 1 P late or from bilge to bilge where there is no

.
,
double bottom and additional i n te rco stal ke e lso n s mu s t be introduced I n

, .
ves s els having a cellular double bottom with floors on alternate frames every ,
frame at this part must have a floor or the lo n gitudi nals mu st be more
,
closely spaced ( P late Further the midship thickness of the two

,
’
strakes o f shell plating next the garboard strakes must be maintained to

the bow The shell to frame rivets must be 5 in place o f 7 diameters
.
- -
apart and those in the landings 4 in place o f 45 d iameters The strengthen

, .
ing e ffect o f double frames is noticed in A rt 6 7 . .

108 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[Art . 1 09
C H A P TE R X .
Ar t . 109 thickness of sh e ll p l a t i n g suitable for any particular

. The
vessel is not one that can be decided by mathematical rea s oning ; like the
scantlings of other parts of the hull the thicknesses adopted in practice ,
represent what experience has indicated as n eces s ary Nevertheless the .

,
various matter s which govern it may b e readily stated so that with a , ,
knowledge of their influence theoretical investigation may be u s efully ,
applied to corroborate the deductions of experience and give greater

assurance in doubtful cases .
The first d u t y o f t h e s h e ll is of course to act as a w a ter tzg/zt ski n , , ,
and it must also give to the hull longi tudi n a l str engt /t and gener a l r igi di ty .
Th e former duty is unique and cannot be s hared the latter may be largely ,
performed by other parts Longitudinal strength may be secured by plated.
decks and by the stringers and keel s on s ; and general rigidity by these
,
incorporated with the tran s verse framing and by the tran s verse bulkheads , .
H o w thick the shell plating should be therefore may depend very , ,
considerably on how much these other parts contribute to the general

strength .
A s regards longitudinal strength the shell is the most important part ; ,
being one large continuous well sti ff ened surface all s tresses acting in its
, , ,
plane are instantaneously transmitted s o that every part o f it gives a ,
simultaneous resistance A deck may likewise b e most capable ; the .
upper deck indeed may b e regarded as a horizontal continuation of the

, ,
shell homologou s with the bottom plating A deck however is u s ually of

,
.
, ,
comparatively thin plating and may be wanting in the lateral rigidity and ,
fairness of surface essential to an e fficient resistance of fore and aft stresses - -
( A rt . K eelsons and side stringer s are isolated and detached and so ,
may not under fore and aft stress co operate simultaneou s ly and assist the
,
-
,
-
s hell to their full power .
A r t 1 1 0 Notice for a moment s ome theoretica l matters in connection

. .
, ,
with the behaviour of the shell plating when as a watertight s kin it resists
, , , ,
pres s ures from without tending to bulge it inwards between the frames I t
, .
is o f course essential that no palpable bulging should occur for if it did

, , ,
the riveting and caulking would not long endure and the cement on the ,
bottom would not remain intact The r e s i s t an c e w h i c h t h e p l a t i n g .
—
o ff e r s m a y b e o f t wo kinds — t h a t o f a b e a m w i th fi x ed e n d s o r ,
t h a t o f a s u s p e n s i on c h a i n Thi s will be clear i f an experimental .
strip o f plating be considered fixed beam like between s upports repre s enting ,
-
the frames and deflected by a load see Fig 3 P late 1 1 The strip is here
, , .
, .
depicted a s resisting in the manner of a b eam with fixed end s Throughout .
the middle curve i ts lower edge I S in tension and its upper i n compres s i on ;
elsewhere the stre s ses are reversed A s s hown in the sketch the curvature .
is evidently exaggerated for were it so pronounced the strip m us t have

, , ,
lengthened very co nsiderably and would therefore be i n a state of ten s ion ,

1 10 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 1 1 1
.
unimportant so that a thickness of shell plating ample i n this respect

, , ,
might be insu fficient as rega i ds general rigidity and local sti ffne s s The .
plating must be sufficiently strong to resist the buoyant pressure of the sea
witho ut any perceptible tendency to bulge inwards between the frames ; in
theory there fore i f the frame spacing were suitably reduced its thickness
, , ,
in small vessels might be redu ced to the minimum requisite fo r lon gitudinal
strength I n practice however it must be su ffici ently s tout to withsta nd
.
, ,
the b u mps and blows of active service ; in case o f grou ndin g fo r instance , ,
or bumping against quay w alls i f the plating were too thin it would be too ,
readily indented or it might su ffer such tension as to strain the riveting or

, ,
break through the adj acent line o f frame rivet holes O f course a close .
,
spacing o f the frames in small vessels m ight permit to a certain extent o f , ,
thinner shell plating fo r the frames would contribute a larger share o f the
necessary structural rigidity the plating would be less lia ble to deflect ,
between them and its capabilities in resisting fore and aft compression
,
- -
would be increased But fo r economical reasons a wide rather than a .

,
narrow spacing is usually preferred fo r with fewer parts th e cost o f

, ,
construction is reduced .
With so many interdepe ndent and varying influences to consider it ,
would clearly be impracticable to attempt to decide by mere theoretical ,
investigation what in di fferent vessels should b e the precise t h i c k n e ss

, , ,
o f t h e s h e ll and what the proper spacing o f the frames

,
The t hicknesses .
and frame spacing now generally adopted — and with satisfactory results
-
were determined for th e most part by trial and error i e by observing

, , , . .
care fully the capabili ties and endurance of different vessels i n active
servi ce noting i n each the prevailing conditions and making intelligent
, ,
deductions from any abnormal e ffect s I n the e a rly i r on v e s s el s the shell .
plating wa s very thick and the frames massive and closely spaced A t ,
.
that time there was no current experience of the capabilitie s of iron as a

str uctural material and it was natural having in view the po s sibilities of
, ,
corrosion that in fixing the scantlings the error should have been on the
,
sa fe side I t was soon observed however that the strength was in e xcess
.
, , ,
much exceeding that possessed by wooden ves s els and so the plating was ,
reduced in thickness and the frames were made less massive and placed wider,
apart I n the first table of scantl i ngs for iron vessel s published in I loyd s
.
,
’
rules fo r 1 8 5 5 the thickness o f the shell plating required fo r a first class

,
-
vessel of 2 0 0 0 tons was 55 inch ; and the frames were 6 by 4 by 5 g ineh ,
spaced 1 6 inches apart A t the present time in an iron ve s sel of similar .

,
—
s i ze the shell would be i 5 inch and the frames 5 by 3 by Ti inch 2 4 inches ,
l 6
.
, ,
apart ( for steel substi tute 2 0 ths fo r 1 6 ths) I n the early vessels the bottom
, .
plating from the keel to the upper turn of the bilge was made thicker than
that above Because it was anticipated that this pa rt would su ffer more from
.
corrosion for not only was it subject to the action o f bilge water within
, ,
b ut was constantly submerged without and further in the event o f , , ,
grounding it was liable to abnormal local pressures Later however

,
.
, ,
when cement was universally adopted as an inside covering it was seen that ,
it was the plating on the vessel s sides that su ffered the most for here are ’
present the conditions most favourable to corrosion — heat air and moisture , ,
.
The b ottom plating always under water s u ffers little and not at all on its
, , ,
inner sur face where covered by cement ( A rt With this grea ter .
experience the practice o f making the side plating thinner than that of
,
the bottom was discontinued .
A r t 11 2 Th e shell plating is arranged in fore and aft strips termed

. .
- -
,
strakes There are three distinctive methods o f disposing them so as

. ,
to connect each one to its neighbour These are shown in F igs 9 1 1 and . .
, ,
Art 1 1 2] . P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1 1 1
P late 1 1 , and are known as the i d out, the cli nker , and the fla sk “ “
1 2, n -a n -
r“
edge ou edge
- -
”
system I n the early iron vessels the clinker system was .
commonly adopted b u t it soon gave place to the n o w universal i n and out

,
- -
me thod The flush system is principally confined to yachts where the

.
,
handsome appearance of an u nbroken smooth s urface may be desired ,

—
.
By the i n an d o u t sys t e m alternate strakes

- the -i n n er — fi t close or ,
f y
a upon
, the frames while the outer ( unles s they are j oggled as shown in
,
Fig 1 0 P late 1 1 ) are di s tant therefrom by the th ickness of the inner To

.
,
.
fi ll the vacancies between the frames and the outer strakes strips of iron , ,
termed li ne r s or pa cki ng are introduced The overlap o f contiguous

“
,
”
, .
“
strakes is termed the la ndi ng and the edge of the plate vi sible on the ,
”
,
outside the szg/zt or ca ulki ng edge

,
“
I n the actual work o f fitting the
,
”
.
”
plating on this s ystem any or all o f the inner s trakes may b e fitted at any ,
time and as is not u ncommon b e riveted to the frame s before the outer
, , ,
ones are dealt with .
The c li n k e r s ys t e m requires the strakes to be fitted consecutively

like the slates of a roof ; it involves double the number of frame liners ,
and instead of mere parallel strips each one must be tapered A part from
, , .
the extra labour and expense in making and fitting the liners the work , ,
w hen done is seldom pe rfectly satisfactory

,
A parallel liner o f proper .
thickness fits accurately with solidity througho ut ; when tapered in the ,
usual rough way under the steam hammer the taper may be irregular and ,
imper fect A lso the frame rivets are of unequal length a circumstance
.
, ,
which is an inconvenience in the riveting work I n the early da ys o f .
iron ship building the necessity fo r uniform and solid contact between
the frames and the shell was not at first realized and sometimes , ,
instead o f liners smal l iron washers were employed one for each frame
, ,
rivet With the clinker strakes then in vogue this saved the work o f
.
making tapered liners ; but of course the union of frame to shell was very , ,
imperfect in the absence of frictional contact between the surfaces strain

, ,
in
g and leakiness of the rivets was almost inevitable The classification .
societies r equire all liners to be 1n one piece i e not in short lengths and ,
. .
,
not made up of several layers H aving the above disadvanta ges the .
,
clinker s ystem is no longer employed ; in most vessels however portions , ,
of the shell are so arranged I f there i s an odd number o f strakes fo r .

,
instance one of them may have to be disposed clinker fashion ( P late 1 0 0 )

,
-
and similarly in the ca se of a stea ler which as described later takes the , , ,
place of an inner and an outer strake ( Fig 1 P late P ractical details .

,
in connection with frame liners w ill be found in Art 5 2 7 . .
Th e fl u sh s ys t e m o f shell plating is practically confined to yachts a nd , ,
being adopted for appearance sake it is u s ually limited to the plating above ’
,
water ( Fig 1 2 P late Th e di ff erent strakes fit against one another

.
, ,
e dge t o e d ge and are connected within by fore and aft strips termed
- -
,
- -
,
“
edge or sea /n s tr ips
, A s the strips are usually worked continuously .
”
,
frame liners are required behind each strake ; but if the les s usual method
is adopted of fitting them in short lengths between the frames all liners ,
are dispensed w ith The latter plan is advantageous in that much three ply
.
-
riveting is avoided and the weight of the liners and the work o f fitting
,
the m saved Nevertheless the sea m strips are usually worked continuo u sly
.
, ,
for there is a general feeling that to cut them would be prejudicial A t the .
end of each shor t strip where it butts against the frame there wo u ld be , ,
a small point in the sea m not b acked up or covered ; if the caulking

became defective elsewhere the entering water would meet the edge strip , ,
so that rust accumulating between would soon restore watertightn ess ;

, ,
but if de fective at a point not backed up the water might pass th rough ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 1 1 2
112 .
[ .
unimpeded A l though with bad work this would be so it i s not a seri ous
.
, , ,
objection ; shell plating is sometimes worked i n thi s way as also plated ,
decks and tank tops and w ith no ill consequences I t should be observed
,
.
that at the butt straps of all outer strakes there are Si m i lar uncovered
points ( Art Of course
.
the severance o f the seam str
,
i ps at each
frame does not tend to longitudinal strength but i n small vessels th is is

,
unimporta nt .
The flush system of s hell plating l S costly i n workmansh i p for to fit ,
cu rved plates accurately edge to edge requires very considerable care and,
- -
,
skill i f not in contact at any part the unsatisfactory exped ent i i s adopted
,
of inserting s lips of iron A noticed in A t 2 1 the perfect i on o f the

s r 3 . .
,
caulking of a butted j oint is less assured and less permanent than that o f
a lapped one ; also compared with an overlap an edge stri p connect i on ,
-
involves double the amount of riveting When well fitted however edge
,
. , ,
to edge plating has certain stru ctural advantages for the mere ci rcumstance
-
o f the seam strip having twice the breadth o f an ordinary land i ng g i ves to ,
the surface consi derably more lateral sti ffnes s Further wh en e x pose d to .
,
stresses acting in it s own plane a flush s urface is a more r i g i d one ; Wi th ,
lapped seams any force tending to push one strake over the face o f
,
i ts neighbo u r tends to shear the rivets ; when th e edges abut the r i vets ,
su ffer no s tress the plates are locked as it were independently of the

, , ,
riveting The tendency in the rivets o f an overlapped joint to sheer i s

.
o ften illustrated in the case of tho s e connecting the frame angles to the
floors ; as a result o f severe upward pres s ure s through grounding or the ,
special panting stresses noticed in A rt 1 0 8 the rivets are often loosened .

,
or shorn I n the case of the shell plating vertical stresse s tending to

. , ,
force each strake over its neighbour occur with every hogging or sagg i ng
.
tendency ( Art These are mostly felt in the landings toward s the
.
bow and s te m about the middle o f the vessel s depth and in large vessels
,
’
,
( over 4 8 0 feet ) L loyd s rules now provide against

’
them by requiring that
the landings at these places shall be treble riveted .
A t one time when cost o f construction and we i ght of bull were not so
,
much considered as now the sh ell p l at i n g was sometimes a r r an ge d ,
e d ge t o e d ge t h ro u gh o u t
- - but in place o f fitting narro w seam str i ps
,
within they were placed outside and were made wide about hal f th e
, , ,
breadth of the strakes they covered ; the appearance outside was there ,
fore that of i n and out plating but half of the entire surface was o f double
,
- -
,
thickness ( Fig 1 3 P late Th e

.
,
C i ty of R ome was b u ilt on this
plan ; but in the ca s e o f the topside and bilge plating the outside or
, ,
coverin g strakes were also fitted edge to edge givin g a flush surface and a - -
,
double thickness throughout At the period of her construction she wa s .
o f unprecedented size and s o the que s tion o f longitu dinal s trength was a
,
prominent one ; being built o f iron with comparatively s mall plates the , ,
plan o f systematically doubling all the topside plating wa s an excellent

one A similar method is advantageou s ly adopted in some o f the largest
.
modern Atlantic liners .
Ar t 11 8 I n order to dispen s e with frame liners the s h ell p l a t i n g

. .
,
is now very co mmo n lyj o ggle d as shown ( Fig 1 0 P late 1 1 and P late ,
.
, ,
Th e inner strakes are fitted in the us u al way and the outer ones over , ,
lapp in g them are bent sharply inwards or joggled s o as to fay upon the
, , ,
frames Th e advantages are obvious ; the weight of the liners is saved

.
( about 2 5 tons in a vessel 3 3 0 feet long ) so that the dead weight car rying ,
capacity is at once increased by that amount nearly all three ply riveting -
is avoided and there i s direct and perfect contact between the shell and
,
frames ; also the work o f fitting the liners is saved but there is o f
, , ,
Art 1 1 4
[ .
outer are made the thicker ; compared with the inner they are somewhat ,
less e ffi cient fo r they do not li e in actual contact with the frames ( except
,
they be joggled ) and when their joints are butted the ,

straps do not ,
entirely cover them A lso as they take all contact Wi th quay walls etc
.
,
.
,
.
,
they form i u bbi ng str akes so that when the pa i nt i s scraped o ff they are , ,
,
articularly exposed to corrosion n old vessels the r edg s are somet mes
'
i
I
p
i
e .
so worn away as to require the rene wal o f the plates l he full th i ckness
’
is maintained over the midship hal f length gradually ta pe rmg thence ’

,
towards the ends I n view o f the special duties o f the garboard strakes
.
,
they do not usually taper more than 5 5 inch 1

.
s
Ar t 1 1 5 At p e c i a l p l a e c s to give local strength or st i ffness t h e ,
. . ,
s h e ll is either i n c r e a s e d i n t h i c k n e s s o r d o u bl e d I n steamers over .
a certain si z e plating numeral ) all plates connect i ng to the stern ,
frame are made th e full midship thickness I n small vessels the bossed’
.
plates in way o f the propeller shaft are o f midship thickness ; when over a ’
certain size plating numeral ) they are 5 7 i nch th i cker a n d i n st i ll 1

,
larger ( over plating numeral ) they as also the cont i guous ones above ,
inch thicker his increased th ckness necessary

.
a n d below are made ,55 T 9

i i s .
to minimize the straining effect of the vibration from the contiguous propeller
it gives massiveness and rigidity to the structure at the point where the sha ft ,
the vibrating medium takes contact with the hull O wing to the i r sharp ,
.
and irregular curvature the boss plates are difficult to fit ; they do not , ,
there fore al ways lie in perfectly close contact with every frame and so
, ,
tapered liners are o ften introduced For this reason and on account o f the .
,
inaccessibility o f the interior o f the hull at this part the riveting o f these ,
plates is not always per fect and de fects even i f slight readily declare
themselves by loose rivets To avoi d such straining —which is diffi cult to
, , ,
remedy owing to the presence o f the shaft tube within the hull —the plates
are not only thickened but their j oints are more securely riveted treble , ,
instead of do uble or i f butted double straps are employed I n vessels

, , , .
having a d o u b le b o t t o m the inner one by sharing in all longitudinal , ,
stresses may greatly relieve t he outer and in view o f this as also o f the
, , , ,
mere duplication it is usual to r e d u c e t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e sh e l l a t

,
t h i s p ar t by 5 inch This reduction ho wever is only made when the

1
5
.
, ,
plating is thicker than 5 inch otherwise it might be insu fficiently sti ff under , ,
local pressures Further no reduction whatever is made where the floors in

.
,
the double bo ttom a re only on alternate frames fo r as the plating in such

r
cases is less well supported its thickness and sti ffness must be maintained , .
Where on account of the vessel s proportions or other features in her desig n

,
’
specially severe longitudinal stresses ma y be anticipated the sheer strake ,
is either thickened or doubled ( Art I f the vessel s length exceeds .

’
eleven times the depth Lloyd s rules require it to be thickene d by 5 7 or ,

’
1
,
5 inch I f twelve depths be exceeded then while in a small vessel it
3
.
5 , ,
w oul d be 2 inch thicker in a larger it might be doubled Fig 1 late
5 0 ( 3
, P .
,
a n d an i ncrease made i n the thicknes s of the strake below I f in a large .
vessel ( over plating numeral) the extre me length o f thirteen depths

be exce eded both the sheer strake and the strake belo w as al s o the upper
,
,
deck stri nger plate may have to be doubled A n d similarly with the , .
plat i ng at the bilge one or more s trakes being thickened or doubled according
’
,
to the vessel s proportions Such rein forcements are confined to the mid
O
.
’
sh i p port i on o f the hull for one hal f to three fourths o f the length A s ,
- -
.
not i ced i n A rt 1 0 the sheer strake is always doubled at the ends of a

.
,
bri dge house or long poop

-
When Ci rcumstances require the s h e e r s tr a k e to be d o u ble d it is

.
common as an alternative to thicken it and the strake below as also the

, , ,
Art 1 1 5 ]
upper deck stringer plate all to s uch an extent as to give the require d
-
,
additional sectional area ( where there is a long bridge house or shelter ~
deck supe r s tructure its side plating is usually thickened as an alternative to

,
do u bling the sheer strake in way of it) Theoretically as the sheer strake .
,
( in a flush deck vessel ) is the highest part of the hull it is here that all
-
,
rein forcing material s hould be placed in practice however it is found that , ,
in large ve ss el s straining e ffects are not always confined to the sheer strake
sometimes the s trake below may sho w evidence of severe stress while the ,
sheer strake show s little or none I n a large deep vessel the di fference in .
,
the stresses which according to the girder theory the material of the sheer
, ,
strake and of the strake below must simultaneously suffer is small ; con ,
s equently it may be more than di s counted by imperceptible structural

deficiencies For in s tance in the case of t wo adjacent strakes i t might
.
, ,
happen that through one of them lying more di rectly i n the line of stress
, ,
it would be un fairly strained ; or perhaps owing to slight di fferences in ,
the mechanica l prope rties o f the material or deficiencies in the riveted ,
j oints the one part though subject apparently to the same or even a le s s
, ,
stress than the other might really be the more severely tried
,
To t h icken slightly two or more s trakes in place of doubling one is ,
advantageous in that the cost of fitting the doubling and of much additional
riveting is saved ; and it avoids three ply rivet s which with thick plates -
, , ,
are not always reliable ( Art The deck stringer and the strake below
.
the s heer are not sti ffened like the latter in the middle by a con tinuous
, ,
gu nwale bar To make them thick there fore is advantageous in that they
.
, , ,
are then more likely to as s ume and retain a pe rfectly fair surface and thus ,
be more capable o f simultaneous c o operation under stress I f a vessel s - .

’
topside plating failed by excessive compre s sion the thick sheer strake , ,
being rigidly held by the gunwale bar would crush rather than bend but , ,
not until the adjacent strakes had ceased to yield their proper share o f the
resista nce Beyond a certain stre s s these comparatively slender and ill
.
,
sti ffened pa rts would cea s e to increa s e correspondingly their resista nce ; i f
the compressive force were increased they would buckle between the
frames or await with perfect readi n e s to buckle the later failure of the
, , ,
sti ffer sheer strake I f now these les s capable strakes were thickened their
.
,
tendency to buckle and shirk the stress would not supervene at so early a
pe riod they would therefore a s si s t the sheer strake and take a fair share
, , ,
of the work under a much higher stress than formerly .
I n cases where to secure greater s trength a strake of plating is doubled

, , ,
it might appear that the desired e ffect could be obtained more simply by
employing a single plate o f twice the thickness This however is not so .
, ,
for the joints are points of weakness and with ordinary hand riveting the , , ,
thicker the p lates and the larger the rivets the more marked is the weak
ness likely to be When in two thicknesses only one hal f of the material
.
,
-
is jointed at one s pot and so any unavoidable loss o f strength at each joint
,
i s reduced by hal f .
Th e term d o u b le d currentl y used does not always mean that the

, ,
thickne ss i s precisely doubled The sheer s trake for instance is thicker .

, ,
than the adj oining strake belo w and as it is usually an outside strake the , ,
doubling within is really an exten s ion of the thinner strake below ; to make
it thicker would interfere with the contact of the latter with the frames or ,
necessitate s pecial frame liner s According to the strength re quired the . ,
sheer st rake may be doubled throughout its width or only the part belo w ,
the deck may be doubled The latter arrangement has the advanta ge o f
.
avoiding three ply riveting all along the gunwale bar I n large vessels the
- .
total thickne ss of a do ubl e s heer strake may approach two inches and when ,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LDI N G [Ar t 1 1 5
1 16
.
.
so massive it becomes a que s tion whether when subject to s evere stress ,

,
the ordinary gunwale bar with a single row o f r i vets would form a ,
,
suffi cient connection to the heavy deck stringer I n such cas es a sub .
b l t h
stan t ia l increase in the connection is sometimes made by g
d o u i n e
g un w a l e b a r belo w the stringer in short p i eces between the frames ,
other ise an extra mass i ve Si ngle bar may be fitted

.
( Fig. 1 4 P late, 4) w ,
,
having double riveted flanges 6 or 7 inche s Wi de Such an attachment not

-
,
.
only increases the e ffi ciency of the part s but m i n i m i ze s any weaken ,
ing tendency of the end joints ( Art I n vesse l s havrng a long .
bridge house or shelter deck it is now usual to b u i ld the latter so

-
,
substa ntially that it may form the upper part of the hull as a g i rder , i n
which case instead o f doubling or thickening the sheer strake the srde
,
,
plating ( deck stringer etc ) of the bridge or shelter deck otherw i se th i n 15

,
. , ,
increased in thickness from 2 0 to 1 0 0 per cent The sheer strake i n any . ,
case is o f course doubled at the ends o f the bridge where the sudden
, , , ,
diminution in the depth of the girder and the stoppage o f i mportant

longitudinal material would otherwise create a marked weakness .
A t one time it wa s not uncommon to double one or two o f the b i lge

strakes now this is seldom i f ever done for it is costly in workmansh i p
, , , ,
and o f doubtful utility I n long vessels where special long i tu d i nal strength
.
,
is require d at the bilge it may be obtained in ample degree b y s l ightly ,
thickening some o f the strakes an d by fitting a substant i al b i lge str i nger ,

.
There is little doubt that much o f the w e a k n e ss formerly thought to e x l St

a t t h e bi l ge was imaginary The idea arose from a wron gful interpreta .
tion o f certain effects I n woo d vessels longitudinal straining immediately

.
,
proclaimed itsel f by opening o f the butts the di fferent planks sliding upon ,
one another I n the early iron vessels similar symptoms were often
.
observed ; the butt joints originally closely caulked soon gave signs o f , ,
a p p a r e n t le a k i n e s s showing in dry clock as damp rusty streaks or

,
crevices Those of the bilge were usually the first to show ; in course of
.
time they opened or gaped just as i f the plates were drawing a s under The .
principal cause of these e ffects is noticed in Art 2 9 7 That they are not . .
al ways attributable to straining is evident from the circumstance that

where in t w o adjacent strakes the joints of the one are lapped and of the
, ,
other butte d while the former are unaffected the latter may open as just
, ,
described V arious matters in connection w ith the j ointing o f the shell

.
are dealt with in A rt 2 9 7 onwards . .
A r t 11 6 I n vessels engaged in the C anadian or Baltic trade the

. .
,
s h e ll p l a t i n g a t t h e b o w is frequently inj ured by impingement with

flo a t i n g i c e A s a rule the damage is limited to indentation of the plating
.
,
but in cases where the vessel is carelessly navigated— driven ahead through
,
the i ce — both the framing and plating may be forced in and broken To .
provide against t his the bow plating is often doubled from the stem to
, ,
the colli s ion bulkhead in the region of the water line makin g it a flush
, ,
surface both inside and out I n other cases the frames may be placed .
closer together at this part When lying at anchor in a tide way the . -
,
rubbing or c h a fi n g a c t i on o f t h e c a bl e on the bow plating is apt to

wear away the landing edges of the outer strakes to avoid this the inner ,
strakes are sometimes doubled s o as to present a flu s h surface for the rub ,
of the cable ( Fi g 1 4 P late otherwise as an alternative bevelled

.
, , ,
stri ps may be fitted close to the landing edges ( Fig When loading .
or d i scharging cargo the ascending or descending packages may catch

,
the land i ng e dges of the Si de plat i ng to the prejudice o f the plates and the ,
,
danger o f those work i ng below To avoid this the inner s trakes of the .
,
tops i d e plat i ng are sometimes doubled immediately abreast o f each batch

way otherwi se bevelled strips may be fitted a s ju s t described
, .
Art 1 1 8
I 18 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[ .
of the end joints is small Some fi rs t-

class shipbuild in
g yards have .
machine tools capable of dealing with 3 6 -foot plates , but i n most ca s es .
24 feet is the maximum length I n small sh i pyards the m ach i ne tools are
.
not always modern , and in these , small plates , from 4 to feet long , are s t l
1 1 6 i l
employed fo r small vessels they are not unsu i table A s very short plates .
.
involve numerous contiguou s joints they are of course ob j ect i onable and , , , ,
the classification societies there fore state a minimum length of ab out ,

1 2
,
feet Some o f the plates which connect to the stem and ste m post may
.
o ften be quite short but in these length is unimportant ,

.
simp i y the constructive work it is d b l that the s t r a k e s of

To lf e sn a e ,
p l a ti n g should be as wide as possible for there are then fewer land i ngs
,
to rivet and caulk and fewer plates to fit But the s t r u c t u r al e ffi c mn c y

,
.
of the hull t
l i mi s t h e b r e a d t h for as noticed in A r t 2 8 1 each j o m t
,
.
,
forms an unavoidable line of weakness and the longer such l i ne the , ,
greater is its w eakening e ffect on the hull That this is so Wi ll be clear i f .
the extreme case is imagined of a single strake so wide a s to enc i rcle the
hull : here there would be no uniformity of strength ; the end j o mts
.
extending from keel to gunwale wo uld form prominent lines o f weaknes s ,
the hull might break in two by tearing one asunder wh i le between each ,
joint the strength would be perfect The hull in fact would re s emble a .
, ,
thin stick deeply notched at wide intervals I f now the oppos i te extreme
,
.
be considered o f very narrow strakes it is evident that with plates of the

, ,
same length as formerly the numerous joints might be so un i formly di s ,
tributed that at no transverse section more than another w ould there be , ,
more joints or greater transverse weakness I t is in view of the ab ove that .
the classification societies place a limit on the brea dth of the shell strakes ,
about 5 6 inches as a maximum This is o ften exceeded however plates

, . , ,
up to 6 feet i n breadth b eing employed ; but the e ffi ciency of the joints

is specially considered by a good shift and increased riveting quadruple — ,
,
in place o f treble .
Ar t 1 19 A s a vessel s girth is greater amidship s than at the ends

’
. .
,
it follows that the st r a k e s mu s t t a p er i n b re a d t h A s a rule the .

,
top s ide strakes are only slightly tapered fo r when parallel or nearly so , , ,
the hull above water has a finer smarter appearance When the vessel s , .
’
b eam is considerable and there is little sheer the strakes i f they all
, , ,
extended to the stem would become very narro w ; in such cases therefore
, , ,
one or more are discontinued at some di s tance from the s tem i n the ,
manner shown ( Figs 1 2 5 and 6 P late . This of course is a dva n

, , , , , ,
tage o us in reducing the length of riveted landing edges and the number
of plates and it avoids crossings of the landings with the intercostal side
,
stringers with the awkward riveting which these occasion A strake dis
, .
“
continued i n this way is s ometimes termed a d r o p s t r a k e and the
“
one taking the place of the two a st e a le r ”
I t is not always found !
, .
necessary to drop strakes towards the stern for here the width of the ,
counter serve s to maintain the girth Sometimes under the counter t he .

, ,
process is reversed ( Fig a strake stopping short w hen it reaches .
the counter and being continued by two or three narrower ones ; an

,
appearance of levelness in the upper landin g edges at the ste m is thus

secured and crossing s o f the landings wi th the second deck avoided I n
, .
some vessels all the strakes from the gunwale to the upper part of the ,
bilge are made o f parallel width throughout ; so also are the strakes from
,
the keel out wards each one however terminat i ng by abutti ng on the
, , ,
lowest strake o f the first series ( Fig When thus arranged with .
,
Wi de strakes throughout the number of plates and workmanship i s red u ced , .
I n w od ships the sheets of C opper sheathing are all of one breadth and
o , ,
are d i sposed in this manner .

Ar t 1 20]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1 19
A r t 1 2 0 Except in s par and awning-deck ve ss els , the t h i c k n es s o f

. .
t h e s h e ll p l a t i n g is practically the sam e from sheer to garboard strake .
I n vessels of spar -deck type , that of the upper tween decks is from 2 0 to 3 5
’
per cent thinner I n awning-deck vessel s the upper tween —

. .
’
deck plating ,
as also the side plating of deck erections poop bridge or - —
forecastle is
, ,
from 3 0 to 4 5 per cent thinner than t h at below I n a quarter deck vessel

. .
-
,
built to Lloyd s rules the sheer strake is continued from stem to s te m

’
without break ; the strake o f plating ab ove it in way o f the quarter deck ,
-
,
being inch thinner than the ordinary plating i f this is not less than ,
inch ( P lates 1 4 and

The B r i t i s h C or p o r a t i on do not specialize type s such as spar deck ,
-
,
awning deck etc nor do their rule s regard deck erections as mere super
-
, .
,
structures but require them to contribute to the general strength o f the

,
hull with thorough compensation for all openings in their side plating By
, .
these rules the thickness required fo r the s i d e p l a t i n g o f e r e c t i o n s varies

,
with the length of the vessel and the relative length of the erections I n .
a vessel 5 0 0 feet long for instance having erections covering 9 0 per cent
, ,
.
of the length or the whole length as in an awning deck vessel the thickness
,
-
,
of the midship or bridge house portion w ould be much the same as the
’
,
-
,
ordinary shell viz 93 per cent thereof ; and that o f the forecastle and
, . .
poop portions 8 2 and 6 4 per cent respe ctively A s noticed in Art 1 0 a . . .

,
strong midship deck erection is an important means of strengthening the

’
hull o f a long vessel and it is evident that the side plating of a foreca s tle
, ,
owing to its exposed position may with advantage b e made thicker than ,
that o f a poop I n smaller vessels not requiring so much longitudinal

.
,
strength the side plating o f the erections is relatively thinner being only
, ,
from 6 0 to 7 0 per cent of the normal shell— according as the erection is .
short or long By this society s rules it is required that the sheer strake
.
’
of a quarter deck vessel shall be raised to the level of the quarter deck
- -
,
scarphing of course with the remainder

, , .
1 20 P R A C TI CA L 5 11 1 1 3 UI L DI N G
0
.
[Art 1 21
.
C H AP TER X I .
Ar t 1 2 1 A s
. noticed in A rt 3 7 the b e a m s may be regarded from two
. .
,
points of view ; as beams proper and as struts or ties connect i ng the , ,
vessel s side s rigidly the one with the other Those of the upper deck may
’
.
be regarded as horizontal continuations of the s ide frames i n comb i nat i on

with a plated deck they complete the tube like formation of the hull I n - .
cargo vessels of moderate size there is s eldom a s econd deck ; but when over ,
a certain depth the sides o f the hull require the intermediate support i ng
,
e ffect of a second tier of beams which being fi tted merely as t i es or st ruts , , ,
may be widely spaced or suppres s ed entirely in favour of stronger fram i ng

,
.
Whether or not a second deck is desirable as a platform for cargo depends

on the vessel s trade I n vessels which carry raw goods such as grain coal
’
. , , ,
timber wool etc it is ad vantageous to have no intermediate decks fo r

, ,
.
, , ,
with only one large hold space the cargo may b e more readily stowed and ,
di s charged I n sailing s hips the s econd tier of beam s ( usually closely

.
-
spaced) may or may n ot be laid as a deck ; usually it is not ( or i s only

partially laid as shown in P late but should a platform be required at
,
any time a temporary one may be readily formed ; a nd thi s arrangement

,
is sometimes adopted in s teamers ( P late I n pa s senger vessels and

those engaged in the fruit or general coasting trade one or more inter ,
mediate deck s become essential for the tween deck spaces permit of the ’
-
s towage of delicate cargo and of separating goods consigned to different ,
ports I f all were piled in one mass in the hold packages could not b e
.
,
discharged as required and the undermost might b e damaged by excessive,
pressure .
Ar t 1 2 2 The fu nction of the beams a s ties and s truts and as forming

. .
,
the s tructural framework of the deck are s pecially noticed in A rts 2 5 ,

.
and 3 7 ; and it is now intended to consider them in their cha racter as

b e a m s p r o p er o r j o i s t s I f they had only to act as s uch it would be .
a simple matter if the maximum load and it s disposition were known to

, ,
compute the precise s c an t l i n gs compatible with any required margin of

strength The beams o f a ship however have not this one simple duty
.
, , ,
fo r they must also act as ties and struts holding the vessel s sides and ,
’
, ,
when the deck is plated as sti ffening bars so that the plating may not , ,
buckle or shirk its work under longi tu dinal stress E ven i f their duty as .
supporting joists were alone considered it would be a di ffi cult matter to ,
determine theoretically the necessary scantlings because o f the i mp o ssi

, , ,
bi li ty o f accurately estimating the weight and distribution of the maximum

load which they might be called upon to carry I n the case of a weather .
deck fo r instance under ordinary circumstances it has little or no weight

, ,
to support but it may on occa s ion carry a deck load ; and besides this it
, ,
may be subjected to downward pressures from falling seas the intensity ,
of which it would be hard to predict C ases have occurred where through .

,
encountering a large tidal wave the forward part of the upper deck has ,
1 22 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
[Art 1 24 .
instead of one the beams may be reduced in sectional area by about

,
20 per cent and with three

.
pillars
,
instead o f o n e by about 4 0 per cent
,
.
( in small beams 2 0 and 4 0 per cent become 1 5 and I t should be .
noticed that a pillar while greatly assisting a beam as a mi st does not

, ,
increase its capabilities as a tie or strut to the vessel s side and accord ’
, ,
i ngly when its duties in the l a tter aspect are of special i m portance the
,
,
large reductions in scantlings just mentioned are not perm i ss i ble Thus .
,
in the case o f a vessel having only one deck the beams besides support i ng , ,
the deck must provide unaided all the necessary support to the sides and
,
,
in their case therefore the introduction of one or two additional p i llars

, ,
,
instead o f permitting a reduction of 2 0 or 40 per cent only perm i ts of .

,
about 1 5 or 2 5 ( in s mall beams 1 0 or

The sc a n t l i n gs o f t h e b e a m s as tabulated in L l o yd s r u l e s depend
’
, ,
upon their length the number of pillars and the character o f the deck
, ,
supported A s shown graphically in Figs 8 to 1 3 P late 3 there are five

. .
, ,
classes of decks fo r each of which there is a special size o f beam The

,
.
classification in the following is adopted merely fo r convenience of

reference corresponding numerals being employed in the sketches
,
.
The beams o f c l a s s 1 are t h e h e a v i e s t ( with the exception noticed

in the next paragraph ) they are required in cargo steamers for all decks
excepting the upper one .
Those of c l a s s 2 are r a t h e r li gh t er ( when both have only one

pillar) by about 7 per cent in sectional area They are fitted to the upper
,
. .
decks o f steamers which have no other deck or tier of beams and to the ,
upper decks o f sailing ships whether or not there is a second deck They
- .
are lighter than those just noticed becau s e they have no cargo to support ,
but when placed under a bridge house wherein coal or cargo may b e -
stowed they are made o f cla s s 1 size A s just noticed the introduction of
,
.
,
one or two additional pillars permits of a reduction in the sectional area of

these beams o f about 1 5 or 2 5 per cent whereas in others which have not
alone the duty of holding the vessel s sides the corresponding figures are 2 0 ’
and 40 it follows there fore that while with a single ro w of pillar s these
, ,
beams are about 7 per cent lighter than those of class 1 with two rows .
,
they are practically of the same size and with three about 1 6 per cent , .
heavier .
Those of c l a s s 3 are s t i ll l i gh te r being about 1 5 per cent smaller in , .
sectional area than those o f class 1 They are fitted to the uncovered uppe r .
deck ( except awning and shelter decks ) o f a ll steamers having t wo or

more decks or tiers of beams ; also to decks the spaces above which are
intended solely fo r passenger accommodation C omparing them with the .
last it i s evident that light scantlings are permissible for with another deck
, , ,
or decks they have not the sole duty of holding the vessel s side s agai n st
,
’
collapsing or racking stresses .
Those of c l as s 4 are a ga i n li gh t e r — by about 3 0 pe r cent They .
are suitable for awning shelter or forecastle decks and fo r bridge houses
, , ,
-
w hose le n gth exceeds one tenth that o f the vessel I t is evident that these
-
.
beams may be o f light scantlings for the upper tween decks they enclose ,
’
is here really a superstructure on the hull proper and being well o u t .

, ,
o f the water is little exposed to the violence of the waves

”
, .
Those o f c l a s s 5 are t h e l i gh t e s t being about 4 0 per cent s maller , .
in sectional area than those of class 1 They are suitable for poop decks .
-
,
and fo r bridge houses shorter than one tenth of the vessel s length I t is
- - ’
.
evident that the beams of a forecastle should be stronger than tho s e o f a

poop for w hen the vessel plunges bows under in the waves they are liable
,
-
,
to crushing downward pressures and side shocks When a bri dge house is .
-
Ar t 1 25 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . 1 23
so short as one tenth of the ve s sel s le ngth it becomes a mere deck house
-
’
and as such doe s not require the strength of a long bridge more pa rti c u
, , ,
la rly a s the latter permits o f a small freeb oard and is therefore more , , ,
liable to receive shocks from the waves and to be momentarily covered ,
with solid water .
S a i l i n g sh i p s are particularly exposed to transverse racking stresses

-
,
and as they have no midship bulkheads their b e a m s h av e a s p e c i a l

,
’
,
d u t y in giving transverse strength and rigidity to the hull I n view of .
this there fo re they are made heavier than those of s teamer s Thus while
, , .
,
the upper deck beams in a s teamer having two decks may be of the 3 rd
-
class tho s e in a ship must in a ll ca s e s be of the 2 n d

, Further the .
,
s cantlin gs o f the lower deck beams in a s hip are those of the upper -
increased in depth by 1 inch which usually gives a heavier beam than ,
those of the r st class required in a steamer A s already seen ( A rt . .
wherea s a s teamer may require three tiers of beams a sailing ship of the ,
-
same size need only have two hence the greater necessity fo r special ,
strength in the beams of the s econd deck O f course the ab sence in a .

,
s hip o f a third deck and midships bulkheads is com pen s ated for by the ’
fact that the scantlings of the framing plating and other parts are heavier
‘
, ,
h an in steamers of the same over all size and they do not load so deeply
z
-
,
Art.
In the case of the sh a d e and p ro m e n a d e d e c k s of passenger ve s sels ,
the scantlings of the beams depend on the size of the ve s sel and whether
or not the deck is liable to important s tresses in many ca ses light angle or
tee bars are su ffi cient .
A r t 1 2 5 To support e ffi ciently a wood deck the maximum s p a c i n g

. .
o f t h e b e a m s is two frame spaces or about 4 feet ; i f much greater the ,
deck planks would yield too readily between th em to the prejudice of the ,
caulking I n the case of a plated deck they may also b e placed on

.
a lt e rn a t e fr a m e s but not if the plati n g is thinner than

, 53 inch ; in such 8
case s they must be on ev e ry fr a m e their scantlings bei n g suitably reduced ,

.
The reduction given in Lloyd s rules is equal to about 4 5 per cent in ’

.
sectional area which is nearly proportional to the reduction in the spa cing
,
( Figs 3 and 4 P la te I f with plating so thin as 3 inch the beams 7

.
, , 0 ,
were as far apa rt as two frame spaces their sti ffening e ffect would be ,
inade quate ; not only would it be difficult to fit the plating with a fair
surface but it would not remain so it might buckle up or down between
,
the beams by the mere weight of superimposed cargo or when subj ected ,
to but small structu ral stress I t has already been observed that when a .
plated surface is wavy or undulating its e ffi ciency under stress is very poor .
When a plated deck is sheathed with wo od the lateral sti ff ness an d pro te c
,
tion from local pre ss ure and wear and tea r which the planking a ffords ,
ermits even with thin p lating of the beams being placed on alternate
p
, ,
rame s .
When the thicknes s of unsheathed deck plating is 5 inch or more its 8

5 ,
lateral s ti ffness is such as to permit o f the beams being placed o n alternate

frames ; nevertheless it is evident that its e ffi ciency under stres s must be
,
greatly improved by placing these twice as close together i e on every ,

. .
frame and accordingly at the side s of hatchways or other large deck

, , ,
O penings where a large degree of e ffi ciency is required they are so

, ,
spaced or the deck plating made at least —

, 1 inch thick in the case of steel , ,
and 3 i nch in the ca se of iron A t these places the cross s ectional area of .
the deck is reduced by the openings so that superior strength and sti ffness ,
are very desirable ; and this is more particularly the case in way of the
machinery o penings fo r being amidships it is here that the deck and
, , ,
Ar t 1 25
[ .
other parts of the structure are mo s t severely tried by longitu dinal

stresses .
Ar t 1 2 6 The s c a n t l i n gs o f t h e b e a m s of any particular deck are

. .
regulated by the length o f the midship one but as they shorten t o w a r d s ’
th e b ow a n d t e ms so do they become stronger and more,

capable in
every way and accordingly a reductio n becomes permissible e ther

, ,
i i n
,
their scantlings or pillaring I t has already been noticed that for each
beam o f any particular length there are three sizes —one appropr i ate to a
.
‘
single pillar support another rather smaller to a two pillar suppor t ; and
-
, ,
-
another still smaller to a three pillar support I n the diagram Fi g 1 4

, ,
-
. ,
.
,
P late 3 three beams are shown supported respectively by one two and
‘
, , , ,
three pillars their comparative strengths being represented by their th i ck

,
nesses No w in the case of No 1 it is evident that w hen its length 15

.
, .
,
reduced to two thirds its appropriate size with still a central pillar is that
-
, , ,
o f No 2
. and when reduced to half to that o f No 3 I n the case of
, ,
. .
No 2 beam when its length is reduced to two thirds an appropr i ate

.
,
-
,
reduction in its superabundant strength may be secured at once by merely

suppressing one of the two pillars and when reduced to hal f length by , ,
making it o f the three pillar size Again in the case of No 3 beam when -
.
,
.
,
reduced to three quarters o f its full length the suppression of one of the
-
,
pillars at once provides the desired reduction in strength and when ,
reduced to hal f length the suppression of another give s the same result ,
.
The foregoing represents the requirements set forth in Lloyd s R ules

’
.
I f the beams were regarded theoretically as supporting joists only and , ,
if all were equally pillared then o f course while maintaining the same , , ,
strength the reduction in scantlings ( or pillaring) might go on continuously

, ,
so that the terminal beams at the bow and stern being quite short might , ,
be perfectly slender There are many circum s ta nces however which .

, ,
render such treatment inadmi s sible The end beams though losing their .
,
importance as supporting joists are subject even more than the midship ,
’
ones to exceptional stresse s When the vessel plunges bows under in the .
-
waves the concussive blows on the sides of the hull are almost entirely met
by their strut like resistance and evidently to re s ist such shattering
-
, , ,
influences massivene s s in the beams and hull generally is essential I t

, .
might appear t hat greater un iformity in strength would be attained if ,
instead of dividing the beams into two or three groups of diminished

length and correspondingly diminished scantlings they were divided into ,
twi ce or three times as many This might be desirable i f the difference .
between the maximum and minimum scantlings in each group were con
S i de rable and i f the contour o f the deck were so tapered as to give
,
numerous beams of widely different lengths ; but a s this is not so there ,

w ould be no appreciable benefit I n practice to introduce a large variety .
,
o f beams o f slightly di fferent sizes for the sake o f greater theoretical
perfect i on would cause trouble and di fficulty and delays would occur in
,
secur i ng de livery from the steel works of small batches of bars of di fferent
scantlings .
A r t 1 2 7 The h a t c h en d b e a m s i e the beams at the ends o f

. .
-
,
. .
hatchway s have a special duty for they support through the medium o f
, , ,
the fore and aft coamings the inner ends of all the severed beams — lza lf
- -
bea ms— ly i ng between them

,
They have therefore a large area of deck .

, ,
to su pport and in the absence o f through beams between them a greater

, ,
-
,
du
'
ty i n holding the ve ss el s sides against racking and panting stresses ’
.
I hi s i s o ften evidenced in saili n g ships fo r signs of straining though no

, ,
where else observable may commonly be seen in the riveting o f the knees ,
o f these part i cular beams I n practice therefore in decks having beams .

, ,
S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 1 28
1 26 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
The b e a m s to which the h e a d s o f w e b fr a m e s connect shoul d have

strength in some degree proportionate to that of the web frames themselve s .
I n cases there fore where beams of light scantlings are fitted on every
, ,
frame ( below a thin steel deck ) those in way o f web frames must be of the ,
large size appropriate to a two frame spacing ( Fig 1 1 P late I f the -

.
,
deck is not plated the beams w hich take the heads o f the web frames must
,
be of strong hold beam type ( Fig 1 0 P late 4 and Fig 3 P late

- Further .
, ,
.
, ,
when the head of a web frame connects to a half beam at the sides o f a
hatchway a specially large bracket knee is required
,
.
A rt 129 Altho ugh in the m a c h i n e r y s p a c e numerous b eam s

. .
, ,
must be severed or suppressed it is always practicable without seriously , ,
interfering with the machinery arrangement to retain o ne or more at each ,
deck level making them o f the massive s tr o n g b e a m type just noticed

,
-
( see P lates 2 7 1 0 8 1 0 9 and ,

T hey cannot be
,
placed over the ,
engine for here a clear space is required for li fting the cylinder covers ;
,
but bet ween the engine and boilers there is usually room fo r one at the
level of the lo west deck and for one or two at the decks above where , ,
quite clear o f the tops o f the boilers ; also there may be space at the ,
forward end of the boiler room in the stokehold Where practicable they , .
should fall upon web frames and be connecte d thereto by large brackets , ,
bo th vertical and horizontal ( Fig 4 P late Sometimes in order that . .

,
they may fall upon web frames they are slightly bent or kneed horizontally , , ,
and in some cases to clear the top o f a large central boiler they are arched
, ,
upwards between the casing sides Where several beams are fitted con .
se c uti ve ly at the second or upper deck they are plated over so as to form ,
a plat form for a donkey boiler or galley ( P late They are supported
to a certain extent by the casing sides and coal bunker bulkheads through -
which they pas s but these may be too slender to hold them rigidly against
,
vibrating and other stresses I f not pillared at the centre they should be .
, ,
at each side close to the casing or bunker bulkheads ; unles s the latter
,
are sti ffened in the thorough manner described in A rt 2 2 4 . .
A r t 1 3 0 D e c k b e a m s may be o f a ngle bulb a ngle soli d M id tee built

. .
,
-
,
-
,
bulb fee or c/zz mnd section fo r a ll o f which equivalent scantlings are tabulated
-
, ,
in Lloyd s rules ( Fig 1 P late

’
When heavily loaded a beam having a
.
, ,
single to p flange such as a bulb angle tends to cant or strain sideways

'
When well riveted to a plated deck the plating forms a wide top flange so
, .
that canti n g cannot well occur without d istortion o f the beam itsel f With .
a wood deck the bolt fastenings have not the rigid clamping e ff ect o f
,
rivets passing through so ft wood and through holes in the beams o f larger
diameter than their own they may not hold the beams su fficiently rigidly ,
to prevent straining ; under severe stress the latter may pull away from the
planks and twist sideways A tee bulb section is therefore specially .
-
, ,
suitable for wood decks for the double top flange provides a wide base for ,
the bolt attachment and owing to the symmetry o f its section it is stable
, , ,
under stress ; further the wide top flange gives a better support fo r the
,
butts of t he planks ( Fig 2 2 P late I n view o f the above L loyd s

.
, ,
’
rules state that in vessels over 3 4 feet in breadth beams of bulb angle ,
section when placed on alternate frames must be pla te d o ver

, , .
I n c a r go v e s s e l s b e a ms with a single top flange angle bulb angle

( , ,
-
,
or channel bar) are usually pre ferred and if the thickness of the deck ,
permits they are placed on alternate frames for o f course with hal f the
,
, ,
n umber of beams to make fit and rivet the cost of construction is reduced
, , , ,
I n many cases the thickness of the deck plating is increased to permit o f
a Wi de spacing in the beams A single t op flange is advantageous in that
'
.
,
less r i vet i ng i s required to s ecure good contact with the deck plating and ,
Ar t 1 3 1 ]
it is an easier section to work When on alternate frames single flan ge .

,
-
beam s are specially massive and to secure therefore wi th a single row o f , , ,
rivets in the top flange a sufficiently rigid connection to the plating , ,
Lloyd s rules require th e usual rivet pitch of 7 dias to be reduced to 5

’
. .
I n p a ss e n ge r v e ss e ls the beams of the cabin d ecks are usually placed on

alternate frames ( except those having an extra wide frame spacing ) fo r a wide -
,
spacing suits the cabin arrangements better and is permissible because the ,
decks of such ves s els are generally of wood or are wood sheathed An d , .
bulb tee bars are usually employed because their neat symmetrical
-
, ,
appearance is appropriate to the decorative work o f the cabins Z bars are . .
not often used for beams for they are in ferior to channels and awk ward to ,
work Simple angle bars are employed for the plated decks o f small
.
vessels and for light awning decks bridge decks etc Te e bars are used
, , , .
only fo r light decks such as shade and promenade decks o f passenger ,
vessels ; fo r here though n o t very e ffi cient as beams they may be amply
, ,
strong and the w ide top flange is convenient fo r the fastenings and joints
,
o f the planks .
I n the earlier iron vessels the beams were all of b u i l t b u lb t e e -
section fo r although bars of solid section or b ut t erly b u l b as it is

, ,
“
, ,
s ometi mes termed were obta inable they were costly and could not be, ,
rolled in long lengths No w with steel they may be rolled as readily as .

, ,
any other bar and accordingly built bul b tee beams are not often
, , ,
-
employed They are still used however for they are advantageous in
.
, ,
that by employing large angle bars the top flange may be made of any
, ,
breadth ; with rolled bars it is limited to about 7 inches also one angle ,
may be discontinued where required in way of hatchways ca sings etc and , , , .

,
in small sh ipyards they are easy to manipulate I n the early days o f iron .
shipbuilding Lloyd s rules did not present a complete tabulated list of

,
’
scantlings those of the beams as of other parts being regulated by simple

, ,
propo rtionate rules The bulb plate was made inch deep for each foot o f
.
its length and + inch thick for each inch of it s depth The combined
, 6
.
breadths o f the two flanges of each angle bar was three quarters the -
depth o f the bulb plate and their thickne s s 3 ? inch for each inch o f such
1
,
combined breadth The proportions and form assumed in Lloyd s s cantli ngs
l
.
’
fo r bulb tee bulb plate and bulb angle beam sections and which are
-
,
-
,
-
,
generally adhered to in the rolling mills are shown in Figs 1 2 and 3 ,

.
, , ,
P late 7 4 .
When b e a m s support a p la t e d d e c k they receive therefrom much

additional strength and perfect lateral sti ffness with a w o o d d e c k ,
though they receive little or no additional beam like strength they acquire -
,
ample lateral sti ffness I n the case of a lower tier of closely spaced beams .
,
on w hich no deck is laid the only lateral support received by the beams is ,
that due to the fore and aft tie plates and fo r this reason such beam s are
- -
, , ,
practically always of bulb tee s ection for having a double top flange they -
, , ,
have greater lateral strength and sti ffness than e i ther a bulb angle or channel -
beam I n the loading of compre s sible material such as cotton or wool

.
, ,
the beams and pillars are often bent and distorted by the shores and jacks
used in the stowing operations hence a further necessity fo r ample sti ffness ,
and strength both laterally and vertically , .
A r t 1 3 1 The b e a m s of the di fferent decks are p l a c e d o v e r e a c h

. .
o t h e r o n t h e s a m e fr a m e s so that the pillars in the t ween deck s and

’
hold may form con tiguous ties An d those which have a single top flange .
Thi ul f th thi k
s r f e
g l or d b ul b be i v i t
c w i th
n ess o an e an a rs s a con e n en on e
v i ti
ar a f on s o t w tw ti th io neth t h i
ork l yo ll b u d h pb
en u ld g e s n e c n ess, n e a r a ars se in s i i in
f rm t i t
co n o f ur w i th t l
o i xt oths become t w
co se ,ti th s ee , s een en e s .
1 28 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 1 3 1 .
are dispo s ed with the flange facing the opposite way to the reverse frame
i( nner flange or bulb ) otherwise the flange m u st be cut back to clear i t
, ,
( Fig .1 5 P late I,
n tee section beams one flange must be cut back
-
( se
e ,
Figs 2 to 4 P
.
late For the
- purpose
,
of dra i n i ng water to the sh i ps
side all decks are ca mber ed i e arched athwartsh i p i n the arc of a large
, , . . ,
circle When there are several decks all have usually the same camber t e
. , , . .
they are struck wi t h the same radius ; but in passenger vessels the lower
ones are o ften flatter fo r here camber becomes unimportant and of course
, , , ,
a level floor in the cabins is very desirable I n channel steamers and yachts .
the cabin deck is usually quite flat Beams on which there deck
.
laid are o ften quite straight I t should be observed that a camber i ncreases .
but little the strength o f a tier o f beams ; the principle o f the arch hardly
applies here because not only is the arch too flat but it has no i ndependent
.
, ,
abutment fo r the sides of the hull are tied together by the arch itself
,
.
A r t 1 3 2 A s noticed in A rt 3 3 the security o f the b e a m k n e e s and

. . .
,
their e fficiency in holding the ship s side depend greatly on their depth ’
.
L lo yd s R u l e s in this respect are as follows : The de pth o f each knee l s

’
regulated by that of the beam itself and by the number o f s upport i ng p i llars .
A s already noticed three sizes are given for each beam one the large s t
, , ,
for beams having one pillar ; another smaller for those having two ; and , ,
another still smaller for those having three Now the introduction of
, , .
,
pillars while greatly assisting a beam as a j oist does not help it in holding
, ,
the vessel s sides against racking and panting stresses and consequently
’
it is evident that although the depth or strength o f the beam it s elf may
,
be largely reduced on account of the pillars that of the knee s may not ,
.
Lloyd s rules take a ccount of this ; fo r while the knees of a single pillared
’
-
beam may be 2 35 times that o f the beam those o f a two pillared one must be ,
-
2 % times and those of a t h ree pillared one

3 times the depth of the beam
-
, .
I n the case fo r instance of a single pillared beam 9 inches deep the

, ,
-
,
addition of a second pillar permits o f its depth being reduced to 8 inches ,
and that o f a third to 7 inches By the foregoing rule therefore the depth .
, ,
o f the knees in the first would be by or inches ; in the second

9 2
5 2 2 ,
8 by or 2 2 inches and in the third 7 by 3 or 2 1 inches There is thus

, , .
little di fference in the depths of the knees A s beam bars may vary in .
depth ( according to their precise section and scantlings) the depth and ,
thickness of the knee are based on the T bulb and angle bulb beams tabulated - -
in the rules ( fo r a two frame and one frame spacing respectively ) Where - -
.
th e beams have a special duty in holding the sides the minimum depth ,
o f the knees is three times that o f the beams irrespective of the p i llaring
, .
This applies in the following cases : A ll the beams in sailing ships ; the
upper deck beams o f steamers which have only one deck ; the upper deck
-
-
beams in way o f hatchways in vessels having two decks if at these places ,
the hal f beams of the deck belo w are omitted ( Figs 1 and 6 P late 1 0 ) the
-
.
,
beams o f the lowest deck in vessels in which a lower deck is suppressed

in favour o f web or deep frames ; the beams which support the crown or
top plating o f a deep tank ( Art 1 9 9) and beams whose length i s 4 4 feet .
and above and which are supported only by one row o f pillars
, .
To ensure that the beam knees shall not be too narrow at the throat
,
Lloyd s rules require their breadth at this part to be not less than six tenths
’
-
o f their depth Fig 2 P late They also specify the number and size
( .
,
o f the rivets required in knees of di fferent depths these vary from four
;
-
inch rivets in a 1 7 inch knee to nine { f inch rivets in
-
a 4 0 inch one In -
.
practice however the number o f rivets must o ften b e increased in order

, ,
thoroughly to bind the two parts together .
A r t 1 3 3 There are t wo t yp e s o f b e a m k n e e s the w elded and the

. .
,
Art 1 3 4
[ .
be fore erection With this type of knee and built frames there are one
.
,
or two four ply rivets in the end of the beam ( Fig 1 5 P late 6 and
- .
, ,
P late I n the case of the upper deck beams these may be avoided by
-
termina ting the reverse frame at the lower edge of the beam I f in the .
,
case o f deep frames the reverse bar is not fitted in the bosom of the frame
, ,
there is an awkward crevice at each knee ( Fig 1 5 P late I f the frame .

,
is very deep the reverse bar may project suffic i en tly— about four inches
,
to take the knee in which case the pitch of the frame and rever s e bar rivets
,
-
should be reduced at this part I n some cases while the knee plate
.
,
connects onl y to the reverse bar the beam is run in so a s to take additional
,
rivets through the frame angle ( Fig .
I n the case of the poop deck s of sailing ships when the gu n w al e is ,
r o u n d e d the frame terminates at the lower part of the curve so that onl y ,
the beam need be bent ( Fig 8 P late . There are here no beam knees
, ,
the b eams being simply extended down to scarph with the frames I n .
these light decks there is little need for special rigidity at the gu nwale the
beam s are slender and owing to the rounded gunwale there is no s harp corner
, , ,
to cause localization of stre ss I n the case of t ur tle b a c k for e c a s t le s

.
-
a n d p o o p s although the deck is curved downwards at the gunwale it may

, , ,
nevertheless meet the s ide more or less abruptly ( Figs 9 and So long
’
, .
as the angle o f incidence is fairly obtuse the union o f beam and frame may ,
be made as above without a knee but when it approaches the square a

, , ,
more or le s s perfectly formed knee may b e necessary to give the e ffect of

a sti ffenin g fillet in the otherwise sharp corner ( see Fig The special .
knee connection required for strong beams of I section and for those ,
wh i ch fall on web frames i s illu s trated in Fig 4 P late

, 7 and Fig s 3 and 4 .
, , .
,
P late 8
.
Ar t 1 3 6 ]
C H AP TE R X I I .
Ar t . 13 5 . or s t an c h i o n s not only assist the beams as

Th e p i lla r s
joists but relieve their end connections
, I n an unpillared t ween deck .
’
-
beam the whole weight of tween deck cargo falls upon the beam knee
,
’
-
rivets being transmitted thence down the ship s side and round the bilge to
, ,
’
,
the bottom where the counterbalancing upward pre ss ure is situated The
, .
weight of tween deck cargo thu s tends to depress the bilge as shown in
’
-
,
exaggerated form in Fig 3 P late 2 and it is at once evident that the intro .
, ,
duction of a centre pillar by taking hal f the load ( assuming a homogeneous ,
cargo) must reduce by hal f the pressure on the beam knee rivets the de
, , ,
-
,
pressing e ffect o n the bilge and the bending tendency on the floors , .
Besides acting as struts the pillars tie the decks together and to the ves s el s
’
bottom so that they may strain neither upwards nor downwards I n a

, .
large ship the midship section forms a slender rectangular figure which
,
’
,
may display considerable flexibility ; in heavy weather the beams may ,
yield and bend under the panting and racking forces acting on the sides
I n a steamer the oscillating masses of the engine tend to set up a corre
,
sp o n di n g pulsating e ff ect in all flexible parts o f the hull and more pa rti c u , ,
la rly to cau s e dru m like vibration of the decks ; and it is evident that the
,
-
pillars by rigidly holding these at fixed di s tance from one another and
, ,
from the bottom must have a commanding e ffect in checki n g such elastic
,
movement V ertical pillars can give little or no resistance to transverse

.
racking stresses to do this they must be disposed diagonally and in flying

, ,
s uperstructures of s hade deck type which are supported merely by an -

,
extension o f the rail stanchions they are sometimes so disposed in pairs

'
, , ,
about twenty feet apart .
A r t 1 3 6 When subjected to an overpo wering load a p i ll a r gi v e s

. .
,
w a y b y s i d e b e n di n g and if its length is great compared with its diameter

, ,
its failure may occur under a comparatively small load quite o u t of pro ,
portion to what its sectional area alone might indicate Further when it .
,
begins to bend its failure b ecomes complete forthwith— assuming the

,
maintenance o f the load I n the case of a pillar which is so short as to be .
a mere cylinder it is evident that however severe the load it would not
, , ,
bend ; it would stand erect and i f o f soft ductile material fail ultimately , , , ,
by stavin g up and bulging ; or i f of hard material by shearing across ,
diagonally or by general disintegration The supporting power is here .
measured simply by the sectional area of the pillar being equal to about ,
twenty tons per square inch o f same The s trength of a long pillar ha s been .
found by some experimenters t o vary as the 3 6 power of its diameter ,
and inver s ely as the square of its length Much depends however on the .
, ,
way it s ends are secured the strength when both ends are fixedly held as ,
by large palms may be two or three times greater than when both are
,
pivoted as by ball and socket j oints The reason for this greater strength
, .
1
Th lt f e i f xp i m t
re s u s o th ta g th f p ill r w i l l b f u d i
se r es o e er en s o n e s r en o a s e o n n
E g
n vn eer
u
mg f th 6 th J u 19 or p p e d b y M J M
ne, M r i f
f 02 , i n a a e r rea r. . . on c e .
S H I P E UI L D I N G Art 1 3 6
1 32 P R A C T! CA L .
[ .
will be evident from Fig 3 3 P late 1 3 for a s there shown failure of a .

, , , ,
pillar having fixed ends involves three s hort curvatures whereas that o f ,
one with free ends involv es only one long one A s just s een a very . ,
short pillar does not fail by side bending but stands up to i ts work
.
until its material actually cru s hes When fixed at b oth ends p i llars of .
,
considerable length may display thi s continued erect endurance and , ,
in practice the capabilities of those up to about twenty fi ve d i ameters

,
-
i n length i s commonly estimated on this as s umpt i on namely that the i r , ,
strength i s proportionate to their sectional area and although not qu i te ,
correct the large factor of sa fety generally allowed I S ample to cover an y

,
discrepancy .
Ar t 1 3 7 I n deciding the di a m e t e r s o f sh i p s p i ll ar s account must

’
. . ,
be taken of the fact that the cargo in the tween decks is in e ff ect a live ’
, ,
load for as the ve s sel li fts to the waves pitches and rolls fro m side to
, , , ,
side it ( the cargo) i s forced to move with it so that its weight or downward
, ,
thrust on the beams and pillar s may be i ncreased virtually by a very large , ,
amount Further their diameters cannot be decided merely by their

.
,
theoretical capabilitie s a s s upporting columns for one which might b e amply ,
strong as regards the maximum load it wou ld ever be called upon to

sustain might be too slender to withstand the accidental side pressures to
,
which in active service it is liable For in s tance a lower tween deck .

,
’
-
pillar 7 feet long by 3 inches diameter would have an ultimate supporting

, ,
power of 8 0 or 1 0 0 tons and as the weight of homogeneous cargo filling , ,
the upper tween decks that woul d fall upon it would rarely i f ever
’
, , , ,
exceed 1 2 tons the factor of safety regarding it a s a strut is evidently

, , ,
large But even stouter pillar s than this are not infrequently bent or
.
broken it may be by blow s received during loading and discharging

,
operations or by side pressure from cargo bearing upon them a s the vessel
, ,
rolls or perhaps through shi fting of the cargo ; and o f cour s e when once , ,
bent the e ffi cien cy of a pillar is lost A nother matter which call s for
,
.
massiveness and sti ffness is the comparative meagrene s s of the end con
n e c ti o n s As a rule there is only a pair of rivets in either end ; so long as
.
,
the pillar remains straight these are s u ffi cient but if it s hould deflect ,
through side pressures or blows an enormous s tres s at once falls upon the ,
rivets ( on the principle of the toggle j oint ) tending to s hear or loosen them
in practice they o ften give way from this cause I t follows therefore that .
, ,
by giving ma s sivenes s to the pillars so that they cannot be readily bent , ,
their end connections are rendered more secure .
A r t 1 3 8 L lo yd s r u l e s fo r p i ll a r s are as follows I n the first place

. .
’
,
the diameter o f each one wherever situ ated depends upon its length thus , , ,
while an 8 foot pillar may b e 2 ; inches diameter a 2 8 foot one supporting

- 3
7 ,
-
,
the same beam wo uld be 5 inches diameter The di fferent lengths

,
.
tabulated in the rules are given in step s of 2 feet the diameters of the ,
pillars varying by 5 inch for small ones and 5 inch fo r large I n the , , .
case of the long pillars tabulated in Lloyd s rules their strength when ’
, ,
regarded merely as struts is greater than that of the small but as their great , ,
length renders them liable to exce s sive s ide pre ssu re from cargo an ample ,
margin o f strength is evidently very necessary .
Their diameter also depends on what deck they s upport Tho s e in the .
upper tween decks are the smallest for they only support the u pper deck
’
those under the second deck are larger and those below s till larger for they , ,
support the cargo stowed in the tween decks I n cases where the upper ’
.
’
tween deck space is intended solely fo r passenger accommodation the pillars
-
,
below having no tween deck cargo to support may all be rather smaller
’
-
, ,
Lloyd s rules permit of a reduction in their diameter of inch an d i f a

[Art 1 3 9 .
s tr i n ger is fitted u n d e r t h e b e am s in line with each row o f pillars ( Fig 2 ,

. 0,
P late W ithout this the intermediate beams would der i ve no benefit

,
from the pillars they would be free to strain up or down fo r o f course the
—
, , ,
—
thin flexible deck plating the only uniting med um Thas l i ttle hold i ng
i
,
e flec t The .
stringers may be o f double angles the Si ze o f the reverse ,
frames or o f tee
,
or channel bars o f equivalent strength ( A B C and , ,
Fig hey are connected to each beam by a lug but i th channel

.
D T .
W ,
,
beams the lower flange provides the required attachment They must be .
severed o f course at hatchways and bulkheads and their ends should b e

, , ,
properly connected The pillars may be ri ve te d e i ther to the stri nger or to

.
the beams alongside ( F Fig When the stri nger l s securely connected
,
.
to each beam the result in holding the deck is much the same e i ther way
, , ,
.
Th e latter i s sometimes advantageous in that it permits o f a larger pillar

head and therefore o f a better union when riveted to the comparatively
, , ,
slender and shallo w flange o f the stringer there may be insu fficient space ,
for a good pillar head in such case s the connection sometimes gives way , ,
the pillar head fracturing or tearing away the flange of the str i nger ,
.
I n the case o f the centre line stringer a channel section is advantageous -

, ,
fo r by fitting the pillar s alternately to the di ff erent flanges they are disposed
, ,
in the zigzag fashion suitable for shi fting b oards ( see D Fig Th e same ,
.
result may be accomplished as shown at C Fig 1 7 The stringer should ,

. .
be riveted to the lugs on the beams be fore the deck is plated so that the ,
rivet points may b e conveniently clinched from ab ove .
Th e pillar head stringers are very use ful parts ; they not only serve
-
their primary purpose of distributing the s upport o f the pillars but by , ,
acting the part o f a keelson give general sti ffness to the deck I n large ,
.
vessels or those o f disproportionate length their capabilities in the latter

, ,
aspect are particularly studied They are here adopted regardless of the beam .
spacing and are worked intercostally so that forming deep girder s they
, , , ,
not only give superior support to the deck as a whole but by sti ffening the , ,
thin plating b etween the beams greatly increase its e fficiency under ,
longitudinal stress Some di fferent methods of constructing intercostal

.
stringers are shown at E to J Fig 1 7 P late 1 2 , .

, .
Ar t 1 4 0 I f the above intercostal stringers were made su ffi ciently deep

. .
and strong they would become girder s s o independently capable as to require

,
little or no support between the bulkheads I n practice this principle is .
now often followed in vessels where p i l l a r s would seriously inter fere with
cargo they are greatly r e d u c e d i n n umb e r increased in size and asso
, , ,
c i a te d with a s t r i n ger o f e x t r a m a s s i v e n e s s securely connected by large ,
bracket plates to the bulkhead at either end of the hold in the manner ,
indicate d in Fig 2 3 P late 1 2 Figs 3 7 and 4 1 P late 1 3 and P late 2 4 I t

.
, , .
, , .
should be observed that Where it is necessary to give intermediate support to

such a girder say by one pillar at mid length the great strength of the girder
,
-
,
itsel f sufficient it may be to Withstand alone almost the entire load does
, , , ,
not permit o f a corresponding reduction in the capabilities o f the pillar Th e .
duty o f the latter cannot be of a supplementary character for it must take ,
one half the entire load i f unfit fo r this it will bend whereupon the girder
-
, ,
being permitted to deflect will take practically the whole load trans ferring , ,
it to the support at either end I n a number of large two deck vessels .

-
recently constructed only two pillars are fitted in each hold and tween ,
1 ’
deck one on either side They are o f tubular s ection those in the hold
, .
are 2 1 inches diameter and those in the tween deck 1 2 inches the former ,
’
,
being o f 5 inch plating and the latter of 3 inch They are placed close to ,
-
.
A d i p ti f th v l w i l l b f u d i p p by M H y B W tl y
e sc r on o ese esse s e o n n a a er r . en r . or e ,
Tr a n s I m zzl utzon of N av a l A r el nleels,
' '
‘
. 1 900 .
Ar t 142]
35
the hatch coamings and a powerful fore and aft deck girder o f open box
,
- -
,
type i s fitted over each one extending fro m bulkhead to bulkhead The
, , .
hatch coamings for m part o f these girders those o f the upper deck being ,
extended beyond the hatch ends to the bulkhead at either end o f the hol d , .
The bulkheads are strengthened under the end of each girder by a deep w e b
sti ffener ; and the downward thru s t of the hold pillars on the tank top is
distributed by a special foundation having a pair o f fore and aft bearer ,
- -
plates 1 2 feet long I n small coasting ves s el s a ll p i ll a r s are sometime s

.
,
s u p p re s s e d the deck being made sel f supporting by fitting in conjunction

, , ,
with web frames deep plate girder beams ( placed at the ends of the hatch
,
-
ways ) and fore and aft girders to distribute the s upporting e ffect of the
,
- -
latter to the light intermediate beams .
The b u i lt p i ll a r s o f e x t r a s t r en gt h just mentioned are o ften

formed of two channel bars riveted back to back with or without Wide ,
covering plates on their flanges ( Figs 3 8 and 3 9 P late 1 3 ) in other cases .

, ,
they may be formed a s shown in Figs 3 7 4 0 4 1 4 2 P late 1 3 They are .

, , , , .
superior to s olid round pillars because o f their great lateral sti ffness and
, ,
of the strong and rigid end connection which may be secured by means of
bracket plate s I t is important in such pillars that their cross sectional
.
-
area should be symmetrical so that they may b e no more liable to bend one ,
way than another and for the same rea s on that the bracket plates at the , ,
head and heel should hol d them rigidly in all direction s I n some cases .
,
where only fore and a ft brackets have been fitted the pillar s have failed by
- -
,
bending athwart s hip a ss uming the single curvature of a pivoted pillar ( see
,
Fig 3 3 P late
.
, I n the tanks of oil s teamers ( and sometimes in deep
balla s t tanks) the pillars are u s ually o f built section having large bracket ,
ends ( Figs 2 and 5 P late 2 4 and Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late 2 6 ) in the

.
, , .
,
earlier ve ss els it was found that ordinary pillars with their meagre end ,
connections were incapable o f withstanding the severe local stresses to

which this cla s s of ve s sel is exposed .
A rt 14 1 A lthough p i ll a r s are most u s eful structurally they are often

. .
,
a gr e a t h i n d r a n c e to the working of cargo They cut up and o b sti u c t .
the hold s and tween decks so that packages cannot be disposed in the
’
,
m anner be s t suited for completely filling them and they hinder the stowing ,
and discharging operations I n one respect they are useful however for .
, ,
they prevent shi fting of the ca rgo and check the tendency to strain or work ,
at sea with its chafing and damaging e ffect on the packages and the more
,
“
fully to secure this result the cargo is choked off by in s erting dunnage ,
”
wood or wedges between it and the pillar s The dis position of the pillars .
may be varied with a vie w to lessening the interference with cargo This is .
shown in Fig 1 3 to 1 6 P late 1 2 I n Figs 1 3 and 1 4 the tween deck or hold

.
, . .
’
-
space is practically partitioned o ff by the two rows of closely spaced pillars , ,
into three fore an d aft sections which is of course a very obj ectionable
- -
, , ,
arrangement in ves s els other than those engaged exclusively in carrying

grain in bulk The other two arrangements avoid this to some extent but
. ,
owing to the double distance between the pillars o f each side row it ,
involves the fitting of s trong fore and aft intercostal girders under the deck - - .
A s the pillars at the side s of the hatchways are particularly in the way wh en
working cargo they are usually made portable I n the others po rtabili ty i s
, .
,
also o ften desirable but as it is quite possible that pillars when temporar i ly
,
removed may not b e properly replaced the classification Societies do not ,
sanction such mode o f fixtu re .
A rt 14 2 When there is only a centre row o f p i ll a r s those wh i ch

. . ,
must be omitted i n w ay o f t h e h a t c h w ays are shifted out to either

side s o as to maintain the same general supporting e ffect With hatchways
,
.
1 36 P R A C TI CA L S H I B B UI L D I N G .
[Art 1 4 2 .
so long as 2 6 feet Lloyd s rules require each hatch end beam to have three
,
’ -
pillars A s already seen the duty o f these beams I S augmented by the

absence between them o f numerous through beams When there are two
.
,
rows o f pillars ( with beams o f correspon d ingly light scantl i ngs ) the hatch
ways do not interfere with them ; but as the ord i nary two frame spac rn g -
would be a source of inconvenience in working cargo Lloyd s rules pe rm i t ,

’
o f alternate pillars being omitted at this part provided the d i ameter o f ,
those le ft is made inch larger and an intercostal stringer i s fitted on ,
either side to distribute the supporting e ffect to the deck ( Fig 2 1 P late 5 8 ) .
,
or instead of an intercostal stringer the lower edge o f the fore an d aft - -
coamings may be flanged or provided with a large angle bar and thus form ,
itself an e ffi cient fore and aft girder ( Fig s 1 9 and 2 0 P late

- -I n most .
,
cases however it i s pre ferred to fit the beams o f the heavier scantl ing
, ,
appropriate to one row o f pillars which permits of alternate pillars bei ng ,
omitted at the sides of the hatchways without other special arrangements ,

.
An arrangement is shown in Fig 1 0 P late 5 8 in which all pillars are .

, ,
omitted at the sides of the hatchway ; the necessary strength being secured
by introducing very powerful hatch end beams and fitting a stout channel -
,
bar on the lower edge of the hatch coaming with a gusset connection to ,
each hatch end beam the only pillar is a specially strong one at the centre
-
o f each hatch end beam I n the machinery space many o f the pillars must
-
.
be suppressed in which case the bunker bulkheads and casings are made
extra strong and the coamings rein forced by fore and—
,
,
aft angle bars as -
described A rt 1 5 7 and shown in P late 2 7

.
, .
A s already seen p i ll a r s a t t h e s i d e s o f h a t c h w a ys bei n g greatly

, ,
in the way are usually m a d e p o r t a b l e ; in the case however of small

, , ,
single deck coasting vessels it i s not only inconvenient to remove the long
-
hold pillars at the frequent loadi ng and discharging operations but owing , ,
to the possibility of their not being properly replaced very undesirable , .
This inconvenience may b e overcome by fixing the pillars permanently ,
but at a considerable athwartship angle so as to leave quite clear the ,
bottom of the hold ( see Fig 7 P late Such slanting dispo s ition does .
,
not materially reduce their e fficiency for any pressure they take as struts ,
can only act in their line i e their inclination does not induce any special , . .
bending tendency ( they take only that component of the vertical pressure
which acts in their direction the remaining component is a horizontal one , ,
actin g along the deck ) I n some small coasting vessels the hatchways are
.
s o broad that the deck plating alongside is reduced to a mere strip and , ,
being liable on account o f its narrowness to severe longitudinal stresses

, , ,
it should be particularly well supported I n such cases pillars are adva n .
tage o usly suppressed in favour o f large sweepi n g bracket plates between

the vessel s si des and the deck ( Fig
’
.
A r t 14 3 Wherever permanent heavy weights are carried p i l l a r s

. .
,
should be placed u n d e rn e a t h to support them They should be fitted , .
under la rge d e c k h o u s e s pre ferably at the corners Where vertical , ,

—
straining tendencies are greatest a wood deck o ften developes leakiness
at these places They are particularly necessary under d e c k m a ch i n e ry
.
,
the Windlass winches and cranes ; not only to support their weight but to
, , ,
hold them down when li fting or hauling and to reduce the intense vibration
which when in rapid motion they convey to the deck U nder the wind
, , .
lass the pillars have a special duty for when lying at anchor the whole p ull ,
o f the cables is felt at this part tending to wrench the Windlas s from the
,
deck I n high speed Atlantic liners when s teami n g again s t head seas the
.
-
, ,
forecastle deck is liable to severe cru s hing pressures from falling seas its
,
beams therefore are usually particularly well pillared The turtle back
, , .
-
[Art 1 4.4
length as ascertained from the ship —a t that period well advanced and with
the beams faired temporarily by shores Each pillar may thus b e made of .
the precise length being adju s ted if necessary by staving up or dra wmg
, , ,
down while still hot .
The h e a s a
d n d h e e l s are usually c o n n e c t e d b y t w o r i v e t s ( g
F i 2 .
,
P late but in large or widely spaced ones t h r e e become necessary

( Fig . L loyd s rules in this respect require’
that pillars longer than 2 4 feet
shall have three 1 inch rivets all others having two 3 or 1 inch according to
-
, , 6
their diameter and length The holes may be drilled or punched out hot l
. ,
under the steam hammer when making the pillar in the smith s shop The ’
.
palms should be substantial fo r as a result o f side bending pressures or , ,
blows it is common to find thin palms broken across at the rivet holes
,
.
Sometimes the head is formed with a j aw embracing the bulb o f the beam ,
( Fig .
this is a particularly efficient fixture the pillar having a good ,
grip o f the beam independently of the rivets O n account of its neat .

,
symmetrical appearance it is o ften adopted in passenger vessel s To fit .
such pillar s the head is heated in a fire so that the jaw opened to pa s s over
, , ,
the bulb may finally be hammered close Form erly the heels of the pillars
,
.
were o ften riveted direct to the tank top plating ; this mode of fixt ure -
,
however leads to trouble for apart from the difficulty o f securing close
, ,
contact of the massive forged heel with the tank top a slight shock or side ,
pre s sure on the pillar i s su fficient to start the connecting rivets and cause
leakine s s The method n o w always adopted ( and specified in Lloyd s
.
’
rules) is to rivet a short lug of angle tee or bulb bar to the tank top and , , , , ,
connect the pillar to this ( Fig Th e various methods of fixing the .
heels o f tween deck pillars are shown in Figs 1 1 to 1 6 th e sole plates in

’
-
.
Figs 1 5 and 1 6 are fitted when a good bearing fo r the deck planks is
.
require d .
The rivet holes may be punched in the beams in the first instance ,
corresponding holes being drilled in the pillars by mean s of a small pattern

tin template bent round the bulb of the beam O therwise they may be
, .
drilled in the beams after the pillars previously punched are fitted in place , ,
.
I t is well that the holes in the beam should be placed well up from the
lower edge ( near the neutral axis ) fo r when subj ected to excessive force , , ,
the lower edge is liable to break through at these holes The rivet holes .
to take the heels of the pillars whether in deck plating beams or lugs are
usually drilled a fter the pillars —previously drilled or punched— are adj u s ted
, , , ,
in place As there are only t wo holes in the end o f each pillar care should
.
,
be observed that they are good holes that the surfaces fit closely and that , ,
the pillar bears on the lower edge of the beam sometimes the fit is very
i naccurate .
A r t 1 4 5 The p o r t a ble p i ll a r s at the sides of hatchways are secured

. .
i n d i ff erent ways U sually they are made like the others but are bolted
0
.
,
i nstead o f riveted the heel of cour s e stepping on a lug , Sometimes the , .

,
head i s formed with a pivot or hinge so that on withdrawing the heel , ,
bolts the pillar may be swung up to the beam out o f the way of pa s sing
, ,
cargo as shown in Fig 9 P late 1 3 O therwise the heel may be pivoted

, .
, .
,
bet ween two lugs or in a special casting so that on releasing the head
, , , ,
the p i llar may be hinged down o n deck as shown in Figs 1 8 and 1 9 , . .
O f course when the ends o f a p i lla r are pivoted it loses some o f its strength
, ,
as a strut but in this respect it is usually amply s trong A nother method

, .
,
somet i mes adopted is to bolt the h ead in the usual way but merely step the, ,
Pill
1
f m 1 t 18 f t l g f 3i h di m t mu t
ars ro 0 d u d o
4 i h ee on , or o 2 nc es an n er nc es a e er , s
h v tw g i h v t
i th f m 18 t l
- n
a e o c
4 f rt g e s
4 i h d i m t
o se d ro m u t o 2 ee on or nc es a e e r an o ver , s
h v tw 1 h v t
,
a e o -1n c
ri e s .
Art 14 7 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 1 39
heel in a cast iron socket as shown in Fig 1 7 O therwise in special cases

-
,
. .
, ,
the head may be pivoted and a wedge shaped shoe or sole plate fixed on ,
-
deck ( Fig into which the heel may be driven so that it may exert a
.
th rust on the deck above a pin may then be fitted behind the heel to keep
it from working back When fixed in either of the last two methods the.
,
pillar only acts as a strut it does not tie the deck s together This o f , .
,
course is obj ectionable fo r the flexibility of the beams may admit of

, ,
considerable vertical movement With some kinds of cargo fo r instance .

, ,
shore s are used to hold it down and prevent it from shi fting during the
voyage and with others of compressible material scre w jacks are employed
, ,
-
to squeeze it into place below the b eams either of which procedures may ,
cause a considerable upward thrust on the deck .
A r t 1 4 6 To provide acces s to the holds and tween decks vertical

’
. .
,
l a d d e r s are fitted a t on e e n d o f e a c h h a t c h w a y They are usually .
formed by a pair of pillars about a foot apart drilled to take cro s s bar , ,
iron s teps ( Fig 3 0 P late A s there are here two pillar s in place o f one
.
, ,
it is sometimes thought proper to reduce their diameter ; this should not be

done however for they are weakened by the step holes and as the hatch
, , ,
end beams have a special duty they are the b etter for substantial suppo rt , .
F urther as the ladders are permanently fixed they are exposed to violent
, ,
blows from cargo in process of lowering or hoisting from the holds and , ,
as under such circumstances the one pillar does not assist the other they ,
should be independently strong and massive ; in practice such ladders are

frequently bent and broken Th e holes are only drilled a short distance in .
,
and to prevent the step s from bending and drawing out they should be o f
, ,
large diameter reduced at the holes Sometimes slender ladders are fitted
, .
with an ordinary pillar alongside but it is evidently better to fit a stout ,
ladder which while acting well as such may give good support to the
, , ,
hatch end beam I n the case of t runk hatchways ( i e those o f an upper

-
. . .
and lower deck conj oined by a casing ) the necessary ladderway may be
provided as indicated in Figs 3 1 or 3 2 That shown in Fig 3 1 is advan . . .
ta ge o us in that the steps o ffer no obstruction to passing cargo

, .
Ar t 14 7 T u b u l a r p i ll a r s are seldom employed in merchant

. .
vessel s they are not very much more costly however and as their , ,
substitu tion for s olid ones would considerably reduce the weight of hull the ,
gain in carrying capacity might well be thought a su fficient inducement for

their adoption C omparing them with solid pillars : in short ones that
.
would fail by crushing the strength weight for weight is practically th e

, , ,
same for it is governed by the sectional a rea in either case But as tubular
, .
pillars are o f larger diameter their lateral strength and sti ffness is greater , ,
and when it is this that governs the size ( as is usually the case with solid
pillars ) they may evidently while maintaining ample strength as struts be , ,
much lighter I n the case of long pillars in which lateral rigidity is the
.
,
quality principally govern ing their supporting power the tubular variety ,
are very superior to the solid The s izes of tubular pillars given in Lloyd s ’
rules is s uch that those of ordinary length — s ay under 1 6 feet— are about
.
4 0 per cent lighter than s olid ones A 2 % by

. inch hollow pillar is regarded .
as equivalent to a 2 4 inch s olid one and an 8 by inch hollow to a 6 inch ,
solid one I n warships the pillars are always tubular for here the saving in
.
,
weight is an important advantage and the better to secure it they are made , ,
o f large diameter with thin walls usually not less than 5 inches diameter
, , ,
by to inch according to the strength required I n ordinary cargo .
vessels tubular pillars s o slender a s this would be too readily damaged by

cargo ; i f struck a hard blow they might be indented and battered and , ,
o f course they could not be readily repaired

, .
[Ar t 1.4 7
T ubular pillars are of w rought iron lap welded Th e heads and ,

- .
heels are solid forgings ( Fig 2 6 P late 1 3 ) they are stamped i n bulk .
,
under the steam hammer and are then w elded into the tubes a tube o f , ,
sui table length being provided fo r each pillar The shank portion of the .
head and heel is made o f a suitable length to scarph about one inch into
the t ube it is tapered slightly so as to enter it and both parts being raised , ,
to a welding temperature the edge o f the tube is hammered down flush , ,
with the so ft material o f the forging I n these pillars the length is not so .
readily adjusted but otherwise excepting the more exten s ive welding they
, , ,
are not more di ffi cult to make than solid ones .
A r t 1 4 8 V
.
essels which carry
.
g r a i n i n b u lk are required by s ta tute ,
regulations to have a c e n t r al fo r e a n d a ft di v i s i o n in all holds and

,
- -
’
tween decks in which it is so carried I ts purpose is to mitigate the .
dangerous heeling e ffect which would result from shi fting of the grain ( see
A rt . I t is usually formed i n a temporary fashion by fixing planks or , ,
sfi ifl i zzg l oa r a s as they are termed to the centre line pillars O therwise

z
’
,
”
,
-
.
,
in vessels which engage almost exclusively in the grain trade a permanent ,
centre line bulkhead of plates and bars may be fitted which of course
-
, ,
takes the place o f centre line pillar s ( Figs 2 7 to 2 9 P late - I t may .

,
be fitted in both the holds and tween decks but portable b oards are ’
,
usually pre ferred in the latter .
The usual method of fixing the shifting b oards and one for which pro ,
vision is readily made in all vessels is to dispo s e the centre line pillars ,
-
slightly zigzag i e alternately 1 5 i n ch to port and 1 3 i nch to starboard

, . .
,
so as to leave a 3 inch fore and aft passage into which fore and a ft b oards
- - - - -
may be shipped ( P late O ther wise a light bar may be fixed alongside
each pillar with a s pace between for the shi fting boards I n large ves s els .
,
requiring t wo ro ws o f pillars the pillars in both rows may be disposed ,
zigzag so that shifting boards may be fitted 011 either side s mall 2 feet by
, ,
3 feet trimming hatches being provided in the deck over the wing spaces
to load the grain through Formerly instead o f placing the pillars zigzag .
, ,
two o f reduced s ize were sometimes fitted at each beam The shi fting .
boards must be fitted again s t the underside o f the deck and right up to the ,
hatches ; for i f not when the vessel heeled over the grain becoming
, , , ,
heaped up against the bulkhead might flo w over the top M any vessels , .
have been lost through incompleteness in the shifting boards or through ,
their collap s e when weak and insecure .
The stre n gth o f a p e r m an en t gr a i n b u lkh e a d must be at least equal

to that of the pillars whose place it takes I t is usually built of plates .
,
1 5 inch thick sti ff ened with angle bars the s ize o f the vessel s frames ( or
5 ’
, ,
o f reverse frame size when in the tween decks) fitted on each side two ’
-
, ,
frame spaces apart back to back so as to form together a deep web ( Fig
, , .
3 4 P late
, I n some cases to minimize the interference with cargo ,
stowage it is pre ferred to fit the sti ffeners on one side only one frame s pace
, ,
apart ( Fig 3 5 ) the sti ff ening e ffect however is less perfect V e ry com
.
, , .
m o n ly instead of double frame angles it is pre ferred to fit large single

, ,
bulb angles of equivalent size 4 feet apart ( Fig The bulkhead , .
plat i ng i s connected to the deck above and to the tank top or keelson by ,
two small angles ( Fig or by a single large one ( Fig . Lloyd s .

’
rules requ i re the upper ends of the sti ffener s on one s ide of the bulkhead
.
to be connected to the deck beams ; fo r the latter then receive direct

support and the stiff ne s s o f the bulkhead when thus held square to the
, ,
deck i s greatly increased
, When bulb angle sti ffeners are adopted it is
.
-
,
commo n to bracket their ends to the tank top and beams ( Fig which .
,
by i nc reasmg their e fli c i en c y permits o f a reduction in their scantlings , ,

[Art 1 4 9
.
C H AP TE R XI I I .
A rt 1 4 9
.
c .
serve several
A d e k may p u r p o s e s The upper one is of . ,
course necessary as a watertight covering for the hull others however

,
, ,
may be required as platforms for the convenient working of the vessel ,
as intermediate plat form s for the stowage of cargo and as horizontal ,
diaph ragms giving longitudinal strength and general rigidity to the hull .
The deck o f a s mall vessel need only be o f wood ; usually however a , ,
plated one is pre ferred for While equally suitable it is more durable and
, , , ,
adds to the structural strength of the hull As dimensions increase the . ,
s trength of the hull requires the upper deck to b e plated all fore and aft ,
- -
,
or only for half length amidships ; and finally a second and even a third , , ,
deck may be necessary O f course when the special character o f a

. ,
wood deck is desired as in passenger ves s els the plating may b e s heathed
, ,
with wood ( P late

Ar t 1 5 0 Whether or not a plated deck i s needed the marginal part
. ,
o f one the s t r i n ge r p l a t e is required on all tiers of beams

, ,
and besides
this fore and aft t i e p l a t e s to hold the beams fi xedly one with another
,
- -
,
.
A deck s tringer plate by itself is useful in several ways A s regards the .
beams it holds them square with the side ( Fig 7 P late

,
and being .
, ,
united all fore and a ft to the shell binds th em thereto independently of the ,
beam knees i e it a ffects a thorough incorporation of the deck with the s ides
, . .
of the hull I t gives continuous transverse rigidity to the vessel s sides and
.
’
,
contribute s longitudinal s trength I n the latter respect the upper deck .

-
stringer is most useful for in conj unction with the thick sheer strake it
, , ,
e ffects a concentration of fore and aft material at the gunwale and gives - -
,
lateral s ti ff ne s s to the importa nt sheer strake without which it would be ,
very i n efli c ien t ( see A rt .
The s c a n t li n gs o f th e s t r i n ger p l a t e vary with each deck A s that .
on the upper deck has the mo s t important duties it is the mo s t sub stantial ,
its breadth and thickness depend not merely on the size of the vessel but ,
also on the proportion o f length to depth for of course although a ves s el , ,
may be small in tonnage she may b e so long and shallow as to require

,
superior longitudinal strength ; and similarly in the case of breadth but as , ,
a rule this is never disproportionately small A lower deck stringer is not

, .
-
so much required for longitudinal strength and as its duties are therefore , , ,
lighter it is less substantial it s sectional area being from one -half to two
, ,
thirds that of the upper deck I n ves s els of three deck type the third deck -
—i f one is fi tted— is regarded as the lower one the stringer of the second
.
being identical with that of the upper Where there is a fou rth tier of .
beams ( sometimes termed orlop beams its s tringer plate i s made still
l i ghter its sectional area being about 7 5 per cent of that of the lower
, .
deck above it I n spar or awning deck ves s els the s econd deck i s regarded
.
-
,
as the main deck proper and so it is here that the heaviest stringer is placed
, ,
the str i nger o f the deck above being reduced slightly in the case o f a spar ,
deck but very considerably in that of an awning deck The s tringer plates
, .
Art 1 5 1 ]
of light deck erections —poop bridge or forecastle —have a sectional area , ,
about half t hat o f the stringer on the deck immediately below them .
L ike all other parts the deck stringer plates taper towards the bow and,
ste m their full scantlings are maintained for half length amidships thence ,
they dim i nish both in breadth and thicknes s their sectional area at the ends ,
being about 5 0 or 6 0 per cent le s s than amidships ( P late D eck .
plating is u s ually thinner than the stringer plate by % or 5 3 inch ; the -

2
extra thick n ess in the latter is necessary because a s it is united to and , ,
must co operate with the thick and important sheer strake it should have
, ,
massiveness in some degree proport i onate I n view however of the .

, ,
strength which the stringer gains when i ts free edge i s conjoined to deck
platin g and of the general strengthening e ffect o f the latter it is usual
, , ,
When the deck is plated to reduce its breadth making it 1 inch broad for , ,
every 7 feet in the length of the ship ( Lloyd s rule s permit of this ’
,
provided only one deck requires to b e plated) I n vessels of large size the .
stringer plate may be very wide perhaps 7 feet if so it i s well to fit it in , ,
two strakes because not only would plate s of such width necessarily be
,
short but their numerous long end j oints would form transver s e lines of
,
marked weakness when fitted in two s trakes the plates may b e longer and
their end j oints fewer and as the latter are 5 0 per cent narrower their , , .
,
weakening e ffect is reduced by a like amount B y the rules o f the B ritish .
C orporation the upper deck stringer is made narrow and very thick being
,
-
,
practically of the same scantlings as the sheer strake I n a vessel 6 0 0 feet

l o ng fo r instance it is 4 8 b y —3 inch the deck plating alongside
.
—3 inch ; and i n one 3 0 0 feet long 4 0 by —

l 4
, ,
inch the deck being being

and
,
6
3 5 3
3
, ,
7
3
inch B y these rules
. a fully plated second deck i s not required until a
vessel s length exceeds 4 7 0 feet ( Art
’
.
Where s t r i n ge r p l a t e s o r p l a t e d d e c k s m e e t t r an s v e r se b u lk
h e a d s i t is the latter that give way fo r they are not injured by the
, ,
discontinuity whereas deck plating being liable to fore and aft s tress
, ,
- -
,
might be seriously I n the case of an unplated low er deck the deck

, .
planks abut on either s ide as s hown i n Figs 1 to 4 P late 2 1 ; and if the , .

,
stringer p i erces the bulkhead the marginal plate of the latter i s slotted or
severed Sometimes it i s advantageous to cut a lower deck stringer at the
.
-
bulkheads especially when these form the ends o f deep ballast tanks fo r
, ,
by maintainin g their integrity watertightness is more easily secured A .
lower deck stri nger is not important a s regards longitudinal s trength and
-
,
where it is severed at a bulkhead i ts stren gth may be sufficiently maintained

by increasing its width by bracket plates so as to secure an extensive ,
connection on either side of the bulkhead Th e connection should be .
made by double angles or by an extra large single one , .
A rt 15 1 The outer e d ge o f a d e c k s t ri n ge r p l a t e at the ship s

’
. .
side is o f c ourse a fairly c u rv e d li n e ; the inner one however may or

, , , ,
may not b e so ; very commonly it is i rr e gu l a r owing to the individual ,
plates of which it is composed being cut each With a straight inner edge ( P late
This is done merely to simplify the work for to shear a plate to a ,
hollow and varyin g curve is awkward I f conj oined to deck plating slight . ,
variations in the breadth of the stringer plate are unim portant but i f i t ,
stands alone they may b e prejudicial because the contigu i ty of narrow and ,
wide places tends to concentrat i on and localization o f stress at the former ;

the prejudicial e ff ect being intensified moreover by the presence at each , ,
narrow place o f a joint in itsel f a point o f weakness By making a fair ,

.
inner edge the exce s s of breadth and of strength between the j oints is
,
removed weight is saved and the efficiency o f the structure improved

, ,
.
N evertheless the omission to do this i s not usually prej udicial fo i the side
, ,
[Ar t.1 5 1
of the ship amidships Where longitudinal strength is most required is

,
,
generally straight O ther matters in connect i on Wi th stri nger plate s Wi ll

.
be found in Art 5 1 7 . .
I n order to secure greater u n i fo r m i t y i n t h e s t ren gt h o f a d e c k

s t r i n ge r p l a t e it h as been proposed to pierce it between the beam s with
, , ,
long hole s o f just such a width as to reduce loca lly the sect i onal area to what
,
it is at each joint or at each row o f beam rivet holes The principle involved
,
.
may be illustrated by the case of a chain cable i f s ay in a 2 inch cable there , ,

-
were one r i i i ch link the strength against a suddenly applied stre s s would
-
,
be less than i f all links were 1 inch ; fo r in the former all the s training
—
e ffect would be concentrated at the one weak link ju s t a s in the familiar
case o f a notched stick I f all the links were weak then as all would .
, ,
experience the same stress per square inch they would all s tretch alike , ,
and thus the chain would be more likely to endure a su dden s tress without
injury I t is evident therefore that the cutting away of the material of a
.
, ,
stringer plate where there is a superabundance of strength would produce

a similar approximation to the desirable condition of pe rfect u niformity in
sectional area For the same purpo s e and with a view to reducing the
.
weight o f s tructural material it ha s b een proposed to apply the above ,
principle to plated decks by not j ointing the ends of the plates but fitting
1
, ,
them some di s tance apart in such a way as to reduce the sectional area ,
( taken across the whole breadth o f the deck ) between the beams to what it
is through a line o f beam rivet holes ; if the latter were eight diameters
apart then every eighth s trake between the s ame two beams might have an
,
open joint O f course although the above is theoretically correct as

.
,
regards tensional stress it would greatly reduce the capabilities of the deck
,
( or s tringer plate ) under compre s sion and its general sti ffness as a ,
diaphragm ; also it wrongly as su mes the longitudinal stre s s to b e applied

,
with such precision as to a ffect uniformly every part .
A rt 1 5 2 I n the absence of deck plating fo r e a n d a ft t i e p l a t e s

. .
,
- -
are fitted on each tier of beams one on either side ( s ee Fig 6 P late 1 0 ,
.
, ,
and Figs 1 and 2 P late

. Their purpo s e is to support the beams
,
laterally ju s t as the pil lars do vertically s o that by tying each one to its
, ,
neighbour they may check side straining tendencies When a wood deck .
is laid on the beams it might appear that the extensive bolt connection to
,
each one might hold them sufficiently rigidly wi thout tie plates But it is .
undesirable in a steel or iron vessel to impose any s tructural duty on the

woodwork A lthough in a new vessel the deck bolt s might clamp the beams
.
w ith su fficient rigidity in course of time they would work loose ; in old
,
ships it is common to find that the deck planks have lifted from the beams ,
o ften extensively owing to the formation of a thick intermediate scale of

,
rust ; and it is evident under su ch circum s tances tha t s hould the beams
, , ,
develop any side straining tendencies the deck bolting wo uld speedily ,
su ff er and the consequent straining of the plank s would start the caulking
,
and cause leakiness But moreover the wood deck planks ma y not be
.
, ,
continuous ; at the end bulkheads of deck erections they are all severed , ,
and a large number are cut at each hatchway and it is evident that in such ,
cases they must be very ine ffective a s fore and a ft ties ( Fig 1 8 P late - -
.
,
O f course in a wood deck itself such di s continuities are u nimportant so

, ,
long as no structural du ty is demanded of it .
The tie plates are so disposed as to pa ss along s ide each hatchway ,

fo r they then as s ist th e coaming plates in forming a rigid frame aro u nd the
o peni n
g ( se e Figs 5 and 6 P late 5 8 and P late
.
They may b e regarded
, ,
as a hori z ontal coaming giving lateral sti ffness to the vertical one o ffering
o
, ,
S p p by Si N th i l B by T m I ul ti fN l A fi t / 1 86 6
'
ee a a er r a an e arn a ra ns a on o av a re z ee r ,
, . .
Art 1 5 3
[ .
fitted at the ends ( Fig I n all sailing ships small or large diagonal
.
-
, ,
ties must be fitted in way of each mast on whatever deck these may be ,
wedged ( Fig Their purpose is to distribute the

.
t h r us t o f t h e m s a t i n ,
whatever direction it may occur The heeling effect o f the masts may at .
times be so severe as to force the vessel over on her b eam ends Le t .
it be imagined now that this force only acted on the two mast beams
, , .
,
i e
. .
the one be fore and aba ft the mast it is clear that these be i ng s ub , ,
j e c te d to an intense push to leeward would tend to move endw i se and

,
or
f w ard relatively to their neighbours so that the rivets connect i ng them
,
to the frames and stringers and the deck bolting and caulking m i ght ,
su ffer under the intense stress I f now the s ame side heeling force .
, , ,
instead of being concentrated on two beams were di s tributed over a ,
number the intense stres s es would disappear Such distribution is at once

,
.
e ffected by fitting a pair o f diagonals at each mast for then a whole group ,
of beams being united in a manner not permitting of independent parallel

,
movement would be compelled to s train together O f course the

,
.
,
heeling e ffect of a mast does not all occur at the mast hole ; the greater
part of it indeed is transmitted by the windward shroud s which indirectly
, , ,
a ffect a number of beams Straining e ffect s due to excessive heeling forces

.
acting through the masts are occasionally observed in loosening of the rivets
at the ends o f the beams and starting of the deck caulking in the vicinity
,
of the mast hole .
D iagonal tie plates are of the same breadth and thicknes s as the fore
and aft ones When fitted all fore and aft they are arranged in pairs
-
. ,
crossing one another at an angle of about in such a way that every

beam falls under their influence except of co u rse tho s e beams at the bow , , ,
and stern where the converging stringer plates give the n ece ss ary bracing
,
e ffect I f disposed at a greater angle than

. fewer pair s might su ffi ce to
cover all beams but their bracing e ffect would b e less perfect I t i s not n ec e s
, .
s ary that they sho u ld be arranged with perfect symmetry wh ere they meet
local deck plating a considerable divergence may be made A t their crossing .
points they should be butt jointed or overlapped in such a way that the check-
cut in the deck planks may not b e deeper than the thickness of one plate .
A r t 1 5 4 Numerous lo c al p a t c h e s o f d e c k p l a t i n g are required

. . .
The deck beams un d er the galley or donkey boiler house are always plated -
,
cemented and tiled in many o f the early iron vessels the galley floor was
,
formed by laying cement on the top of the wood deck but the latter when , ,
covered up and subjected to heat in this way invariably decay s The , .
mas thole plate i s described in Art 3 78 Bolted to the deck there are variou s
-
. .
,
appl i ance s who s e purpose in the working o f the ship subj ects them to
i ntense s tre s s ; there are the winches Windlass capstans cable stoppers , , , ,
moori ng and towing bitts stay plates steering gear etc The deck beams , , , .
under these are always plated for if the holding down bolts merely passed ,
-
through the wood planks the forces to which they are liable would strain,
the deck bolting and start the caulking ; and as a result of the independent ,
stra i n i ng and imperfect c c operation of the holding down b olts the cast iron
- -
,
-
bed plate of the bollard or Whatever it wa s might fracture ( A rt

-
, , .
The plating binds consecutive beams together and o ffers a Wide and ,
extens i ve base o f attachment such that straining mu s t involve a simultaneous

,
movement of beams plating and deck , ,
When d e c k p l an k s abut against the hatch coamings or on the end

.
bulkhead of a deck house there m u st be a le d ge at lea s t 6 inches wide t o

, , ,
s u p p o rt t h e i r e n d s and admit o f the bolts being placed a su ffi cient

d i s tance therefrom ( Fig 1 8 P late 5 6 and Fig 5 P late .
, When an , .
,
athwartsh i p deck plank is fitted the s upporting ledge plate must of cour s e , , ,
Art 1 5 5 ]
be extra wide ( Fig 6 P late When a bulkhead against which deck

.
,
planks abut extends right across the ship as at the end o f a poo p or bridge ,
house it is well that the entire beam space should b e plated for with so
, ,
many planks severed in one line a rigid foundation is desirable to check ,
the tendency to local straining o f the deck surface ( Fig 2 P late .

,
Similarly in the case of long central deck houses the beam s pace u nder
, ,
their ends should be plated and the beam s well pillared at this point ; when ,
this is not done there may be trouble from leakiness through starting of the ,
caulking consequent on vertical s training of the pla n ks at the ends of

,
the long rigid deck house .
L lo y d s r u l e s pre s ent a tabulated statement of their

’
Art 1 5 5 . .
r e q u i r e m en t s a s t o p l a t e d d e c k s They vary not only with the .
general size of the vessel but according to the proportion which the length ,
bears to the depth ( see P late Thus for example in all vessels over a , ,
certain size plating numeral ) the upper deck must be plated amid
ships for at least half length but i f in such the length should exceed 1 0 , ,
times the depth it must b e plated all fore and aft I n s till larger
, .
plating numeral ) w h en the lengt h exceeds 1 0 depths the second deck in

, , ,
addition must be plated for hal f length and when the length exceeds 1 1
,
depths all fore and aft I n smaller ve s sels deck plating only becomes
, .
necessary when a certain proportion of length is exceeded 1 3 depths in the ,
case of one having a plating numeral of A ccount is also taken of

possible cases of disproportionately small beam but modern ves s el s are not ,
disproportionate in this re s pect .
Th e principles governing the above requirement s are considered in Art .
Summarising briefly : the greater a vessel s length compared with her

’
9.
,
depth the more doe s she resemble a shallow and there fore a relatively
, , , ,
weak girder and so of cour s e the more the necessity for greater e ffi ciency
, , ,
in her girder like design i e the top flange should be well represented by
-
, . .
deck p lating An d thi s is the more imperative on account o f the method

.
of assigning the general scantlings for by the system o f numerals adopted , ,
in Lloyd s rules a redu ction in the depth and breadth (i e a redu ction in
’
, . .
the general size or tonnage of the ve ss el ) while rendering more acute the ,
girder like stresses to which the hull is liable is accompanied by a general

-
,
reduction in scantlings I n the case of a large vessel deck platin g .

,
becomes nece s sary for the general rigidity of the hull irrespective of her ,
proport ions I n a s mall vessel the scantlings o f the hull are usu ally such
.
as to give a high degree of s trength and rigidity I n a large vessel of similar .
design it would be impracticable ( with a view to securing the same degree

of s trength and rigidity) to increase the scantlings proportionately to the
weight carried and to the bending and s training forces to which the hull is
expo s ed for the weight of the hull would be excessive I n practice how
, .
,
ever strength and rigidity approximating to that prevailing in a small vessel

,
may be secu red with a comparatively small increase o f s cantlings by intro ,
duc i n g special di s tinctive parts i e more plated decks more tiers o f beams , . .
,
or web frames and more transverse bulkheads P lated decks and bulkheads
, .
form horizontal and vertical diaphragms perfectly rigid in their own plane ; ,
their introduction therefore at once imparts great and widespread rigidity

, ,
to the hull A s a famil iar illustration the s ti ffening effect o f cross divisions
.
,
in a slender box may be suggested .
When with increa s ed dimension s the necessity for deck plating first
, ,
pre s ents itsel f only the midship portion need be plated for of course it is
,
’
, , ,
here that the hull is most severely tried b oth by longitudinal and transverse ,
forces The plating does not terminate square across for this would re s ult
.
,
in a s eriou s discontinuity in strength and sti ffness ; it i s tapered beyond the

[Art 1 5 5
.
half length for a further one eighth of the length ( Fig 3 P late
-
,
- I t uns
r .
,
o ff into the stringer for owing to its union

,
with the ,
side i t 18 the margi nal ,
art of deck that is most e ective — isolated central plat i ng would be

0
'
th e ff
p
comparatively useless When plated all fore and aft the portions towards the
. ,
bow and stern where longitudinal stresses practica lly disappear are
,
,
evidently of little service in this respect ; but not so when regarded a s .
parts o f a horizontal d iaphragm giving general rigidity to the hull aga i nst ,
the local s tresses of a dynamic character to which these parts are ,
particularly liable ( see A rt By L loyd s rules steel decks var y i n

.
’
,
thickness from —— inch in a small

6
vessel to 3 inch in a large one ; and for i ron
and ?
0
decks ,
— 6 % inch I f only 9
5 5
inch the full
.
thickne s s is ma i nta i ned ,
all fore and aft if thicker the portions beyond the hal f length am i dsh i ps ,
are f —
inch thinner ; or i so thick as 33 inch they may taper by 5 inch 2
3
.
Art 1 5 6 . T h e longitudinal
.
strength a f
f orded by d e c k p l a t i n g is
measured by it s smallest breadth or sectional area ; it therefore depends ,
on how much of it is c u t a w ay b y t h e m i d s h i p h a t c h w a ys o r ’
m a ch i n e ry o p e n i n gs I f the s e are so wide a s to leave only a narrow .
strip on either s ide the h ull may obtain little strength from the deck ; and
,
if strength is particularly required c o mp e n s a t i o n mu s t be made by ,
increasin g the thickness of the reduced part The extent of such com .
e n sati on depends on how great is the need for lon gitudinal s trength and
p ,
on how much thi s i s prejudiced by the opening When the size and .
proportions of a ve s sel are so moderate as only to call for midship ’
deck plating it may be unnecessary to compensate for that removed by the

,
openings for there being n o need fo r special longitu dinal strength the
, , ,
strip o f deck plating on either s ide o f the hatchway s may a fford ample this
might indeed be regarded as the essential part o f the deck the central
, , ,
areas of plating lying bet w een the openings being introduced merely to
complete its dia phragm like character -
.
I n practice the matter is regarded in this way for although com ,
p e n sa t i o n is usually made by thickening the deck plating the addition ,
does not equ al the sectional area cut away by the openings The n ecessity .
fo r compensation is of course most felt in way o f the midship openings ;

’
, ,
if these are not exception ally Wide and if longitud i nal strength is not ,
specially called for an increase of 5 3 inch in the thickness of the adj oining
,
1
s trake of plating is usually s u fficient ( Fig 4 P late 8 6 ) with greater breadth .

,
of opening or greater need of longitudinal strength it may be made much

, ,
thicker I n large vessels having several plated decks in all of which the
.
, ,
breadth is reduced by large machinery O penings s pecial compensation may ,
be neces sary ; all the plating on either side of the upper deck may b e
thickened or loca lly doubled and that of the decks below rein forced to a ,
le s ser extent I n .
—
such vessel s the lowe s t deck i t may be the third or
—
fourth may be entirely suppres s ed in way of the machinery ; and if plated
be fore and abaft this as is o ften the ca s e there may exist marked dis
, ,
continuitie s i n the strength ; but a plated third or fourth deck is not u sually
essential for s tructural purpo s es ; as a diaphragm it a ffords use ful rigidity
to the hull and where s uppre ss ed in way of the machin ery space its e ffect
, ,
as regards tran s verse rigidity may be maintained by fitting additional web ,
frames and side s tringers The marginal part of a deck suppressed in this
.
way i s usually retained a s a wide hold s tringer into which the deck plating ,
be fore and abaft it is more or less gradually ta pered I n some large .
A tlantic liner s an open box girder formation is adopted for such stri n gers -
,
formed of two heavy stringer plates ab out 1 8 inches apart connected by ,
transverse webs and supported by b rackets The practice already noticed . ,
of fitt i ng the half beam s at the sides of hatchways on every frame in place
-
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 1 5 8
1 50 .
[ .
not u sually creep along in the manner suggested but occurs practically ,
s imultaneously ; i f it did creep along it would be d i ffi cult to prov i de

.
against for the breaking or tearing stress bein g momentari ly concentrated

, ,
at the end of the fracture would not be greatly hindered by the nece s sity ,
of following a devious course .
Th e doubling plate should of course b e fitted clo s e to the edge of the , ,
opening so as to stiffen it and o ffer a prompt re s istance to fracture o f a

,
tearing nature Sometimes it is made entirely to s urround the O pen i ng

.
,
but unless for its sti ffening effect o u the edge s it is then no more effi cient
,
'
the free edges o f such opening s are u su ally protected and stiffened by an
angle bar or coaming ( Figs 1 and 2 P late 5 8 and Fig 1 P late 2 9) and if .
, , .
,
a compensating doubling plate is not fitted the angle bar should be of large ,
scantlings and have turned o r welded corners Sometimes where fo r .

,
facility in coaling a number o f small openings are placed close together in

,
the same s trake instead of fitting separate doublings the contiguous strake
, ,
of plating or the same one ( when not all cut away ) is greatly thickened ;
, ,
local doublings however are advantageous in that they give ri s e to smaller

, ,
and less sudden variation s in sectional area The stringer plate is so .
important a part that care should be observed nowhere to weaken it by

holes I ts integrity is not usually disturbed but sometime s in the case o f
.
, ,
a lower deck coaling holes are cut in it for filling the lower bunkers directly
,
through ports in the vessel s side ( Figs 3 and 6 P late ’

.
,
I n the case of l a r ge d e c k o p e n i n gs small d o u b li n g p l a t e s a r e ,

fi t t e d a t t h e c orn e r s as shown in Fig 2 3 P late 5 8 and Fig 4 ,
.
, , .
,
P late 8 6 Besides the loss of longitudinal strength due to the opening

.
,
the sharp corners have an additional weakening e ffect in that nick like , ,
-
,
they induce a localization of stress ; they form convenient starting points

for fracture especially when o f a tearing nature a n d o f course a doub le
, , , ,
thickness in the deck plating at the corn ers checks this When a doubling , ,
.
plate is fitted fo r lon gitudinal strength alongside o f an O pening in the deck

or shell the ab ove rein forcing e ffect may be s i mply secured by locally
,
increasing its width so that it may surround the corners ( see Fig 4 P late .
,
I n other cases the e ffect o f a doubling may be s ecured by placing

the joints o f the strake alongside the hatchway at the corners and forming , ,
them with a long overlap as shown at A B Fig 2 3 P late 5 8 A s a , , , .

, .
further means of checking any tendency to tear at the cor ners it is ,
common in important deck openings and openings in the shell s uch as

,
cargo ports to make the corners round instead o f square for then o f
, , ,
course their nick like e ffect i s reduced ( P late

,
-
A r t 1 5 9 I n vessels whose dimensions or proportions may not call

. .
fo r a plated deck it may be necessary if the cargo h a t c h w a s or , y ,
machinery opening s are e x c e p t i on a lly l o n g to plate the deck beams on ,
either side ( see Fig 1 P late Lloyd s rules require this if a hatchway
.
,
’
is 2 2 feet long and above ; and in the case of the engine and b oiler open
i n gs i f their combi n ed length exceeds feet or i f either is longer than
3 0 ,
1 5 feet Th e plating is extended past the opening tapering into the

.
,
stri nger plate I ts purpose is to compensate fo r the severance of so many

.
consecutive deck bea ms by distributing the supporting e ffect of those ,
wh i ch do go across and by giving lateral rigidity to the vessel s side and

,
’
deck When large hatchways are adjacent to one another leavi n g only
.
two or three cross beams between the latter should be plated over from ,
stri nger to stringer for in the absence o f so many adjacent beams a , , ,
spec i al duty falls upon these and were they not rein forced by plating they , ,
would be free to strain individually in the plane o f the deck and would ,
ha y e little influence in checking relative straining of the two isolated

stri nger plates of the kind described in A rt 3 7 . .
Art 1 6 0]
Ar t 1 6 0 A. s e d q u a r t er d e c k is simply the after portion of the

. r ai -
upper deck raised to a higher level usually from 3 to 4 feet ( P late 1 4 and , ,
Fig 2 P late 2 6 and P late

.
, ,
Where the step or break occurs the ,
enclo su re is made good by a transverse bulkhead A s the break in the .
continuity of the upper deck may greatly injure the longitudinal strength of
the hull special care must be observed in the structural design at this part
, .
Th e extent o f the reinforcements depends on th e position of the break

( whether near or remote from the midship region ) on how great the
’
,
neces s ity for lon gitudinal strength and how much of it the deck i s expected ,
to a fford .
I n the case of the sh or t q u a r t e r d e c k s sometimes fitted in small ships -

,
the break occur s s o remote from midship s as to have little prejudicial e ffect ’
on the longitudinal strength I t may therefore be amply maintained .

, ,
merely by scarphing the stringer plate of the upper deck below that o f the
quarter deck a distance of 8 feet or so tapering it as shown in Fig 4
-
, ,
.
,
P late 1 4 and by doubling the sheer strake across the break

,
I n these .
ve s sels there is u s ually a cabin below the quarter deck in which case the -
,
break bulkhead extends down to the cabin deck the upper deck abutting on ,
the fore side o f it To support the end s o f the deck planks and at the
.
,
same time sti ffen the bulkhead a ledge or shelf plate is fitted acros s it , ,
which if not extended to the adjacent beam should be supported by

, ,
brackets I n small steamers a similar arrangement is sometimes adopted

.
at the forecastle which is then designated a s zmé f or eea stle

,
‘
.
”
I n small steamers of w e l l d e c k t yp e the usual arrangement of rai s ed

-
,
quarter deck is shown in Fig 2 P late 1 4 H ere more extensive s t r u c t u r a l

-
.
, .
r e i n fo r c e m e n t s are necessa ry fo r not only does the break occur nearer ,

’
mid s hips but the discontinuity i s more pronounced becau s e of the stoppage
, ,
of the bridge deck and its side plating I f the vessel i s not very large ( less .
than plating numeral ) and her length doe s not exceed 1 1 depths ,
L loyd s rules require the upper deck stringer to extend abaft the break
’
-
abo u t 1 4 feet ; the quarter deck stringer to extend before it some 8 feet ;
-
the strake of shell plating above the sheer strake to be locally doubled the
b ridge s ide plating to be continued 3 or 4 feet aba ft the break so as to
form part of the quarter deck bulwark and the bridge deck stringer plate
-
,
-
to extend abaft it so as to form a bracket plate to the same O wing to .
the increase in the vessel s depth below the quarter deck there is usually
’
-
,
an additional hold stringer here and of course this also must s carph , , ,
beyond the break .
Further modification s become necessary i f th e u p p e r a n d q u art er

d e c k s ar e p l a t e d I f both of th e se large plated sur faces merely
.
abutted on the break b u lkhead there would be no fore and aft continuity ,
- -
under longitudinal stress the conj oining bulkhead would not prevent them
from pulling a s u nder as shown in Fig 3 P late 1 4 ,
To secure an e ffective .
,
.
union there must be a connecting medium having rigidity under a fore and -
a ft pull . This i s provided by fitting diamond shaped di a p h r a gms between -
the two deck s formed each by two bracket plates one connecting the
, ,
upper deck to the bulkhead and the other immediately aba ft it connecting
, , ,
the quarter deck to the same ( Fig

-
As these brackets have to transmit .
any longitudinal pull of the one deck to the other they must be securely ,
connected by double angles throughout .
I n larger vessels ( over plating numeral ) or in those wh i ch be i ng

0
, ,
o f e x t r e m e p r o p o r ti o n s
( over 1 1 depths ) require more perfect long i
,
tudi n al strength instead o f merely scarphing the deck stringer plates t h e

, ,
t w o d e c k s a r e sc ar p h e d right across the ship the length of the over

, ,
lap varying from 4 to 1 0 feet according to the vessel s dimen s ions ( F i gs 5

.
’
.
,
[Ar t 16 0 .
and 7 P late, Now it is evident that the mere overlap of these two
,
independent plated surfaces would not constitute a un i on there must be

some ri gid connecting medium I n the case o f the marg i nal parts ( the .
stringers ) this is formed by the shell plating for as both parts are held by ,
it they cannot dra w asunder To connect similarly the central port i ons
, . ,
diaphragm plates are introduce d between the overlap of the two decks four ,
or five in number strongly connected to the decks and bulkhead by double

,
angles and sti ffened on their free a fter edge Further in order that the
,
.
,
bridge deck may be compelled to assist in maintaining the long i tud i nal
—
strength at this part vertical web plates about 1 8 inches deep are i ntro
,
—
d uce d between it and the upper deck in front o f the break bulkhead so as , ,
to form a sort o f yoke fo r the three parts the quarter deck o n the one Si de
.
and the bridge and upper deck on the other They are placed immediately .
in front o f each diaphragm plate so a s to check any tripping tendency ,
which might develop as a result o f fore and aft s training o f the two deck s - -
— such as is depicted in Fig 6 . .
I n vessel s o f the above type the b r e a k b u lkh e a d i s usually the bulk ,
head at the after end o f the engine room ( Fig 7 P late 1 4 and P late .
, ,
No w at this part the upper deck may exist only a s a marginal part on
,
either side o f the machinery opening in which case only these parts can ,
scarph properly with the quarter deck the central patch of upper deck ,
-
plating abaft the bulkhead being by itself of little value Lloyd s rules , ,
.
’
permit o f this m a r gi n al sc ar p h in s mall vessel s but if over 1 3 depths ,
in length or , plating numeral it must be of full width in which case , ,
it is necessary that the deck should be of full width for some distance ( 8
feet ) before the bulkhead ( Fig 1 P late E ven with these numerous .
,
rein forcements local straining at the break of large quarter deck vessels is
,
-
not uncommon I t is usually indicated by straining o f the end joints of

.
the topside shell plating o f the marginal parts of the quarter deck and of
,
-
,
its connection to the bulkhead and sides To guard against it the greatest .
care must be observed not only in the structural design but in the riveting
, ,
o f the joints in the neighbourhood of the break .
Ar t 1 6 1 The di fferent s t r a k e s o f d e c k p l a t i n g may be arranged

. .
c l i n k e r fashion or i h a n d o u t or they may be

j o ggle d ( see P lates 1 0 4
- -
,
and I f the deck is wood s heathed the clinker arrangeme n t is ,
objectionable in that as the plan ks must be of varying t h ickness there i s

, ,
con s iderable waste When not wood sheathed the clinker sy s tem is better
.
,
than the i n and out in that by fitting short tapered liners weight and three
- -
, , ,
ply riveting is avoided and water may not lodge at the edges but all flow
, ,
to the gunwale I n rare cases when c h e q u e r e d p l a t i n g is adopted the

.
, ,
strakes are worked edge to edge the connecting edge strip s being fitted in
-
,
short lengths between the beams so as to avoid liners and three ply riveting ,
- .
This is a somewhat costly sy s tem fo r it involves double the amount of ,
seam riveting and more careful workmanship is required to s ecure sound

, ,
watertight work I t is ad vantageous with chequered plating because when

. , ,
overlapped the projecting ribs prevent uniform contact of the faying

,
surfaces They might be chipped o ff at the landings but to save trouble

.
,
th i s i s not usually done the blows of the riveting hammers bringing the
,
edges of the plates gunwale bars etc sufficiently close for caulking
, , .
,
purposes When deck plating is joggled the joggling should b e discon

.
,
t i nue d in way of all athwartship angle bars otherwi s e liners must b e fitted
on th eouter strakes having their ends specially tapered to fit the joggle
,
( see Fi g 2 3 P late
.
,
The strakes o f deck plati n g are often very broad — 6 feet or more
;
they run in straight fore and aft lines but between the end s of adjacent - -
,
[Ar t 1 6.3
in the plank s adjacent to the boiler casings and in those under deck steam
pipe s I t i s a ffected by the weather ; it sh r i n k s a n d e x p a n d s With
.
alternation s of dry and wet a circumstance which o f course has a prejud i ci al , , ,
e ffect on the c a u lk i n g and watertightness For the first two or three .
years the caulking of a wood deck may require attention ; a fterward s

, ,
if the deck is well laid and the timber good and i f the beam surface on ,
which it is laid is well tied and perfectly rigid it may practically never ,
require recaulki ng With inferior timber and workmanship constant

.
,
attention may be necessary to guard again s t leakine s s and con s equent

damage to cargo .
The d u r a t i on o f a w o o d d e c k depends on circum s tances it may be

limited either by the occurrence of general decay or by lo ss of sub s tance
through wear and tear I n a sailing ship making long voyages and whose .
-
,
deck is therefore little exposed to the wear and tear incidental to loading
, ,
and discharging operations a 4 inch yellow pine deck of good quality may ,
- -
last 2 0 year s or more I t will then probably be reduced to a thickness of

.
about 3 inches in which ca s e Lloyd s rules would require its renewal ( Art
,
’
.
I n ordinary cargo s teamers the deck is always plated for as in these , ,
the wear and tear and decaying influ ences are severe the duration of a ,
wood deck would be s hort Th e ab ove refers more particularly to pine .
decks ; a teak deck is most durable both as regards wear and tear and ,
freedom from decay .
The d u r a t i o n o f a p l a t e d d e c k is only limited by corrosion it does

not decay and it s soun dness and watertightness are permanent and assured
,
.
The rate o f corrosion depends on circumstances ; if care b e ob served to

keep it well covered both above and below with a good adhesive protective ,
coating ( see Art it will endure like other parts of the hull An upper
. .
coating however requires constant renewal fo r owing to the deck traffi c

, , , ,
the wash of sea water and exposure to heat and cold it quickly disappears
, ,
or loses its protective qualities O n this account it is usual not to provide .

,
against corrosion at all which of course when quite unchecked may be , , ,
very rapid especially in hot climates where the intense heat of the s un
, ,
and wetti n gs from s ea water greatly intensify the ordinarily s low chemical
action o f corrosion .
A r t 1 6 4 S t e el a n d i r o n d e c k p l a t i n g di ffer in their manner and

. .
r a t e o f c or r o s i on Th e former sometimes becomes curiou s ly pitted the

.
,
surface becoming irregularly covered with small contiguous cavities often ,
l arge and deep like finger marks in dough I t also wastes uniformly by
, .
surface scale I ron does not often wa s te by pittin g ; it does by surface

.
scale but often in an irregular mottled fashion due to local di fferences

, , ,
in its compo s ition U nlike s teel iron plates are of variable quality and
.
, ,
are not homogeneous They are o ften laminated i e they may be made .
, . .
up more or less of non coherent layers and when the s e break out on the
, ,
-
,
surface moisture entering between causes internal corrosion with the

, , , ,
r esult that the layers rise blister like burst away and expose ragged -
, , , ,
sharp e dges Nevertheless in its non—

. susceptibility to corrosion a weather
, ,
deck o f iron is superior to one of steel and accordingly it is now common , , , ,

i n steel vessel s to use iron for this part increasing of course the thicknes s
, , , ,
proportionately with the lesser strength The greater thickness of an iron .
deck is an advantage in itself for it provides a larger margin against ,
corr 0 5 1on and owing to the greater sti ffness o f the plating conduces to
0
, ,
a fa i rer surface an d therefore from a structural point of view to a more

, , , ,
e fficient deck .
A r t 1 6 5 Steel and iron deck plating are s ometime s chequered for the
. .
,
sake o f the foothold a fforded by the proj ecting ribs C h e q u e r e d d e c k .

Ar t 1 6 6 ]
p l a t i n g i s advantageous , however , not perhap s so much on this acco u nt

fo r ordinary plating , when roughened by corrosion is not slippery — as owing
,
to the circum s tance that it a fford s an excellent su rface for preservative

coatings I f well covered in the first in s tance ( with black varnish or tar and
.
cement A rt , each little diamond shaped hollow hold s its own covering
.
-
and i s protected from attrition by the projecting chequer ribs The tops of .
the ribs o ffer a small surface and are kept bright and free from rust by ,
the foot tra ffic I t is a well r emarked circumstance that a deck whether
.
-
,
of steel or iron corrodes very little where exposed to the polishing e ffect
,
o f foot tra ffi c
; in passage ways b etween or along s ide hatchways for ,
instance the plating where trodden upon is u s ually smooth and clean
, ,
while elsewhere it is rough and so much reduced by corrosion as to occupy

a lower level .
A r t 16 6 The deck s tringer plates are connected to the shell by the

. .
-
gu n w a l e b ar s O n the upper deck there is only one but on those below

.
, ,
two a continuous one within the frames and another in short len gth s
,
,
“ “
between them termed sfiell lags str i nger lugs or checks ( Fig 1 P late
,
“
,
”
,
” ”
.
,
1
9 and P late 1 0
, Formerly the upper deck gunwale bar was sometimes ,
-
placed below the stringer plate but this is obj ectionable for owing to the , ,
incidence o f the frames the heel o f the bar instead o f its toes must b e
,
caulked and in rivetin g it there is di fficulty in hammering the surface s

,
together At one period it was the cu stom in the case of awning deck s
.
,
and deck erections to round the gunwale as shown in Fig 8 P late 1 2

, , .
,
.
Beam knees are then di s pensed with and there is no gunwale bar only a , ,
light marginal angle for the wood deck This construction is now seldom .
adopted O n lower decks the continuous gunwale bar is fitted to make

.
,
good the weakening e ff ect of the notches in the stringer plate for i f not ,
rein forced the local reduction in s ectional area and the sharp corners of
,
the notches would cause concentration of stress and form starting points ,
fo r fracture ( Fig 1 P late 1 and Fig P late I some f the
9 1 5.
, n o , .
,
earlier iron vessels the lowe r deck stringer was not connected to the shell -
,
and there wa s only one continuous gunwale bar ( sometimes worked in

conjunction with a narrow vertical strip of plating fitted within the frames ,
“
termed a spirketing the union of the deck to the side of the
h ull was then only that due to the beam knee rivets and a single rivet -
through the continuou s bar at each reverse frame and it was found to be ,
insu ffi cient for the beam knee rivet s readily loosened The sy s tem of
,
-
.
notching the stringer plate and connecting it to the shell at once increa s ed
the rivet connection by about 5 0 per cent .
The vertical flange of the continuous lo w e r d e c k gu n w a l e b a r t a k e s -
o n e r i v e t t h r o u gh e a c h r e v e r s e fr a m e A Fig 1 P late T his

( ,
.
,
rivet would be better omitted were it not fo r the circumstance of corrosion

fo r if the two fl anges merely touched and were not bound together ru s t ,
would accumulate between waste them locally and burst them asunder , ,
( see A rt . A s it occurs only at each frame it weakens the bar just ,
at a place where the longitudinal strength of the structure is already largely

reduced by the transverse line o f rivets connecting the shell to the frame
,
and the stringer plate to the b eam and also by the notch cut in the stringer ,
plate I t i s of little use structurally fo r the union of the deck to the side
.
, ,
as provided by the numerous rivets of the beam knees and stringer lugs ,
is already ample I ts presence involves additional workmanship fo r the

.
,
gu nwale bar requires to be care fully fitted and bevelled so tha t i ts verti cal ,
flange may lie in contact with each reverse frame I n pract i ce proper .
,
contact is not always secured ; the reverse frames near the bow and ste m
are seldom quite fair either in bevelling or position and to conform Wi th , ,
1 56 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
[Ar t 1 6
. 6
them the gunwale bar must be fashioned with s imilar irregularities ( Fig 9
,
.
,
P late Deficiencies in contact are usually made good by introducing

small liners or by locally di s torting the t wo flanges with the riveting
,
hammers in which case only the toe o f the gunwale bar is brought home
,
to the reverse frame O n the upper deck under deck erections this one
.
, ,
rivet connection is now usually avoided the reverse frames being cut short ,
below the deck ; in which case the gunwale bar need not be bevelled and , ,
o w ing to the smaller notch in the stringer a longer and more e ffi cient shell ,
chock may be secured I t may also be dispensed with when the frames .
,
are o f bulb angle section ( Fig 1 P late

-
i f not special lugs must b e .
, ,
fitted ( a s in Fig 8 P late I n the case of frames of Z or channel

.
,
section it is also very commonly dispen s ed with in which case it is well to ,
leave a 3 inch space between the inner flange o f the frame and the gunwale
-
bar which being filled with cement prevents the accumulation of rust
, , ,
.
The gu n w a le b ar of the upper deck is of heavier s c a n t li n gs than

those below for it serve s a s a bond of union between the important sheer
,
strake and deck stringer ( P late I n very large vessels to s ecure a ,
sufficiently extensive and rigid union a supplementary bar is fitted below ,
in short lengths between the frames ( the rules of the Bureau V eritas specify
this for large vessels ) The gunwale bars of all other decks b oth the con .
,
ti nuous and intercostal are of the same scantlings being rather s maller , ,
than the upper deck one ; the latter however where the frames pierce the , ,
stringer under deck erections is treated as a lower one The u pper deck , .
o f a spar or awning de ck ve sse l is lighter in all it s parts than that o f a full

'
scantlinged vessel it s gunwale bar being of the lesser scantlings suitable fo r

,
lower decks The gunwale bar of a poop bridge or forecastle deck lik e
.
, , ,
all other pa rts of these erections is of small scantlings its sectional area , ,
being about 5 0 per cent less than that o f th e upper deck bar below The .
-
.
continuity o f the upper deck gunwale bar Where longitudinal s trength is -

,
important should be carefully maintained I ts bosom or joint pieces

, .
should not have a s maller sectional area than its own and the s hearing ,
strength of the rivets should not be less than the tensile strength of the
bar ( see A rt Where it meets the end bulkheads of midship deck
.
’
erections it should run through so as to scarph properly with the continuous

, ,
bar Wi th i n a good and simple method of arranging this part is shown in

Figs 1 4 and 1 5 P late 1 5
.
, .
Ar t 1 6 7 Lloyd s rules require the sheer strake to extend above the

’
. .
upper deck gunwale bar ( except in the case o f awning decks ) for then the
-
,
st i ffen i ng e ffect it receives from it is better distributed and there is room ,
above the bar to a ffix properly the bulwark rigging chain plates etc The ,
-
, .
e n d Jo m t s o f t h e sh e e r s t r a k e s hould be considered in their relation to
the gunwale bar With the now almost universal o v e rl a p j o i n t a tapered

.
,
l i ner is usually fitted behind the gunwale bar so as to fill the vacancy
occurr i ng at the forward edge o f the lap ( see Fig 1 2 P late Some .
,
t i mes however to avoid the s e the underlapping plate of the sheer strake
, , ,
i n way of the gunwale bar see Figs and u

s
i slotted ( 1 0 B tt e d .
Jo m t s are practically only adopted in large vessel s where the s u perior

_
strength of double straps is required Formerly when all j oints were .

,
butted the straps of the sheer strake were always placed like the other s
, , ,
i ns i de
; o r although the outside position is advantageou s i n that it avoids
f
all i nte rference with the gunwale bar there existed a marked prejudice ,
aga i nst i t on the score o f appearance An inside strap may b e fitted in

, .
one length ( F i gs 1 2 3 and or in two ( Figs 8 and

.
, The former is
, ,
the better When so fitted the gunwale bar must b e li n e re d or

.
.
,
j oggled the l i ners may either be fitted in long parallel lengths between ,
1 58 P R A C TI CAL S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 1 6 8
deck plank start the caulking and cause leakiness ( Art

,
C are must .
be taken to secure watertightness in the deck at the ends of the gutter

waterway where it abuts against the end bulkhead of the poop br i dge or
,
, ,
forecastle The ends o f the gutter bar require to be smithed at these

.
places and the work is sometimes badly done with imperfect contact at
, ,
the welded and j oggled corners .
I n passenger vessels gu tter waterway s are somet i mes prov i ded on all ,
decks ( P late I n the case of flying deck erections such as promenade ,
and shade decks which are supported at the side s by an open ra i l they
, ,
prevent promiscuous d roppings of rain or wash deck water H ere they -

.
may be quite small being o ften formed by a channel bar which for these , , ,
light decks may serve the double purpo s e o f stringer and gunwale bar
,
( Fig 5 . P late , E xcepting passenger vessels gu tters are not usually ,
provided on lower decks ; they are use ful here fo r collecting drainage ,
leakage or wash deck water until it finds its way below by the scuppers
,
-
,
provided o f course on all decks ( see Art

, ,
.
Between each pair of frames at the sides of decks other than weather ,
decks there is a nat u ral trough at one or both ends of which there is an
, ,
aperture in the stringer ( Fig 1 P late The troughs are filled with .
,
cement usually quite full s o as to secure perfect watertightness I n the

, ,
.
case of lower decks it i s sometimes pre ferred not to block up the aforesaid
,
apertures but to retain them as a mean s o f ventilating the hold space

,
below When passengers are carried above they must o f course be fille d
"
.
, , , ,
so that foul or ill s melling air from the cargo holds may not ascend and
-
pervade the living space When apertures are le ft it is well to arrange .
them so that they may b e clo s ed when desired This may be done by .
placing in the s tringer notch when laying the cement a large tapered pin , , ,
which being withdrawn w hen the cement is s et leaves a well formed hole
, ,
-
,
readily plugged at any time .
When a w o o d d e c k adj oins an engine or b o i le r c a s i n g the plank in ,
contact therewith sh r i n k s w i t h t h e h e a t the caulking become s defective , ,
and the timber su bject to heat and moisture readily decays To avoid
, , .
this it is now common to substitute for this marginal plank a gutter ,
fill it flush with cement and perhaps tile the uppe r surfa c e ( Fig 2 1 , , ,
.
,
P late For the same purpose c e m en t e d gu t t e r s are often fitted ,
u n d e r d e c k s t e a m p i p e s A channel bar is particularl y suitable for .
this purpo s e .
A r t 1 6 9 The u p p e r d e c k s c u p p e r s should be considered in con

. .
-
n ecti o n with the gunwale bar Figs 1 6 to 2 0 P late heir purpose

( T .
, ,
o f course is to drain small quantities of water from the deck egress for
, ,
large volume s being provided by large freeing ports placed higher up in the
bulwark ( Fig 3 P late To drain all water from the deck they mu s t be
.
,
level therewith or with the bottom of the gu tter They are usually fo rmed
, .
simply by cutting a hole through the gunwale bar and sheer strake so that ,
water may pas s at once over the side I n passenger vessels however .
, ,
where it would be objectionable to have water trickling down the topsides ,
over or near the cabin sidelights it is conveyed from the bottom of the ,
gutter by a pipe which debouches through the ship s side below the lights
,
’
( see Fig 2 2 P late . With the first type of scupper care should be taken
,
to mai ntain the strength of the gunwale bar where cut away by the hole .
Formerly it was usual to increase the depth o f the vertical flange at the
s cupper sm i thing it s o that it might form a neat frame around the hole ( see
,
Fi g . By the plan now generally adopted advantage is taken of the ,

di sco n ti n mty necessarily prevailing at each j oint of the gunwale bar
.
"
;
i nstead o f placing the joint piece in the us ual way in the bosom of the bar
, ,
Ar t 1 6 9]
, P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1 59
it is fitted belo w the stringer the ends o f the gunwale bar being kept a fe w
,
inches apart so that the scupper hole may be cut in the sheer strake
,
between them ( see Fig . I n order that the j oint piece may scarph
su fficiently With the disunited ends o f the gunwale bar it should be more ,
than a frame space in length and to allow of this one or two frames must
, , ,
be cut short ( see Fig . This however is not often done

, , I t is not .
usually necessary to reinforce the sheer s trake where pierced by the

scupper ; for the material cut away by s o small a hole does not exceed that
removed at each of the numerous line s of frame rivet s I t is important .
,
however that the scu pper hole should not be placed over a frame I n
,
.
order that water is s uing from the scupper hole may properly ej ect itsel f
, ,
and not trickle down the ship s side it is common to provide a sill or lip
’
, ,
formed by a casting or small ang le lug ( Fig Sometimes to avoid

.
,
cutting the gunwale bar a modified form of scupper pipe is employed i n

'
, ,
the form of a small cast iron or dished steel drain leading from a hole in
- -
,
the stringer plate to one in the vessel s side immediately below the s ame
’
( Fig . A ca s ting if,adopted is very compact

, and is therefore little
, , ,
exposed to injury .
[Ar t 1 7.0
C H A P TE R X I V .
Ar t 17 0
. Few vessels are seaworthy when light i e when carrying neither
. , . .
cargo nor ballast Through lack o f stability they might b e in danger o f

.
capsizing and although i f very broad they might be su ffi ciently stable they
, , , ,
would not be weatherly or navigable ; floating like a bladder with no grip ,
of the water but with a large surface exposed to the wind and waves it
, ,
would not be possible in heavy weather to keep a steady course to wind , ,
ward Accordingly when a vessel requires to move from port to port

.
,
without cargo or with too little or with one of a very light nature the
, , ,
necessary immersion and stability must be secured by balla s t U ntil about .
the year 1 8 5 5 stone rubble or sand ballast was alone employed ; it is

, , ,
still in sailing ships but in nearly all steamer s provi s ion i s made for
,
-
,
carrying w a t er b all a s t either in double bottom tanks or deep ta nks the ,

-
,
latter being a small portion of the hold partitioned o ff and specially

constructed to hold water .
The u s e o f water ballast originated in the coal trade between L ondon

and Ne wca stle A t one time this was entirely conducted by s mall sailing
.
1L
ships which for each return voyage loaded and discharged stone ballast
, , ,
.
Th e cost o f the ballast and the work and time lost in loading and dis
charging i t was a serious inconvenience Water balla s t costs nothing ; it .
loads itsel f and may be discharged rapidly by the pumps H aving steam
, .
pumping power s teamer s are specially suited for water balla s t When fir s t
,
.
adopted in some of the early ships the tanks were emptied when the tide ,
left the vessel high and dry by Withdrawing a plug from the bottom I n , .
the case o f the early steam colliers the adoption o f water balla s t an s wered
so well in promoting economy and de s patch in port that although in other ,
respects a more costly mean s of conveyance they soon took the trade ,
from the slow going sailer s -

.
When employed as ballast water must be confined ; were it free to ,
move from side to side it wou ld cau s e the vessel to heel over and be a ,
positive danger instead of a s ecurity Wh en fi rs t u s e d it appear s to .
have been confined by the crude mean s o f watertight bag s which o f , ,
course possessed the merit o f occupying little space when empty A bout
, .
the year 1 8 5 4 numerou s independent shallow tanks were employed built to ,
lie on the tops of the floors and connected by pipes for filling and empty ,
ing purposes Subsequently it was realized that if the ve s sel were built
.
with a double bottom the intermediate space would serve as a balla s t tank
, ,
the strength of the bottom would be increased and safety secured in case ,
of damage to the outer shell A double bottom ha s the further advantage .
o f reducing the tonnage but it also reduces the capacity of the holds as 2
1
S th l t M
ee eM t ll p p a eO w t b ll t Tr .
I ti t ti
ar e
f N l
’
s a e r, n a er a as , rans. ns u on o ava
A r e/z i teets , 1 8 77 .
2
When rst i ntroduced o n the McI n tyre s stem , the do uble bo tto m di d no t secure
fi y
v
thi s a d an tage , fo r i n maki n th e n ece ss ar m easu emen ts fo r to n n a e the B o a rd o f Trad e
g g y r
o ffimals d i d n o t d e ar t fro m the s ri
p t ct e tte r o f the i r r u es, whi ch requi e d tha t th e d ep th l l r
l l
o f bo d sh o u d be measured fro m th
e t0p s o f the oo s fl r .
[Art 1 7 1 .
strikes a sunken rock th e inner bottom situated within 3 or 4 feet of the , ,
outer one and connected thereto by sti ff floor plates wou ld also inevitably
,
,
s uffer but this is not u s ually the case for it i s common to find tha t wh i le ,
the s hell and lower parts of the floor s and longitudi n als are torn and crushed ,
the inner bottom has remained intact and practically waterti ght A ca s e o f .
the kind is shown in Fig 6 P late 1 8 which represents the damage actually .
, ,
su ffered by a warship through running upon a reef I t s hould be observed 1

.
that when a ve s sel s bottom strikes a reef not all her weight pre ss es thereon
’
, ,
but ju s t suffi cient to lift her by a few feet until she is brought up ; the pene ,
t rati o n of the rock s ma y therefore be similarly s mall and ,

i f h a vm g an i nner , ,
skin the water does not enter the holds there i s a good chance of salvage
, ,
.
Ar t 1 7 2 T here
.
are two type
.
s o f d e e p t a n k ( Fig 6 P late 2 0 and .
, ,
late tho s e placed amidship s for the purpose of s i nki n g the vessel
P
bodily in the water so that her weatherly and navi gable qual i t i es may be
o
maintained at s ea ; and t ri mmi n g t an k s placed at the bow or s tern , ,
termed respectively the f or e eab and af ter p eak tank wh i ch s erve the
“ ” -
,
s ame purpose but also permit of the trim being adjusted so as to secure
,
,
o
an even keel should the cargo s towage or consumption of coal durtng the
voyage cau s e an undesirable departure therefrom or to increase the i mmer ,
sion of the propeller should the ves s el be light or secu re by an even , ,
trim a smaller mean draught when entering s hallow harbour s or docks

,
.
N early all modern steamers have an after peak tank beca us e balla s t at the -
,
s te m is part icularly use ful in s ecuring immersion of the propeller when

light ; not s o many hav e a fore peak ta nk M id s hip deep tanks are some -
.
’
times fitted a s a s ubstitu te for a double bottom b u t more us ually they are ,
fitted in conjunction with them the deep tank over the double bottom ,
.
The water balla s t contained in the double bottom only increase s the
ve ss e l s immersion by about 2 feet I n a large modern cargo ves s el it
’
.
, ,
represents only ab out 1 5 per cent of a full lo ad of cargo ( in s maller it may .
exceed 2 0 per the b alla s t d r a u gh t with bunker s full be i ng abou t , ,
hal f the l o a d d r a u gh t I t i s evident there fore that when floating s o .

, ,
lightly on the water a ves s el s weatherly and navigable qualitie s in heavy,

’
weather must b e very poor The propeller for instance being only par .
, ,
tially s ubmerged has very in ferior driving power ( when a ve ss el in ballast

,
trim encounters heavy weather she may take more than t wice a s long on a ,
voyage a s when fully loaded) and the s hock s incurred due to it s ri s ing out ,
of the water racing violently and then being su ddenly brought u p by

, ,
immersion in the waves are very apt to cau s e fractu re of the blade s or of ,
the tail s haft To immerse it merely by trimming the ve ss el by the s tern

- .
,
might so m u ch rai s e the fore foot a s to make the ve ss el still les s navigable -
against head seas and pe rhaps re su lt in damage to the fore foot (Art
, In - .
view of the above when a large ve ss el is about to make a long voyage without
,
cargo it is usual to s ecure deeper immer s ion by loading s u pplementary s tone

,
balla s t I n a perfectly light ve ss el of the modern broad beamed type the

2
.
-
,
sti ffening effect of ballast which in the early ve ss els wa s the s ole reason for ,
carrying it i s not required ; with the double bottom full the sti ffness or
, ,
stability ( as measured by the meta cen tric height ) i s usu ally s o exce ss ive as -
to make her very unea s y at sea she may roll in so violent and s pasmodic a ,
fa s hion a s to strain the s tru c tu re and make life almo s t intolerable to tho s e on
1
H M S H w . S .E gi
. i g S pt mb r 8 1 893
o e . ee n n eer n , e e e ,
.
1
It h ft b u g d th t
as o en l h ul d
e en t b ll w d t p c d t se u l
r e a vesse s s o no e a o e o r o ee o a n ess
w l l i mm
e d th i mp f t e rse vig bi li ty d b d w th l y qu l i ti du t i uffi i t
, e e r ec na a an a ea er a es e o ns c en
i mm i b i g
e rs o n ur f d g
e n t b th li f
a so d p p ty
ce o A S l t C mmi tt
an er o o e an ro er . e ec o ee ,
k w
no nth Li gh t L d l i
as e C mm i tt w pp i t d b y th H u
oa - ne f L d i o ee , as a o n e e o se o or s n
1 90 2 t id
o th i m t t
con s b ut erft i vi g s id a th y e r, l ud d th t t tut ry
, a er r ec e n ev e n ce , e c o nc e a s a o
re gul t w
a i o ns t ll d f th h vi g b
e re n o case ri u l e f l i fe
o r, ve el i b ll ast
ere a n e en no o s oss o on ss s n a .
Art 1 7 3 ]
b oard ; s training from thi s caus e i s often observed in the connection of

the side frame s to the margin plate of the dou ble bottom With a view to .
remedying excessive s ti ffness it i s common when s upplementary ballast , ,
( or reserve coal ) i s carried to place it in the upper tween decks ; and in,
’
s ome cases when a t sea the upper deck is flooded with water between
, , ,
the bulwarks all holes i n the latter being stopped up

,
.
D e e p t a n k s are better than a double bottom in that the ce n tre of

gravity o f the water they contain is fairly high m u ch the s ame as that ,
of ordinary cargo They occupy valuable hold space but large watertight
.
,
hatchways are provided so that they may also be available for cargo , .
When thus adapted the tank i s included in the tonnage measurement , ,
otherwise it may not b e I n order that it may b e used for all kinds of .
cargoe s a deep tank sho u ld be long ; a s n ow adopted they are often s o

, ,
large as to contain the s ame weight of water ballast as the double bottom
itsel f increasing the ve s sel s immersion by another 2 feet or so and when
,
’
there are two s uch tanks a s is now fairly common the total weight of water
, ,
ballast including the peaks and double bottom may exceed 4 0 per cent
, , .
of a full dead weight cargo ( inclu ding bunker coal) thus securing good ,
weatherly and navigable qualitie s in light trim A midship deep tank is .

’
usually placed immediately aba ft the machinery space ( P late or if

there are two one before and one abaft it as i n Fig 6 P la t e 2 0 O therwi s e
, , .
, .
they may b e placed as in Fig 7 which di s position ha s the advantage of .

,
not causing an increase in the sagging s tresse s which occur when a ves s el
is in ballast trim with bunkers full A s ingle large deep tank forward .
, , ,
o f a midship machinery s pace may have the disadvantage of cau s ing the
’
,
vessel to trim by the head when light The ta nk top is u sually formed by .
the lower or second deck ; when extended to the upper deck of a large
vessel it b ecomes so deep a s to cause exce s sive fluid pre ss ure on the
,
containing walls nece s sitating double riveted s eam s and special stiffening
,
-
.
When j u s t in front of the machinery spa ce it i s us u ally arranged to serve ,
al s o a s a reserve coal bunker special watertight door s being provided in ,
the bulkhead separating it from the s tokehold .
Art 1 7 3 To raise th e centre of gravity of the balla s t and at the

. .
,
s ame time increa s e the quantity ca rried b all as t t a n k s have s ometim es ,
been fitted o n th e u p p e r d e c k having a capacity ab o u t one third that of ,

-
the double bottom With these and the double bottom full the centre of
.
,
gravity of th e ballast in s tea d of being about 2 feet above the top of the
,
keel i s raised to about one quarter of the ve ss el s depth Th e deck tan ks

,
-
’
.
are con s tructed by fitting longitu dinal girders about 3 feet deep on the
t O p of the quart er deck and plating them over I n steadying the s hip
-
, .
and securing good immers i on of the propeller this arran gement has ,
proved satis factory A s already noticed to s teady a light ship i n moderate

.
,
weather free water i s sometimes ca rried on deck I n s ome recent ve s sels

, .
a portion of the upper tween de ck s pace be fore and abaft the machinery ’
-
space is partitioned off to form t w e en d e c k b all a s t t an k s I n way o f ’

.
each tank a centre line wa s h bulkhead is fitted from deck to deck ; the
-
beams below are strengthened and an intercostal girder fitted below the ,
deck on either side supported by pillars the central hatchway is tru nked
,
through the tank and s pecial watertight side hatchways provided for the
,
s towage of ca rgo i n the tank .
For a s imilar purpo s e a few s ingle deck cargo ves s el s are con s tru cted -
wi th dou ble side s abo u t 23 feet apa rt belo w the upper deck fo r about
, 2 ,
half the ves s el s length ami dship s ( see P late

1 ’
The s i d e t a n k s so ,
1
M ae Gla s/za n ’
P a te nt, a s ado p ted i n th e
s M a n on /I la , e tc . R egi ste red di m e nsi o n s,
l e n gth , 34 5 fe et ; b ead th , 5 1 feet r
dep th, 24 4 fee t .
1 64 PR A C TICA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 1 7 3 .
formed have a capacity about three quarter s that of the double bottom
,
-
,
the latter o f course being retained The fact of the water ballast in the
, ,
.
side ta nks being so remote from the vessel s centre line is advantageous ’
-
,
in making he r easy in a sea way her period o f oscillation due to her -

, ,
greater transverse moment o f inertia being longer and not s o likely to ,
synchronise with that of the waves ordinarily encountered ( see Art 3 .
Th e double sides are united by cellular framework and as they con fer ,
great strength on the hull they permit in a large vessel of the complete , , ,
s uppression of a second deck As cargo may be stowed against the inner .
walls there is comparatively little los s of hold s pace and the double s ides
, ,
give some security against foundering by collision .
I n s ome ve s sels the s h a ft t u n n el is employed a s a s u pp l e m e n t a ry

b a l la s t t a n k th u s securing on occasion greater immer s ion at the after
, , ,
end with a comparatively small increase in sti ffness

,
.
A r t 17 4 S a i li n g sh i p s are s eldom provided with a d o u bl e b o tt o m

. . ,
for several reasons The saving of time in port ( as a rule they are only in
. ,
port ab out twice a year) is a comparatively s mall matter in a slow going -
sailing ship ; and a double bottom involves special pumping arrange

ments and increases the first cost But moreover the water ballast
,
.
, ,
contained in a double b ottom is insufficient and is too low down ; to ,
immerse a light s hip sufficiently and m ake her perfectly safe for a sea
voyage supplementary stone ballast would still be nece s sary To avo id
,
.
this necessity some large modern sailing ships are provided in addition
,
-
, ,
to a double bottom with large mi d s h i p d e e p t a n k s carrying as much

,
’
,
water again a s the double bottom ; they are s ubdivided horizontally and
vertically and are arranged to carry cargo when required A double bottom
,
.
has the di s advantage that when the ves s el is loaded to her deepe s t draught , ,
with the holds quite full of homogeneous dead weight cargo the entire mas s
‘
-
,
is necessarily some 2 feet higher up than it would be were there no double

bottom I n a crank narrow ship this may result in insufficient stability
.
, ,
to correct which the double bottom cannot of course be filled the vessel , , ,
being already at her statutory load line When double b ottom s were first .
introduced the steamer s of the period were deep and n arro w and as they
, ,
loaded deeply they had naturally but a small margin of stability ; the
,
introduction of a double bottom therefore made matters worse for by , , , ,
elevating the cargo it so seriously redu ced the small margin o f stability ,
that many serious losses occurred I n modern steamers owing to their .

1
,
large beam this danger no longer exists ( on the contra ry they are usually
, ,
too sti ff) but in narrower sailing ships it does and as they are subject to
,
-
, ,
the heeling e ffect of the wind they require a larger margin of s tability , .
A rt 1 7 5 A lthough in its adaptability to car ry cargo a d e e p t a n k is

. .
, ,
better than a double bottom it has none of the safety giving fea tu res of ,
-
the latter and in s tead of being a source of strength it is apt to be one of

, , ,
weakness A s regards longi tudinal s tress the fact of so much weight

.
,
being concentrated at one point in a light ship may considerably accen tuate ,
ordinary hogging and sagging stresses Then the st ructure of the tank .
itself may s u ffer lo c al st r e sses s ta tical and dynamical due to the pres s ure , ,
and movement of the contained water A s water pre s sure i s proportional .
to the depth of the liqu id the containing walls of a deep tank may b e liable ,
to a b u rstin g pre ss ure of great magnitude ; they mu s t therefore be very , ,
s trongly constructed for not being intimately connected like the tank top and
, ,
shell plating of a double b ottom they must be self supporting ( see P lates 2 4 ,
-
and The bursting pre ss ure to which they are expo s ed is not of ,
‘
S M t ll p p r O M u
ee
fu
ar e
’
w tfii
s i m h
a t t m
e T m n e ca ses o n sea or n ess n er c an s ea er s , ra .
[m i me/zen
0
f N a val A r e/zz leets,

'
o 1 8 80 .
S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 1 7 6
1 66 P RA C TI CA L .
[ .
a double bottom of this type there is usually an interco s tal connection ,
between the centre girder and the keel ( and s ometimes one on e 1ther
side) which by uniting the tank top and shell plating greatly 1n c re a ses
, , ,
the strength of the bottom at this part ; the same e ffect I S of course , ,
secured at each margin plate I n some large modern vessels havm g . ,
a double bottom on this s ystem the vertical keel is a co n tmuous plate , ,
the floor s being severed on either side and connected thereto by large
vertical brackets a s s hown in Fig 4 P late 1 0 3 I n the ab s ence of
, .
,
.
fore and aft vertical plates directly connecting the inner and outer
- -
bottom s the latter parts could not c o operate e ffi ciently in re s1st1ng

,
-
upheaving forces for they would not form the top and bottom flanges of
,
a deep girder ; as noticed Art 6 1 the transverse floor s do not form a , .

,
substitute for su ch connection for being mere parallel connecting link s , , ,
liable to trip they are incapable of transmitting fore and aft stres s es from the
,
- -
one part to the o th er For the s ame reason when the floors are exposed to .
,
tran s verse bending stre ss es the tank top plating can give little or no a 5 5 1st
.
-
,
ance becau se the fore and aft girders do not constitute a rigid transverse
,
- -
web The girder s of course are mo s t e fficient in holding down indivi du al

.
, ,
floors or group s of floor s b u t they ca n give little assi s ta nce against w i dely
, ,
applied upheaving pres s ures ( Art Much of their e ffi ciency a s 1 nde .
pendent girders moreover is usually sacrificed by the mea grene ss of the n

, ,
end j oin ts these a s a rule bei n g only single riveted and in some cases
, , , ,
they may be weakened by large m anholes I t thus appears that although .

,
a double bottom on this principle con fer s additional strength the design is ,
not an efli c i e n t one

; that i s to say it i s not such a s to secure from the ,
stru ctural material e mployed it s fulle s t capabilities in the matter of s trength .
Art 1 7 7 I t sho uld be ob s erved that in merchant vessels a double

. .
bottom is not u s ually fitted with the object of strengthening the bottom ,
for in ve s sels having none this is s trong enough Nevertheless as the .

,
deforming forces local and otherwi s e to which the b ottom is liable may
, , ,
at times be exceptionally severe or even irresistible a margin of strength , , ,
larger than what might s uffice whether it be obtained designedly or a dv e n ,

ti ti o usly i s alway s de s irable and accordingly if by a modification in the
, ; , , ,
s tructural arrangement not interfering with other qualities a greater degree , ,
of s trength can be s ecu red it is well that it should be made I t was with , .
thi s object that the c ell u l ar t yp e o f d o u ble b o t t o m wa s introdu ced .
I t was fir s t adopted in warships about the year 1 8 66 and in merchant , ,
ve ss el s about
The st r u c t u r a l a r ran ge m en t o f a c e llul a r d o u bl e b o t to m may
be described in a general way as a Mc I n tyre tank ( Fig 1 P late 1 6 ) in
, , .
,
which all the girder s are extended down to the s hell and all the floors up
to the inner bottom ( Fig cro s sing one another they form numerous
.
,
cells hence the term cellula r

, With s o much added material the .
”
,
strength would of course be greatly increa s ed for each longitudinal girder

, , ,
wou ld form practically a deep vertical keel having a wide top and bottom ,
flange and each floor a deep tran s verse one When so arranged the
, .
,
entire bottom structu re might be regarded a s composed of a series of con

tiguo us box girders longitudinal an d transverse , each of the former bein g
composed o f a strip of inner and outer bottom and a pair of lo ngi tudin als ,
A d i p ti f th
es cr ll ul r d ubl b tt m fi t d pt d i w r hi p w i ll b f u d
on o e ce a o e o o rs a o e n a s s e o n
Si E J R d w k hip bui l di g fi t d pt d i m h t v l
’
1n r . . ee s d th
or on s - n an ose rs a o e n e rc an esse s a re
l
w l d
e i
esc r bed b y th l t M J h i hi p p e O
a e ll l t
r
. ti f m /r t o n, n s a er, n ce u a r con s r uc on o er e an
s l pa s,
”
T r ans I t i tuti f N
o . l A hi t t
ns 1 8 80 I t h ul d b
on b v d th t t h
av a rc ec s , . s o e o se r e a e
G t E
r ea t bui l t i 1 8 5 8 h d
as er n , d ubl b t t m th nl lul y t m th a a o e o o on e ce ar s s e o r ra e
m
, ,
a co
p l t i e e ki d ri pti f thi v l w i ll b f u d i S tt Ru ll w k
n ne r s n a esc on o s esse e o n n co sse
’
s or
o n sh 1pbui | di n
g .
Ar t 1 7 8 ]
and each o f the latter of the same and a pair o f floors ( se e Figs 2 7 .
, ,
and I n practice of co u rse the ab ove arrangement i s not carried

, ,
out i n it s entirety for the weight and strength would b e altogether

,
exce s sive ; while s till reta inin g ample strength ab ou t half of the parts 3 ,
are omitted and many are lightened hy large holes ( s ee Figs 3

, .
and
When thu s su ppre ss ing s ome of the too n u mero us connect i ng webs
( floor s and longi tudin als) there is a choice between the tran s verse and the ,
longitudinal ; in practice s ometime s the former and sometime s the latter are
suppressed and con s equ ently there are two t yp e s o f c ellula r d o u ble
, , ,
bo tto m ; the lon gi t u d i n a l ( Fig 3 P late in which a great part of .

,
the material is placed fore and a ft and the t r an sv er s e ( Fig in which

- -
, .
most of it is placed athwartship When first introduced the longitudinal .

,
arrangement wa s alone adopted for at that time to increase the lo ngi tu ,
dinal streng th was thought desirable ( see Art I t is still adopted .
in warshi p s ( Fig 5 and P late and i n modified form — to a con

.
-
si de rable extent in merchant vessels but the tran s verse syste m is now ,
generally preferred ; for while simpli fying the constructive work it a ffords , ,
greater strength against gro unding pressures The relative e ffi ciency o f .
keelson s ver s us floors wa s noticed in A rt 2 4 and the principle there noted .

,
applies equally here namely that as each floor spanning the distance from
, , ,
bilge to bilge fo rm s a short girder it is stronger and more capable t han the
, ,
lo ngitudin als s panning the greater distance between tra n s verse bulkheads
, .
A ccordingly where strength of bottom against grounding pre ss ures is

,
desired it i s evi dently b etter to retain all the floors

, .
Ar t 1 7 8 Noti ce in the first place the structural arrangement of a

. .
, ,
c ellul a r d o u ble bo tt o m o n t h e lo n gi t u d i n al p r i n c i p le ( see Fig 3 ,
P late 1 6 and P lates 8 8 and

, H ere the lo n gi tudin a ls are placed
about 4 feet apart and a s alternate floors are omitted they al s o are
, , ,
4 feet apart While omitting alternate floor plate s their frames and
.
,
reverse angles are retained to give local s ti ffne s s to the shell and inner ,
bottom plating ; a s a rule however the reverse bar s are omitted the , , ,
thickness of the tank top pla ting being slightly increa sed ( usually by -
‘
O
i n ch) as compen sat i on for the lo ss of their stiffening e ff ect The ends .
of the intermediate frame an gle s are connected to the vertical keel and
margin plate by bracket plate s Formerly with a view to s ecuring longi .
,
tudi n al strength the lo ngi tudi na ls were fitted conti nu ously and the floors
, ,
in short pieces or diaphragm plate s b etween them ( Fig 7 P late

, but .
,
now except in warshi p s this i s usually revers ed the floor s being con
, , ,
ti n uo u s and the lo ngi tudin als in s hort length s ( Fig for while greatly .
,
simplifying the con s tru ct i ve work it increases the strength against grounding ,
pressures O f cou r s e in every case the centre longitudinal or vertical

.
,
keel is fitted conti n u ously the floors being connected thereto by short ,
vertical an gles one in ves s els of mode rate siz e (under

, plating
n u meral ) and two in large ones ; an d simila r single connecting angles are
,
fitted at the in tersection of each floor and longitu d inal I f the floors and .
lo ngi tudi n als are regarded as forming merely the connecting web s o f
numerous conjoine d box girders discontinuities in the strength of either ,
would be unimpor tant ; but although slender they really form i n themselves , ,
deep and capable girders and as such cont i nuity of strength is very , , ,
desirable ; but more particula rly 1n the floors because as they fo rm short , ,
girders they su ffer greater s tress and are more capable 111 resisting deflecting
,
forces O f cour s e when the lo n gi tudin als are regarded as fore and aft
.
,
- -
parts contributing strength to the hull ( a s a whole) a gainst hogging and

,
sa gging s tre sse s a maintenance of their s ectional area to enable them to

, ,
[Ar t 1 7 8 .
with s tand pu rely ten s ional s tres s es is important But their duty in this ,
.
respect is a very minor one for when s trengthened by the addition of an , ,
inner bottom the lower part of the hull is in any case stronger than the
, , ,
upper ( s ee Art I n the early ve s sels the matter was not looked at
.
in this way ; the lon gi tudin als were deemed capable of contributing useful
longitudinal strength and so their continuity was regarded as s pecially
,
important The floors on the other hand were regarded a s minor pa rts
.
, , ,
qu ite subordinate to the longi tudinals so that while the latter were com ,
posed o f a continuous solid plate the former were often arran ged on the ,
bracket sy s tem ( s ee Fig .
I f as j u s t noticed the floors are regarded merely as the connecting

, ,
web s of tran s ver s e box girder s their place might be taken by diagonal ,
lattice link s ( see Fig 6 P late but although a lattice formation

.
,
is perfectly e fli ci ent for the web of a girder pure and simple it i s not so ,
for the floor plate s of a s hip for it can o ffer little or no resista nce to upward ,
cru shing pressures I t i s s till less suitable for the longi tudi nals because
. ,
these may s uffer longitudinal s tre s s to which diagonal links can give no ,
resistance I n its mechanical characteristics a floor formed of bracket

.
plate s ( Fig 6 P late 1 6 ) is identical with one o f lattice link s ; if in the

.
, ,
latter s ome of the triangu lar s pace s were filled in the result would be a
, ,
b r a c k e t p l a t e fo rm at i o n
- But a bracket floor is s uperior in that being .
,
more substantial it can o ffer more resi s tance to gro u nding stresses where
, ,
the upward pre ssu re of the ground and the downward pressure of the
contai ned cargo tend to cru sh the two bottoms together The larger and .
heavier the ve s sel the greater are such pre ssu res likely to be and so
, , ,
altho ugh at one time the bracket sy s tem wa s adopted in large ve s sel s it is ,
now only deemed applicable to small ones ( Lloyd s ru le s permit of it in ’
ves s els un der plating numeral) An important duty of the bracket .
plate s i s to sti ffen and hold erect the variou s longitudi n als in the case of
the vertical keel therefore which s u ffers the mo s t s evere pressure s each
, , ,
vertical pair i s formed of a single plate which of co u rse gives a much , , ,
better s upporting eflect ( s ee Fig A n d in war s hips where this system .

,
of construction i s s till in vogu e all the bracket s are formed in this way ,
( see Fig .A ltho ugh admi s sible in small ve ss els the bracket system of ,
constru c tion as regards merchant vessel s is practically obsolete for it

, , ,
give s a le ss s trong bottom than the solid floor arrangement and involves ,
continuou s longitudin als and costly constructive work .
A rt 1 7 9 N otice now the general features of a t r a n sv e rs e ly

. .
a r r an ge d c e l l u l ar d o u b l e b ot t o m see Fig 4 P late 1 6 and P late

( .
, ,
H ere all the floor s are retained and the lo n gi tudi n als red u ced in number ,
in a tank le ss than 3 4 feet wide amidships only one longitudinal is fitted ,
on either s ide if wider two ( P lates 4 and , I t is hardly proper

,
to de s cribe them as lo ngi tudin als for bei ng in short lengths between , ,
the floor s they are mere interco s tal plates and moreover they may
, , , ,
not even lie in continu ous fore and aft lines Their purpose of course - -
.
, ,
18
to hold the floor plates erect against the s ide bending tendency -
wh 1ch plate s so deep would readily exhibit and to form intermediate

.
fore andj aft connecting webs between the shell and inner bottom
-
.
C o mparmg thi s type of bottom with the longitudinal one j u s t described ‘
1t I S S1m le r to construct because there are only two kinds o f parts

p ,
the floor s and intercostals which are easily made and readily put ,
together ; and of cour s e with double the number of powerful transverse

, ,
floors the bot tom is more capable of with s tanding severe grounding
,
pressure s Agam the s hell plating being rigidly s upported at intervals of

.
, ,
about 2 feet 1n stead o f 4 is better able to resist local press u res s o much so
, ,
1 70 .
[ .
the upper edges o f the floors are doubled in the engine and boiler room I n .
the longitudinal type o f bottom Lloyd s rules require at the fo r w a r d en d ,

’
,
fo r one fi fth the vessel s length floor plates to be fitted on every frame
’
-
,
( P late to provide against the dynamical stre ss e s peculiar to this region

and in the transverse type an additional line of interco s ta ls is required , ,
which being fitted merely to s ti ffen the shell plating may be of hal f height
, ,
( s ee Fig 3 P late I n.addition

,
to this in full ves s els all t h e floors in ,
this region m u st have double shell angles ( Art .
Art 1 8 2 The foreg oing describes the cellular do u ble bottom con
. .
struction generally adopted in merchant vessels but of cou r s e modifications , , , ,
small or large are o ften made I n some longitudinally arranged double

, .
bottoms the longitudinal parts are increa s ed and the tran s verse reduced
, , ,
t e the lon gi tudi n a ls are placed clo s er together so that by reducing th e

. .
,
area of shell plating lying between them the intermediate frame angles , ,
otherwise required to support them may be dispensed with I n others the ,

.
,
transver s e elements are increa s ed and the longi tudin als reduced the lon gi
tudi n als are placed wider apart and the intermediate frame and reverse
—
,
angles not ha ving a floor plate— rendered more e fficient by forming them
o f deep angle bulb angle Z or channel bars and co n necting them to the
, , , ,
lo ngi tudi na ls by bracket plates .
I f as in warships the lo n gitudi nals are fitted continuously their lower

, , ,
angles are s ometimes s evered in favour of continuou s frame angles By .
doing thi s the constructive work is greatly facilitated for the floors instead , ,
o f being in deta ched pieces may be erected in one with the frame angles
,
so that the lo ngi tudi nals may be dropped down at any time between them .
I f the frame angles are severed the inner diaphragm p lates of the variou s ,
floors must first be erected an d fixed to the vertical keel then a longitu ,
dinal fitted 0 11 their outer ends and the s ame operation re peated again ,
n d a a in the bottom structure growing s lowly piece by piec e out from the
i g , , ,
ee l
A rt . 18 3 . I n w a r sh i p s the d o u b le b o t t o m c o n s t r u c t i o n i s
peculiar ( see P late I t i s lighter throughout than in merch ant vessels
for the floor plate s and lon gi tudin als are not only thin , but may be 5 0 or
1 0 0 per cent . further apart Th e floors are repre sented by bracket plates ,
.
those which are solid being extensively lightened by large holes The .
lon gi tudi nalsare worked continuously and in these vessel s this is very ,
proper because owing to their large beam the breadth from bilge to bilge
, , , ,
or even from keel to bilge may exceed that between t ran s verse bu lkheads
— these being both numerou s and clo s ely s paced The design of the
,
brackets is di fferent from that at one time adopted in merchant vessel s ;

each vertical pair i s formed of one plate and they merely grasp t/ze ends ,
of the frame and rever s e bar While a ffording therefore good support to .
, ,
the longi tudin als they leave unaided the central portion of the frame angle
,
and revers e bar and as there are no intermediate angles and a s the floors
, ,
and lo ngi tudinals may be 4 feet apart it is clear that the s hell plating ,
must be much le s s capable of resi s tin g local grounding pres s ure s than that
of merchant vessels I n warships however thi s quality i s of minor import
.
, ,
ance for heavy cargo is never stowed on the inner bottom they do not
, ,
enter shallow tidal harbours or rivers and being navigated with exceeding , ,
care they seldom if ever touch the ground Further there need b e little
, , , .
,
or no margin o f strength or massiveness against deterioration for they are ,
not constantly exposed to the wear and tear o f active service and their ,
u p keep-
regards cleaning and painting is continuous and thorough
as ,
To prov i de therefore a s is done in merchant ve ss el s a large margin of

.
, .
, , ,
strength would not be expedient ; for of course whatever weight of

,
, ,
Art 1 8 4]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P E UI L DI N G . 17 1
structural material is saved permits o f an increase in o ffensive defensive , , ,
and other qualities I n some later large vessels the free edge o f the
.
,
bracket plate s is cut parallel to the other and flanged a lightening hole , ,
being punched in the plate ( see the dotted lines in P late 1 1 3 ) but while
this give s greater s trength and sti ffness against stre ss es tending to force up
the outer bottom it localizes the thrusting e ffect on the inner one and i s
, ,
more likely to result in damage to thi s in the event of the outer bottom
being inj ured ( Fig 6 P late .
,
A part from the bottom framework the st r u c t u r a l d e s i gn o f a ,
w ars h i p di ffers greatly from that of a merchant vessel The latter are .
designed to carry all sort s of cargoes heavy and light s towed pro miscuously , , ,
and often carelessly on the inner bottom or tween deck s ; and they are
,
’
expected when so load e d to endure year a fter year all sorts of weather
, , , ,
and it may b e an occasional grounding without signs of straining or of ,
seriou s deterioration ; further they receive only periodical survey and are , ,
often unfairly treated as regards cleaning and painting To satis fy these .
requirements an ample margin o f strength and massiveness is evidently

,
essential Warships on the other hand carry no cargo ; they carry heavy
.
, ,
weights of armament and coal but the former i f not incorporated with the , ,
structure of the hull are placed in specially a s signed positions and are
, ,
definite in amount The hull is rendered sti ff and s trong not merely by
.
,
side framing but by numero u s plated decks and transverse and longitudinal
,
bulkheads ; at mid depth there i s a protective deck of steel plating 2 or

-
,
3 inches thick which in i tself forms an immensely rigid diaphragm

, ,
conferring great strengt h and sti fln ess on the hull a s a whole The side
'
frame s lying between the bulkheads and decks having there fore only the , , ,
minor duty of stiffening the intermediate area s of shell plating may b e ,
comparatively few in number and of light s cantlings E fficiency in the .
str uc tu ral de s ign of all parts however small and unimportant is care fully , ,
studied ; i f by a more elaborate design a part may be reduced in

, ,
ma s siveness and yet still a ff ord the required s trengthening e ffect it is s o ,
designed regardless of the greater cost in workmanship

,
.
A r t 1 8 4 I n order to di s pense with connecting angles it is n o w a

. .
,
common practice to flan ge t h e e d ge s of the various plates ( see P late

The t 0 ps o f th e flo o r s are often flanged thus dispen s ing with reverse ,
bars and in s ome cases their lower edges also so a s to dispense with the ,
frame angles ( Fig 1 4 P late 1 7 and P late. but o f course this can
, , , ,
only be done where the bottom of the s hip has no transver s e curvature for ,
only s traight edges can be flanged cold The i n t e r c o s t al p l a t e s are very .
commonly flanged usually on two side s but sometimes on the upper and
, ,
lower edges a s well An d the side girders o f a Mc I n tyre tank may

.
be flanged thus dispensing with top and bottom angles

,
.
The fla n ge s y s t e m cheapens the constructive work for there are ,
fewer parts to make and fit and less riveting the operation o f c o ld fla n gi n g

—
,
—
only occupie s a few moments however large the plate and involves no
manual labour ( see A rt There may be little or no saving i n we i ght
. ,
however for when a plate is united by a flange it is usual shghtly to

, ,
increa s e its thickness to compensate for the in ferior sti ffness of the con
,
n ec ti o n
. C ompared with the square heel o f an angle bar the rounded ,
knuckle o f a flange has an inferior abutment and holding e ffect Th e case .
of a strut or pillar may be suggested whose ends in s tead o f meet i ng the , ,
supported part with a square abutment or palm are bent round w ith an ,
easy curve to meet it tangentially it is evident that a tendency to sb1rk l ts

work would develop under a comparatively small load When sub j ect to .
the buckling e ffect of grounding pressures the floor plate s are 111 the ,
[ .
position o f the above strut E x periments made ( by Lloyd s R egister) to .

’
ascertai n the comparati ve merits of a flange ver sus a n angle bar c o n n e c t1o n -
,
proved that u nder excessive cru s hing pressures the former was inferior the ,
plate tripping and bending more readily ( see Fig 5 P late and the .
,
inferiority became more pronou nced when both edges were flanged I n .
view of thi s Lloyd s rules require that when plates subj ect to cru shing or
,
’
,
buckling stres s es acting in their own plane are connected by a flange the 1r , ,
thickness s hall be increased by — inch I n the case of flanged bulkh eads 1

-
20
. ,
where the flange serve s a s a sti ffener again s t deflecting s tre ss es actin g m a
plane at right angles thereto further experiment s prove that there is no ,
in feriority but rather the reverse ; and so here no increa s e i s made ( see
,
Art . The increa s ed thickness in flanged plates i s al s o u s eful as

compen sation for the injury done to the material at the kn u ckle of the
flange To bend sharply a cold plate is a s evere ordeal ; although it
.
may with s tand the treatment evidence of the s teel being in a strained ,
condition is often given by the appearance of small cracks at the extreme

ends of the kn u ckle ; and in s ome cases when the plate is thick it may , ,
crack from end to end along the knuckle ; but thi s should not occur with
good mild steel ( Art
, The rules of the B ritish C orporation require
.
the thickness of flanged plate s to be increased by 4— inch for plates up 1

1 -
—
0
to 13 inch thick { inch for those of i f; to 3 ?inch thick and
, , 3
inch 4 7 ,
for tho s e exceeding the latter thickness ; and to ensure ample mildne s s in
the s teel and thus avoid the inj urious s training shown by the tendency to
,
crack they require that the tensile s trengt h of the steel shall not be more
,
than 2 9 tons per square inch nor less than 2 5 tons the greater thickness , ,
compensating for the inferior s trength and stiffne ss Lloyd s rules permit .
’
o f a minimum strength o f 2 6 tons instead of the us ual 2 8 tons n cold

( ) i
flanged plate s .
Ar t 1 8 5 Lloyd s rule s pre s ent a tabulated statement of the s c a n t li n gs

’
. .
o f the variou s parts o f c ell u l a r d o u b le b o t t o m s An idea of the com .
parati v e si ze s in large and small vessel s may be obtained from P late 4

, ,
.
The floors and lon gi tudi nals are alike in thickness the margin plate is ,
rather thicker and the vertical keel still thicker U nder the boilers all
, .
bar s are increa s ed in thicknes s from — to 53 inch and all plates by f ,

1-
0 0 , ,
to 5 inch a s a provi s ion against the more rapid corro s ion which prevails
4
5 ,
in thi s region Frame angles which do not fall upon floor plates are made
.
the same s ize a s those on the ves s el s sides ; in those which do the vertical ’
,
flange is made narrow l i ke the shell flange E xcepting the vertical keel , .
and frame angles all other angle s within the tank are alike in scantlings
, .
The t an k t o p i s u s ually designed a s a l e v e l s u r fa c e I n some of .
the early double bottoms it was extended right out to the vessel s side s but ’
,
soon the now u niver s al plan wa s adopted of flan ging it downwards so as ,
to form a gu tter for the bilge water and by the squareness of its incidence , ,
w i th the shell facilitate the watertight connection Formerly it wa s

, .
,
common to slo p e t h e t an k t o p slightly upwards from the centre line

( Fig 3 P late. for by doing so the British tonnage was reduced ( see A rt
, .
No w thi s i s s eldom done except in vessels which have a considerable ,
u se of floor where if it were level it would be too s hallow at the margin

, , ,
plate or too deep over the keel ; or where a small Suez canal tonnage is -
re quired this being still compu ted in the manner formerly in vogue for
,
Br1t1sh tonnage The formation i s objectionable because in order to get

.
, ,
1 1d o f drainage or leakage water wells mu s t be provided with central , ,
open i ngs in the tank top I n some cases the tank top s lopes downwards .
from the centre on either side Fig 2 there i s little advantage in this
( ) .
,
but it may be useful where a deep and s trong vertical keel and yet not ,
[Art . 186
out whatever the type of tank I n large vessels ( over

,
plating n u meral )
. ,
having a cellular double b ottom in which alternate floor s are om i tted the ,
brackets on the intermediate frame angles are made rectangular so a s to take ,
a three rivet connection to the tank top ( see dotted lines in Fig 1 P late
- .
,
The increased pressure and s t r a i n i n g e ffe c t which w a t e r b a ll a st
may exert when the ship is moving is sometimes i llustrated i n the case o f
collision Should a vessel be suddenly brought up by e n d o u c o lli s i on
.
-
,
the water in the double bottom tending to continue its forward movement , ,
may ca u se an intense bursting pressure at the forward part of each tank .
I f fo r instance the forward motion of th e vessel were retarded at the rate

, ,
o f 3 2 feet per second the containing walls at the forward end of each tank
,
would be subjected to a pres sure represented by a vertical head of water

equal to the length of the tank As a result of end on coll i s i on i t is not .
-
,
uncommon to find that leakiness has developed in the various joints at the
forward ends of the tanks ; and this o f course may occur quite a s readily , ,
in tanks near the stern as in one near the damaged b ow .
A r t 1 8 7 I n a M c I n t yr e t a n k t h e s t r a k e s o f t an k t o p plating are
-
. .
,
sometimes disposed fore and aft and sometimes athwartships I n any case - -
.
a fore and aft s trake is u s ually fitted over the centre line girder the better
- -
,
to maintain its character as a powerful centre keelson I f the tank top is .
only supported by fore and aft girders the athwartship disposition ( Fig 5
- -
,
.
,
P late 1 9) is the better one for then the transverse seam s o f the platin g are
,
rein forced by the crossing o f the girder s ; when they lie longitudinally
—
between them the joints single riveted in the u sual way may su ffer
,
—
from the severe tran s verse ten s ional s tres s which accompanie s bulging
pres sures ; further as the seams are of double thicknes s they form very
,
e fli c i en t cross sti ff ening ridges against bulging tendencies A s already .
noticed a Mc I n tyre tank is not usually designed to increa s e the strength of

,
the hull its s trength is merely proportioned to what i s suitable fo r a tank

, ,
pure and simple Th e end joints of the margin plate are double riveted
.
,
and tho s e of the centre girder treble ; with the s e exceptions all other joints ,
may be single riveted .
The c e n t r e gi r d er o f a M c I n t yr e tank i s made rather thicker than

the others and is provided w ith double angle s on b oth edges as already
,
noticed in modern vessels having a flat plate keel it is s ometimes worked a s

,
-
,
a continuou s vertical keel ( Fig 4 P late 1 0 3 ) i f not intercosta l plates must .

, , ,
of course be fitted The connection of the s i d e gi r d e r s to the floors used

,
.
only to be made by two rivets a lug being fitted fo r the purpo s e either on ,
the girder or the floors now a four rivet connection is always made by ,
-
,
d o u b le l u gs one on the floor and one on the girder ( Fig 1 P late

, .
,
The insu ffi ciency of a two rivet connection is often observed in old vessels
-
,
where the girder s ( after long exposure to the concu s sive e ffects of free
water) may be found to have severed all connection with the floors ,
and by the friction of their s ide straining movement worn away the
, ,
rever s e frame and their own angles Sometimes in s tead of double lugs .
, ,
a single vert ical one is fitted which not only ties both parts together but , ,
serves to sti ffen and hold them erect ( see Fig 5 P late I n thi s .
,
\
type o f tank the transverse bulkhead s usually pass right down to the shell ,
the centre girder margin plate and a girder on either side piercing it
, , ,
but the others and the tank top plating abutting o n the bulkhead I f a -
.
’
midship bulkhead forms the termination of the tank as s hown in Figs 2 , .
to 5 P late 1 9 care must be ob s erved that the abrupt stoppage of so much

, ,
longitudinal material does not cause a transver s e line o f pronou nced

relative weakness The side and bilge keelsons should pierce the bulkhead
.
and run into the tank fo r several frame spaces s o as to s carph with the ,
Art 1 89]
75
girder s and margin plate And each girder should be repre s ented beyond .
the ta nk by a long vertical bracket plate so a s to avoid all s udden ,
discontinuities .
A rt 1 8 8 The thickne s s of the t a n k t o p p l a t i n g ( whatever the type

. .
-
o f double bottom ) varies according to its location ; i n the engine room it
is made — to ——inch thicker than in the holds and in the boiler space
;
2
2O ,
— to inch th i c ke r to provide against the rapid corrosion o f this part
}
4
2 O 5 3 ,
( see A r t I n a c.e ll u l a r d o u b l e b o t t o m the s trakes are alway s

arranged longitudinally I n shipyards where the tank top is fitted after .
the shell plating athwart ship ta nk top plate s are u s ually introduced belo w
,
-
the bulkheads from m argin to centre strake ( Fig 4 P late 2 2 and P late
,
.
, ,
so that the latter may be erected at any time in which case the ends of ,
the fore and aft s trakes are connected to the tran s ver s e with treble riveted
-
joints The centre strake is worked continuou sly and as it forms the
.
,
upper flange of the vertical keel it is made thicker than the others and its , ,
joints are double riveted I n s mall ves s els the fo r e a n d a ft s e a m s .

- -
,
excepting those o f the centre s trake are single riveted so also are the end ,
joints except those in the machinery space and those of the centre strake
,
and margin plate I n larger ves s els ( over . plating nu meral) all ,
the end j oints for half length amidships are double riveted and in s till ,
larger ( over plating numeral) all fore and aft and according to the , ,
vessel s s ize the fore and aft s eams near the centre line or all of them are
’
,
- -
, ,
double riveted fo r half length I n case of grounding the upward pressure .

,
on the bottom places the tank top in tran s ver s e ten s ion tending to pull its ,
fore and a ft s eams asunder and to O pen the up per parts of the joints o f the
- -
s evered floor plate s ( Fig 7 P la te A ccordingly whe n the lo n gi tudi n als

.
, ,
are continuous it i s well that the s trake of tank top plating immediately
,
-
over each one should proj ect equally on either s ide the better to unite the ,
s evered floor plates ; if a s eam lay alongside a continuous longitudinal it ,
would aggravate the tran s verse weaknes s due to the s everance o f the floor
plates The transverse ten s ional stre s s is greate s t at the centre line and it
.
,
is in view of this and of the fact that the floor s are s evered here that the
, ,
edges of the centre s trake are always double riveted .
A r t 1 8 9 I n merchant ves s els the longi tu dinal or i n t e r c o s t a l

. .
p l a t e s are us ua lly di s p o s e d i n s t r a i gh t li n e s parallel to the keel , .
Towards the ends where the margin plate converges upon them they , ,
s top each one short of it ( see P late

, The additional intercostal
plates intr oduced in the engine room stop short at either end of it The .
lo n gitudi n als are usually dispo s ed vertically so as to avoid bevelling their ,
upper angle s but if the tank top is not level s quare either to it or to the
, ,
s hell Whatever the inclination it i s maintained all fore and aft so

.
, ,
that the intersection of each longitudinal with every floor is represented

on the s crive board by one line ( see P late The co ns tructive work is
thu s facilitated because man y of the floors may b e made from the same
,
template ; if the inclination varied the longi tudi nals would meet each floor ,
at a di fferent angle their inters ection s showing on the scrive board as

,
numerou s confusedly intersecting lines For the greatest efficiency all

, .
,
framework should lie s quare to the s urface it is designed to s upport because ,
pre ss ure s acting on the latter can only do so at right angles thereto But .
,
to incline the lon gi tudi nals s o that they may be everywhere square to the ,
shell would greatly complicate the constructive work ; amidships where

, ,
the b ottom su ffers the most s evere pres s ures they do lie practically square ,
thereto and towards the end s any little divergence is u nimportant for of
, , ,
course in any case they are held erect by the numero u s floor plates
, , .
I n w a r sh i p s the lo n gi t u d i n a ls are not dispo s ed in the foregoing

1 76 .
[ .
simple fashion they are cu rved inward s toward s the ends and to conform , ,
with the fore and aft bulkhead s or engine s eat bearers they may be sharply
- - -
,
bent presenting in plan irregular crooked lines O f course when acting

, ,
.
,
as longitudinal sti ffening ribs a departure from a fa i r fore and aft l1ue ,
- -
does not affect their e fficiency A s the framework of a war ship is slender . ,
it is important that its effi ciency should be as perfect as po ss ible ; its

capabilities are therefore wisely increa s ed by d1sposmg the longi tudinals
.
, , ,
everywhere square to the surface they support ; here of course Sl mpl1c1ty , ,
and economy of construction are minor con s iderations When the longi .
tudi nals are s q u are to the shell they are also square to the inner bottom , ,
for in these ve s sel s this is usu ally worked parallel to the shell ( see
P late
Ar t 1 9 0 At one time it wa s common not to s e v e r t h e fr a m es a t
. .
t h e m a r gi n p la t e but to run them through and secure watertightness by

,
means of collar angles in the manner shown in Figs 1 1 and 1 2 P late 1 7 .

, ,
fo r it was feared that to cut them would injure their strength and increase
and complicate the con s tructive work Now of cou r s e they are always .
, ,
severed a connection being s ecu red by large bracket plate s ( Fig s 1 3 to

,
.
except in the ca s e o f deep tanks where it is still sometimes preferred to ,
run them throu gh intact or with a part removed to facilitate the making of ,
the collars ( Fig s 4 5 7 P late 5 3 and Figs 2 to 1 0 P late

.
, ,
I n the
, ,
.
,
first ves s els in which the fr a m e s p i e r c e d t h e m ar gi n p la t e no brackets

, ,
were fitted on the out s ide of the latter for with continuou s frame s there , , ,
appeared to be no need for them ( Fig 1 1 P late But they were soon .
,
found to be necessary becaus e in their ab s ence there was nothing to s tiffen

,
the bilge wherea s in a ship wi th ordinary floors there was the tape red floor
,
head An d moreover the mere presence of a double b ottom call s for

.
, ,
increased strength at the bilge becau se of the sudden variation in the ,
st ructural rigidity where the deep bottom framework give s place to

,
the comparatively s lender side frames and beca us e the weight of the ,
concentrated mas s of water in the tank tend s when the ve ss el is in lively ,
movement at s ea to ca us e inten s e local s tres s e s at thi s part

, .
When bracket plate s are fitted to the frame s on either s ide of the margi n
plate the extensivenes s of the connection s o s ecured at once permit s of th e
,
frames being cut with the beneficial re s ult of avoiding all costly watertight
,
collar angles their place being tak en by a straight fore and aft angle bar
,
- -
,
easily fitted and caulked Neverthele s s when bracket s were first intro .
,
duced the continuity of the frame angle s was still very commonly maintained
( Fig . 1 2 P late , and even now in the ca s e of deep tank s the frame s are , ,
o ften carried through and bracket plates fitted to give rigidity at thi s part
and to compensate for the severance of the rever s e bar or for the removal
o f the inner flange in the case of Z or channel frame s When the frames .
are severed they are us ually cut i n the fir s t insta nce and erected in s eparate
,
piece s but when there are only a few a s in way of a deep tank they may
, , ,
be made in one piece and be cut by hand in the ship before fitting the , , ,
tank top plating ; this i s advantageou s in that the frame s are then more
easily made erected and faired the co s t of cutting them by hand being a
, , ,
small matter ; in some ca s es however to s ave hand cutting they are , , ,
partially severed before erection .
A r t 1 9 1 The methods of se c u r i n g w a t e r t i gh t n e ss by c oll a r

. .
a n gl e s where frames o f different kind s pierce watertight plating are

, ,
shown in Fig s 2 to 1 0 P late 5 5 Fig 2 illustrate s a method formerly

.
, . .
employed in the peak tanks of s mall ves s els by which the making o f water ,
tight angle collars is avoided A continuous gunwale bar and stringer .
lugs are fitted in the u s ual way cast iron chocks are then made one -
,
P R A C TI CA L -S HJP B UI LD I N G Art 1 9 2
178 .
[ .
edge of the margin plate for then they wo uld be three pliers and the ,
-
,
cau lking edge of the landing if below the bracket could not b e caulked , ,
.
To comply with thi s requirement the m argin plates mu s t have a wider ,
flange t han is otherwise necessary which circu m s tance increases the ,
di ffi culty of making and fitting those which have fore and aft cu rvature - -
.
Formerly Lloyd s rule s did not require gu s set p lates a s ab ove but the
’
,
rivet s connecting the angles to the m argin plate were s o often found to
s train and cau s e leakiness i n the tank that it became evident that the
, ,
margin of strength in modern broad beamed vessels wa s too small ,

-
.
Formerly when the connection wa s made by a single angle it wa s always

, ,
made to face the opposite way to the one within the tank for then non e o f , ,
the rivets being three pliers their soundne s s and watertightne s s were more
-
,
as s ured ( see A Fig 7 P late ,

But L loyd s rule s now require these
.
,
’
particular angle s to be placed O pposite each other s o that the floor within ,
the tank and the bracket plate without may receive a direct through con
n ec ti o n
( s ee B Fig T h e,
circ u mstance
. that the rivets being then three ,
pliers are le ss likely to be s ound and watertight is one of cou r s e which

, , , ,
can be met by careful workman s hip I n many ca s es however to avoid .

, ,
these three ply rivets ( which tend to hinder and complicate the structural
-
work ) it is preferred to rever s e the angle s and a s compensation for their

, , ,
inferior holding e ffect increa s e their thickne s s and make the tank margin
,
flange of one or b oth s ufficiently wide to take two row s of rivets This is .
particularly desirable at the ve s sel s ends where to place them opposite ’

,
each other neces s itate s in one of them a very close bevel and co use , ,
quently a di ffi culty in s ecuring good rivets ( Fig

, The connection a s .
,
formerly made was le s s rigid and secure than that now in vogue as will b e
, ,
e v1de n t fro m a comparison o f the exaggerated straining depicted in Figs .
9 and 1 0 A s a result of long continued straining of this kind the margin

.
,
plate often cracked across close to the connecting angles A n e x cellent .
remedy for su ch s training is to increase the thickness o f the margin plate

and angle bar s I n view of the excessive panting stre sses and blows to
.
wh1ch the bows of modern cargo ve ss els are expo s ed it is common to ,
i ncrea s e the connection of the frames to the margin plate at the for ward
e d by doubling the angle s or fitting a large double riveted single one

n,
( E -
,
F1g 7 ) and by additional gu sset plates
‘
.
.
A rt 1 9 3 The s ecurity of the connection to the margin plate depends

. .
m u ch on the depth of the latter fo r not only does a deep margin plate ,
p e rm 1t of more rivets but o f more capable one s due to the greater lever
.
, ,
age or m oment of resistance of the uppermost ( see A rt The d e p t h .
o f m a r gi n p l a t e specified in L loyd s rules varies from 1 8 inches in a

’
s mall vessel to 3 4 inche s in a large one but a reduction is permitted at the ,
fore and after e nd s ( where racking stres s e s are les s inten s e) of 1 0 and 1 5
per cent respect1vely The depth of a tank at it s margin has a consider
.
.
able i nfluence on its form and dimensions ; thus with a given depth o f ,
v e rt1c al keel and the requirement o f a level tank top it m
a y li m i t t h e ,
br e a d t h o f t h e t a n k for if the vessel ha s a large rise of fl oor then in
, ,
order to s ecure the requ ired depth of margin plate the breadth o f the tank ,
may have to be s o s mall a s unduly to limit its capacity for water bal last ;
to a vo1d th 1s the depth at the keel mu s t b e increa s ed or the tank top
,
,
s loped upwards towards the bilge ( see Fi g 3 P late Th e breadth of .

,
the tank 1s also sometimes governed by the circumstance that should a ,

c e r ta 1n l1m1t be exceeded
( 3 4 feet by Lloyd s rules ) a second line o f inter
’
costal plates become s necessary ( P late O r it may be desired to place

the marg i n plate so far in from the bilge that the frame angles within the
tank may be stral ght ( Fig 1 4 P late 1 7 and P late 1 1 and thus avoid the
.
,
.
,
Ar t 1 9 4]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1 79
necessity of bendi n g the bottom frame angles or permit i f required o f the , , ,
lower edge s of the floor plates being flanged O therwise it may be desir ed .
,
to place the margin plate s o far up the bilge a s to do away with any sharp
curvature in the heavy s ide frames or to permit of the bilge keel being ,
placed wi thin the ta nk where should it tear away and damage the shell the
, , ,
entering water would do no harm ( Fig 1 3 P late 1 I n fi n e lined ve s sel s the .

,
-
double bottom toward s the bow and stem may become so narrow a s to b e
of little u s e either as a receptacle for water balla s t or a s a means of s afety
and on this account it is s ometime s di s continued s ome distance from the
peak bulkheads in favour of the more simple framework of a s ingle bottom
,
.
O therwi s e when ext e nded to the end s ( the peak bulkheads) its breadth
, ,
may be maintained by increasing its depth or sloping it upwards on ,
either s ide .
Th e m ar gi n p l a t e may b e dispo s ed everywhere s q u a r e o r n e arly ,

s q u a r e t o t h e sh e l l so as to avoid the bevelling of the s hell angle
, ,
or it
may be dispo s ed at the same inclination throughout so that its flange may ,
have the s ame bevel all fore and aft I n the latter case the inclination .
chosen is the one involving the least average bevel in the shell angle I n .
order t o a v oi d the necessity of impressing fo r e a n d a ft c u rv a t u r e on - -
the separate margin plates the fore and aft contour of the tank top near the
,
- -
bow and ste m instead of be i ng fairly curved is very commonly made up

, ,
of separate s traight lines one fo r each plate ( see Fig 2 P late ,

This .
,
greatly simplifies the making and fitting of the margi n plates espec i ally ,
when they are long because to bend a fla nged plate lengthwise is a trouble
,
some operation and involves furnacing When s o arranged all the

, . ,
necessary s haping may be done in one operation in the cold flangmg ,

-
machine O therwise the margin plate may be arranged as shown in Fi g 3

. .
( A rt . I n twin s crew vessels where the engine

-
s ea t plati n g may
,
-
project beyond the margin plate double angle s may be sub s tituted fo r the ,
flange A t one time the continuo u s shell angle was often placed W1th1n
.
the tank and as it ca nnot be caulked w hen so dispo s ed its watertightness

, ,
was secured by so ft packin g ; indeed caulking wa s s ometimes d ispensed ,
with even when it was placed outside ( Art .
A r t 1 9 4 Th e d e p t h o f t h e d o u b le b o tt o m varies from about

. .
3 feet in a s mall vessel to 4 feet in a large I n some modern A tlant 1e .
liners however it approache s 5 feet and where raised under the en gm es

, , , ,
it may be 8 or even 9 feet deep I n large vessels the volume of water .
ballast contained in a double bottom of the usual depth of about 4 feet 15

insuffi cient to immer s e the vessel properly when light and although on , ,
this account it would be advantageous greatly to increa s e the depth of the

,
double bottom it i s undesirable to do so on account of the accompany i ng

,
reduction in the capa city of the holds for mea s urement cargoes When i t .
is desired ther efor e to c arr y m or e w a t e r b a l l a s t the necessary pro

, , ,
vision is made by s u p p le m e n t a ry d e e p t an k s which of course may , , ,
also serve as cargo space s M odern vessels are now frequently pro v1de d .
with two large deep ta nks having a combined capacity equal to or exc e ed
,
ing that of the double bottom ( Figs 6 and 7 P late in large cargo .
,
vessels the latter alone usually conta ins water ballast equal to about 1 5 per
cent of the ve s sel s dead weight carrying capacity ( Art
.
’
- I n small .
ve s sels the depth and capacity of the double bottom are relat1vely large ,
the question of accessibility preventing a reduction in its de pth propor

l ionate to the small size o f the hull in a large vessel the govern i ng requ i re
ment is a sufficiently deep and strong vertical keel I n very small vessels .
the compa ratively great depth of the double bottom while g1v1ng a large ,
capacity for water ballast greatly reduces the hold space for measurement
,
Ar t 19 4
[ .
cargoes and accordingly when space is particularl y re quired the doubl e

, , , ,
bottom is only fitted locally usually in the after hold so that the trim , , ,
when light may be by the ste m and thus ensure good immer s ion o f the
, ,
propeller .
Ar t 1 9 5 N.
early all modern vessel
.
s have a d o u b l e b o tt o m all for e
a n d a ft but it is n ew common in cargo vessels to d i s p e n s e w i t h i t , ,

,
u n d e r t h e b o i l er s in order to avoid the rapid corrosion which generally

,
occurs at thi s place ( see A rt 4 6 I n such cases the ordinary framework .
o f a sin gle bottom i e shallo w floor s and keelsons may b e adopted

, . . but it ,
is better and more u s ual in order that there may be no break in the con
, ,
ti n uo us s trength and rigidity of the b ottom to retain the tank framework , ,
providing however in the top plating numerous large manhole s or venti

, ,
lating openings I f ordinary s hallow floors are fitted care must b e taken
. ,
to s carph the keel s ons and tank lo ngi tudin als in s uch a manner that there
may be no s udden break in the longitudinal s trength .
Ar t 1 9 6 A
. d u
o b l e b o t t o m is
. usually s u b di v i d e d i n t o s ev e r a l
t an k s one
,
for each compartment i n the hold s o that each bulkhe a d is ,
represented by a watertight division in the double bottom I n som e of the .
early iron ves s els there was only one divi s ion or even none this of course , , ,
wa s economical fo r it s aved the work of making the divisions and simplified

,
the piping and pumping arrangements A large tank i s objectionable . ,
because if not quite full the large fr e e v ol um e o f w a t er may have a

, ,
dangerous h e eli n g effe c t and having so large a range of motion the , , ,
energy which it might acquire would be liable to damage the structure .
M oreover owing to the longer period occupied in filling such a large tank
, ,
these dangers would be more likely to occur for the critical period when in , ,
a semi fille d condition would not quickly pass Subdivision is useful in that
-
, .
,
by filling certain tanks the amount of b allast may be varied and the vessel s ’
trim nicely adjusted I n a cellular double bottom the watertight divisions .
are formed by an intact floor plate having all around its edges a watertight ,
angle bar frame neatly fitted with welded corners ( see Fig s 1 and 2 P late
-
, .
,
Sometime s to permit of access through these floors they are provided

, ,
with manhole s having watertight covers When the lon gi tudi nals are con .
t i n uous there is a s eparate watertight frame for each portion of the floor
between them ( Fig The divi s ions are u sually placed directly under
.
the transver se bulkhead s but s ometimes they are shifted one or two frame ,
space s before them in the after body and abaft them in the fore body this ,
be i ng advantageou s in simplifying the pumping arrangements and avoiding

some three and fo ur ply watertight riveting ( Figs 4 and 7 P late
,
- In .
,
many vessels wells are provided in the double bottom one at the a fter end ,
of each hold but more particularly at the after end of the machinery space
, .
A s n ot1ce d in A rt 4 2 0 these are s imply small transver s e s ection s o f the

.
.
,
double bottom cut off therefrom and open to the hold , .
I n modern ves s els one or more of the d o u b l e b o t to m t an k s i s often

,
-
u s ed for carrying fr e sh w a t e r for the boilers or drinking water for cattle , ,
or 1n passenger vessels for washing dri nking and cooking purposes A s

°
, , , , .
already seen a ballast tank s hould alway s be quite full but when u sed as a
,
reservoir for fre s h water a semi filled condition may prevail as often as a full ,
-
one and accordingly tanks which are intended for this purpose should b e
, , ,
s mall for then even though the water s hould dash about it ca n acquire
, , ,
no dangerous momentum and its heeling e ffect is small The necessary , .
reducti on 1n the size is usually s ecured by making the vertical keel watertight ,
a s1mp1e matter as the only modification required is the caulking of the top
,
a d bo tto m angles and the omission of limb er and air holes A c e n t r e li n e

n
-
, .
1Sl o n I S advantageous in that it greatly r e d u c e s t h e h e e l i n

l g t e n d en c y
,
[Art . 1 99
seam s of the plating are double riveted The beam s of the watertight .
deck forming the crown of the tank are o f the usual deck beam size
, ,
-
,
placed on every frame a well pillared intercostal girder being fitted below
,
-
on either side Where sti ffening bars or side s tringer s abut upon or pierce
.
the containing walls they are connected thereto by large brackets for a s
, , ,
it i s at the juncture of the tank walls that s training e ffect s du e to water

pressure —s tatical and dynamical—are concentrated large bracket plates , ,
by hol ding the pa rts at fixed angle are mo s t useful in increasing their ,
capabilities ( Art I n oil vessels the shell lugs of the interco s tal side
.
stringers are usually doubled in way of the bulkheads ( or all fore and aft
in the case o f large tank s see Fig 1 1 P late fo r it i s found that with
.
, ,
ordinary single lugs the shell rivet s are liable to strain I f the tank be not
,
.
quite full the water lashing from s ide to side as the vessel rolls i s brought
, , ,
up or chocked in the co m ers below the tank top and as a result it is

, ,
”
, , ,
not uncommon to find the rivets of the beam knees loosened or broken ,
as al s o the shell rivets in way of same for this rea s on the beam knee s of
deep tanks are now always made three time s the depth of the beam s them
selves i n place of two and a hal f times as formerly and the frame to shell
, , ,
-
rivets throughout the tank are spaced 6 diameters a part instead of the usual ,
7 diameters Th e fore and aft centre line bulkhead m ust al s o b e well

.
- - -
sti ff ened ( see P lates 2 4 and for it may be expo s ed to the battering
e ffect of free water and it takes the place of a centre row of pillar s and it
,
must be well connected at the top and bottom by double angle s and
brackets to the sti ffeners I n many early ca s es where the connection wa s
.
,
meagre the bulkhead was swept down by the moving water I f the tank
, .
is aba ft the machinery space ( P late the shaft tunnel pa s sing through ,
it must be well sti ffened with bulb angle bars ; sometimes th e sti ffeners
,
-
are placed outside to facilitate the caulking I f the tank is not i ntended
, .
to be used for cargo as in the peaks only a small manhole i s provided

, ,
i n the top plating otherwi s e a watertight hatchway i s fitted in s ize about

, ,
8 or 1 0 feet square one on either s ide of the centre line bulkhea d
, In -
.
the case of peak tanks if the ta nk top i s not more than 1 foot ab ove the
,
load water line and i f acce ss is only provided by a manhole the volume
-
, ,
of the tank is not included in the tonnage O ther matter s in connection .
with ballast tank s and the tanks of oil ves s el s will be found in A rts 1 7 2 .
to 1 75 and 2 3 3 .
Ar t 200]
C H AP TER XV .
Ar t . term b u lkh e a d i s used indi fferently for all vertical

2 00 The .
”
partitions whether of wood or iron but more particularly for the important
, ,
transver s e ones which subdivide the hold into separate watertight com
partmen ts The latter m us t be strongly constructed so that should they be
.
, ,
called u pon to fulfil their primary purpose of confining water they may ,
with s tand its bur s ting pres s ure Tho s e which are not watertight are fitted .
with a view to subdividing the hold a s a cargo space or to form retaining ,
walls for coal bunkers and as they are n ot liable to water pre s sure they
—
, , ,
may be comparatively slender Bulkhead s are useful in three way s as .
w a ter tzg/zt di vi si ons as fi re scr een s and as stm ctur a l di ap/lr agvn s I n the fir s t
, , .
capaci ty they may confer immunity from foundering for should water enter ,
the ship as a result of damage to the shell it may be confined to the one ,
hold ; in the second they may should the cargo take fire confine the
, , ,
co n flagra ti o n to the one hold facilitating its extinction and limiting the ,
damage I n the ab ove two ca pabilitie s their usefulne ss is only potential

.
,
for they may never be called upon to display their capabilities ; but in the
third a s structural diaphragms they are at all time s beneficial for by
, , , ,
rigidly uniting the vessel s sides deck and bottom they are mo s t effi cient
’
, , ,
in checking any tendency to alteration in the form of the tran s ver s e s ections
d u e to racking or panting stre s se s .
A lthou gh bulkheads may give i mmu n i t y fr o m fo un d eri n g their ,
capabilities in thi s respect are dependent on many circumstances I f the .
s ubdivi s ion of the hull were in s u ffi cient so large a vol u me of water might ,
enter that although confined and limited it might s till sink the ship Al s o
, , .
,
sho uld the bulkheads be weakly constructed they might collap s e under the ,
water pres s ure or they might not be thoroughly watertight or thi s quality ,
might be destroyed by blows s tru ck by cargo washi n g abou t in the hold .
Further if the cargo were one of a highly absorbent nature such a s grain
, , ,
cotton s eed hemp etc it might swell s o much with the water a s to
, , .
,
injure the bulkhead s I n s tance s have occurred where the h u ll has been
.
seriou s ly damaged the deck s and bulkhead s being torn and di s placed by
, ,
the po werfu l s wellin g action of s uch ca rgoe s .
A lthough in many existing vessel s the arrangement of b u lkhead s 15

su ch as to give little ass u rance of immunity from foundering there is one ,
“ ”
bul khead the foremost one termed the c olli si on b u lk h e a d who s e
, , ,
e ffi ciency i s undoubted ( P lates 1 0 an d z o ) I t is fitted for the distinctive .
purpose of serving as an inner skin s hould the how be broken open by

end ou collision ; its efli c ienc y is as s ured becau s e owing to the smallne ss
-
,
of the peak compartment so litt le wa ter may enter that it s effect on the ,
ves s el s flotation is unimportant also bein g of small area the burs ti ng

’
, , ,
pre ss ure it may su ffer is s mall and being narrow it is naturally s trong and , , ,
ca pable O f course the above as s umes the integrity of the bulkhe ad to be

.
,
una ffected by the damage done to the bow a condition which can only be ,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 200
1 84 .
[ .
as s ured by placing it su fficiently remote therefrom A distance o f one .
twentieth of the ves s el s length is generally regarded as a safe m i n i mum

.
’
,
and is that specified by L loyd s rules The usefulness of the coll i s i on bulk’
.
head is constantly shown ; cases of vessels putting into port Wi th the i r bows ,
damaged and the peak full o f water being sometimes o f weekly occurrence ,
.
Th e importance of the collision bulkhead wa s re co gn i z e d a t an early

period ; it was sometimes attempted to fit them in wood sh i ps When
o
iron took the place o f wood the ease with which they could be fit ted ,
was at once taken advantage of and collision bulkheads were forthw i th ,
.
—
regarded as essential Lloyd s rules for 1 8 5 5 the first for iron vessels ’
required that a collision bulkhead shou ld be fi tte d f rfi fl V€ssels b oth at the

‘
_ J
’ ’
bo w and stern Subsequently it was observed that the s tern of a sa i l i ng

.
ship wa s not a part liable to b e damaged and so the fitting of it here was ,
discontinued I n screw steamers there is always an a fter peak bulkhead

.
-
,
but here it is neces s ary owing to the presence of the propeller shaft .
Th e possibility of the cargo taking fire through juxtaposition with the ,
boiler furnaces makes it imperative that the m a c h i n ery s p a c e shall be

,
separated from the holds by iron b u lkh e a d s Thi s was recognized at an .
early period I t was required by the M erchant Shipping Ac t of 1 8 5 4

. ,
w hich also specified a collision bulkhead and in screw steamers one at , , ,
the a fter end A lthough in these early vessels the bulkheads were
.
caulked they were of very doubtful utility in conferring immunity from

,
foundering for they did not always extend su fficiently high and were often
, ,
so weakly constructed a s to be incapable of withstanding water pressure 1

.
Further with only two cargo holds each one represents so large a port i on
, ,
o f the ves s el s interior that the bi lgi ng o f either would usually result in
’ 2
foundering A lthough in sailing ships there ha s never been any statutory

.
enactment requiring more than the collision bulkhead some o f the earlier ,
were provided with one or two amidships presumably they were intended
to act as watertight partitions but like those in the existing steamers they , , ,
did not alway s extend to the upper deck and were too slen der to withstand ,
water pressure .
A rt 2 01 I t will be well to notice here the various circumstances upon

. .
which depends the flo a t i n g p o w e r o f a s u b d i v i d e d s h i p ( see Figs 1 0 .
to 1 3 P late, The above water portion of the hull at load draught -
represents r e s e rv e d i s p l a c e m en t o r b u o y an c y and whatever the ,
volume of the actual displacement lost by the bilging of a compartment ,
it must b e made good by a partial submergence of this part ( see A rt .
Th e bilging o f a compartment not only destroys it s contribution of

displacement or buoyant force but renders useless the reserve buoyancy ,
directly over it ; evidently for a s the vessel subsides the water is free to
,
rise to any height within it rises o f cour s e to the level of the s ea withou t , , ,
i e to wha tever water line the vessel assumes as a result of the bilging
. .
-
.
Theoretically so long as the size o f the bilged compartment is not s uch as

,
to cause a loss of displacement greater than the reserve buoyancy existing

be fore and abaft it the vessel might still float ( Fig 1 3 ) but of cou rse
, .
, ,
should all the reserve buoyancy be lost she could not ride the waves and , , ,
i f the bilged compartment were not amidships she might float with one end ,
completely sub merged or even end up ,

-
.
The a lt e r a t i o n i n t r i m that result s from the bilging of a compartme n t

is an important matter for in a well designed vessel it is this that regulates
, ,
-
,
S e e t w o p a p e s by M r
1
r J
am e s Dun n , a n d th e di scussi o n s th e re o n , Tr a n s I n s ti tu ti on
. .
of N a v a l A r c/ Ii tects , 1 88 2 an d 1 8 8 3 .
2
B i lgi ng ”
i s th e ter m c o mm o n ly use d i n re ferri ng to th e oo din g o f a co mp artm en t fl
c o n se uen t o n dam a e t o th e sh e
q g ll .
Art 201
[ .
approach too near the s u rface ( Art I f a midship compartment .

’
were bilged so that the trim were unaltered then although the freeb oard
, , ,
might b e small the reserve buoyancy whatever its volume would be s o

, , ,
well distributed as to preserve in great measure the weatherly and nav i gable
qualities owing to the sheer the bow and stern would stand w ell o ut o f the
water giving good li fting powers and the propeller would b e well i mmer s ed
.
.
, ,
I f the bilged compartment were situated forward so a s to cau s e a tri m by ,
the bo w then although the reserve buoyancy might b e large the cond i t i on
, , ,
might be critical fo r with the forward part of the deck so near the surface
, ,
head seas might sweep the deck and with the propeller out of the water , , ,
the st e a ming power might be nil The question how close to the surface .
,
the u p per deck may sink while maintaining reason able safety i s one not ,
readily ans wered The B u lk h e a d C o mm i tt e e whose investigations are

.
,
noticed later concluded that so long a s it did not amidships fall nearer than
, , ,
3 per cent o f the moulded

. depth the vessel might be considered as being ,
still n avigable in moderate weather They also concluded that should . ,
there be a trim by the bow or ste m it might subside still nearer to the ,
water surface ; at the extreme ends twice as nea r or I é per cent of the , ,
-
.
moulded depth These two limiting freeboards regulate the position of

.
what the Bulkhead C ommittee termed the ma rgi n of saf ety li n e i e an

“ -
,
”
. .
imaginary sheer line so situated on the vessel s side that amidship s it is

,
’
3 per cent o f the depth

. below the upper deck and at the ste m and ste m ,
one half of this I f in the bilged condition this line did not sink below the
.
, ,
surface it was concluded that the ve s sel might be considered a s reasonably

,
safe in moderate weather .
A r t 2 02 I n the foregoing the cf ect of ca rgo is neglected for it is

. .
, ,
assumed that the water entering a bilged compartment occupies every part
o f it and so destroys all the displacing or buoyant power of this region
, .
I t is evident however that if the compartment were densely packed with

, ,
good s o f a non absorbent character little or no water would gain access

-
, ,
and thus the injury to the shell would have little e ffect on the vessel s ’
flotation .
I t i s clear therefore that the efficiency of the subdivision depend s very

, ,
greatly upon the s towage and nature of the cargo A cargo of lead or pig .
iron would require very minute subdivision for each hold although heavily , ,
laden would b e comparatively empty ; although small in reality they would

, ,
virtually be o f large size for they would admit a large volume of water O n , .
the other hand with a bulky cargo of a water excluding character a very
,
-
,
limited subdivision might su ffi ce for the cargo itself would take the place ,
of the shell in displacing water and conferring b u oyant power I n their .
water excluding properties cargoe s vary in infinite degree lead or pig iron
-
might be taken as the one extreme and oil a s the other I f an oil tank , .
-
hold extends above the load water lin e the bilging thereof would actually -
,
result in an increa s e o f buoyancy fo r part o f the oil would run out and ,
l i ghten the ship Together with the character of the ca rgo its dis positi on
.
,
or s towage ha s evidently a commanding influence in deciding the e ffi ciency

o f the existing subdivision for according as the bilged compartment , ,
happened to contain much or little the ve ssel might b e in a condition of ,
comparative sa fety or o f great danger .
The e ffi c i e n c y o f t h e s u b di v i s i o n al s o d e p e n d s o n h o w d e e p ly
t h e v e s s e l i s lo a d e d I f in light trim the large above water hull would
.
,
-
represent so great a volume o f reserve buoyancy that a large call might be

m ade u on it and a great change of trim occur without seriously a ffecting
p
the float i ng power I f deeply loaded contrary conditions would prevail ;
.
,
there would be little reserve o f buoyancy and a small change o f trim ,

Art 204 ]
. P RA C TI C A L S H I B B UI L D I N G . 1 87
m ight endanger the ves s el The specia l i mmunity from foundering e n .
j oyed by ve ssels in light trim is o ften evidenced ; in cases o f collision if ,
the s hip struck is heavily laden foundering is the usual con s equence i f , ,
light she may be able to make the nearest port I t is very important to
, .
notice that an i n s u ffi c i e n c y o f t r an s v er s e s t a b i li t y may render use

le ss the bulkhead s ubdivision ; for the bilging of a hold may so much
reduce the area of buoyant waterline plane a s to make the metacentric
height a negative quantity and s o cause the ve ss el to cap s ize , .
A r t 2 03 I t is evident that the b u lk h e a d s mu s t e x t e n d We ll

. .
a b o v e t h e le v e l o f t h e s e a W i t h o u t for if not as the water rose in the

, ,
bilged compart ment and the ship subsided it would flow over them and fill ,
the adjacent holds I n the earlier vessels thi s was not su fficiently realized
.
,
and the bulkheads o ften terminated at the s econd deck which although , ,
a bove the normal load line was below the water line in the bilged con - -
,
dition Fig 9 P late 2 0 depicts a vessel su ffering from the circumstance

. .
, ,
of ins u ffi cient height in one of her bulkheads .
L l o y d s r u l e s a s r e ga r d s s u bd i v i s i o n b y b u lk h e a d s are now
’
much stricter than formerly ; they are shown graphically in Fig s 1 to 8 .

,
P late 2 0 As there shown steamers under 2 2 0 feet in length need on ly

.
,
have a collision and a fter peak bulkhead and one at either end o f the -
,
machinery space giving four or three according as the machinery is amid

,
ships ( Fig 2 ) o r at the stern ( Fig I f 2 2 0 feet long they must have .
,
four one o f which when the machinery is at the ste m is placed midway
, , ,
between the collision bulkhead and the forward end of the machinery
space ( Fig I n steamers 2 8 0 and under 3 3 0 feet in le n gth ( Fig
. an .
additional bulkhead is required at about the middle o f the fore hold making ,
five in all The subdivision of the fore hold is thu s regarded as more
.
im portant than that o f the a fter one for while the bilging of the latter might , ,
not have fatal results that o f the former probably would have due to , ,
exce s sive trim by the head I n s teamers 3 3 0 and under 4 0 0 feet in length .
( Fig.
a nother bulkhead is required in the after hold making six in all ; ,
when 4 0 0 and under 4 7 0 feet in length ( Fig seven bulkheads are .
required when 4 7 0 and under 5 40 feet ( Fig eight and when 5 40 and .
under 6 0 0 feet ( Fig nine . .
A ll the bulkheads must extend to the upper deck except in awning ,
deck vessels where all but the foremost may stop at the second deck I n
, .
these vessels the s econd deck is regarded a s the upper one proper and it ,
might s ubside nearly to the water level without fatal results for owing to the , ,
continuous superstructure the weatherly and navigable qualities would still ,
be well mainta ined The same remarks apply to shelte rd eck vessels but
.
,
in these the collision bulkhead i s not u sually extended above the second
deck I t is well that the colli s ion bulkhead should b e extended to the
.
uppermost deck fo r should the how be broken open by collision the

, , ,
ch ange o f trim the e ffect of the waves and the pitching and for ward move
, ,
ment of the vessel might cau s e the water to heap up or surge against it ,
high above the level of the sea without .
Ar t 2 04 I n sailing s hips the colli s ion bulkhead i s the only one

. .
-
,
.
Subdivi s ion in sailing ship s compared with tha t in steamers would usually
-
, ,
b e le ss beneficial for ship s are not s o li able to collision or mishap They

,
.
make long voyage s in the open s ea out of the track of steamers ; they ,
rarely navigate the crowded water s in which most o f the collisions and
stran di n gs occur and when they do they proceed cautiously in charge of
, , ,
a tug boat Further when a s teamer is stru ck by collision elsewhere than

-
.
, ,
in way of the machine ry she may i f kept afloat by her bulkheads proceed , , ,
under steam to the nearest port whereas a sailing ship so circumstanced ,

-
, ,
[Ar t 204 .
may be quite unmanageable and s imilarly in the case of stranding ‘
Evidently there fore although s ubdivision may o ften prove use ful in a
, ,
steamer its value in a sailing ship would be so doubt ful as not to warrant the
,
-
resulting increased cost and the reduction in her e fficiency as a cargo carrier .
A r t 2 05 I n cargo ves s els b u lkh e a d s are in man y ways d e t r i

. .
,
m en t a l t o c o mm e r c i a l e ffi c i en c y They increase the first cost of the .
hull for together with the bulkheads extra hatchways winches pumps
, , , , , ,
etc may be required for the additional holds ; the weight of the hu ll is
.
,
increased reducing the dead weight carrying power ; cargo is less readily
,
-
stowed in the smaller holes and space is lost thro ugh broken stowage I n ,
.
consequence of these disadvantages and of the uncertainty of the bulk ,
heads ever proving useful it is natural that the owner s of cargo ve s sels ,
should prefer to fit as few a s pos s ible I n pas s enger ves s els however .
, ,
safety un der all circumstances should be the fir s t consideration ; for here ,
of course mere ins u rance would not compensate for loss of li fe and the
,
prestige of the line A ccordingly modern pas s enger ve s sels are usually so
.
,
thoroughly subdivided that even in the ca s e of the most s eriou s colli s ion
they wou ld still float .
I n w ar s h i p s s u b di v i si on of the mo s t per fect kind is e ss ential s o

, ,
that although much damaged in action there may still remain ample floating
, ,
power I n large modern battleship s there may be more than 1 5 0

.
,
watertight compartments small and large Should it be neces s ary in time , .
o f war to supplement the navy by merc h ant ve s sels it is clear t hat their ,
very inferior subdivision might greatly detract from their u s efulness When .
,
in 1 8 7 5 the Admiralty drew up a list of merchant ve s sels whose s ubdivision

,
was such a s to make them eligible for this special service it was found that ,
there were only thirty British vessels available The requirement more .
,
over wa s the exceedingly moderate one o f remaining afloat with any one
,
compartment bilged assuming half the space to b e occupied by cargo

, .
Subsequently when s hipowners became aware of the desirability of having

,
their ves s els on the A dmi r a lty li st ( financially a G overnment charter is o f , ,
course very de s irable) and to secure for its own sake the very de s irable
, , , ,
’
quality of safety a more thorough subdivision became common An d

, .
Lloyd s rules now speci fy a more complete subdivision than formerly

’
especially in large vessels (see P late

When d a m a ge d by c olli s i o n the chance s are greatly in favour of ,
only one hold being bilged ; but i f t h e blo w i s s t r u c k on a b u lk h e a d , ,

i t may involve the hold on either side I n modern ocean going pas s e n ger .
-
vessels (a s al s o very commonly in Channel s teamer s) the latter condition

, ,
i s now always provided again s t I n some high clas s vessels even three .
-
holds may be bilged without s erious re sult s ; s ome of the s e ve ss el s being

subsidized by G overnment to act when called upon as armed transports , ,
.
To enj oy equal immunity from fo u ndering all ves s els whatever their size , , ,
should have the same number of bulkhead s ; for size is only a relative
qual i ty a small ve ss el being merely a large one on a red uced scale I n
, .
pract i ce however an adherence to this principle would not be expedient

, , .
I n a lar e ves s el n u merous bulkheads may ca use comparatively little

g
i n c o n v e m e n ce fo r the hold s would s till be of large s ize
, ; indeed they may ,
here be an actual convenience as a mean s of s eparating different cla s ses of ,
cargo such a s bulk grain or coal from general goods ; s o much indeed is
, , ,
th is the case that light non watertight bulkhead s are sometimes fitted for
, ,
-
th i s purpose only P a s senger ve ss els which carry little or no cargo may

.
, ,
be st i ll more thoroughly subdivided without detracting from their
c o mme rmal qualities I t i s evident however that to subdivide in the
.
.
, ,
s ame manner a small cargo vessel would not be expedient for the holds
'
, ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 206
. 1 90 .
[ .
and the greater degree o f inconvenience which as vessels decrease in si z e , ,
the application o f one plan of complete subdivision w ould ca u se the C o m ,
m i tte e classified vessels under six heads in which the requirements as to ,
the number of bulkheads or degree of immunity from foundering became , ,
less and les s stringent They are a s follows : ( 1 ) Large ocean passenger
.
steamers and channel passenger steamers to b e so subdivided as to enj oy

perfect immunity from foundering under the wor s t condition namely with , ,
any two holds bilged ( 2 ) Smaller passenger s teamers to be so subdivided

.
that they may remain afloat with any two fore b ody hold s or any other -
, ,
bilged ( 3 ) Still smaller passenger steamers ; so that they may remain

.
afloat with the two foremost holds or any other bilged ( 4 ) Y e t smaller , , .
passenger steamers and large passenger sailing s hip s ; so that they may
,
-
remain afloat with the fore peak and adjacent hold or any other hold bilged
-
—
.
, ,
( 5) C argo steamers and sailing ship s ; so that they may remain afloat
with any one hold bilged ( 6 ) Smaller cargo s teamers and sailin g ships
.
-
s o that they may remain afloat with one hold in the fore b ody bilged .
The requirements of the first grade would usually necessitate erg/i t bulk
heads ; tho s e of the s econd and third si x ; of the fourth fi ve of the fi fth , , ,
fi v e for s teamers and f our for sailing ships of the sixth f our for s teamers -
,
and t/zr ee fo r sailing ships I t will be observed that the above requirements
-
.
do not vary greatly from those of Lloyd s rules ( P late ’
A r t 207 Lloyd s rules as also the M erchant Shipping Ac t of 1 8 5 4

’
. .
, ,
require tha t screw steamers shall have a bulkhead near the stern the a ft e r —
p e a k b u l k h e a d I ts purpose
. is to prevent the inru s h of w ater which
might result from fracture of the tail or propeller shaft i e the aftermost ,
. .
length of shafting As described in A rt 2 43 the watertightne ss of the hull

. .
, ,
where the sha ft passes through the stern is secured by a stuffing box This ,
.
cannot be placed at the stern post fo r owing to the fineness o f the hull there , , ,
would be insufficient space I n order that it may be accessible and to .

,
provide at the same time a rigid bearing fo r the important propeller s haft
a tube of cast iron —forming a j ourn al— is introduced the after end o f which
, , ,
-
,
is fixed in the stern post and the forward one to the peak bulkhead ( see
,
Fig 8 P late
.
,
Th e sea may enter the tube around the s h aft and is ,
only kept back by the stu ffing box which is placed at its forward end The .
entire tube is thus enclosed in a watertight compartment ( the after peak ) -

,
so that if as a result o f fracture of the tail shaft it should break the

, , ,
incomin g water would be confined I t is of course po s sible that the .

, ,
damage might be so widespread a s to involve the entire tube including the ,
watertight stu ffing box and peak bulkhead supporting it ; and so to provide ,
for this the entire shaft is enclosed in a w a t e rt i gh t t u n n e l so that it

, , ,
instead o f the afterhold would be flooded by the incoming water ( Fig 1 2

, .
,
P late 2 9 and P lates 1 0 9 and 1

, The after en d of the tunnel abuts upon
the peak bulkhead and the forward one on that o f the engine room from
, ,
which it is entered through a watertight door Sometimes i n ste ad of a .

\
watertight tunnel a s e c on d p e a k b u lk h e a d is introduced a fe w feet

,
be fore the first making a second peak compartment ; the tube terminates
,
as before at the first bulkhead and its stufli ng b ox is acces s ible by entering
, ,
the second compartment either from the deck or by a watertight door in,
the second bulkhead The watertightness of the second bulkhead where

—
.
,
traversed by the shaft is of course made good like that o f the e n gine
, , ,
room— by a stuffi ng box Th e efficiency o f this arrangement depends

-
.
much on the distance o f the second bulkhead from the first for i f too near , ,
and the sha ft were badly ruptured or twisted it also might be involved the ,
B oard of Trade specifies a distance of twelve time s the diameter of the sha ft .
F urther considerations regarding the shaft tunnel will be found in Art 2 4 4 . .

Ar t 209]
The purpose o f the a fter peak bulkhead is thus not to s ubdivide the -
ship but to enclose in a watertight compartment the cast iron sha ft tube
, , ,
-
al ways an elemen t of danger T0 do this it is not essential that it should .

,
extend to the upper deck it might terminate at a lower one i f this aba ft it , , , ,
were made watertight like the top of a deep tank ( see Fig 6 P late .
,
This is sometime s done but a s a rule the bulkhead is extended to the , , ,
upper deck ( in many cases it is stepped forward or a ft in the tween decks) ’
the compartment abaft i t—above the tank forming a convenient store

,
-
room or lazarette .
A r t 2 08 Bulkheads usually extend in one s urface from keel to upper

. .
deck ; in many cases however to suit cab in or machinery arrangements , , ,
the upper part is s t e p p e d forward or abaft of the lower ( Figs 3 and 5 .

,
P late A s the deck bet ween the t wo portions then forms a horizontal
part of the bulkhead it must be thoroughly watertight its connection to the
, ,
vessel s s ides being made by one or other of the methods illustrated in Fig
’
.
n some case s where the crew are berthed in the tween decks in front
’
55 . I , ,
o f the collision bulkhead the tween deck portion of the latter may b e ’
,
placed well back from the stem ( Fig 5 P late the part below to secure .
, ,
the largest hold space being placed at the minimum distance (5 th o f the ,
1
a
vessel s length) from the stem
’
.
A r t 2 09 A bulkhead must have strength to withstand the maximum

. .
water pressure to which it may b e exposed To appreciate the essential .
features of its structural design it will be well to notice in the first place , , ,
the ge n e r al p ri n c i p l e s o f w a t e r p r e s s u r e The pressure on any .
submerged area however dispo s ed i s proportionate to its depth belo w the

, ,
surface ; that on a square foot 3 6 feet below the surface is one ton ; if 1 8
feet below it would be half a ton at the surface it is nil the mea n p r ess ur e
, ,
acts there fore at half depth The a ver age p r ess ur e per square foot over
, , .
,
the zo/zole surface whatever its form is that acting at its centre of gravity ;
, ,
its intensity in tons per square foot bein g the distance in feet of the centre
, ,
of gravity below the water surface divided by 3 5 ( for salt water) The , .
total pr e s sure is of course the average pressure so obtained multiplied by

, , ,
the total area I t follows that in similar bulkheads the water pressure on
.
,
one who s e submerged part is twice the breadth and depth o f another would ,
be eight times greater for it has four times the area and its centre o f gravity
, ,
is twice a s far below the surface i e the pressure varies as the cube o f the , . .
ratio of the dimensions .
The centre of pressure is that point at which a single force would

balance the total water pressure acting on a surface i e it is the positi on ,
. .
of the resultant of all the di fle ren t water pressures which as just seen are , , ,
zero at the surface and increase regularly with each increase o f depth I f
,
.
a single horizontal strut or shore were placed against a rigid bulkhead at

the centre of pressure it alone could s upport it The p o s i t i o n o f t h e ,
.
c en t r e o f p r e s s u r e varies with the shape o f the bulkhead ; in a rect

angular one i r is at two thirds the depth from the top ; in a triangular one -
,
at half depth I t may b e readily found for any area by graphic construction
.
( Fig 1 4 P.late 20
) ,
thus i f the water pressures on various horizontal layers ,
or strips (i e the length o f each strip multiplied by its depth b elow the
. .
sur face) be set o ff as level lines or ordinates ( 0 O O the line or 1, z, 3,

— —
curve drawn through their ends the curve o f pressures would in the case ,
of a rectangular bulkhead be a straight line forming with the bulkhead a , ,
triangle The area o f this triangle would represent the total fluid pressure
. ,
a s also it s vertical distribution and so the centre o f gravity o f the area , ,
situated at two thirds its depth from the apex would also b e the centre o f
-
,
fluid pressure I f a curve o f pressures be drawn fo r a triangular bulkhead

.
S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 209
92 P RA C TI CA L .
[ .
( Fig . the enclosed figure will have a pa rabola for outline and its centre ,
of gravity ( and the centre of pressure of the bulkhead) will be at half

depth A s the bulkhead s of a ship vary in shape from approximately a
.
rectangle to a triangle the position of the centre of pres s ure varie s from
-
,
two thirds to one half their depth from the water surface
- - .
Ar t 2 1 0 I f a b u lk h e a d were composed of a thin plated surface

. .
only the water pre ss ure even if slight would cause so great a d e fle c t i on
, , ,
that the plating would su ffer severe ten s ion tending to strain the various ,
riveted j oints and start the caulking I f an experimental strip o f such a .
bulkhead be con s idered the resista nce it would o ffer would be of the kind ,
given by a s us pension chain which to resist a load without serious s training , , ,
must deflect largely from the straight ( see Art G reat deflection in .
bulkheads however is inadmis s ible owing to its damaging e ffect on the

, , ,
riveting and caulking ; it must therefore not resi s t like a chain but like , , ,
a beam for this according to its depth may be so strong and sti ff as to
"
, , ,
give a s tout re s i s tance without appreciable bending This beam like .

-
character is s ecured for the b u lkheads by numerous s t i ff e n i n g b ar s ;

these may be regarded a s forming a s upporting framework fo r the thin
plating as a mere watertight skin but as they are firmly u nited thereto , ,
each strip of plating and attach ed s ti ffening bar really forms a beam ;
under a deflecting pressure the plating may suffer compres s ion and , ,
simultaneously the remote edge of the sti ffening bar tension or vi ce ver sa
, , ,
.
While giving the s ame total supporting e ff ect to the bulkhead the sti ffeners ,
might be few in number but deep and strong or numerou s and slender , , .
The stiffness o f a rectangular beam varie s as the cube of its depth and so , ,
theoretically a few deep s ti ffen i ng bars wou ld be more e ffi cient than a large
,
number of smaller ones i e the same total supporting e ffect would b e , . .
s ecured with a less weight of material But a full adherence to this .
principle would not be practicable for when under water pres s ure the large , , ,
area s of thin plating would bulge between the sti ffeners and suffering severe
tension their riveted joints — s i ngle riveted in the usual way—would s train
, ,
and leak Evidently therefore the s tiffening bar s of a bulkhead however

.
, , ,
strong individually m us t be s u ffi ciently close together to preclude s erio u s

,
straining of the thin plating between them 1

.
Four differently designed bulkhead s are shown in P lates 2 2 and 2 3 .
Fig 7 P late 2 2 repre s ents one designed s trictly in accordance with Llo yd s
.
, ,
’
r ul e s H ere the s t i ffe n i n g b a r s a r e di s p o s e d b o t h v e r t i c al l y an d

.
h o ri z o n t a lly The vertical are placed 2 5 feet apart and are of angle
.
,
bar of the s ize of the vessel s frame s ; the horizontal are spaced 4 feet ’
apart and ( excepting those of the colli s ion bulkhead and others over
,
4 0 feet wide) are also of frame angle size they are only fitted on the hold
portion of the bulkhead however for in the tween decks the vertical , ,
’
sti ffener s are so short as to give ample sti ffne s s and moreover any water , , ,
pre ss ure that might be experienced here would be small I n the earlier .
iron vessels the sti flen ing of the bulkheads was very inferior ; there were no
horizontal s ti ffeners and the vertical were only o f reverse frame size The
,
-
.
thickne s s of the plating s pecified by Lloyd s rule s varies from 5 3 inch in a ’ 5
small vessel to 3— inch in a large one ; but when so thick as — inch the
8
0 0 ,
upper half of the bulkhead may be 5 1 inch thinner than the lower 0 .
I t is not necessary that the stiffeners s hould b e dispose d both vertically

and horizontally The vertical are the more e fficient because they are the
—
.
,
shorter and because all when o f the s ame len gth— contribute the same
,
t dy f b ulkh d w i ll b f
1
A i t ti g f th t g th d i b
n n e res n s u o e s re n o ea s o un n e rs
p p y e a
P f I g d th l t M T C R d T I ti tuti N 8
g1 8§ 6l f /
r ar an e a e l Ar. t t ea
o 93 ra ns. ns on ava r c zz ec s , 1
.
. .
,
an
[Ar t 21.0
useless except in that it reduces the total deflection ; and consequently

, ,
without diminishing its strength it might be tapered in depth or thickness ,

.
A s regards the s t i ffe n i n g b a r s o f a bulkhead this is never done fo r ,
although to taper them might not reduce their strength it would their st i ff ,
ness and it would evidently be inexpedient in other respects The better

,
.
plan is adopted of fi x i n g t h e i r e n d s by b r a c k e t p l a t e s fo r in this way

—
,
—
their stiffness as beams supporting a distributed load is increased about
five times and their strength by about 5 0 pe r cent ( see Art
,
L loyd s . .
’
1 rule s require the ends of the horizontal s ti ffeners when of bulb angle ,
-
l section to be fixed in this way by brackets to the shell or hold stringers

, ,
( Figs 6 and .
7 P late Besides increa
,
s ing the e fficiency of the sti ffeners ,
such bracket connection is advantageous in holding the bulkhead square to

the ve s sel s sides and in better distributing its supporting e ffect I n the
’
,
.
case of the vertical sti ffeners if the vessel has a double b ottom their lower , ,
ends are connected thereto by brackets their upper ends being usually free ,
( Fig . T h e fixing o f the lower ends is important b ecause under water , ,
pressure the greatest deflecting and s training tendency occurs low down at
, ,
the centre o f pressure so that while the upper part of the bulkhead may
experience little stress the lower may suffer much I f the bulkhead for m s , .
the end of a deep tank the vertical sti ff eners like the horizontal are made , , ,
of bulb angle ( or extra strong flanges ) and both their top and bottom ends ,
are fixed by brackets ( P lates 2 4 and 2 With ordinary floors the lower ,
ends of the vertical stiffeners have no special connection ; they are p rac ti
cally fixed in direction however because they extend right down to the , ,
frame over the marginal plate o f the bulkhead which is held erect by the
, ,
abutment of the ceiling planking and by the keelson s and intercostal plates
( Fig 9 , P late
. N evertheless when great strength i s required as in , ,
deep tank s or the tanks of oil vessels they are connected to intercostal ,
plates fi t e d between the floors or to bracket plates ab ove them ( see Figs
;
, .
1 0 to 1 2
The u p p e r p o r t i o n o f a b u l kh e a d lying between plated decks is , ,
built distinct from the lower ( Fig 7 P late There are here no horizontal .
,
sti ffeners for the s hort vertical ones give ample strength against the more
,
mod e rate water pre s su res to which the upper part of a bulkhead is liable .
I n the upper tween decks they are usually of the smaller reverse frame
’
s ize and in lower tween decks o f a s ize intermediate between frame an d

,
’
,
rever s e frame When there i s a wood deck the planks abut on the bulkhead
.
a s s hown in Figs 1 to 4 P late 2 1 .

, .
I f a s t i ff e n i n g b a r i s n o t c o n n e c t e d a t t h e e n d s it resembles a ,
beam with ends supported but free But even the support may be .
imperfect ; th u s in the ca s e shown in Figs 6 and 7 P late 2 1 in which the

, .
, ,
bulkhead plating and attached sti ffeners are greatly defl e cted by an
excessive pressure the middle part of the stiffener would bend with the
,
plating for it i s bound thereto by numerous rivets but at its ends where held
, , ,
only by the terminal rivets it might be sti fler and stronger than they and , , ,
refus ing to b end b u r s t them and sta rt away from the plating ( deep flanges
,
have been fo un d to fail in the manner shown in Fig 3 P late This .

,
tendency become s more pronoun ced with powerful sti ffe ners and so should ,
be provided again s t if not by a bracket connection by a close grouping o f

, ,
the terminal rivets V ery commonly some o f the excess o f strength at the
.
unconnected ends o f sti ffening bars is removed by tapering or sniping them ,
as shown in Fig 1 P late 2 1 .

, .
A r t 211 The b u l k h e a d s o f d e c k e r e c t i o n s are exposed to severe

. .
blows from the waves in consequence o f which they are not in frequently ,
bent inwards in some ca s e s when weakly constructed they have collapsed , , ,

Ar t 21 3 ]
, P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 1 95
the plating tearing along by the deck angle ( Fig 7 P late I n these .
,
bulkhead s the deck angle s are usu ally s ingle and to avoid the tendency o f , ,
the plating to bend and tear along the line of rivet hole s the sti ffening bars ,
should not be cu t s hort but should overlap the angle ( Fig The bulk
,
.
head forming the front of a bridge house m us t be strongly constructed

to re s i s t the bombarding e ffect of heavy s eas ; the s ti ffener s are there ,
fore of bulb angle ( Lloyd s ru les require them to be 1 inch deeper than
,
’
bulb angle frames ) and are connected at both ends by bracket plates
-
,
( Fig 8 . P late , I n well deck ves s els the s tatutory freeb oard is reg u la ted
-
to s ome extent by the e ffi ciency of this bulkhead ( Art and when .
s upported by deep web plate s a reduction of 1 or 2 inches may be allowed , .
Th e thickness of the end bulkhead s of deck erection s i s the same a s that of

their s ide plating .
A rt 21 2 I t is now very us u al to dispen s e with s ti ffening bars by

. .
,
fl a n gi n g t h e p l a t e s for while the b u lkhead is then equally strong and

,
e ffi cient material and workmanship are saved Some different arrange
, .
ments are shown in Figs 8 and 1 0 P late 2 2 Fig 5 P late 2 3 and P lates .
,
.
, ,
2 4 and 2 Fig
5 I n 5 P late 2 3 an arrangement is shown in which the
. .
, ,
vertical flanges are made so deep and strong as to di s pense with the
necessity for any other sti ffening material The plates are disposed
—
.
vertically and are of such breadth that their flanged edges are 3 feet
,
2
apart in the tween decks however they are often made twice as broad in
’
, , ,
which case an intermediate s tiffening angle is fitted between the flanged

edges ( Fig 8 P late .C omparing the sti ffening e ffect of a simple
,
flange ( such as that shown in Fig 1 0 P late 2 2 ) and that of an angle bar .
, ,
it is evident that to be equally strong the former must be deeper fo r it is

, , ,
thinner it has not a s quare rigid heel and there is nothing to represent the
, ,
material i n the transverse flange of the The necessary increase varies

— bar
.
1 — —
from inch i n a 2 1n ch sti ffener to 1 inches i n a 7 inch one or about 1 -
,
2
20
pe r cent Although it has been proved by experiment ( Art
. that .
,
when a plate is subj ected to crushing or compressive s tr ess in its own plane ,
a flange connection ( dispo s ed at right angles to the cru shing force) is

inferior to t hat of an angle bar it is not so when the flange acts as a ,
sti ffener against lateral bending pressures I n an e x p e r i m en t m a d e b y .
L lo y d s R e gi s t e r in
’
with two bulkhead plates one of which was ,
sti ffened by an angle bar and the other by the flanged edge of the plate
( about 1 inch deeper tha n the bar) the latter was found to be superior , ,
fo r when subjected to the same pres s ure while it deflected only

, inch from ,
1
2
the straight the other deflected about 1 2 inches This result wa s some
, .
what unexpe cted i n view o f th e apparently inferior stability of the flange

, .
I t demonstrated that the i ncrea s e o f inch found necessary in the case o f .,

1
g o ,
flanged floor plates and others subj ec t to crushing pressures i s not required O ,
for flanged bulkheads Where as in Fig 5 P la te 2 3 only vertical sti ffeners

.
,
.
, ,
are employed consisting of an extra deep flange the slender edge

, , ,
proj ecting so far from the bulkhead would be insu ffi ciently sti ff ; accord ,
i n gly to obviate this the excellent plan is adopted of flan gin g the edge of
, ,
the flange Z li ke or back upon itself like a channel bar ( Fig 4 P late
, , ,
.
,
When the depth of long flange sti ffeners exceeds 1 2 inches it becomes ,
necessary to hold them square to their work and this may be well done ,
byfitting a face tie bar or an intercostal girder in the manner sho wn i n ,
Figs 1 and 5 P late 2 4

.
, .
A r t 2 1 3 I n order that a b u l k h e a d may e fficiently support the

. .
vessel s sides and mainta in her transverse form its connection there
’
,
with must b e s ubstantial and strong I ts supporting e ffect must be wel l .
I l lu t t d i E g m g f O t b 1 4 1 892
1
'
s ra e n n i ne n ,
or c o er , .
[Art 21 3 .
distributed for i f it were concentrated at one transverse line the vessel s

’
, ,
sides elsewhere free and flexible might s uffer from the resulting local
, ,
s tress so that the bulkhead instead of being a s ource of strength would be

, , ,
one of weakne s s The c on n e c ti on t o t h e s h ell p l a t i n g i s generally

.
m ade with d o u bl e a n gl e s of the u sual frame size ( Figs 6 and 7 P late 2 2 ) .

,
other wise a s i n gl e l a r ge an gl e may be employed having flange s of double ,
breadth to take two rows of rivets ( Figs 4 5 and 6 P late 2

,
.
, , ,
A double angle connection is stronger than a Si ngle one for the r1ve ts
o
-
,
are in double shear ; al s o in whatever direction the plating may tend to

,
deflect it cannot a s with a single angle so readily start the caulking and
, , ,
fold over or fracture where weakened by the line of frame rivet holes .
Further o wing to the symmetry of the connection the bulkhead is b etter

, ,
held at fixed angle with the side Neverthele ss if the bulkhead is .

,
thoroughly incorporated with the side by bracket plates and by the side ,
and deck s tringers it is evident that a s ingle angle connection may b e

,
-
quite su ffi cient .
To secure watertightne s s the r i v e t s i n t h e b ulk h e a d sh e ll an gle s

,
are s paced at w a t e r ti gh t p i t c h ; in the case o f the shell flange this of ,
course is only necessary in one or other of the t wo angles A watertight

,
.
spacing is u s ually rather le s s than five diameters of the rivet which means ,
that at least one fifth or 2 0 per cent of the entire sectional area of the shell
-
.
plating is p u nched away in the tran s verse line of each bulkhead N ow .

,
at ordinary frames the rivet pitch is 7 diameters s o that here only one seventh ,
-
of the plating is sacrificed it follows therefore that at each bulkhead the , ,
sectional area or longitudinal strength of the shell i s ab out 6 1 per cent less 5
.
than it is at the already weak lines of frame rivets I n practice a reinforce .
ment is usually made by doubling the alternate strakes o f shell acros s

each bulkhead ; i e by interposing bet ween the bulkhead frame angles and
. .
the outer strakes o f shell instead of the usual narrow filling liners a short ,
“
plate or bll lR/Zé d d li ner
, I f it were only sought to recover the longi
.
tud in al strength of the shell lost by the closer spacing of the frame rivet s
, ,
the liners might be quite short theoretically they need only be long
enough to take one ro w of rivets clear o f each frame angle for should the , ,
shell fracture through the closely spaced frame rivet holes it would be fore , ,
it were free still have this outer row o f liner rivets to shear Formerly
, .
the liners were extended from the frame before the bulkhead to the one
abaft it but now they are usually made of the diamond shape sho wn in
,
Fig 1 4 P late 2 1 the peculiar e ffi ciency of which as a connecting strap is

.
, , , ,
noticed in Art 2 8 7 They are unnecessary of cour s e in way of the double

. .
, ,
bottom for here the strength of the hull is su fficient to discount any s mall
,
weakness due to a transverse line of closely spaced ri vet hole s and where
j oggled shell plating is adopted bulkhead liners are usually dispensed ,
with for as all strake s are then inside strakes they would not be readily
, , ,
fitted in such cases in s tead of fitting liners the thickness of the shell plate
, ,
crossing the bulkheads may be slightly increased .
The b u lk h e a d s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o th e v a ri o u s d e c k s and to the

inner bottom by d o u b le a n gle s of reverse frame size ( Fig 7 P late -
.
,
or by a s i n gle l ar ge a n gl e having double riveted flange s ( Fig A -

.
specially strong connection to th e tank top is desirable because when , ,
subjected to water pres s ure it is the lower part of the bulkhead which ,
suffers the most from the deflecting and straining forces A t the decks a .
strong connection is necessary as a substitute fo r the massive deck b eam

a single small angle might not b e in keeping with the capabilities of the
bulkhead and deck and further as the upper ends of the vertical sti ffeners
, , ,
( both end s in the case o f the tween deck sti ffeners ) are usually unconnected
’
-
,
S H I P B UI L D I N G A r t 21 5
[ .
in other bulkhead s this is only required when their breadth exceeds

4 0 feet .
A rt 2 1 6 B u lk h e a d s m a y b e p l a t e d v e r t i c ally o r h o ri z on t a l ly
. .
.
The former is the more usual plan for hori z ontal seams involve tapered liners ,
( or the tapering of the plate corners ) between the frame angles and they ,
may interfere with the lugs or watertight collars o f the side stringers ; when
a horizontal disposition is adopted however this inconvenience may be , ,
avoided by fitting the marginal plates vertically When the plate edges are .
flanged to form s ti ffeners the seams are of course vertical To reduce

, , , .
the riveting the sti ffening bars are sometimes placed on the sea m s of the
,
plating but this is an in ferior arrangement fo r it involve s three ply riveting ,

- .
I n the ca s e of tween deck bulkheads if not flanged the horizontal disposi

’
-
, ,
tion is the more common ( Fig 7 P late fo r it avoid s numerous liner s .

,
( or the tapering of the plate corners ) between the deck a n gles and as there ,
is only one horizontal seam to caulk and fewer plates to fit and rivet the , ,
workmanship is reduced ; this indeed is the governing consideration in , ,
arrangin g all deta il s of ship con s truction .
Ar t 21 7 Watertight l o n gi t u d i n a l b u lkh e a d s are rarely adopted in

. .
ordinary merchant vessels They are sometimes in the engine room of .

, ,
large twin screw s the port and starb oard engi ne being separated by a
,
centre line bulkhead ( Fig 2 P late

-
I n large high speed ve ss el s the
.
,
-
numerou s boilers are usually divided into two or more groups separated ,
by watertight transver s e bulkheads so that however damaged by collision , , ,
boiler power may still be available ( Figs 1 and 2 ) and of course a similar .
, ,
assurance is equally desirable for the engines A s s uch an engine ro o m .

-
bulkhead is s hort it gives little useful structural strength to the hull except
, ,
i that by tying together the decks and bottom i t give s rigidity again s t the
n , ,
Vi brat i ng effect o f the engines I n some large high speed pas s enger .
,
-
vessels the central bulkhead is ca rried through both the engine and b oiler
s pace and as the s e together may extend over almo s t half the vessel s length
,
’
i t may confer considerable longitudinal strength to the hull To give u s e ful .
a smstan c e however it must b e connected to continuous deck plating and

, , ,
be so s trongly constructed as to stand erect and take its share of the work
and i ts ends should be tapered gradually down to the keel for if the bulk ,
head s topped abruptly it might b e a source of weakness rather than of

strength .
As
a mean s of s ubdividing the hull into watertight compartments ,
long i tud i nal bulkheads cannot be favourably regarded for sho u ld a large , ,
compartment on one side b e flooded the ve s sel might take a s eriou s list ,
a dangero u s matter in a deep loading cargo ves s el I n war s hips there are
-
.
numerou s lon gitudinal bulkheads ( P late 1 1 3 ) here however together , ,
Wi th a central one there are usually one or two close to the s ide
‘
and as all compartments are small the chance of a seriou s li s t through ,
damage i n act i on is small and moreover every facility i s provided for , , ,
correct i n g i t by flooding compartments on the opposite side I t is some .
t i mes urged in favour of longitudinal bulkheads that their integrity would

not be prej udi c el by broadside collision when fitted as in war s hips a s an ,
i nner sk i n thi s is an important advantage b u t with only a centre line and -
, ,
tran s ver s e bulkheads a blow s tru ck on one of the latter mi ght b e a very
,
ser i ous matter .
I n merchant vessel s there may b e numerou s longitu dinal bulkheads but ,
they are not watertight There are the side coal bunker bulkhead s ( Fig s 4
.
-
.
,
5 and 6 P late 2 7 and P late

, grain bulkhead s ( Fig s 2 7 to 2 9 P late
, .
,
and the wash or divisional bulkh eads of deep ballast tank s ( P lates 2 4 and 2
Th e coal bunker bulkheads as noticed below are of light con s tru ction
-
, , .
Art 21 8 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . [99
G rain bulkheads must be strongly constructed fo r they take the place of ,
pillars ( see A rt Wash bulkheads such as are required in deep ballast

.
,
tanks are not w atertight ; they must be exceptionally s trong however for
, , ,
not only do they take the place of the pillars but they are liable to severe ,
pressure and blo ws from moving water V essels which carry oil in bulk are
, .
provided w ith a continuous oil tight centre— line bulkhead ( Fig s 1 0 and 1 1
,
-
, .
,
P late 2 6 ) like the others this one must be exceptionally strong for it may
, ,
have to withstand a full pressure of oil and perhaps an occasional bom ,
ba rdme n t through incomplete filling of the tanks O ther matters in .
connection with oil tank s are noticed in Arts 5 4 and 4 49 and the general .
,
construction of the bulkheads is shown in Figs 9 to 1 1 P late 2 6 .

, .
A rt 21 8 C o a l b u n k e r s are con s idered in A rt 2 3 1

. . As their b ulk . .
h e a d s have only the minor duty of confining coal they may be of s lender ,
construction I n the case of a large bulkhead the pressure from the coal
.
may be considerable especially that of a side bunker which when inclined

, , ,
with the rolling of the ship may take some of the weight of the coal ; but ,
even then a light con s truction may suffi ce fo r when of large area they are ,
stayed to the vessel s side or to the opposite bulkhead ( Fig 5 P late 8 ;

’
.
,
Fig 1 3 P late 2 1 and Fig 5 P late

.
, B eing slender and yielding s uch
.
, ,
bulkheads con fer little or no strength to the hull I n the ca s e of the s ide .
bunker bulkheads alongside of the machinery space where numerous deck ,
beam s are s evered they may help to support the marginal part of the deck
, ,
so much so that i f strongly constructed they may permit of the su ppres s ion
of a row of side pillars ( Fig s 4 and 6 P late O ften however to .
, , ,
s ecure a capacious bunker the upper part of s u ch bulkhead s is s loped or

,
curved outward over the b oiler ( Figs 3 and when of cou rse they give .
, ,
practically no support to the deck I n warship s all parts however su b .

, ,
si di ary are so designed as not only to serve their primary purpose b u t to

, ,
c o operate in the general s trength of the hull

-
C oal bunker bulkheads are .
-
,
therefore built like the others so that while s erving a s watertight pa rtition s
, ,
they may also strengthen the contiguous s tructure .
The s cantlings o f ordinary coal bulkhead s do not vary greatly for ,
they are decided not s o much by the que s tion of s trength as by that of
endurance against corrosion which as noticed in Art 4 6 3 is particularly , ,
.
,
—
rapid in the coal bunkers The plating is usually f inch thick I t may .
G
.
b e of steel or iron ; iron is often preferred on account o f its s lower rate of

corrosion U nless frequently coated the bunker bulkheads do not last
.
,
many year s ; it i s common to find them corroded through in large holes ,
and repaired in a rough and ready fa shion with bolted patche s of s heet
- -
iron I t is evidently well therefore to provide a margin of thicknes s ; in

.
, ,
some exceptional cases the plate s are made é inch thick The sti ffening .
bars vary in size from 2 5 by to 3 by 4 inches an d are spaced from 2 ,
to 4 feet apart ; they are usually placed on the vertical s eams of the plating .
When the bulkhead is required to take the place of pillars it i s stiflen e d

'
as describ ed in Art 1 4 8 for grain bulkheads The sti ffeners should b e

. .
con s iderably thicker than the plating for they are particularly liable to ,
wear and tear due to the circumsta nce that the proj ecting flange o ffer s
,
two surfaces to co rrosion and is exposed to the scari fying action of the
,
coal I n view o f this it is evident that the flange system of stiffening i s

.
,
not suitable fo r bunker bulkheads The sti ffeners are us ually placed .
vertically for when horizontal they form a lodgment for coal and are
, ,
expo s ed to blows from falling mas s es A s already s een bunker bulkheads . ,
o f large area are s tayed horizontally to the vessel s side ; i f required to be

’
self supporting the scantling s must b e increased The s tays are us ually of
-
.
angle bar connected to the sti ffeners and s ide strin gers by bracket plate s
,
Art 21 8
oo P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[ .
( see Fig 5. P late ,

T hey are particularly exposed to wear and tear ;
the battering e ffect o f falling masses bend s or breaks them and be i ng , ,
subject to the scarifying action o f the coal they qu i ckly waste away They ,
.
should there fore be substantial ; i f of angle bar the heel should po i nt

, , ,
upwards so as to present an enduring edge capable of spl i tt i ng up falli ng

,
,
lumps of coal ( see Fig 1 3 P late They should not be placed d i rectly
.
,
under the coaling hatch ways for they cannot long endure the cont i nued ,
battering e ffect o f the coal thrown from above ( Art 4 6 .
Th e transverse bulkheads o f cross coal bunkers are usually of stronger

con s truction than those of the side for they are generally of larger area , ,
and cannot be so extensively s tayed The plating may b e no thicker but . ,
the sti ffening bars are usually s tronger They are connected to the vessel s .
’
side by a single frame angle and as th e shell rivets are spaced at the u s ual ,
wide pitch special liners are not required They must b e connected to
,
.
each deck by large angles so as to secure the full strength of a deck b eam
,
o ften however they are merely riveted to the s ide of a deck beam When
, ,
.
fitted intermediately in a long machinery space four large angles or two ,
channel bar s are u sually fitted at each deck level to give the s trengthening ,
effect o f the s trong I section beams described in Art 1 2 9

- . .
C oal bunker bulkheads should b e so tight a s not to pass coal dust ; in

-
ordinary cases the joints are made su fficiently tight by the riveting I n .
high clas s work they are caulked ; watertightness is not aimed at for
-
,
where beams etc pierce the plating the apertures are only closed by
,
.
, ,
plate collars more or less accurately fitted ( Art

,
Fore and aft .
- -
bunker bulkheads are connected to the tank top by a single angle which , ,
i f the bunker is long i s severed at places so that water accumulating on

, ,
the central portion o f the tank top ( leakage from the boiler or eng i nes ) ,
may pass through the bunker to the side gutters the ceilin g planking ,
within being raised on bearers so that the water may pass under it A .
bunker at the side of the engine room is sometimes built with an

independent bottom ( partial or complete) rai s ed a couple of feet above ,
the top tank so that pipe s may b e led underneath it or to provide access
, ,
to sea cocks on the bilge With ordinary floors a side bunker bulkhead .
-
may connect to the bilge keelson otherwise its lower marginal angle ,
merely connects to the reverse bar s on the upper edges of the floors the ,
enclosure of the b u nker being completed by the ceiling planking within

( Fig 1 3 P late
.
, I n large ves s els where s uperior s trength is desired , ,
the bulkhead sti ffeners are bracketed to the floors or tank top ( Fig 5 .
,
P late The upper margin of a side bunker bulkhead passes up and

connects to the deck plating between the beams plate collars being fitted ,
around the latter I n s mall vessels where there is only a wood deck over
.
,
the side bunkers short angles may be bolted thereto to ta ke the bulkhead
,
but it is better to fit a continuous angle above the beams notching its ,
vertical flange s o that it may project downwards between them and take ,
the bulkhead plating C oal bunker doors and other matters in this
.
-
connection will be found in Art 4 1 3 . .

[Ar t 21 9 .
th e c a si n
g hich forms a sort of sha
,
ft
w or trunk ( Fig 5 P late 8 P late 27 .
, ,
Fig 1 P late 3 1 and Fig 1 1 P late

.
, I t may extend downwards to the .
,
second deck in unbroken width but if there is a third deck the lower part , ,
must usually he stepped or sloped outwards to clear the engine and boilers ,
( see Fig 3 P late . I f there,

is a side bunker bulkhead below the -
lowest deck it may be regarded as the ultimate extension o f the casing

,
.
The tween deck spaces on either side of the casings are generally used as
’
-
coal bunker s ; in pas s enger ve s sels however the upper or all of them , , , ,
may b e appropriated for passengers fo r in this re s pect it is valuable s pace , ,
because it is amidship s where the ves s el s movement i s less felt and becau s e ’
,
it is contigu ou s to the ship s s i de where daylight may be s ecured by ’
s idelights .
The shaft formed by the machinery ca s ing s i s us ually termed the Zzlgfit
The portion above the level of the engine cylinders
”
a n d a i r sp a ce
1
.
,
besides admitting light and air to what would otherwise b e a dark and hot
engine room is required to permit of the cylinder cover s and pistons being
,
li fted for examination and overhaul ( Fig 4 P late I ts width in way .

,
o f the cylinders must be s uch as will give acce s s around them and allow ,
daylight to be s hed below I n twin screw s teamer s there are two rows of .
-
cylinder s and so to emb ra ce both the ca s ing must b e extra wide ( see
, , ,
Fig 1 P late
.
, The lowest deck to clear the twin engines may have , ,
to be entirely suppre s sed or very much cut away Tho s e decks which are , .
well above the cylinder s may overhang them so long a s hoisting gear may ,
be plumbed over their centres for lifting the covers and piston s I n rare .
ca s es when the port and s tarboard engines are partitioned off by a centre
,
line b u lkhead separate ca s ings are provided for each engine room
, .
Ar t 2 2 0 I n ordinary ve ss el s the c a s i n g e x t en d s c on t i n u o u s ly
. .
fr o m e n d t o e n d o f t h e m a c h i n e r y s p a c e but the opening s in th e ,
upper deck are not nece s sarily so exten s ive that over the engine need be
little longer than the row of cylinders and that over the boilers need only ,
be long enough to pass the funne l and leave a clear opening over the ,
stokehold ( P lates 1 0 8 1 0 9 and I n most cargo ve ss els however an

, , ,
additional opening i s required between the engine and boilers to form ,
a tr unk fl a i r/520 19 for the side bunkers ( Fig 1 P late 2 9 and P late
4 )
, ,
I t follows therefore that according to the arrangement of the engine

, ,
and boilers there may be u noccupied s pace s within the ca s ing A t these .
places strong through beam s are introduced at each deck and when plated ,
over between the casing walls the s mall deck area s s o formed may afford ,
convenient locations for the galley or {donkey b oiler who s e chimneys , ,
be i ng near the main funnel may j oin therewith and thu s obtain a good ,
draught I n large pa ss enger ves s els the machinery cas ing s —or extensions
,
o f them — may provide accommodation for s everal

.
ga l le s
y y sc u lle r i e s and ,
pantri es the space over the boilers and contiguous to the hot funnel being
,
“
u s ed as a drying roo m for the s tewards linen or the washing s of the crew ’
and em i grants ( P late The mid s hip portion of the tween decks ’ ’
I S the most suita ble for pa ss enger accommodation for there is here less
.
,
p i tch i ng movement and vibration I n most ve ss el s it is occupied or .
ob s tructed by the machinery casings but in large modern pas s enger ve s sels , , ,
the boilers are u s ually divided into two or three group s the hold between ,
be i ng used a s a large coal bunker and the midship deck area s above ,
’
appropri ated for cabins and saloons ( Figs 1 and 2 P late .

,
A r t 2 2 1 The W i d t h o f t h e c a s i n g or deck opening over the
. .
.
bo i lers depends on s everal circumstance s I t must b e large enough to .
pass the funnel and a large ventilator on either side and give an ample ,
P p ly ly ppl i
1
p ki g th t m
ro er S t th p ti
ea n b , th upp
e er d k on a es o e or on a ove e er ec .
Ar t 222]
area of fiddle y opening for free ventilation of the stokehold ( P late 1 0 9 and ,
Fig 4 P late
.
,
if too small the boiler room might become unbearably
hot ( A rt O ften it is decided by the space required between it s walls
.
for the galley or donkey boiler or by the deck area required on either side , ,
so that this may b e sufficiently wide fo r side cabins and a passageway .
O r it may be governed by the question o f tonnage so that the internal ,
volume of the light and air space when added to that of the engine and ,
boiler room may bring the total within the nece ss ary limit s ( 1 3 and 2 0
,
per cent of the gross tons ) for the securing of a maxim u m dedu ction or
.
,
” 1
engi m a llow a nce
ne-r oo .
Th e e n gi n e s a n d b o i le r s are p u t on b oard after the launch They .
are lo w er e d i n t o p l a c e by a large crane or derrick and of course fore , , ,
sight mu s t be exercised that the deck openings may be s ufficiently large to

let them pass To admit a large boiler the casing and deck opening may
.
,
require to b e very wide and to avoid this there fore one side of the , , ,
ca s ing and a portion of the deck contigu ous thereto are not riveted up until it
i s s hipped The inner ends of those half beam s w hi ch would interfere with
.
-
the passage o f the b oiler are cut and are a fterwards j ointed with riveted ,
fish plates Those of the upper deck may not require to be cut but at the
.
,
lower deck where in lowering the last boiler it may have to be swu ng to
, , ,
one s ide to clear the upper part of one already in place below a consider ,
able portion o f the half beams may have to b e temporarily removed ( see -
Fig 5 P late
.
,
Where strong beams pass over the boilers they also may ,
have to be jointed so that the portion within the casing may be temporarily
removed A ll plates beams etc which mu s t be removed to admit the
.
, , .
,
boilers s hould be so arranged of s uitable lengths that a s little a s po s sible

, , ,
of the s tructure need be distu rbed A s the largest single part o f the engine .
is comparatively small there is usually ample room for its passage between ,
the ca s ing walls here therefore only the casing roo f need be le ft , ,
unfinished .
A r t 2 22 O n the top of the casing over the e n gi n e there is a large

. .
, ,
s k yli gh t i n so m e vessels there are two

- The casing top is plated over .
,
but the skylight usually occupies almost the entire width lea ving only a ,
s trip o f plating on either side ( see Fig 6 P late 2 7 an d Fig 2 P late .

, , ,
I f there is a bridge deck the roo f of the casing may b e built flush there ,
with in which case the skylight is elevated on a coaming plate at lea s t

, ,
2 feet high O therwi s e the whole roof may be raised above the bridge deck
.
( see Fig 2 P late

. T h e skylight
,
must be s trong so t h at in heavy weather ,
it may not be stove in by flying masse s of water Formerly it was made .
o f teak wood but now it i s practically alway s built of thin s teel plate s for
, ,
it is then stronger cheaper and more du rable I t has large hinged sashes
, , .
,
provided with gla s s bull s eye s ; but when situated well ab ove the water ’
,
large panes of thick gla s s protected by gratings are sometimes used I n , ,

.
vessel s which trade in the tropics to s ecure better ventilation of the engine ,
room a large dome shaped grating or cage may b e sub s ti tu ted for a sky
,
-
, ,
light ; it i s covered from the sun by an awning and in heavy weather by ,
tarpaulin s arranged to wind up on rollers A s mall wood skylight is

, .
usually fitted on the top of the ca s ing over the galley .
Th e fi d dl e y o p en i n gs are often placed at a higher level than the

engine skylight so that they may be kept open in all but the heavie s t
,
weather I f there is a bridge deck they must be at least 2 feet above it

.
,
but very commonly they are raised to about 7 feet ( Fig 5 P late .
,
I n large pa ss enger vessel s th e casi n g i s carried ab ove the highest flying

1
A
‘
x l l t d i pti f th t g l w d v i u i t ti g m tt i thi
n e ce en e scr on o e onn a e a s an ar o s n e re s n a ers n s
w i l l b f u d i Si W H Whi t M u l f N ”
l A / z tu ’
c o n n ecti on e o n n r . . e s an a o ava r c zz ec re .
Art 222
[ .
deck so that the passenger s may not be inconvenienced by the smoke

,
,
dust or smells which pass up from the stokeholds I n some cases the
,
. ,
better to shelter and hide the fi ddle y openings the sides o f the c asmg are ,
carried up above the roo f to form a sort o f bulwark around them The ,
.
fi dd le y openings themselves are covered with gr a t i n gs I n heavy weather .

,
when seas break over the ship it may be necessary to cover the grat i ngs , ,
fo r although this may result in an uncomfortably hot s tokehold suf fi C i en t ,
air for the furnaces may still be supplied through the large cowl vent i lators .
For this purpose hinged s h e e t i r o n s t o r m c ov er s are sometimes pro -
Whether
,
v i de d otherwise provision is made for closing only by tarpaulins

,
.
or not it may ever be necessary to close them depends on the type of

vessel and her particular trade A round the openings there should be a .
coaming or angle bar ledge and side cleat s or jackstays for battening down
-
,
a tarpaulin .
A r t 2 2 3 I n order t o fi ll t h e b u n k e rs in the side tween decks a

’
. . ,
small h a t ch w a y is u sually placed in the roof of the casing over the

boilers or between them and the engine ( see Fig 5 P late 2 7 and Fig 1 .
, , .
,
P late 2 9 and P late ,

This may b e described as a sort of tru nk or
sha ft whose sides open into the upper or lower s ide bunkers and who s e
, ,
bottom is shaped like an inverted V or s a d dl e which formation diverts

”
, ,
the coal sideway s into the bunker s and gives clearance below it over the ,
boilers or engine The wear and tear of the saddle and contigu ous s ide
.
plates is o ften very great due to corrosion ( accelerated by heat from the ,
boilers ) and the attrition of the coal they should therefore be thick not , , ,
les s than ; inch

5 .
Art 2 2 4 The m a c h i n e r y c a s i n g if it does not take the place of

. .
,
side pillars is o f s le n d e r c on s t r u c t i o n ; of plating about inch thick

s ti ffened by vertical angle bars about 3 by 2 5 by — inches spaced
, ,
5
, 1 5 ,
3 0 inches apart or sometimes the plates are flanged

,
When not enclosed .
by a bridge hou s e it must be more substantial A s noticed in A rt 1 5 7

, . .
,
the casing may have the important duty of s upporting the ends of the
numerous half beams When it thus takes the place of pillars it is made
-
.
5
17 inch thick the sti ffeners being
, of rever se frame siz e placed 2 feet apart -
,
and at each deck there is a stout coaming plate from 9— to { inch thicker
, ,
2
, 0 3
than the remainder ( see Figs 1 3 5 and 6 P late I n large vessel s
.
, , , ,
the coaming may b e particularly sub stantial so as to form a powerful fore ,
and aft beam or girder I n order that the hal f beams may derive proper
-
.
-
support from the coaming their end s should evidently connect thereto ; ,
formerly in the case of the lower deck where the casing was not continued
, ,
below or wa s s tepped outwards they did not alway s do so the coaming

, , ,
merely sitting on the deck plating and the beam ends fo r the sake of , ,
appearance being rounded o ff as shown in Fig 2 P late 29 This of

, , .
, .
,
course i s a faulty construction for were the beams called upon to exercise
, ,
their full capabilities their ends upheld only by one or two terminal rivets
, ,
through the deck plating would derive little s upport from the contiguous ,
coaming and might burst away from the deck plating The coaming
, .
s hould stand at least 1 8 inches above the weather deck and when there are ,
doorways in the s ide of the ca s ing their sill s should also be at this height , ,
to avoid the chance o f deck water passing belo w .
Th e s t i ffe n i n g b a r s are usually placed W i t h i n t h e c a s i n g fo r i f ,

outside they would interfere with the passage ways or cabins or if in a side , ,
coal bunker they would be exposed to the abnormal corrosion which

,
prevails in this place When the sides o f the ca s ing are insulated as in
.
,
passenger vessels and cattle boats they are usually placed outside so as to -
, ,
provi de the necessary space and attachment for the insulating material
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 225
20 6 .
[ .
ventilating shafts terminates above the weather deck with a sloping skylight ,
top fixed or hinged having glazed flaps bull eyes or mu s hroom vent i lators
, , , ,
.
They form convenient ventilator s for water closets in the tween decks and
‘
’
-
,
when u s ed a s s uch they should of cou rse be carried well above the , ,
pas s engers promenade deck Similar lighting and ven tilati ng shafts may
’
.
be provided at other part s of the ship leading down to the vari ous tween ,
’
deck pas s enger spaces and standing well above the weather deck ( see
Fig 2 1 P late
.
,
When they are required to serve more than one tween ’
deck space they may b e built one within another each s topping at a
, ,
different deck .
A r t 226 A t r un k h a t c h w ay is one in which the coaming plates of

. .
the di fferent decks are united by a casing or trunk They are required in .
passenger ve ss els in order that when a hatchway i s opened to work the

cargo in the hold the passenger accommodation in the tween decks may
,
’
be unaffected by the operation ( Fig 8 P late 2 0 and P late 1 08 When at .

, , .
sea these trunk hatchways may form convenient companion ways doors
, ,
being fitted in the tween deck portion and ladders leading up to a

’
-
,
portable companion on the upper hatchway They may also be employed .
for coaling the lower bunkers through tween deck cargo spaces or pa s
’
-
senger accommodation .
A r t 2 2 7 D e c k h o u s e s may be of wood or steel but o ften they are

. .
composite having a coaming plate sti ffening frames and beams of steel to
, , , ,
which the woodwork is affixed Th e side houses under a bridge or fore .
castle deck are usually of steel or iron The actual deta ils of their con .
stru ction vary considerably ; the u s ual plan is to fit a s ort o f coaming above
as well as below in short length s between the beam s and projecting belo w
,
them suffi ciently to take the side plating I t is connected to the deck by .
short angles between the beam s and to cover the irregular notch made to , ,
pass the latter plate collars are neatly fitted around them ( Fig I A P late
, .
,
A plate collar provides no attachment and s o i f the beams are large , , ,
angle collars should be fitted Where a large number o f similar collars .
are required they are sometime s made of cast steel from a pattern fitted
, ,
to the particular beam section I f for a bulb beam they are made in .
,
halves so that they may be shipped over the bulb I n vessels which trade
, .
in the tropics and in which ample ventilation is therefore essential the

, , , ,
fore and aft bulkheads of the side houses under deck erections termina te
- -
at the lower edge of the beams the s pace s between being provided with ,
grating s or hinged flaps .

A rt 228]
C H AP TER X VI I .
Ar t 2 2 8
. m a c h i n e ry
. c o al b u
The s are s ituated an d n k er ami d ~
s h i p s , in practically all vessels

except small coa s ti ng boat s and oil steamers
( see Figs 1 to 8 P late . T his disposition i s advant
,
a geous in that ,
during a voyage the consumption of coal doe s not result i n a change of

,
trim ; i f the machinery were a t t h e st e rn and the ve s sel started on her ,
voyage fully loaded an d on even keel the consumption of coal from the ,
sternward bunkers would cause a constantly increasing trim by the head .
I f it were a short voyage the change of trim would be so small as to b e ,
unimportant and might b e provided against by starting on the voyage

,
with a slight trim by the stern I n the early steamers it was hardly .
practicable to place the machinery at the stern for o w ing to their less , ,
e ffi cient engines and low pressure boilers they required much more -
,
coal ; they burned over 2 lbs per horse power per hour whereas a .
,
modern vessel only con s umes from to 1 % lbs A nother important .
objection to the s ternward position i s the pronounced trim by the stern

which prevails in the light condition A s noticed in A rt 1 0 8 when a . .
,
vessel s fore foot is near the surface she is not only di fli c ult to navigate
’
-
,
again s t head seas but may su ffer damage from impact with the waves To
, .
secure in a light ship the utmost immersion and stability all ballast tanks
, , ,
are filled ; and in a large one w h ose machine ry and coal are at the stem
, ,
the heavy weight of water in the fore peak and of machinery and coals at ,
the stern may re s ult in severe longitudinal and local stresses I n this
, .
re spect h owever the midship position is al s o disadvantageous for in

, ,
’
,
a large vessel when many hundreds ( or thousands) of ton s of coal have

,
been consumed from mid s hips the hull heavily laden towards the ends ’
, , ,
may suffer hogging stresses o f a most crucial kind ; it is when so cir

umstan c e d that the structure o f a large ve s sel is most severely tried
p
A
I
rt .
the case of very sm all v e s s e l s the s t ern w a r d p o s i t i o n may be

n
convenient in many ways The disadvantage s above mentioned are less .
pronounce d be cause making short voyages they carry and consume little
, , ,
coal and any small alteration of the trim may be corrected i f necessary , ,
by the trimming tanks The circumstance that when running light the bow .
,
may be almost out o f the water and so when head seas are encountered , , ,
result in objectionable wave pounding action at the fore foot is in these - -

, ,
small vessels more than counterbalanced by the s uperior propelling

,
e fficiency and speed w hich follow from the thorough submersion of the
propeller and the small displacement Further their first cost and subse .
,
quent e ffi ciency is improved by the sternward position ; fo r with the ,
m ach i n e ry a m i dshi ps there would be one more bulkhead a long line of

'
, ,
Sha fting and a watertight tunnel ; the weight o f bull would be greater
, ,
reducing the carrying power and there would be t wo small holds instead ,
of one large one ( see Figs 1 and 2 P late I n a s mall ve s sel shortness .
, ,
in the holds may preclude her from carrying certain cargoes such as rails ,
8 PR A C TICA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . A
[ r t 228 .
and timber ; and it may cause broken stowage and additional expense and ,
loss of time in the frequ ent loading and discharging operations The stern .
ward po s ition is also advantageous a s regards the fixture o f the engine i n

the hull for owing to the narr o w V form of the ves s el s sections powerful
, , ,
-
’
,
engine seating may be constructed with a minimum weight of material I n .
o i l s t e a m e r s the sternward position is particularly s uitable for as any or ,
all of the oil t anks may be used for water ballast the trim and draught when , ,
light is capable of perfect adju s tment The avoidance of one machinery

,
.
bulkhead is here an important matter for a s noticed in Art 5 4 these , ,

.
,
must be built as co fferdam s A lso when there is a tunnel it mu s t b e .

, ,
strongly and carefully constructed s o as to secure ab s ol u te oil tightness ,

-
it must be shut off from the engine room and access pr ovided by oil tight ,
-
t runkways from the upper deck ; further mechanical ventilation must be ,
available as a precaution against the da ngerous consequence o f oil leakage

,
.
I n s ome early oil vessels the tunnel was built with a double s hell but this
was found to be unsuitable owing to the di fficulty of acces s to the confined ,
intermediate space and the accumulation within it of inflammable ga s

,
.
A r t 2 2 9 The a r r an ge m en t o f t h e m a c h i n e ry s p a c e varie s
. .
greatly in di fferent vessels particularly a s regards the b oilers and coal ,
bunkers I t depe nds on the character of the ve s se l whether a slow cargo

. ,
boat or a high speed passenger vessel the type of the engine and the number
-
, , ,
size and type of the boilers I n a cargo vessel it i s always endeavoured to

,
.
reduce the length of the machinery s pace by a compact arrangement o f the ,
engines and boilers for then o f course the cargo holds may be the more
, , ,
capacious but this again is o fte n e d governed by the question of tonnage

, ,
.
T here are two distinct types of b o i l e rs — s i n gl e e n d e d and d o u b l e -
e n d e d ( see Fig 8 P late Th e former has furnace doors at one end

.
,
only The latter is practically two s ingle ended b oiler s placed back to
.
-
back ; it has therefore furnaces at both ends and requires t w o s t o k e

, , ,
h o ld s ( in Figs 1 and 2 P late 2 8 and in P late 1 0 8 the boilers are double

.
, , ,
ended) I n mos t cargo vessels the b oilers are single ended ; for with
.
-
,
only o n e st o k e h o ld they permit of a short machinery space and simplify

, ,
the stoking operations ( P lates 1 0 9 and 1 The length of the stokehold ,
from boiler front to bulkhead m u st b e such as to permit of the b oiler tub es

-
—
,
being withdrawn 7 or 8 feet is usually s u fficient Single ended b oilers .

-
are always so disposed that the furnace doors and stokehold may be
forward There are several reasons for this I f the s tokehold were next the
. .
engine room space would be lost at the backs of the b oiler s because in
, , ,
order that the s e may be accessible and to prevent the heat from pas s ing too ,
readily into the cargo hold a passage ab out 2 feet wide would be required ,
between also an additional bulkhead would b e necessary to separate the

,
engine room from the stokehold When the stokehold i s at the forward .
'
end it i s contiguou s to the cross coal bunker for this i f required i s always , , ,
placed here ; if the cross b unker were between the engine and boilers it ,
would involve two additional bulkheads instead o f one and a tunnel ,
pas s ageway to the engine room The back s of the boilers form the .
forward bo u ndary of the engine room and to minimise their heating e ffect , , ,
and at the s ame time to keep back the coal dust a portable screen bulk ,
head o f sheet iron ( corrugated or plain) or o f wood is usually fitted close

against them I n very small steamers and yachts the stokehold is placed
.
next the engine and is not partitioned o ff for the stoking operations may
, ,
then be undertaken by the limited engine room staff -

.
I n small vessels there is usually one single ended boiler but of course -
, , ,
it may vary greatly in size and steam raising power ( P late A -
common size fo r a large boiler is a length o f about 1 0 to 1 1 feet and a ,

[Art 23 1 .
or not the bunkers may be replenished at intermediate ports I t also .
depends on the effi ciency of the machinery an old ve s sel with antiquated ,
engine and boilers may require fo r the same power 2 0 or 3 0 per cent
, , , .
more coal than a modern one I n new vessels however any small d i ffer .
, ,
ence in the e ffi ciency o f the machinery does not materially a ffect the
question o f bunker capacity I t also depends on the quality of the coal
—
.
a vessel using only inferior coal such as j apanese with it s 6 0 or 7 0 per ,
cent o f ash— would require larger bunkers than one u s ing only Wel sh coal
. .
A s the time occupied in any particular voyage may vary greatly a margin
—
,
—
of coal based on the most protracted voyage must b e carried I n large .
vessels of the liner class which are alway s on one ro u te the coal bunker
, ,
accommodation may b e adjusted to their requirements with an ample ,
margin for contingencie s I n vessels of the tramp cla ss which have no

.
,
fixed trade or route the coal required may vary with each voyage ; such
,
ve s sels must therefore have large bunker s or a s pace may be arranged

, , ,
a s a temporary or permanent re s erve b u nker i e in s u ch a way that it may ,

. .
b e used either for coal or cargo .
The arr an ge m en t o f t h e c o al b un k e r s varies greatly There are

—
.
two distin ct kinds of b u nkers side bunkers forme d by partitioning o ff the ,
vacant side space s in the hold an d tween decks alongside the engine and ’
b oilers ( P late 2 7) and c ro ss b u n k ers formed by pa rtitioning o ff a s mall ,
portion of the hold right across the ship ( s ee Fig s 1 and 2 P late 2 8 and .
, ,
P late As a permanent cross bunker reduce s the length of the cargo

holds it i s only adopted when the side bunkers alone are too small They
, .
are required in all ocean going high powered ve ss els and particularly i n
-
,
-
,
those carrying pa s sengers where the side tween deck s pace s amid s hip s
,
’
-
,
ordinarily u s ed for coal are appropriated for pa ss enger accommodation

, .
I n slow going cargo ves s els o f moderate s ize the side bunkers alone may
-
be so large a s to provide space on ordinary voyages for a su fficient s upply , ,
of coal The capacity of the lower side bunker s depend s of course on the
.
, ,
ves s el s beam and the n u mber and size of the boiler s ; in some ves s el s there
’
may b e a large s pace and in other s none at all A s u s ually arranged .

,
there i s room for a bunker alongside both the b oilers and engine but , ,
in way of the latter it may only b e on one s ide and only for part o f the
, ,
length s o a s to give acce ss to the variou s sea cock s on the ve s sel s side ’
and afford space for auxiliary machinery—pu mps dynamos etc I n many
, ,
, , .
cases however although there is room for a bunker along s ide of the engine
, ,
and boilers it is preferred to leave an open s pace s o that the ca pacity of

, ,
the engine and boiler room may b e su ch as to allo w of the maximum

ton nage deduction for propelling power E xcept in pa s senger vessels .
,
the tween deck space s alongside of the machinery ca s ings are always
’
-
appropriated for coal and in many ca s es coal i s carried on the upper deck
, ,
in the bridge house .
I n each side bunker bulkhead there is a s mall coal door ( Fig 2 .

,
P late 7 0 and P late 1 0 9) opening into the s tokehold

,
A s the lower bunkers .
are emptied they are replenished from the upper the coal falling ,
automatically or being trimmed by hand through small coal i ng holes

, ,
provided in the deck ( Fig 6 P late 2 7 Fig 1 P late 2 9 and Fig 4 P late
.
, , .
, , .
,
I n the absence of lower side bunkers the coal in the tween deck bunkers is
’
-
,
conveyed to the s tokehold by means of p o c k e t b u n k er s The s e may be .
de s cribed a s the end portions of a lower side bunker for althou gh there ,
may be no space for a bunker alongside of the boiler s there is at the side ,
o f the stokehold where quite clear o f the boilers

, A pocket bunker is thu s .
a conduit fo r pa s sing coal from the tween deck bunkers to the stokehold ’
-
.
O ften however they are of fair size and in cross channel or river steamers
, , ,
-
,
Ar t 23 3 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . 11
making short run s one at the side of each stokehold may hold all the
,
necessary coal A communicating passag e is required b etween the engine

.
room and the for ward stokehold with single ended boilers it i s contiguous -
to the ship s side ( Fig 4 P late 2 7) with two double ended b oilers the
’
.
,
-
,
t w o stokeholds may communicate by a pa s sage between the boilers .
A lthough there may be no space for a side bunker directly along s ide the
b oiler there u s ually is above in which case its bottom is formed by a wide
, ,
side stringer plate and its side by a sloping casing overhanging the boiler
,
( see Fig 3 P late. W hen

, there i s a coal bunker at the side of the
engine room it is usually wider than that alongside the boiler s I ts coal
, .
is directly available fo r the after stokehold by a door in its forward end ; -
if there i s only a forward stokehold the coal mu s t b e transported along ,
the passage in wheel barrows I n large ves s els where the b u nkers are -
.
,
exten s ive an immense amount o f manual labour i s expended in trimming

,
and conveying the coal from far lying point s to the s tokeholds -
.
A r t 2 3 2 I n w a r s h i p s the coal is all carried in s i d e b u n k e r s

. .
,
for when so placed it is an important means of defence against gunfire and

shell explosion this characteristic being developed to the fullest extent
,
by extending the bunkers from well above the waterline right down to the
bilge so that the machinery space is surrounded by a c on t i n u o us w all
,
o f c o a l ( P late Th e retaining bulkhead is watertight so as to form a ,
complete inner skin and numerou s watertight divisional bulkheads are ,
introduced so that should a shot penetrate the side and be brou ght up by
,
the coal the e ff ect on the vessel s flotation would be s mall Below water
,
’
.
the bunkers may be comparatively narrow but ab ove where more expo s ed , ,
to gunfire they may occupy the greater part of the tween deck s pace I n ’
-
case water should follow a shot through the tween —

.
,
deck bunkers the ’

,
machine ry casings are also made watertight and to admit of holes in them ,
and in the side bunker bulkhea ds being readily plugged up t qf er a a ms are ,

’
introduced These may be described as high external coaming s forming

.
,
with the bulkh ead or casing a sort of trough into which and over the hole , , ,
so ft leak stopping material may be forced

-
.
A r t 2 3 3 I n merchant ves s els when additional coal space is required

. .
, ,
c r o s s b u n k e r s are provided ; if the b oilers are s ingle ended one only at -

, ,
the forward end next the stokehold ; if double ended another usually a
‘
-
, , ,
smaller one may be introduced between the engine room and after stoke
,
hold having a tu nnel or passa geway to the engi ne room Wi th a

,
.
permanent forward cross bunker there are two bulkheads between the
boiler room and the hold and a s only one of the s e need be watertight the , ,
question arises which should it be ? A s regards the e ffi ciency of the bulk

,
head i t is better that it should be the forward one for if it is the other the
, , ,
coaling doors into the stokehold must b e watertight and as not iced in , ,
A rt 4 1 3 while watertight doors are always undesirable they are part i cularly
.
, ,
so in a bunker bulkhead By making the forward bulkhead the watert i ght .
one not only are watertight doors dispensed with but the other b u l khead
, ,
may be incomplete so that the side bunkers may commun i cate Wi th the
cross Nevertheles s unless the cross bunker is small its after bulkhead i s
.
, ,
usually made the wate rtight one for being then entirely shut off from the
boiler room it may b e used as required for either coal or cargo When
, ,
.
,
“
so designed it is termed a r e s erv e b u n k er ”
I n tramp Cargo ve ss el s .
the cro s s bun ker is formed in a temporary fashion by erect i ng a wo oden

O
‘
partition acros s the fore hold ( and if neces sary in the tween deck s as , ,
’
well) in s uch po s ition fore and aft as will cut o ff su fficient space between
,
it and the stokehold bulkhead for the required coal the shipment of whi ch ,
is provided for by a s pecial hatchway ( P late A wood b u lkhead i s ,

[Ar t 23 3
.
of course undesirable fo r a coal bunker for should the coal take fire
, ,
spontaneously the co nflagra ti o n might not be confined but spreadi ng

, , ,
throug h the cargo hold might have disastrous results When a ve s sel ,
. ,
having a permanent cross bunker has to make a long voyage without ,
recoaling a portion o f the fore hold in front of the p e r m a n e n t c r o s s

,
b u n k e r is sometimes partitioned o ff as a t e m p o r a ry b u n k e r ( see Fig 2 .

,
P late Th e coal it contains is used during the outward ru n so that ,
on the homeward passage it may be again thrown into the hold and used
for cargo ; and in order that on the outward passage the coal may b e , ,
conveyed to the stokehold through the full permanent one ( reserved fo r

the passage home) a tunnel is built through the latter This must o f, .
,
course be provided with a watertight door and if placed at the end remote
, ,
from the watertight bulkhead the tunnel must be watertight ,

.
Sometimes the for w a r d c r o s s b u n k e r is designed fo r the threefold

purpose o f a bunker a s m all c a r go h old and a w a t e r b all a s t t a n k
, ,
- .
When so arran ged watertight hatchways must be provided and a centre

, ,
line wash bulkhead A n d the watertight doors in the stokehold bulkhead

,
.
must be of a particularly effi cient design for as it may b e their duty to ,
withstand a high pressure of water they must be ab s olutely watertight ,
a per fection not usually attained in ordinary watertight doors This .
difficulty may be avoided however by bolting portable plates to the bulk , ,
head in front o f the doors on the occasions when water ballast is carried , .
I n large cross bunkers a central fore and a ft bulkhead is sometime s fitted - -

,
in order to minimize the chance of the coal shifting with perhap s dangerous , , ,
consequences to the men engaged in trimming it Large openings may be .
provided in its lower part so that should one side of the bunker be empty ,
‘
before the other the coal may be trimmed athwartship, .
A r t 2 3 4 Fast A t l a n t i c li n e r s may burn as much a s 5 0 0 or 6 0 0

. .
tons of coal per day ; their b u n k e r s must therefore be large capable , , ,
o f holding from
4 0 0 0 to 5 0 0 0 tons A s all the tween deck space s are 1 ’
-
.
here appropriated fo r passengers large lower cross bunker s are es s ential ,
( Figs 1 and 2 P late

. There i s one between each group of boilers ;
,
or if there are no side bunkers one for each s tokehold Each transverse
, , .
ro w of b oilers is usually place d in a distinct watertight compartment s o

,
that one bulkhead of each intermediate cross bunker mu s t b e watertight ,
and have watertight coal doors To av oi d the s e very undesirable doors .

_ ,
t e / a te rti ght bulkhead is sometimes placed in the mid dle of the bunker
h w ,
d i vi d i ng it in two so that the one half may s erve the stokehold before it
,
and the other the one aba ft it This is also advantageous in that s hould .
one of the boiler rooms be accidentally flooded the adjacent one would ,
sti ll have it s full supply of coal I t is usual to provide a tunnel passageway .
through each bunker so that there may be free communication between ,
the engi ne room and the various stokeholds and o f course where water
.
, ,
t i ght bulkheads are traversed watertight door s are fitted ( Fig This , .
i s a convenience fo r the engine room s ta ff it is not essential however and -

; , ,
i s u desirable because it greatly increase s the possibilit of disaster by
n y
colli s i on ( see A rt The obj ection may b e well met however by
.
, ,
lo oki n g all wat ertight doors when at s ea or in foggy or thick weather
; ,
i n harb ur they may be opened to s ecure the convenience o f through
o
commun i cation during the usual overhaul and repair work .
A r t 23 5 To fi ll t h e b u n k e r s small coaling hatchways are provided

. .
,
0
i n the var i ou s deck s The coal falling from above natu rally accumula t e s
.
, ,
Th H mbu g Am i
e a li D ut nl d
r -
f th f t t v
er can l th n er e sc an o ne o e as es e sse s on e
,
Atl ti an bu c,
v l d y wh
rn s o n a n a
g 5 72 t f p t mi m
e ra
g 2 3 36 k
e t d o ns o co a er a en s ea no s an
h asbu k r n
p i ty f 482 t
e ca ac f l or 0 ons o co a .
[Ar t 23 5 .
operation A t their termination on the upper deck they are provided with
.
flush cast iron cover s ( Fig 5 P late

- closed with a bayonet joint and .
, ,
made watertight with rubber packing G rating covers are also provided . ,
which when s ubstituted in fine weather s erve to ventilate the coal bunkers
, , ,
and when the top is removed to light and ventilate the alleyways of the
, ,
pa s senger accommodation ; if a current o f air i s desired cowl ventilators ,
may be fixed in some of the holes The grating cover lie s flush with the .
d eck but when turned u pside down it may be s towed under the solid one
,
.
A s noticed belo w in modern vessels s ide coaling ports have almost ,
entirely taken the place of these deck scuttles for with the former coaling , , ,
operations are accompli s hed without inconvenience to the pa s sengers .
C oaling hatchway s o ften require to be ca yea in or tr unked s o that the coal

’
,
may pa s s down to the bunker s without evidence in the upper tween deck ’
-
pa ss enger or cargo s pace s .
Ar t 2 3 6 I n many ve s sel s there is a large gan gw a y d o o r in the s ide

. .
of the bridge deck through which the coal may be carried or run on b oard
,
in wheelbarrows to a conti gu ous coaling hatchway on the upper deck

,
( Fig s 7 and
. 8 P late 2 6 and Figs 2 and 4,
P late I n large modern , .
,
pa s senger ves s els n umerous s mall s i d e c o a li n g p or t s ab out 2 0 inches

s qu are are cut in the shell plating in way of the tween —
,
,
deck bunkers ( Fig ’
.
3 P late
,
They should not b e s o low down as to be s ubmerged for , ,
a s they may be opened at frequent intervals and closed with varying ,
degree s of care a considerable risk might attach the security of the s hip
,
wo uld be too much dependent on irre s pon s ible individual s The po rt s are
1
.
hinged and are s ecured in sub s tantial fashion u s ually by tap bolts i nserted
, , ,
and hove up from the outside watertightnes s b eing secured by soft packing ,
.
They may be hinged sideways upwards or downward s the la s t method is , ,
advantageou s in that by fixing side flaps to the door it form s when open , , , ,
a natu ral s hoot or s coop into which the basket s of coal may b e emptied ,
( g
F i . W hen coaling through these ports a s tage i s hung just below ,
them A s the coal accum u lates on the lower deck in front of the coaling
.
port s it m us t be trimmed away by hand and t hrown into the lower bunker
, ,
through a contiguou s coal hole This may b e avoided however by .

, ,
providing a s mall coal hole in the deck immediately in front of each port
( Fig . Fig 6 s hows an arrangement adopted in large passenger vessels
.
it will b e ob s erved that to admit of the lower bunker b eing filled or ,
replenished while the tween deck bunker is s till full ( or where this space ’
-
may b e devoted to pa ss engers ) a trunk or casing i s built in the s ide of , ,
which there i s an opening with a flap which may be hinged into the trunk ,
s o a s to deflect the coal when required i nto the t ween decks ’

.
A rt 2 3 6 A Th e u s e of petroleum a s fu el in s teamers although far from

. .
,
general i s now becoming fairly common in the ca s e of ve s sels carrying

,
bulk oil and tho s e trading to ports where the oil is produced and where
, ,
it may b e procu red cheaply I n ve s sels intended to burn liquid fuel .
exclu s ively there need of cour s e be no coal bunkers their place b eing
, , , ,
taken by oil tanks To economize space the double b ottom in the .

,
mach i nery s pace and the peak tank s are commonly u s ed for storing the
.
o i l ; otherwi s e tanks may b e built at the sides of the machinery space the
, ,
Si de bunk er b ul kheads being strongly con s tructed and m ade oil tight
-
or -
self contained tanks may be fitted in the tween decks or b ridge When
- ’
.
the double bottom tanks are used for carrying the oil they must b e
-
,
spec i ally constructed so as to ensur e ab s olute oil tightness Lloyd s rules in -

’
th i s respect are as follows —they require the seams of the tank top plating
, .
Th Au t l w e u k i h b u th r ugh th w t t i g th li g
‘
s ra as s n n ar o r o e o e n co a n
p e a e r en e r n
p t
o r s as th v l t k li t e e ss e oo a s .
Ar t 23 6 A ]
to be double riveted and the rivets to be spaced 3 diameters apart instead

, ,
of the usual 4 diameters the spacing of the rivets in the shell landings to
be reduced by the addition of two rivet s between the frames and the rivets ,
connecting the frames and reverse frames to the s hell and tank top plating -
to be spaced 6 diameters apart in place of the usual 7 diameters The

,
.
tanks must b e tested with a head of water 1 2 feet above the load waterline ,
instead of a z this level as with ordinary double bottom tanks Ceiling

‘
,
-
.
planking over oil tanks must be laid on grounds at lea s t 2 inches thick ,
to en s ure oil leakage— i f any—flo wing to the side gu tters without

saturating the planks or a ffecting the cargo The supporting bearers etc
.
, .
,
for the stokehold plates must not be of wood for when saturated with
, ,
oil they would emit dangerous vapour and might take fire The pipe s
, .
and valves used for pumping the oil tanks must be distinct from those u sed
fo r pumping the bilges or p umping and flooding the water ballast tanks -
,
other wise oily water might gain access to the latter places with danger of ,
explosion through the accumulation of oil vapour All air pipe s to the oil
.
tanks mu s t extend to the weather deck and be permanently open O i l fuel

, .
-
tanks in the boiler space must be insulated against the passage o f heat
from the boiler s The flash point of oil used for fuel must not b e less
.
”
than 1 5 0 degrees Fahr oil having a lower flash point being t oo apt to give
.
,
o ff inflammable vapour .
[Ar t . 23 7
C H A P TER XVI I I .
Ar t 2 3 7
. order that the en gi n e may run steadily and smoothly with a
. In ,
minimum of vibration it must be firmly b olted to a solid foundation The , .
foundation of a land engine i s a solid block o f concrete ; when securely

bolted throu gh this the engine and block become one inert mas s perfectly
, ,
steady as a whole and incapable of transmitting elsewhere internal ,
vibratory e ffect s I n a ship the fo u n d a t i o n o r s e a t i n g is a tabular

.
, ,
s tructure of plates and bars in the design of which it s hould b e studied to ,
secure something of the rigid substantiality of a block of concrete Were it .
so slender and flexible as to admit of relative movement or straining in its

parts the s ide s waying of the engine as the vessel rolled and the vibratory
, ,
effects of it s heavy oscillating parts would s ooner or later result in a break ,
down Further the b olts holding the engine to it s seating— the fieldi ng-down
dolls —would not act together some more strained than others might give
.
,
, , ,
way loo s en the contiguou s riveting of the seating or cause fracture of the
, ,
cast iron bed plate o f the engi ne immediately clamped by them E ven
- -
.
though the s eating be massive and strong all engines when in rapid move ,
ment are liable to vibrate an e ffect which become s transmitted through the ,
s tructu re of the hull I n thi s re s pect a s hip re s emble s a flexible wand

.
in which vibration s though s mall near their origin may become exces s ive
, ,
elsewhere 1
.
To reduce them their fir s t cau s e the engine should b e s o designed a s

, , ,
to run with the lea s t vibratory tendency and the hull immediately 2
,
contiguou s thereto s hould be s o ma s sively con s tru cted a s to check their

formation at the outset No t only s hould the engine seating be massive .
and s trong in itself but the contigu ou s hull a s well ; and in practice this
,
is ob s erved by increasing the strength of the bottom and s ide framework

in the machinery space .
An engine s eat may b e de s cribed in a general way as a thick , ,
horizontal plate s upported and sti ffened by vertical bearer plate s disposed
, ,
b oth athwartship and fore and aft the whole forming a rigid tabular - -
,
structure ( see Fig s 6 7 and 1 1 P late 2 8 and Fig 8 P late .

, , I t is , , .
,
e s sential that the bearer s should b e interwoven for if all were parallel their , ,
freedom to trip would permit of the whole seating s training from s ide to
s ide or fore and aft The cau s es conducing to thi s result may b e very
, .
commanding for as the s hip rolls and pitches the lofty engine with its
, , ,
heavy elevated cylinders swaying in unison is only held in place by its bolt , ,
attachment to the top o f the seating ; al s o a continuous rocking and ,
Th t d t up v i b t y m v m t f th hul l d p
1
y f th
e gi
en t e nc o e en ne d mu h
o se ra o r o e en o e e en s c
it f d ft p i ti
o re-a n; if m v d mp ti ly m ll d i t f rw d ft i t
on s -a os on o s s an c e or
e a co ara ve a o ar a ,
m yb g
a t ly i
e d re a
g t ly l d
n cre a se F m i t u tiv p p
or re a th i ubj t
essen e . o r so e ns r c e a e rs o n s s ec ,
th f M O tt S h l i k
'
se e o se o d th
r. i th l t
o tc tic f th I
, ant l ut o e rs, n e a er ra n sa c ons o e ns z z on
f N lA / t l
'
o av a r e z z ee s .
Th p b l m f du i g th vib ti l lv
2
e ro e o f re
g i pp c n t b m t e d b yra on o an e n ne a e a rs o e a os so e
th e Y m w S /l k Tw dy
a
'
o
y m f
- e z ze
t b l '
i -
g th m v i
ee g p r t
”
S E
s s e g m g o a an c n e o n a s. ee n
'
z ne
'
n
fo r De c . 1 7, 1 8 9 7 .
[
A rt 23 8.
s lender and flexible shaft But be s ides these afloat s tre ss es there are the . ,
more s evere ones experienced by ordinary grounding ca sualt i e s and i n ,
order that when the s e occur the bottom s tructure below the engine may
not be readily s et up and thus damage the engine and involve co s tly repa i rs ,
an ample margin of strength i s evidently very desirable at thi s part When .
the floors are increased in height from bilge to bilge they may be made of ,
a single deep plate or a top portion may be added to the ordinary shallow
,
floor H oles are cut in them through which to pa ss the keelsons ( Fig
.
.
or the latter may give place to intercostal plates care be i ng taken to scarph ,
the various parts so that there may be no serious discontin uities i n the
,
longitudinal sti ffness and s trength A ccess should of cour s e be provided .

, ,
to eve ry part o f the s eating by manhole s in the deep floor s and intercostal ,
plates .
The lower part of the en gi n e itself the b e d p l a t e is a massive casting ,

-
,
h aving a flange to take the h o ld i n g d o w n b olt s ( Figs 3 and 4 P late -

.
,
The latter are usually spaced about 2 0 inches apart they pass through the
thick top plating of the seat and in order that thi s may have a maximum ,
o f rigidity against their upward pull the bearer plates below should be ,
placed clo s e to them The b olts are u s ually fitted just clear of the bearer .
angles to avoid fouling the riveting and to secure a flat surface for the
,
b olt heads The top plating of the seating varies in thicknes s from ab out
.
3 inch in s mall ves s el s to 1 5 inch in the large s t the vertical bearer

plates are usually some 2 5 per cent thinner The connectin g angles are . .
al s o of large size and thickness they are usually doubled throughout but ,
where there i s insufficient space to fit and rivet them a single large one is ,
sub s tituted .
A rt 2 3 9 I n a ves s el having a c e ll u l ar d o u b l e b o tt o m the en gi n e

. .
,
may sit directly on the tank top ( Fig 1 P late 3 1 and P lates 1 0 8 or a .
, , ,
distinct s e a t i n g may be interposed ( P late I n ordinary cargo vessels

the latter plan is u sually adopted but in high class high powered vessel s the ,
-
,
-
former is preferred for it is more e ffi cient in many respect s Whichever

,
.
plan is adopted the strength of the tank framework i s increased ; the floors
, ,
if elsewhere on alternate frame s are here placed on every one or if el s e ,
where o n every frame the necessary increase in strength i s s ecured by ,
fitting additional intercostals ( Art Th e reverse frame s are doubled .

,
and if the tank top is thickened to form the seating their scantlings are ,
increased The thickness of the floors i s also increa sed—i f the engine sits
.
on the tank top very considerably perhaps 2 5 per cent but if a distinct
, , .
,
seating is interposed by little or nothin g I f the engine sits on the tank, .
top the short vertical angles connecting the floors and intercostal s also
, ,
those on the top edges of the latter are often doubled and in some cases , ,
the frame angles as well the actual arrangement depe nding on the power ,
and weight of the engine .
When a distinct seating is interpo s ed the con s truction is a s imple ,
matter ( see Fig 8 P late I t usually takes the form of two massive
.
,
box girders one on either side o f the centre line each compo s ed of two
, ,
fore and aft bearer plate s connected by a thick covering plate and ha ving
- -
, ,
internal cross diaphragms and external bracket plates to hold them erect
and sti ffen and support the thick top plating The tank top plating is .
-
here only thickened by ab out inch

Wh en t h e e n gi n e si t s u p o n t h e t a n k t o p the latter is of course
.
, , ,
made specially thick to take the bolting from inch in small cargo ,
boats to 1 7; inch in the largest high powered steamers The thick

1 -
.
plating is only fitted locally under the engine but may extend aft to take , ,
the thrus t block I n a twin screw steamer it may cover the entire tan k top
-
.
-
,
Ar t 23 9]
an d even extend b eyond the margin plate I t may be worked edge to .

-
edge i n and out or it may be j oggled When edge to edge the butt straps
,
- -
, .
- -
,
and edge strips may b e placed either above or below ; when ab ove the ,
cons tructive work is easier and th e caulking more reliable but care mu s t be ,
taken that the holding d own bolts do not foul the caulked edges of the -
straps when below the strips may b e fitted either in short lengths between
,
the reverse bar s or continuously but the latter method unle s s the reverse bars , ,
are j oggled under the strips involves thick liner s and much heavy three ,
ply riveting When worked i n and out the rever s e bars s hould be joggled
.
- -
,
to avoid thick liners and three ply riveting The end joints of the thick -
.
plating are double riveted and the edges except tho s e of the centre s trake , , ,
single ; but in large ves s els all j oint s are double riveted A s the engine .
bed plate doe s not sit in actual contact with the tank top plating ( or sole
- -
plate of an ordinary seating ) a perfectly flush s u rface is unnece s sary ,

.
When bolting the engine in place it must be so adju s ted that the crank ,
shaft within it may be in line with the distant s tern tube already per ,
man en tly fixed To provide therefore for vertical adj ustment the bed
.
, , ,
plate is so designed that when in its proper place it may b e from 2 to 3 , ,
inches clear of the tank top teak wood wedges ( with or without supple ,
-
mentary iron block s) being driven tightly in the vacant space between the ,
holding down bolts ( s ee Figs 2 and 3 P late

-
Th e latter vary in size .
,
from to 2 3 inches but o f course much depends on their number I n

1
, , , ,
.
order that the pull of individual bolts may not cause excessive local s tress
on the contiguous riveting of the tank top plating it is evident that the -
,
latter should be thick that the bolt s should be closely spaced and that the
, ,
fillings inserted between the tank top and the bed plate should be close to -
the bolts ; al s o that the bol ts should be hove up and maintained at a

,
un i form tightness for it is not uncommon through some of them working

, ,
slack ( it may be thr ough long continued racing of the engine) for the -
,
rivetin g of the tank top plating contigu ou s to the tight one s to loo s en
-
, ,
under the undue stre s s .
With a double bottom of the us u al depth the li ne of s hafting unles s it , ,
drooped very considerably ( a circumstance which would prej udice the

e fli c i e n c y of the prope ller wo u d in a large vessel be so high ab ove it a s
) l , , ,
to involve a very deep ca s t iron bed plate ( P late 1 To avoid this there
- -
,
fore i t i s common to i n c r e a s e t h e h e i gh t o f t h e t an k i n t h e en gi n e
,
r o o m and at the same time i ncline the ta nk top fore and a ft s o that being
, , ,
parallel and close to the shaft it may permit of a s hallow square engine , , ,
bed plate ( Fig 1 P late 2 8 and P late

-
.
,
Thi s i s also advantageous in ,
that the greater depth of the tan k floor s gives superior s trength to the
ves s el s b ottom a more rigid foundation fo r the engine and a more
’
, ,
capacious ballast tank Th e greater height need only be local s uffi cient. ,
merely to ta ke the bed plate and thrus t block ; the tank top may s lope -
downward s at either side but it is usually carried level from b ilge to bilge ,
.
I n large ve ss el s the depth of the engine room tank when rai s ed in thi s way -
may be very great in some mode rn A tlantic liners it exceed s 9 feet ; and
in such ca s es the deep floors must be additionally supported between the
lo n gi tudin als by sti ffening bar s or by fore and aft keelson like tie bars
,
- - -
,
piercing them at mid depth There should be numerou s intercostal plate s

-
. ,
but as their chief purpose is to sti ffen the top plating against the pull of the
—
holding down bolts they need not all i n those deep tanks extend to the
-
,
—
shell I t should be noticed that the flange system of c onn ec ti on i s n o t
. ,
applicable for the bottom framework in the machinery space fo r i t is

.
insuffi ciently rigid and a do uble connection is generally required

,
.
With a b u ilt up s eating the h o ld i n g d o w n b olt s are ordinary s quare

- -
S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 23 9
0 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
or hexagonal headed bolts ( Fig 3 P late - They are inserted from .

,
below and where a bolt head may foul a bearer plate part of it may b e
, ,
cut off When they pa s s through tank top plating they are formed as
.
-
s tud s s o a s to s ecure perfect and permanent watertightness ( Fi g

,
They .
are s crewed through the tank top plating and to prevent them from -
, ,
backi ng o u t and to relieve the thread a lock nut is screwed on the po i nt

, ,
below a s oft gr omet being interposed a s a further precauti on aga i nst

,
leakage Where nuts cannot be placed below the s tuds may be sl i ghtly
.
,
tapered s o a s to j am tightly in the holes a flat lock nut and gromet be i ng

, ,
placed above bet ween the engine bed plate and the ta nk top All such
,
-
.
bolt holes are drilled and tapped before the engine is put on b oard the i r ,
position being accurately transferred by template from the bed plate The -
.
holes should be arranged to clear the joints of the tank top plating and the -
reverse frame and intercostal angles below otherwise they w ould prejudice ,
the caulking cut up the riveting and the lock nuts might not get a fai r
, ,
bed I n special cases to s ecure a more rigid holding e ffect or where the
.
, ,
bolts would necessarily foul the reverse bar s the s e are made extra wide , ,
and their rivets specially arranged to clear the bolts .
Art 2 4 0 With a continuous double bottom of M c I n t yre t yp e a

. .
,
distinct e n gi n e s e a t is introduced H ere the bearers are placed athwart .
s hips so as to traverse several of the tank girders The latter having but
, .
,
a meagre attachment to the floors and being free to trip are alone i n cap , ,
able of rigidly supporting the engine seat and so numerous diaphragm plate s ,
are fitted between them which forming extensions of the floors s ec u re , , ,
their thorough incorporation with the seating above I t is seldom how .

,
ever that a Mc I n tyre tan k is carried through the machine ry s pace

, .
A r t 2 4 1 The th r u s t o f t h e p r o e lle r in forcing the ship ahead or

. .
p ,
astern tend s to push the s haft on end No w the crank shaft of the engine
,
-
.
,
-
,
revolving in simple bearings mu s t feel none of this thrust and s o to take , , ,
it up and convey it to the hull a cast iron t h ru s t bl o c k is introduced ,

- -
,
just abaft the engine ( P lates 1 0 8 to I n order that the shaft may
tran s mit it s thru s t to the block a number of projecting collars are forged ,
upon it ( see Fig 7 P late these fit between corresponding collars

.
,
( termed name Moe colla r s ) in the thrust bl ock which in order that
- ”
-
, ,
tho s e on the s haft may take the same pre s sure are each one made a s a ,
s eparate part s o as to admit of individual fore and aft adju s tment I n - - .
order that the thrust block may perfectly resi s t the pu s h of the s haft and
-
convey it to the hull without causing local straining it must evidently have , , ,
a s ubsta ntial s eating and be well bolted thereto ( Fig 9 P late Th e .

,
thrust is not always a steady force for in heavy weather when the pro , ,
peller i s altern ately li fted out of the water and deeply s ubmerged it may ,
one moment be zero and the next very gre at The exce ss ive thru s t i s
, .
due to the engine having raced or acquired a high velocity when the pro
pel l er was out of the water s o that when again s uddenly s ub merged the , , ,
rap i dly revolving propeller does for the moment abnormally great pro , ,
pelling work .
When the t h r u s t blo c k sits on a fo u n d a t i on well below the level o f the

-
,
shaft the thrusting e ffect acting at its upper part tends to topple it forward
, , , ,
and by C reating a li fting stre ss on the aftermost bolts s train them and the
,
,
C ont i gu ous
.
riveting o f the seating A s r egards the thrust block and its .

-
bolt ng thi s tendency becomes less and less the nearer the foundation is
i ,
ra sed to the axis o f the sha ft if level there with it would disappear ; the
i
,
bolts would then su ffer only a fore and aft shearing stress o f which they - -
,
are rel eved by projecting locking pieces fitted on the top of the seating in
i
,
cont ct Wi th each end o f the b lock With a View there fore to secu ring
a
.
, ,
222 P RA C TI CAL S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 24 1 .
to form the top of the s eating Lightening holes are punched in the bearer .
plates to give access for the riveting and bolting

,
.
“
A r t 2 4 2 The shaft is supported by bearings termed
. . p l umm e r ,
b l o c k s at intervals o f 1 2 to 2 0 feet according as its diameter is small or

‘
, ,
great ( P lates 1 0 8 to Th e blocks are bolted to seatings termed the

“
s h a ft or t u n n e l s t o o ls ( Fig 7 P late
“ ”
They not only support ”
.
,
the weight of the sha ft but hold it against any tendency to bend sideways
,
under the longitudinal thrust ; as this however is a force of no great , ,
magnitude the seatings need not be so massive or extensive a s that just

,
described for the thrust block I n s mall ve s sels two cross bearers and a
-
.
,
top plate may su ffi ce all being connected to one side of the tu nnel ; in
,
larger an inner fore and aft bearer is added the stool then forming a box
,
- -
, ,
access to which is provided by lightening hole s ( Fig 1 2 P late H oles .

,
are u s ually punched in the athwart s hip bearers through which b ilge and ,
ballast su ction pipes may be led I n vessel s not having a double b ottom .
,
the bottom of the tunnel is raised some feet ab ove the floors and keel s on by
athwartship bearer plates arranged in pairs under each s tool s o that the latter
, ,
may have a direct s upport from the ve s sel s floors ( Fig s 3 and 4 P late ’
.
,
The foregoing description of the thrust and plummer block seati ngs -
re fers more particularly to single screw ve s sels I n twin screws the same .
considerations apply but in the case of some of the after b earings which
, ,
sit upon the s helving side or bossed portion of the hull ( Fig 3 P late .
,
special strength and s ti ffnes s must be s ecured by web frame s and deep
floors with which the foundation plates of the s eating are incorporated
,
( Fig .
5 P late
,
T he furthest aft block which i s quite within the b o s sing , ,
may be bolted direct to the ve ss el s frames these being doubled in ’
way of it .
A r t 2 4 3 The shaft m us t ha ve a b earin g close to the propeller w here

. .
,
it pa s se s through the sternpost This is a very important bearing for not .

,
only mus t it s ustain the weight of the propeller ( which may be anything up
to about 9 tons this being the weight of a propeller 1 7 feet 6 inches in
,
diameter having deta chable steel bla des) but hold it against s ide shock s
, ,
due to sudden immersion when revolving at immen s e velocity blow s from ,
the waves ( sufli c ie n t sometimes to break the blades ) and the centrifugal ,
force that may be brou ght about by the loss of one or more blade s I t must .
,
moreover b e a bearing of peculiar e ffi ciency for at sea it is inaccessible fo r

, ,
examination l ubrication and adjustment These conditions are s atisfied

, , .
by fixing in the hull a ca s t iron tu be termed the s h a ft o r s t e rn t u b e

-
, ,
which forms a s ort of sleeve for the shaft ( see Figs 8 1 1 1 2 P late I ts .
, , ,
outer end is turned to fit accurately in the hole bored in the bo s sed po rtion
of the sternpo s t ; it proj ects a fe w inches beyond and a large flat n ut is ,
hove up on the outside a s crew thr ead being worked on the tub e for the
,
purpose The inner end i s connected by a flange to the peak bulkhead

.
,
which is locally doubled or increased in thickne ss .
I n the tube shown in Fig 1 1 P late 2 9 the s haft does not bear through .
, ,
out the length o f the tube but only at its ends at which there is fixed , ,
w ithin the tube a bu s h or j ou rnal of b rass The after bush is much longer .
than the other and is provided with fore and a ft s lots in which are fixed
,
- -
,
strips of lignum vit ae ( Fi g th e latter project beyond the brass and

.
,
alone take contact with the shaft upon which there is shru nk a bra s s liner , .
I n ordinary cargo vessel s slots are not provided fo r the lignum vit ae strips
( there are only two for locking purposes) for like the stones of an a rch
, , , ,
they hold themselves in place ( Fig The lower strips which take the .
,
weight o f the shaft are so cut that the grain lies radially A s the sha ft
, .
does not fit tigh tly and as there are channels between the strips the sea
, ,
Ar t 244 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G . 22 3
water is free to enter the tube and is only arrested by a stu ffi ng box ,
fitted at it s forward end acce ss ible from the tu nnel The water keep s the , .
sha ft cool against the heating tendency of friction and for the lignum vit ae
a wood of a hard and oily nature— is the best lubricant
, ,
So long as sand .
does not gain access to the tube the strips may endure for years in ca se ,
o f stranding however the mud and sand stirred up by the propeller may
, ,
cause rapid attrition of the wood ; in which event a s the shaft would begin ,
to bear upon the brass it may b e necessary to dock the vessel withdraw , ,
the tail shaft and fit new strip s Sometimes instead of lignum vitae
, .
, ,
white m eta l or cast iron bushing is used ; fo r coasting ves s el s navi

-
,
gating muddy waters thi s is found to have greater endurance and thi s
, ,
with no lubricant but the water I n some ca s es however the tube is filled .
, ,
with grea s e or tallow which may be forced in a s required from the tunnel
, .
The ordinary bearings in the tunnel are lubricated with grease but as they ,
constantly tend to heat provision is made for playing water u pon them by , ,
leading a pipe along the tunnel ( e i ther from the stern tu be or from a sea
cock in the engine room) having a cock over each one , .
I t i s important that the s h a ft t u b e should b e fixed with ab s olute

rigidity in the hull for should it loosen under the v i b r a t i n g an d j a rr i ng
, ,
e ff e c t o f t h e p r o p el le r the result might be serio us Much depend s on , .
the accuracy of its fit in the stern post and then again upon the rigidity o f ,
the post itsel f and of the adjoining hull with which it is incorporated I n
,
.
practice the required condition s are secured by giving massiveness to the

post by increasing the thickness of the contigu ou s shell plating holding it
, ,
and by uniting the sides of the hull ab ove and below the tu be by deep floor
plates I n twi n screw ve ss els where the tube may be long its inertia a s a
.
-
, ,
bearing is improved by s upporting it at one or more intermediate point s by

the floor s it t ravers e s ( Fig 7 P late these may be do u bled and accurately
.
,
bored to receive it or with some clearance in which case contact i s s ecured

, ,
by driving iron wedge s alongside the tube I n modern cargo vessels the .
le n gth o f t h e t u b e is us ua lly reduced to s ome 6 or 7 feet ( or ab out 5 0 per

cent o f what was formerly common ) in order that the shaft within it may
.
,
b e so short a s to permit of its bein g entirely covered with a single bra ss

liner ( Fig 8 P late .
,
and thus avoid the corrosive e ffect s noticed in Art .
458 and fo r this purpose the after peak bulkhead is either placed clo s e to -
the stern frame or a recess is fo rmed in it s lower part ( see Fig 1 2 P late 2 9
-
.
, ,
and P late 1 A t one time it was common in large ves s el s having a heavy ,
cast iron propeller to provide a bearin g for the s haft abaft the propeller in
-
, ,
the rudder post ; this is not done in modern ve ss els and in the existing ,
ones so designed the after hea ri ng ha s been discarded The shafts of a .
twin screw vessel are al s o provided with tu bes to satis fy the e s sential
-
,
requirement of an outer b earing water lubricated and an acce ss ible s tu ffing , ,
box ( Fig s 7 and 8 P late 3 0 and Fig 3 P late

.
,
I n the s e ve s sels the ,
.
,
length position and mode of fixture of the tu be s depe nds on the particular
, ,
arrangement of the s haftin g and its fixtu re in the hull (Ar t .
A r t 2 4 4 The s h a ft t u n n e l serves a twofold purpose ; it provide s

. .
at all times irre s pective of the cargo in the holds a passage alo n gside
, ,
the shaft fo r the engineers s o that they may examine adjust and , , ,
lubricate the b earings and tu be stufli ng box and in the event of fracture o f ,
the tail shaft involving the demolition of the tube and it s stuffi ng box
, ,
it confine s within itself the enterin g water For the latter purpose it must .
b e watertight and s o strongly con s tructed as to be capa ble of with s tanding

,
the water pressure ; for the former it need not be watertight and in s ome ,
case s it is not ; or when cargo i s not carried in the after hold there may
be no tunnel at all but in this case the contingency of a fractured tube
,
2 24 P RA C TI CA L S H I P E UI L DI N G .
[Art 244.
and damaged peak bulkhead is met by a duplication of the latter part

( see A rt T. h e tunnel is entered by a watertight door i n the eng i ne
1 3 0 m bulkhead ( P late Such a direct entrance is a great conven i ence ,
and is o nly di spe n se d with in rare cases in favour o f a vertical shaft or

,
,
trunkway from the deck which o f cou rse must be watertight i f the
, , , ,
tun nel be so The tunnel should be of s u ch a size as will provide head

.
room and a convenient passage alongside the shaft ; in small vessel s these
,
requirements are often disregarded I t is placed slightly o ff the centre .

,
to port or starboard so that the sha ft lying close to one of i ts walls may
, , ,
leave a passage on the other side I n vessels having a double b ottom . ,
the tank top usually forms the bottom of the tunnel ; in a large vessel ,
there fore whose shaft lies far above this a platform of planks gratings
, , , ,
or plates must be fitted at a suitable height within I n any case as .

,
the tunnel is often awash with the water used in cooling the bearings a ,
raised flooring is require d Sometimes the bottom is covered with cement

.
,
but there is no good in this for with so much oil and grease floating about
,
there is no corrosion I n ves s els having ordinary floors ( and sometimes

.
in those having a double b ottom ) the tunnel is built with an independent

bottom supported from below ( Fig s 3 and 4 P la te
,
When arranged .
,
in this way it need not b e higher that 6 or 7 feet which economizes hold
, ,
space The top of the tunnel is rounded arch like or only at the corners
.
,
-
.
I n large vessels the third or fourth deck if plated is sometime s made , ,
to s erve as the top of the tunnel .
The tu nnel does not usually extend right aft to the after peak b u lkhead -
,
but s tops against a dwarf bulkhead forming the forward wall of a small
chamber termed the s t u ffi n g b ox r e c e s s ( see Fig 1 2 P late
“ ” -
.
,
This recess is practically an enlargement of the tunnel its roof i s usually

curved to meet the vessel s sides squarely and thu s facilitate the watertight
’
connection Th e recess has no b ottom but is open right down to the

.
,
vessel s keel s o as to form a deep well in which drainage water may

’
collect and b e readily removed by the s team pumps a suction pipe being ,
led thereto for the pu rpose I n fi n e lined vessels in the ab s ence of a .

-
,
rece ss the tunnel side s would meet those o f the vessel at an acute angle
, ,
incompatible with a watertight connection The rece s s i s u s eful in a fford .
ing space for the exten s ive operations which occa s ionally take place here
in connection with the removal of the propeller ; for to do this the tail
shaft must be pulled inwards which involves the removal of the length of ,
sh afting immediately in front of it A n d the tail s h aft must b e withdrawn .
periodically for examination ; because b eing alway s within the tube its , ,
condition a s regards flaws and defects— whose development i s often

curiously rapid— cannot otherwise b e ascertained (Art 4 .
I n t w i n sc r e w s t e a m e r s there are t w o t u n n e l s
-
Their inner .
wall s u s ually terminate at a uniting tran s verse bulkhead their individ uality ,
aba ft thi s being maintained if required by a central bulkhead which for

, , , ,
the convenience of communication i s sometime s provided with a watertight ,
door Their outermost sides terminate in the man ner ju s t described for
.
the tunnel of a s ingle screw by a square acros s abutment with the ve s sel s
,
’
sides J ust before this point there is a space in the hold between the
.
,
vessel s sides and the tunnel so narrow and restricted as to b e of little

’
use for cargo ; it is therefore common in large ve s sels to make us e of , ,
these two spaces for fresh water or trimming tanks the top being formed
-
,
by an outward exten s ion of the tunn el top and the side s by the side of the , ,
ship and that of the tunnel I n small twin screw vessels separate t u nnels
.
-
are sometime s di s pen s ed with the lower part of the hold forming one ,
large sha ft chamber .

[Ar t 24 4 .
occasions some o f the tunnel plates and sti ffening bars may r equire to be
cut adri ft to pass in the new one an d remove the old I t is w ell therefore .
, ,
to provide for this by suitably disposing certain plates and j oint ing the
, ,
c o n ti guo us s ti f
f e n i n g bars I n modern vessels a s p ar e t a
.
i l s h a ft i s o ften
stowed within the tunnel in a long recess or chamber at its after end ,
( Figs 5
.
,6 7 and 1
,
2 P late ,
this is an excellent
,
plan f o r the ,
substitution o f the new for the old may be made without delay and the ,
old sha ft may be readily withdrawn endwise from the tunnel by removing ,
a small plate on the end o f the recess .
A r t 2 4 5 Th e e n gi n e o f a p a d dl e s t e a m e r and its mode o f

. .
,
fi x t u r e i n t h e h u ll differ entirely from those o f a s crew engine

,
Th e .
latter has only one foundation or point o f attachment over the keel ; and ,
this is well placed as regards both the hull and the engine fo r the structure ,
o f the former has here a maximum of rigidity and it is close to the crank ,
shaft where the straining and vibrating effects are greatest Further the
,
.
,
sha ft leading away from the engine although remote and independent
, , ,
forms with it practically one rigid whole for both are supported from the ,
rigid keel line A paddle engine may be regarded as including the heavy
.
overhanging wheels and while therefore it is very incompact it cannot

, , , , ,
as in a screw engine b e supported from one foundation : the cylinders are

,
fixed to the bottom o f the hull the crank sha ft is supported by bearings at ,
the deck level and the wheels by a h e ari n g at each gunwale ( see Fig 5
,
.
,
P late I n order that when thus supported at widely distant points it

, , ,
may form one rigid whole it is evident that the hull at and between , ,
these points must have so much continuous rigidity in itsel f as practically

,
to form one foundation A s the hull o f a paddle steamer is usually o f

.
very light scantlings special local rein forcements are required to secure
,
this result .
Th e cylin ders o f a paddle engine are bolted to the vessel s bottom as

’
,
low down a s practicable ; when of the usual diagonal type they lie aba ft ,
the crank shaft inclining upwards towards it ( see Fig 5 P late

,
Th e .
,
bearings of the latter situated just above the deck level are held by the
, ,
rigid framework of the engine ; they are therefore in one piece with the , ,
cylinders and derive their support from the same foundation — the bottom
,
o f the hull To support the heavy overhangi n g wheels to take their

.
,
forward thrust and hold them against shocks from the waves the sha ft ,
must have very powerful bearings one at each gunwale and to reduce to , ,
a minimum the stresses on the sha ft they should be placed as close as ,
possible to the centre line of the floats They are therefore fixed on .
, ,
sp onson s or brackets built on the outside o f th e hull see Fig

, ( 5 P late 3 1 .
, ,
and Fig s 2 4 5 and 6 P late

.
, , There are thus three distinct points o f
,
support ; the two bearings at the gunwale s upporting the heavy live load ,
of the wheels and the vessel s bottom supporting the remainder These ’
, .
points are widely distant ( in a large ves sel the wheel bearings may b e 40
feet apart) and yet it i s essential that they should be so united that what
, ,
ever the straining forces a ffecting each one there m ay be h o relative ,
movement I n a lightly constructed paddle vessel this might readily occur

.
,
and as it would invo lve bending of the shaft and friction in the bearings ,
the result might be serious Th e necessary continuous transverse rigidity .
may be well secured by fitting close to the shaft a transverse bulkhead to , , ,
which the frame of the engine contiguous to the crank sha ft bearings may
be connected as also the a foresaid sponsons on the vessel s sides ( Fig 5
,
’
.
,
P late When supported in this way by a single rigid bulkhead or ,
diaphragm the sha ft is una ffected by straining tendencies in the hull I f

, .
,
as is usual a bulkhead cannot be fitted then its marginal part— o r an

, ,
Art 246 ]
. P R A CTI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 227
equivalent —may be substituted in the form o f a power ful cross beam , ,
formed o f plates and bars in a semi box formation and by one or more -
,
closely spaced web frames extending around the hull from gunwale to ,
gunwale ( Figs 2 and 6 P late .

,
Th e b o t t o m s e a t i n g need not be so rigidly constructed as that fo r a

screw engine fo r relatively to the weight supported it has a larger base of
, , ,
attachment it has supporting and steadying point s on deck and it runs

, ,
slowly with little vibration I t is usually constructed by fitting in the

, .
engine room two a dditional intercostal side keelsons and by increasing ,
the massiveness of the centre keelson these form fore and aft bearers for - -
the engine bed plate their upper flange s are made wide and massive to ,
take the bolting and to give the nece s sary tran s verse strength s ome of the
, , ,
floor plates may be increased in depth and continued up the sides as w eb ,
Th e s p o n s o n s supporting the paddle wheel bearings are u s ually formed -
like the segment of a cylinder ( Figs 4 5 and 6 P late They have a .

, , ,
similar duty to the thrust seating o f a screw vessel but in heavy weather ,
they are exposed to violent shocks as the wheels become choked in passing
waves They must there fore be very sub s tantial I n a large vessel the
.
, ,
.
top plate taking the bolting is about 1 inch thick and the others 4 inch ; ,
and within it there are several rein forcing brackets all connected by heavy ,
angles ( Fig I ts connection to the vessel s side is usually made by

.
’
fla n gi n g the edge of its outer plating for an angle bar would require an ,
excessive bevel I f riveted to the ordinary thin shell plating its special
.
,
strength would be of little val u e ; thi s therefore must b e doubled or , ,
increased in thickness and the framework within reinforced as already ,
described by one or t wo web frames and additional side stringers

,
.
Ar t 2 4 6 Th e P a d d l e W i n g built around the wheel is an import ant

. .
, ,
part of a paddle steamer ( Fig 6 P late I t supports the paddle box .

,
and protects the wheel when the vessel goes alongside landing stages ,
etc ; and its ou ter part in way of the wheel forms a support for the
.
, ,
eccentric bearing which controls the feathering mechanism o f the paddle

floats ( Fig .I t must be powerfully constructed for it may receive ,
crushing blows from quay walls and violent upward shocks from the waves .
The construction may b e described generally as follow s : C ontigu ous to

the wheel before and abaft it a powerful bracket like beam termed the
, ,
-
,
“
p a a
’
a le b ea m
’
is fixed projecting
,
”
from the vessel s side at about the
,
level ’
o f the deck ( Figs 2 and Th e outer ends of these two b eams are united
.
by a verti cal tie plate having sti ffening angles on its upper and lower ,
edge and covered on the outside by a stout balk o f oak or elm the whole
,
thus forms a composite beam or girder stout and strong in the resistance ,
it o ffers to impact with quay walls etc To its inner surface is bolted the , .
eccentric bearing just mentioned and upon the square frame thus formed ,
around the wheel the paddle box is built The fore and a fter of timber and - -
plate is continued — the timber only in small vessels —beyond each paddle
.
beam mping gradually into the vessel s side ; and to hold it at fixed dis
,
’
tance there from light subsidiary bracket beams are introd uced A plat form
,
.
termed the w i ng is th us formed be fore and abaft the paddle box I n

“ ”
.
A merica n river stea mers it is carried from stem to stern a ff ording large ,
deck area and accommodation fo r side cabins ; in paddle stea mers in this
country it is only su fficiently long to cover the wash o f the paddle wheels
and o ffer a sloping fender suc h that the vessel may be readily moved ,
along in contact with landing stages etc ,

.
A s the paddle w ing forms a large flat surface ( in channel steamers it

may be 1 5 feet wide) it is particularly exposed to violent upward shocks “
-DI N G A rt 246
P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L [
‘
2 28 . .
from the waves I ts connection to the vessel s side must therefore be

.
’
, ,
very substantial Th e p a d d le b e a ms must be partic ularly strong fo r

. ,
they ha ve to support the paddle box and the long fore and a ft girder on - -
their outer ends against the crushing pressures incurred when going along
side landing stages etc Formerly they were fitted right across the ship in , .
,
one piece but n o w they are built as independent brackets securely incor
, ,
p o ra t e d with the hull by fitting opposite each one a deep web frame ( Figs .
1
,
2 and 6 P late
,
I n large steamers the latter extend up to the
,
promenade deck and are united at each deck by substantial cross beams
,
in thi s way the sides o f the hull are well rein forced against shocks acting
on the outside o f the paddle wings Th e paddle beams themselves are .
usually formed o f a single plate lightened with holes and having aro und , ,
its edges a double angle frame I n some cases instead of a plate

,
-
.
,
lightened with holes a lattice formation is adopted but this is much , ,
less capable of resisting end ou shocks I n large vessels the better to - .

,
support the ends of the paddle beams a plate s tay is fitted extending , ,
diagonally from their outer ends to the t0p of the web frame at the
promenade deck ( Fig I n channel steamers the s mall subsidiary .
bracket b eams supporting the wing are formed in a similar way but less ,
massively I n river steamers they are of angle or tee bar kneed downwards
.
,
at their ends and supported from the vessel s side by round iron stays ’
-
( Fig . T h e latter should connect to the vessel s side with a large

’
palm and the thin shell plating should be locally doubled for if not they
, ,
might in ca s e of accident tear open the sides with perhaps serious

, , ,
consequences .
I n river steamers the paddle wing is merely planked in channel ,
steamers it is plated ; and in the latter to break the shock of waves , ,
when they strike the plat form from below fore and aft bars of hal f round ,
- - -
iron are riveted a fe w inches apart to the sloping edges of the supporting
, ,
beams ( Fig 1 P late Th e timber belting forming the outer margin

.
, ,
o f the sponson is of elm steamed and b ent to shape ,

I t is usually worked , .
in two thicknesses with well shifted scarph j oints and upon its outer sur face
,
-
,
there is fitted a rubbing plate which should be thick and if practicable , , ,
j ointless .
Th e p a ddle b o x has no structural duties ( Figs 1 and 2 P late 3 2 ) it .

,
forms a mere covering for the wheel to shut in spray ; it may there fore , , ,
be of slender construction b ut as it o ff ers a large surface to flying masses ,
of water it should be sufficiently substantial to resist their concussive

,
e ffects I t is formed of sheet steel 3; or 7 inch thick but in small vessels it

.
,
1 “
3
1 ; ,
is sometimes made of feather and grove planking about 1 3 inch thick I t is - -

, .
s tiffened and supported by light angle bars bent to the fore and aft contour ,
- -
of the box The inner vertical wall is of thin plating but the outer is usually
.
,
o f wood this material lending itself to the ornamental open fretwork con
,
sp i c uo us in nearly all paddle steamers I n channel steamers the side .
plating o f the h ull is u s ually extended up to the promenade deck ( except

at the after end where there is less chance o f sea and spray leaping on
,
board) and in way of the paddle wings the topside plating is carried out
,
wards around the m the enclo s ed spaces forming convenient locatio ns fo r ,
water closets galleys etc I n small river steamers the paddle wings are
-
, , .
often left open to for m gangways and mooring platforms ; but adjoining
, ,
the paddle box small houses are built fo r galleys and water closets this
,
-
,
situation being particularly suitable for the latter because it is in the open , ,
remote fro m the living spaces and the spray from the paddle wheels a ff ords ,
a constant supply o f water for flushing purposes .
A r t 24 7 I n high speed c r o s s c h a n n e l a n d r i v e r s t e a m e r s the

. .
- -
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 24 8
2 30 .
[ .
boiler they should evidently be thicker than the others and their double
, ,
reverse bars should b e of the same large size as those on the boiler stools .
The circumstance that the intermediate floors may take none o f the weight
of the boilers is a sufficient reason fo r making them stro nger than those in
the cargo holds ; for when the vessel is at load draught or i f in the load ,
condition she should take the ground they might having no weight ab ove , ,
them su ffer a more s evere upward bending stress All the floors i n the
,
.
boiler room are therefore increa s ed in thickness by — inch and their

,
“
2
, , 2 0 ,
upper edges are provided with double reverse bars the added one extending ,
—
from top of bilge to top of bilge except in small vessels The increase in .
thickness is also particularly useful in providing a mar gin against corrosion

( A rt . I nstead o f fitting double reverse bars it would b e better to ,
fit one o f greater thickness fo r as the comparatively thin d ouble bars o ffer

, ,
a large s urface to corrosion their stren gth may be rapidly reduced ; directly
,
under the b oilers where the heat is greatest their horizontal flanges may
, ,
waste away in a comparatively short period .
To prevent tripping of the stools they are s u pported by fore and aft ,
- -
brackets and by plates uniting their ends ( Fig s 8 and 9 P late

,
Th e .
,
latter to b e efficient must b e wide but when so they may shut in and
, , , ,
prevent a proper circulation o f air in the confined Space b elow the b oi ler
this may b e avoided by curving their upper edge and when the lower ,
one is fitted on the t 0 ps o f the floors they then not only support the ,
stools but distribute the weight of the boiler to the intermediate floors
,
( Fig . I n some ca s es where the latter e ffect is particularly desired the

, ,
boiler s are s upported not by tran s verse s tools but by deep fore and aft
, ,
- -
bearer plates ( Fig one on each side o f the boiler to take which they
.
,
are provided with two or three special cast iron attachments on their upper -
edge and are held erect at these places by transverse bracket plates to the
,
floors I n large vessels the floors which take the boiler s tool s may be
.
increa s ed in depth to about the level o f the centre keelson ; they then form
an excellent foundation and greatly strengthen the vessel s bottom ; and ’
the re s ulting elevated position of the boilers is advantageous in reducing

the heating and corrosive e ffect on the bottom framework and in giving a ,
greater degree o f safety should a large volume o f water accumulate in the

bilges ( Art I n A merican lake steamers the machinery is usually at
.
th e ste m and the curiou s plan is sometimes adopted of placing the boilers
,
on a sort of lower deck plat form thus saving s pace below for coal bunkers
-
,
or cargo and placing the boilers at a broader part of the hull I t ha s also
, .
the advantage of raising the ves s el s centre of gravity when in light trim ’
,
an i n po rtan t matter in securing weatherly qu alitie s in these broad beamed

ves s ei 5 .
When there is a c e ll u l ar d o u ble b o tt o m the tank framework in the ,

boiler room is increased in massiveness the floor s are provided with
double reverse bars and their thickne s s as that of all other parts of the
, ,
ta nk is increased from
, to 336 inch The increased thickne ss is intended .
to serve a s a m argin against corrosion The b o i le r s t o ol s may sit .
directly on the tank top being riveted to double reverse bars on the floors
, ,
in which case the latter should be of a size to s uit those on the b oiler stools .
I t is well to increase the thickness of the s e particular floors and if the tank , ,
is deep to stiflen them with vertical angles The more usual plan i s to
, .
provide a fo u n d a ti on fo r th e s t o o l s in the form of a transverse I section ,

-
beam riveted to the tank top ( Fig 5 P late 2 7 and P late

, In a .
, ,
M c I n tyr e ta nk these are necessa ry to distribute the weight of the boiler s over
the various fore and aft tank girders They are advantageous in that
- -
.
,
should the fixture of the s tools be delaye d u ntil the boiler s are in place ,
Ar t 24 9]
the riveting o f them may not disturb the watertightness o f the tank When .
boilers are placed near the bilge they cannot be lo wered directly into ,
their berth ; they are lowered straight down through the central deck
opening and are then shoved athwart s hip on skids ; and o f course to
, , ,
permit of this only the outer halves o f each outer pair o f stools may be
,
fixed in the first instance When placed very close to the b ilge the outer
.
stools may fall over the margin brackets and in such cases these or the , ,
lower parts of two suitably placed web frames may be sp ecially formed to ,
act as stools I n s ome ve s sels the boiler stools are of cast iron bolted
.
,
direct to the tank top .
The b o i le r s merely sit in their stools without attachment the curved ,
form of the b ed preventing any transverse movement To provide .

,
however against the e ffect of exces s ive rolling s t a y s ( of round or flat iron)
, ,
are led diagonally from the tops of the boiler ( through the side bunker) to
the vessel s side and when there are two or more boilers abrea s t they are
’
, ,
stayed the one to the other I n the event of end o u collision the momentu m
.
-
,
of a heavy boiler when the vessel s motion is suddenly arrested might

,
’
cause it to j ump forward and to guard against this ( a contingency which

,
might cause fracture o f the steam pipes and loss of life ) c o lli s i on c h o c k s ,
( termed “
ramming chock s in warships ) are fitted one at each end
”
of ,
the boiler ( Fig 8 P late T hese are merely vertical brackets fixed to
.
, ,
the tank top or floors the upper corners o f which overlap the face of the
,
boiler They are u s eful not only as regards the displacing e ffect of
.
collision but in preventing gradual fore and aft cr eep i ng movement

,
“ - -
”
of the boiler due to long continued expan s ion and contraction

,
-
.
When the ve s sel s inner bottom i s curved transversely as in warships

’
, ,
special care is required in fitting the boiler stools Sometimes the tem .
plate moulds fro m whi ch they are to be formed are rigged up in the ship ,
b eing suitably adju s ted and levelled s o tha t when the stools are ,
ultimately riveted in the same place the boilers may bear properly and
occupy their designed position The curved edge of the stool s may b e cut .
to the fi gured radius of the boiler or from a template mould taken from ,
the boiler itsel f As a boiler is not always precisely round the former
.
,
method may not result in a perfect fit in which case discrepancie s are made ,
good by inserting iron filling pieces b etween the stools and the shell of the
boiler Sometimes the curved angle bars of the stools are not fitted until
.
the boiler is in place so that the latter may take a solid bearing on the
,
stool plates and to permit of an accurate fit of the bar s

, .
Ar t 2 4 9 I n order that the s tokers may stand at a convenient height

. .
with regard to the furnaces a raised p l a t fo r m is provided i n e a c h s t o k e

,
h o ld ( P lates 1 0 8 and With ordinary floors it may b e from 2 to 4 feet

above them with a double bottom from 1 to 3 feet The supporting frame
, .
work o f the platform i s often constructed in a rough and ready fashion ,
with wood bea rers but in high cla s s work it is neatly and efficiently made
,
-
with angle or tee bar s The platform is of chequered plates malleable or

.
,
cast o f small size so that they may b e readily li fted to overhaul the pipes
, ,
lying below and clean the bilge space I t is important that they should .
form an intact s ur face without crevices so that small coal and ashes may
, ,
not pass below to form mud with the b ilge water and choke the pumps .
T0 this end therefore it is usual to lay first a complete flooring of wood

, , ,
upon which the plates may rest ; and this has the further advantage that ,
should a large volume of water accumulate in the bilges or on the tank top ,
it may not ( when through rolling of the s hip it strikes the platform from
—
, ,
below) so readily dislodge the plates Should this happen a not un .
common occurrence — the result might be serious for quantiti es of c oal and ,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . A
[ rt 24 9
.
a shes w ould b e washed into the bilges and by choking the pumps prevent
, ,
the remo val o f the water which continuing to accumul a te m i ght extinguish
, , ,
the fires Also the violent dislodgment o f the plates might injure the men
.
,
or damage the numerous pipes o f this region A similar platform is pro

.
v i de d in the engine room and at various heights grating plat forms

, , , ,
suitably arranged with communicating ladders fo r access to the di fferent

,
parts o f the engine Similar gratings are also fitted over the stokehold at
.
the di fferent deck levels .

Art 25 0
[ .
upon the arch o f the propeller frame and these in large vessels are also , , ,
provided with deep floor plates so as to for m subsidiary transoms ( P late ,
A ba ft the transom the ordinary transverse system o f framing l S

inapplicable fo r much o f the supported surface lies athwartship a rad i al
.
arrangement is there fore adopted ( Fig 1 P late ,

for the frames havi ng ,
.
, ,
then little bevel are easily made and are most e fficient in their support
, ,
.
O n account o f their inclination to the keel line they are termed ca n t or ,
Their heels abut on the transom floor connecting thereto by

”
s ter n f r a mes
-
.
,
bracket plates and their upper ends connect by radial beams to the transom
beam ( see Figs 2 and A s the entire framework of the ste m is suspended
.
bracket like from the a fter surface of the tran s om it has a tendency to droop
-
, ,
or topple over backwards ; against this however it is well held by the , ,
weather deck stringers and tie plates and by the shell plating the upper , ,
part of which encircling it like a hoop binds it to the hull proper The
, ,
.
long s hallow ste m s of large steam yachts are Specially strengthened against
the downward pull of their own weight and the upward shocks of the
waves by fore and a ft web frames
,
- -
.
L loyd s rules require the c a n t fr a m es to be the same distance apart

’
as the others measured at the knuckle line They are o f angle bar of the
,
.
usual frame size ; so also are their beams which when the gunwale is , ,
rounded may be in one piece with them The brackets connecting them
, .
to the transom floor may be the full depth of this plate but in large vessels ,
the alternate ones or all of them excepting two at the centre may be made , ,
quite small I f large they may b e lightened with large holes and if not
.
, ,
flanged on their upper edges are provided with a sti ff ening angle The ,
.
position o f the top bf the transom floor relatively to the second deck
varies ; it is usually above it ( Fig 2 P late but sometimes it is at the .
,
same level ( Fig so that the deck plating may extend right out to the
.
stern I n such ca s e to provide access aba ft the tran s om for riveting

.
,
the deck plating or shell manholes must be punched in its floor ( Fig ,
.
A des cription o f the laying o ff work and building o f the stern will be found
in A rt 5 2 9 . .
The t r a n s o m b e a m should b e pillared at the middle or at each side .
When the r udder fr a nk extends to the weather deck a vertical plate i s ,
sometimes fitted bet ween the transom floor and beam ( Fig 2 P late 3 3 ) .
,
this is use ful in that besides forming the forward part o f the rudder trunk , ,
it supports the deck and checks Side swaying tendencies Sometimes the -
.
rud d er post exten ds to the weather dec k and i f well connected thereto it ,
serves the same purpose O n account of the restricted space aba ft the .
transom the fitting of the rudder t ru nk is o ften a difli cult matter and to
, ,
facilitate the work the t r a n s o m flo o r is often j o i n t e d o n e i t h er s i d e of

the post the central part o f which may be fitted after the trunk is in place
,
( Fig . O wing to the sharp curvature and inclination of the oxter or

tuck plates it is o ften a di fficult matter to secure proper contact of the shell
,
flange at the heel of the tran s om frame angles ; thick tapered liners are
o ften introduced and as a result there is sometimes trouble from leaky,
rivets To avoid this it is well to cut short th e heels of the transom frame
.
,
angles and fit a special heel piece formed o f a flanged plate neatly

, , ,
Sin i th e d to the required shape as ascertained after the s hell plating is in

place .
Ar t 2 5 1 I n the early iron vessels the stem met the keel with a s harp
. .
elbow like curve at the fo r e fo o t ( Fig 3 P late

-
the transverse sections -
.
,
being of an acute V form N o w it is usual except in full vessels to adopt .

, , ,
an easy curve so as to cut away the sharp kni fe like fore foot ( Fig
, for ,
- -
.
not only is this an awkward part o f the bull to construct but owing to its , ,
Art 25 3 ]
. P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 23 5
small volume and its heaviness it is prej udicial as regards cargo carrying ,
power I n modern full cargo vessels the fore foot is not cut away and it
.
, ,
-
,
is made very full and flat so as to provide use ful buoyancy Being entirely , .
submerge d a blu ff fore foot does not increase the vessel s resistance With
,
-
’
.
a given displacement it is advantageous in that it permits of finer lines

,
above thus minimizing resistance I t has the disadvantage however o f

, .
, ,
reducing the vessel s draught when in light trim and increasing the
“ ’
intensity of wave pounding action ( Art -

I n small sailing ships the .
-
fore foot is use ful for its side surface by contributing lateral resistance
-
, , ,
tends to reduce leeway I n some large steamers the fore foot is very much .
-
cut away by an extensive rise in the keel line but although the resulting
flat fore foot does not a ffect the vessel s resistance it is then as in the case
-
’
, ,
o f blu ff cargo boats particularly liable to receive damaging blows from the
,
waves C ontrary to what is generally supposed it appears from an e x pe ri

.
,
ment made by Mr H ovgaard that when moving at high s peed the lateral
.
1
resistance of the fore foot may assist the turning power o f the rudder
-
.
A r t 2 5 2 There are two t yp e s o f b o w : the si r a zgnz ( Fig 4 P late

. .
‘
.
,
“
and the clipp er ( Fig the latter being also known as the fi ddle or cutw a ler
.
now . I n nearly all steamers the former is adopted ; it may be perfectly

plumb but very commonly it h as a slight rake so that when the vessel
, ,
t rims by the stern it may be nearly plumb A modified form of cutwater .
b o w formerly common on the north east coast of England is shown in

,
-
,
Fig 2 A ll sailing ships have a cutwater bow ( P lates 6 2 6 3 and

. .
-
so , ,
also h ave yachts and a fe w high class mail steamers ( P late 1 0 8 ) in which
,
-
a grace ful appearance is desired I n sailing Ships it is advantageous in .

-
that it increases the length of the base line o f the sail area and reduces -
,
the length o f the b owsprit it also con fers additional lifting power and ,
increa s es the vessel s weatherly qualities ’

.
A s regards collision it is a particularly useful formation for as the , ,
cutwater is the first part to crush up it forms a buffer absorbing the , ,
energy o f the collision so that the stem b elow and the watertightness of ,
the hull may b e unaffected I t is a lso advantageous as regards the vessel .
struck for the damage may be confined to the above water part o f the hull
,
-
.
A s a contrast to its saving influence the destructive power of the under ,
water spur or ram bow of a warship na turally suggests itsel f ( Fig 2

, ,
.
,
P lates 3 1 and 8 4 ) So great may be the usefulness o f a cutwater bow in

minimizing the serious e ffects o f collision that it is sometimes urged that ,
its universal adoption Should b e made imperative I t is apt to be an .
inconvenience in docking however and is more costly than a straight , ,
bow matters which are usually regarded as more important than its
,
possible usefulnes s in the remote contingency of collision .
A r t 2 5 3 The b o w fr a m e s o f a straight stemmed vessel do not di ffer

. .
-
from the others A s noticed in Art 8 1 the ir greater bevel makes them
. .
,
less e fli c i en t in supporting the shell as a rule this i s not considered but in ,
some very bluff vessels they are canted so as to lie square or nearly square ,
to the shell I n a vessel having a cutwater stem the frames which sit upon
.
,
the cutwater form small triangles ( see Fig 3 P late Formerly the .
,
bowsprit o f a sailing vessel was always shipped right into the hull for -
,
which purpose the forecastle deck stopped at a frame termed the kn zg/i t
neaa
’
situated a short distance from the end o f the cutwater ( Figs 1 and
,
.
6 P late
,
This frame for ms a small triangular bulkhead having a hole ,
to pass the bowsprit and take the wedging I n s ome modern ve s sels the .
forecastle deck is carried at one level to the end of the cutwater the ,
bowsprit being riveted thereto ( see Fig .
1
S ee E ng i n eer i ng fo r A ug ust 2 , 1 889 .
[Ar t 25 4 .
A r t 2 5 4 Th e s t e rn p o s t o f a sailing ship or paddle steamer is pra c ti

. .
-
ca lly a vertical continuation o f the bar keel it forms like the stem a sti ffening , ,
margin fo r the shell plati n g but it ha s also o f course the distinctive duty
, , ,
o f h olding the rudder ( see Fig 1 P late I n size it is identical with the
.
,
stem bar this being practically the same as a bar keel I t extends to the
,
.
top o f the transom floor to which it connects by a pair of large angle bars
,
.
I t may be tapered from where it enters the hull to the top by 2 5 pe r cent , .
in sectional area ( Fig 2 P late To simplify the forging the keel por
.
, ,
tion which is s ca rph j ointed with the keel is made short ; but regarding
,
-
, ,
the joint as a weak spot Lloyd s rules speci fy that the after end of the ,
’
scarph shall be at least one and a half frame spaces fo rward of the post .
“
To form sockets for the projection s termed gu dgeons ’
or br a ces are forged on the post

”
.
A rt 2 5 5 I n screw steamers the s ternpo s t becomes a m assive s t e m

. .
or p r o p e ll er fr a m e ( see P lates 4 0 4 1
- and H ere there are two , ,
post s the ord er or r udder p ose and the i n ner éoay or p r op eller p ost They
,
-
, ,
’
,
-
.
are united above by the a r c/i or br i dgep i ece and below by the sole p i ece -
,
-
.
The propeller shaft passe s through the inner post which is enlarged or ,
b ossed to receive it and the propeller works in the aper i zcr e betw een the ‘
two posts The posts and other portions of the stern frame are about twice
.
-
as massive as the sternpost of a sailing s hip or paddle steamer ; their -
breadth i s practically the same but their thicknes s or transverse dimension ,
is twice as great A s regards the rudder post and s ole piece strength is
.
- -
,
essential because unlike the stern post o f a s ailing ship they receive no
,
-
,
support from the shell plating standing alone and un s upported they m us t ,
resist the side stresses induced by the rudder and the side bending forces ,
-
which may b e experienced by grounding which tend to break the s ole ,
piece at its j u nction with the inner post and the rudder post at its junction ,
-
with the bridge piece A s the rudder post is exposed more particularly to
-
.
-
stresses acting in an athwartship direction its tran s verse dimen s ion is ,
evidently more important that its fore and aft one ; and in view of thi s it is - -
common to increase it and correspondingly reduce the fore and aft di m en

,
- -
sion making the po s t almost square in section I n the ca s e of the inner

, .
post massiveness i s essential in order that it may form a sufli c i en tly inert
,
c
and rigid bearing for the propeller ; and generally sti ffness and strength , ,
are required throughout the whole frame to check the vibratin g e ff ect of ,
the propeller with it s prejudicial tendency on the riveting .
By L loyd s rules the two posts the bridge and the sole piece are all of
’
-
, ,
the s ame sectional area By the rule s of the British C orporation the rudder
.
po s t and upper part o f the propeller post are 1 5 per cent lighter than the - .
lower part o f the propeller post the sole piece being 3 0 per cent heavier -
,
-
. .
Th e scantlings specified in Lloyd s rules are tabulated under the vessel s ’ ’
second numeral Those specified by the British C orpo ration are tabulated
.
under the vessel s length and depth and they assume for each length of
’
ves s el a certain maximum speed ; if this be exceeded heavier sca ntlings

are required .
Th e upper part of the rudder post within the hull tapers by about -
, ,
5 0 per cent T h e keel

. portion tapers into the keel with which— i f a bar ,
—
keel i t connects by a scarph joint the a fter end of which must be at least ,
two and a half frame spaces forward of the foremost part o f the propeller
post I n the case of the sole piece while its s ectional area between the two
.
-
,
posts is maintained it may be flattened and correspondingly widened

, .
This is advantageous in that it permits of the propeller being placed rather

lower down the greater submersion improving its e fficiency I t also
, .
strengthens the sole p iece against side bending stresses but to secure this
- -
, ,
A r t 25 6
[ .
form and the stern frame is enlarged to fill the trough ( see Fig 1 P late
,
- .
,
To avoid local weakness the vertical plate keel must overlap the end of the ,
-
stern frame the two parts being connected by tap ri ve te d a n gles ( see
-
,
~
Fig 1 P late
.
, Th e ab ove re fers to a forged frame ; when of cast
steel and of large size the section o f the part adj oini n g the flat keel may b e
, ,
o f trough form ; and to secure a connection with the vertical plate keel a -
,
fore and a ft w e b may be cast upon it as illustrated in Fig 2

- -
,
. .
A r t 2 5 7 I n t w i n s c r e w s t e a m e r s the s t e rn fr a m e may be an
. .
- -
L shaped post as in a sailing ship or paddle steamer ( Figs 3 and 4 P late

-
,
.
,
35 ,
and P lates 3 8 and I t is now common however to form it with an , ,
aperture as in a single screw ( Fig 2 P late so t hat the propellers may .

,
be placed closer together ; fo r when the sides of the hull intervene it , ,
is found desirable fo r the e ffi ciency of the propellers to allow a clearance

, ,
of a foot or so I n some cases an aperture is introduced so that the

.
propellers may be overlapped and thus allow the sha ft to be placed nearer ,
the centre line ( Fig 1 P late 3 6 and P late This is advantageous in

.
, ,
that the b ossed portion of the ves s el s side is less extensive the lengt h ’
,
of the propeller brackets is reduced and the s trength of all parts is ,
increa s ed Further should the vessel touch the ground and heel over the
.
, ,
propellers when close together are less likely to ta ke contact therewith ,
and being well under the quarter are less liable to come in contact with
, ,
quay walls or other vessels Although the fact of the propellers overlapping .
appears to have little effect on their e fficiency it has been found advisable , ,
in the later large twin screw vessels not to overlap them on account o f -
, ,
vibration To clear the overlapping bla des the aperture must be wide
.
,
fore and aft but it may be smaller vertically than that of a single scre w for
- -
, ,
not only are the propellers o f smaller diameter and well submerged but it ,
is only a small part of their peripheries that overlaps .
I n ordinary merchant vessels the k e e l is usually maintained as a

s t r a i gh t l i n e fr o m s t e m t o s t e r n excepting of course the small upward , , ,
curve at the fore foot I n warships on the other hand it usually inclines
-
.
, ,
upwards at the ste m and in some cases at the bow as well for a considerable
, ,
portion o f the vessel s length rising by many feet ( see Fig 2 P late ’
, .
,
This design is advantageous on account o f the superior turning or

manoeuvring power which results and of the reduction in weight due to ,
the removal of parts o f the hull — the f or ef oot and keel— which contribute a
less buoyant e ffect than their own weight and which are awkward t o ,
construct The lesser draught at the stern tends to reduce the immersed
.
area o f the rudder but this may be maintained— and advantageously in ,

—
the case of a twin screw by increasing its fore and aft dimension ( A rt - -
.
When the propellers overlap and so require an aperture in the stern frame ,
-
,
an extensive rise in the keel line would cause the sole piece to foul the -
propellers and so in two or three large modern merchant vessels this is

, , , ,
dispensed with altogether the necessary apertu re taking the form o f an ,
arched hollow in the keel line ( see Fig 3 P late the a fter part of the .
,
arch curving down to support the heel of the rudder .
A r t 25 8 S t er n fr a m e s rudders etc may b e fo r ge d o r c a s t

. .
-
A , , .
, .
forging may be of steel or iron ( usually it is o f iron ) but a casting of , ,
course is always o f steel unless it be fo r a sheathed vessel when bronze is

, , ,
employed ( Art C a s tings are generally cheaper than forgings

.
,
especially when o f large si z e or of complicated form ; they also tend to

greater e fficiency fo r they permit o f refinements and intricacies in the
,
design impracticable in a forging Small simple sternposts stern frames .

, ,
-
,
and rudders are o ften forged in the shipyard from waste scrap iron or ,
-
steel I f large they are more usually of cast steel for while the cost o f a
.
, ,
Ar t 25 9 ]
. P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 2 39
forging increases with its massiveness the assurance of its soundness ,
diminishes the welded j oints becoming less reliable Nevertheless forged

, .
,
material is s till often preferred especially in the case o f rudder frames , .
Th e reason for this is that it is possible by skilful and careful work manship , ,
to produce a forging of practically undoubted soundness whereas in a casting ,
there is always a considerable element of uncertainty the circumstances on ,
which its soundne s s depends being numerous ( comprising subtle chemical

and physical e ffects and internal stresses due to shrinkage when cooling from
,
an exceedingly high temperature) and not always under control ; and in

some cases defects ( contraction flaws ) unseen at the first may develop , ,
through time and necessitate the renewal o f the casting C omparing

, .
,
however in a general way ship forgings with castings there is little to

, , ,
choose between them as regards reliability I n the ca s e o f stern frames .

-
and other parts of complex form ( hollow and irregular in section and ,
having proj ecting web s and flanges) the use o f cast steel alone permits ,
o f their adoption intricacies in the design adding comparatively little to

,
their cost ( see P lates 3 6 4 3 and Fig 2 P late Various practical

, , .
,
matters in connection with the manufacture o f forgings and steel castings

will be found in Arts 5 6 3 and 5 7 1 . .
A c a s t s t e e l s t e r n fra m e does not usually d i fler much from a forging

- -
.
The edges o f the posts within the apertures are very commonly rounded ,
to reduce the water disturbance ; especially in large vessels where the ,
posts may measure nearly a foot across The sole piece also may b e .
-
rounded forming an ellipse in section or it may be strengthened trans

, ,
v e r se ly by a horizontal web ( Fig 4 P late Th e tops o f the posts .

,
within the hull may have a flange to take the transom plates and they as ,
well as the keel portion may be of t r o u gh s e c t i o n the latter having a , ,
c en t r a l w e b to take the vertical keel ( see Fig 2 P late 8 7) massiveness .

,
is not required in these parts and the hollow section reduces weight and ,
permits o f short through rivets Th e posts o f the stern frame of a single .

-
screw vessel are usually solid ; in that of a twin screw certain parts o f the -
posts may b e of trough section ( Fig 1 P late 3 6 an d Fig 2 P late A .

, , .
,
hollow section is advantageous in permitting o f short through rivets weight

fo r weight it gives stronger posts the side s of which may be bevelled to
, ,
conform with the run o f the shell plating thus increasing the trans verse ,
rigidity and simplifying the work of fitting the plates I f the stern frame .
-
is of simple L form a hollow section is similarly ad vantageou s and it, , ,
permits o f the breadth of the post being made equal to that of the rudder
stock with little extra weight and with a valuable increase o f lateral
,
strength .
A rt 2 5 9 I n several vessels recently constructed a complete departure

. .
has been made fro m the ordinary structural design as regards among other ,
things the stern frame and rudder The dead wood and lower part o f the
,
-
.
1
stern frame are cut away ( in the manner shown in Fig 3 P late
-
and .
,
the rudder is o f balanced type E xcepting the body post in way o f the .
propeller boss the entire frame is composed o f steel plates The arch
, .
over the propeller is a U section 1 inch steel plate and the rudder post is - -
,
a tub e 2 1 inches diame t er made from a 1 inch steel plate its lower part
, ,
-
,
havin g an internal doubling The top o f the tube forms a socket for the .
rudder pintle a bush being fitted within it ; there is only one pintle and
, ,
it takes the whole weight o f the rudder ( this is 1 5 tons but there is a dis ,
placement o f 5 tons ) The lower end o f the tube forms a pivot fo r the .
” —
heel of the rudder the latter having a socket lined with white metal,
1
Aj t f th O
ax, e c St / ip C
.
, o Ltd d ib d d i l lu t t d i
e cea n ea nzs z o. , , e s cr e an s ra e n a
a
p p er by M H y B
r W
. tl y T
e nr I t i t t i f.N l A / l t 900
or e , rans . ns u on o av a r c i z ec s , 1 .
[Art 25 9 .
which slips over it The rudder is built o f plates and bars and its interior
. ,
is accessible I ts head is a forging in one with which is the pintle and

.
,
it connects to the body by a flange coupling there being a small casting ,
on the former having a corresponding flange ,

.
A r t 2 6 0 Although s t e rn fr a m e s o f the largest size may be cast i n

. .
-
o n e p i e c e ( Fig 2 P late it is common to make them i n t w o scarph

.
, ,
j ointing them as shown in Fig 1 P late 3 6 and P late 4 1 I t may be .

, ,
.
necessary to do so to permit o f the frame being sent by rail from the steel
works to the s hipyard I t may also prove use ful in the ship for Should
. ,
the lower part o f the rudder post and the sole piece be damaged or carried -
away ( as sometimes happens ) this part may be renewed without the costly ,
work o f disturbing the remainder I t is al s o advantageous as regards the .
castin g work fo r to cast in one piece so large a mass requires special care
,
the casting may b e successfully run but owing to the excessive shrinkage , ,
while cooling serious internal stresses may arise di fli c ult to contend with
, , ,
and perhaps resulting in fracture or hidden flaws An d further there is .

, ,
always the chance of a casting proving defective ; if in one piece a local ,
defect may neces s itate the condemnation of the whole involving o f cour s e , , ,
a serious loss to the manufacturer ; by making it in two or more parts ,
the magnitude o f the risk is reduced Th e scarph j oints must be .
large and securely connected otherwise the vibrating e ffect of the pro ,
peller might loosen them with disastrous results L loyd s rules require , .
’
their length and breadth to be respectively 3 and i — g times the breadth

,
of ,
the post Their surfaces are of course care fully machined to secu re
.
, ,
perfect contact ; and they are united by four row s of large rivets those in ,
the bo dy post— excepting a fe w tack rivets — also taking the shell plating .
Similar scarphs are sometimes adopted in forged frames ; here they are
advantageous in that they dispense with welds which as noticed in Art , ,
.
5 7 1
, are apt in large forgings
, to h e point s of weakness T h e stern
,
frame .
-
o f a warship may be a casting of very complicated form one of these is

illustrated in P late 4 3 Tho s e of sheathed warships are of phosphor .
bronze .
A r t 2 6 1 The s t e m is practically a vertical continuation of a bar

. .
keel I ts duty is to give sti ffness and ma ss iveness to the h o w ; if the thin
.
shell plating of either side met without the interpo s ition of a thick bar the ,
knife like e dge so formed would have neither o f the s e qualities it might
-
, ,
not even withstand the bu ffets o f the waves ; it would b e torn across by
mooring chains and could not endure even gentle contact with quay wall s
,
or other cra ft Th e introduction of a thick stem bar not only strengthens

.
the bow by it s own massiveness and power of di s tributing pre s sure but , ,
by separating the shell plating on either Side increa s e s the lateral sti ffness , .
When moving even at low speed the momentum of so large a ma s s as a ,
loaded vessel may be enormous ; and so slender in comparison is the , ,
structure o f the hull that impacts even o f a gentle nature are usually
, , ,
accompanied by de formation at the point o f contact The rigidity of the .
usual stern bar is sufficient to distribute the pressure that would arise
"
through gentle contact with obstacles in dock and in its design a suffi , , ,
c i e n c y in this respect is the limit kept in view I ts capabilities in resisting .
i mpact depend greatly on the direction of the blow if end o n , it may cut -
through the side of another vessel and su ffer little or no deformation ; if

i nclined the b ow may be shattered
, But o f course much depends on the .
, ,
e fficiency o f its backing up by internal breasth o o ks ( Art .
The s c a n t li n gs o f a s t e m b a r are practically tho s e of a bar keel .
I t usually tapers either in breadth or thickness from the load waterline

upwards its sectional area diminishin g by ab out 2 5 per cent This is
, .
24 2 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B U I LD I N G .
[Ar t 262 .
bossed frames and plating of the hull immediately before it ( Figs 1 to 5 .

,
P late
Th e legs of an o r d i n a ry s t r u t are o f oval or egg sect i on ( Fi g 4 .
,
P late 3 5 ) the edge o f large radius is turned forward fo r the fluid resistance ,
o f a submerged body is least when the head is blu ff and the tail fine .
There is no precise rule or practice as to the scantlings or sectional area of

the legs A s regards their duty in supporting the vertical load of the
.
propeller and sha fting the sizes generally adopted provide a very large
,
margin of strength fo r as the upper leg is only subject to tension and the
, ,
lower one to compression their strength is directly proportional to their

,
sectional area— o r about 3 0 tons per square inch in the case o f cast steel .
Thus computed the load a stout s trut might carry is greatly in excess o f
,
the weight o f the propeller and sha ft ; but of course the requirements of , ,
rigidity and strength against chance side pressures and the vibrating e ffect s
o f the propeller the shocks due to racing ( when the propeller revolving
, ,
violently is suddenly brought up ) and the centrifugal forces res u lting from
, ,
the los s o f a propeller blade all demand massiveness greatly in exces s of

,
w ha t a con s ideration merely of the weight supported might indicate as

sufli c i e n t .
There are various methods of connecting the legs of the strut s to the
hull The most simple , and the one usually adopted in small
. vessels is to ,
fix them to the stern frame suitably formed for the purpose ( see Fig 3
-
, .
,
P late I f placed for ward of the post the upper leg connects to the ,
side o f the hull ( in small vessels ) by a large palm or by two large a n gles , ,
a s in Fig 4 The rein forcement of the vessel s side depends on the size of
. .
’
the strut and how it falls with regard to deck s or side stringers ; in a very
small low p owered vessel there may b e none at all but in others the shell ,
plating and the frame angles in way of the palm s are locally doubled or a ,
short sti ffening intercostal stringer or web frame may be introduced I n

, .
warships the u pper leg pierces the shell and connects within by a large , ,
palm to a thick foundation plate suitably disposed in the same plane as

, ,
the leg and rigidly held by bracket plates or by the bea m s of an adjacent
,
deck ( see Fig 1 P late 3 .

,
A n d the keel portion of the stern frame if a -
,
casting is formed with a web proj ecting on each side ( see Fig 1 P late 3 5
, .
, ,
and P late I n large warships the lower leg usually connects to the hull
well above the keel (see Fig 2 P late 3 5 ) for when so d i spo s ed the strut
.
,
is not liable to be damaged by groundi n g and being less exposed is not , , ,
so likely to foul sunken wreckage and further as the leg is shorter its , , , ,
capabilitie s as a str ut are improved The palm s are of large s ize to take .
,
the numerou s rivet s necessary to ensure a large margin of strength against

the jarring and vibrating effect s to which they are exposed Their surfaces .
are machined s o as to secure the all important feature of a close fit and -

,
to ensure this the struts are put in place temporarily s o that any unfairness ,
in the faying surface s may be noted and corrected .
P ropeller st ruts are almost invariably of cast stee l the pattern for the ,
casting being shaped with precision by trying it in place in the s hip A s , .
the casting may warp and depart from the precise form of the pattern the ,
hole cast in its b ossed part must be small enough to leave an ample margin
— 1 or 2 inches —fo r the final boring after erection for the propeller tube , , .
I n large struts to reduce the boring work the middle portion of the hole
, ,
may be cast of large diameter s o that it may not take contact with the tube
,
( Fig 1 P late
.
, I n small vessels the struts may be of forged iron and ,
in some cases they are built up of three parts the two legs and the boss , ,
bolted or riveted together ( see Fig 3 P late 3 .

,
H o r i z o n t a l p r o p e l l e r b r a c k e t s are always o f cast s teel They may .

Art 26 2]
be cast in one piece ( P lates 3 6 and or the port and starboard

brackets separately ( P late Th e arms are o f hollo w V section with
internal cross webs The a fter edge may be curved hori z ontally to con form
.
with the transverse curvature o f the bossed part o f the hull The port and .
starboard brackets are alike but with overlapping propellers the boss
, , ,
portion o f one o f them i s longer ( Fig 3 P late 3 1 and P lates 3 6 and

.
, ,
I n a vessel having an aperture in the stern frame they usually connect ,
to the forward post suitably fashioned to receive them When fitted

, .
separately they may be fixed to the s ides o f the post with cross through ,
bolts ( P late When i n one piece they pass through the hull in front ,
o f the post in which case they are fixed with fore and a ft bolts late
, ( P -
Th e latter plan 15 advantageous i n that the bolt s are not a s in the former ,
case subj ect to tensional s tress and as the shell plating above and
, ,
belo w i s united to the brackets and to the p ost aba ft them by independent
rivet s the rigidity of the fixture is greatly increased The bolts are hove
, .
up with large nuts and of course all faying sur face s are carefully
, , ,
machined The struts are usually inclined downwards s o that the bos s ing
.
o f the hull may be normal to the general transverse slope of the shell and ,
thus while giving the necessary outreach have the minimum proj ection
, , .
When there is no aperture in the stern frame the brackets are usually made
-
in one piece and to secure a thorough incorporation with the hull are formed
, , ,
with a flange to take the shell plating and with large transverse web s to
,
take two or three of the vessel s floors specially strengthened fo r the

’
,
purpose ( P late These brackets may b e exceedingly large and

massive .
[Ar t 26.3
C H A P TER XX .
Ar t 2 6 3
. A r u d d e r consists
. essentially o f two parts the body or bla de ,
and the slack or ma i n p i ece see

(Fig 2 P late The former provide s the .
,
necessary surface for the impinging action and side pressure of the water ,
and the latter forms the axis or sha ft through which the turning force of the
steering gear is transmitted to the body The upper part of the main .
piece where clear of the body is termed the lzea d ; this part su ffers the
, ,
same tor s ional force throughout and is there fore made of parallel diameter , , ,
from its j unction with the body to it s lower end or heel it is gradually , ,
relieved o f the torsional stress fo r it transmits it to the b ody and accord , , ,
i n gly thi s part is tapered from 3 5 to 5 0 pe r cent ( in sectional area )

, ,
.
,
according to th e type of rudder The main piece is pivoted to the stern .
“
post by the p i n tles which work in s ockets termed gzcdgeon s or br a ces
, ,
”
projecting from the post .
When the rudder lies fore and aft the water flowin g pa s t it causes no
- -
, , ,
more pressure on one side than the other When turned so that one side .
,
is opposed to the stream that side experiences an excess of pressure which

of course is the unbalanced force that —by pushing round the stern — causes
, , ,
the vessel to swerve from her course The side pressure increa s es the .
more directly the rudder opposes itsel f to the fore and a ft flow of the water - -
,
but although it is therefore greatest when the rudder is tu rned quite

, ,
athwartship its effect in giving a lateral push to the stern is not then at a
,
maximum The precise an gle at which a rudder exercises its greatest

.
steering e ffect varies in different vessels it lies between 3 0 and 4 5 degrees ,
and in practice provision is usually made for rotation to the extent of

4 0 or 4 5 degrees on either side .
The water pressure experienced by the rudder is propo rtional to it s

area but is little affected by its form or contour O n the other hand the
, .
,
t o r s i o n a l o r t w i s t i n g e ffe c t o n t h e h e a d i s greatly influenced by the

form of the rudder ; in one of ba la nced type there may b e none at all ; in ,
others it increases the more the area is spread out abaft the axis for of , ,
course the water then acts at a greater leverage The water pressure on a
, .
rudder depends of course on the vessel s speed it i s usually taken to vary ’
as the square o f the speed— an assumption only correct in the ca s e o f a

, ,
completely submerged surface I t also depen ds on the angle of the ru dder .

,
but as just seen the maximum angle is practically the same in all vessels
, , .
I n smooth water the torsional s tress on the rudder head depe nds therefore
, , ,
on the area of the rudder the distance o f the centre of gravity o f the area
,
fro m the centre o f the pintles ( in similar rudders this is a constant

proportion of the breadth ) and on the vessel s speed ; con s equently if
,
’
wave influences be neglected the diameter of the rudder head would ,
be properly decided b y these matters alone without reference to the ,
vessel s size I n sea going vessels however the mo s t severe stresses are
’
.
-
, ,
incurred in heavy weather by blows from the waves whose intensity may
, ,
be little influenced by the vessel s speed so that in deciding the s ize o f the ’
,
Ar t 26 3
24 6 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[ .
stresses which the rudder may experience due to the fact that the upper ,
part is exposed to blows from surface waves whose straining e ffects are the ,
most critical While maintaining the same depth and area and therefore
. , , ,
the same turning e fle ct on the ship a rudder o f rectangular form would ,
sufler the least bending and torsional stress for the moment or leverage of
"
the water pressure is then at its smallest A rectangular form is commonly .
adopted in light draught steamers and in large twin screw ocean liners and
-
,
-
warships in which the rudder is shallow compared with the vessel s length
,
’
( Fig 8. P late ,
I n warships the rudder is entirely submerged to secure ,
under water steering gear and to protect it as far as practicable from

-
sur face waves I n twin screw vessels a broad rudder is advantageous

.
-
,
because when put over to port or s tarboard it passes well into the propeller
, ,
race where the impinging e ffect of the rapidly flowing water gives it
,
superior steering power Screw steamers may of course be turned round

.
, ,
even when without headway by the pre ss ure of the water as it is thrown ,
a ft or pulled forward against the r udder by the propeller .
A r t 2 6 4 The r u d d er a r e a of merchant vessels is not decided by

. .
theoretical considerations ; even in sister ships it may vary and yet both ,
may steer satisfactorily E xperience is relied on as the safest guide ; a

.
rudder found to give good results in any particular ship is used as a basis
for others of similar size The t u rn i n g e ffe c t o f t h e r u d d e r in any
.
particular ship depends on several circumstances more or less variable , ,
and whose precise influence is uncertain —on the length draught and trim , ,
of the ship on the fineness or fullness of her after waterlines and on the
,
form of her heel and fore foot it also depends on the distribution of the
-
cargo if all for in s tance were concentrated amidships the vessel would be
, , ,
more sensitive and quicker in turning than if it were all stowed at the ends .
Taking the rudder o f a small ship as a basis that of a large one is small in ,
proportion to her dimensions and smaller than a theoretical consideration ,
of all the governing elements would indicate as proper ; hence the familiar
circumstance that a large vessel obeys the helm less smartly than a small
one I n practice a deficiency in the size of the rudder may be little noticed
.
,
for it may be met by simply t u rning it through a larger angle than might
otherwise be necessary which with powerful and quick actin g gear is , ,
-
,
a circumstance of little importance except perhaps at a critica l moment , , , ,
when a danger might be avoided by great rapidity in man oeuvring I n many .
cases when a rudder is found to b e too s mall the deficiency is made good
, ,
by adding an extension piece to the existing blade A lthough a rudder .
may be su ffi ciently large to give ample turning power at ordinary speeds ,
it may be insufficient at low speeds and especially when in shallow water ,

.
I n passing through the S u e z C a n a l for instance the speed m u st be low , , ,
and yet to avoid ru nning ashore it is important that the steering qualities
, ,
should be good ; accordingly vessels which navigate the canal usually ,
carry a detachable extension for the rudder which may be readily affixed ,
to the upper part of the bow ( see Fig 5 P late .

,
A r t 2 6 5 I n a b a l an c e d r u d d e r ( Fig 1 1 P late 3 9 and P lates 4 3

. . .
, ,
and 4 4) part o f the surface is before the axis so that the water pressure ,
on this portion counterbalances that on the a fter part I f per fectly balanced .
,
the rudder would remain s tationary at any angle without external restraint ,
from the tiller But a per fect balance is not obtainable for i f balanced
.
,
for one angle it is not so fo r another A t an angle of 9 0 degrees for .

,
i nstance when the rudder is sq uare to the impinging water the axis in a
, , ,
rectangular ru dder wo uld be in the centre for smaller angles it would be

,
nearer the forward edge and nearer and nearer the smaller the angle thus
,
at 4 0 degrees a balance would be secured i f it were distant there from about

Ar t 26 6 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P E UI L DI N G . 2 47
40 per cent of the breadth of the rudder and at 1 0 degrees when distant
.
,
2
5 per cent T his is due to .the circum s tance that while the forward ,
portion of the rudder meets an undisturbed fore and aft stream o f water - -
,
the after part encounters the same water but so thrown out o f its normal ,
cou rse by the for ward part that its impinging effect is less forcible 1
In .
actual rudders the position o f the axis varies ; in cases where only a
partial balance is sought only a small portion of the area may be placed
before the axis in warships one third is the general allowance -
.
The u s e o f b a l an c e d r u d d e r s is confined almo s t entirely to twin

scre w war s hip s in which to secure quick man oeuvring power it is essential
, , ,
that the rudder should be large and yet be ea s ily and rapidly turned ( one
for a single screw vessel of turret deck type is shown P late
- I f well ,
-
,
balanced then however large it s area the force necessary to turn it is

, , ,
small ; when first adopted only ha nd steering gear was employed and -
, ,
consequently its advantages were then enormous Thus in H M S

,
.
,
. . .
Ill i n ola nr having an ordinary rudder it took seventy eight men one and a
, ,
-
hal f minutes to turn it through 2 3 degrees whereas in H M S B eller op /zon . . . ,
having a balanced rudder o f 2 5 per cent greater area and sailing at the .
,
same speed it took only eight men twenty seconds to turn it through 3 7
,
degrees With the introduction o f steam steering gear the advantages

.
2
,
o f the balanced type o f rudder became less pronounced Thus in the .

,
case of H M S Ill i n ola nr when her rudder was controlled by steam gear
. . .
, ,
it took two men only s ixteen seconds to turn it through 3 5 degree s .
N evertheless in warships the advantages o f a balanced rudder are st i ll

, ,
important for the smaller force required to turn it permits o f i ts

,
being readily worked by hand should the steam gear become inoperat i ve .
A lthough when steaming ahead little or no force may be required to turn

, ,
and hold a balanced rudder it is not so when steaming astern it then ,
behaves much like a rudder of ordinary type if it coul d be turned com

p le t e ly round its characteristic s would
,
be unchanged O n account of th is . ,
the head o f a balanced rudder is made little if any smaller than that of an , ,
ordinary one .
A r t 2 6 6 O f ordina ry r u d d er s there are t w o d i st i n c t t yp es : the

. .
e and the cen tr e or si n le la le the older or side plate var i ety

.
si dep la c I
g p
- - -
n .
,
( Figs 2 and
.
3 P late the entire rudder ,
is formed in outline by a sol id
frame forged or cast composed of the m a i n p i ece the bow and the un i t i ng
, , , ,
slay s or a r ms ; and on either side o f it there is riveted a thin plate A .
single plate r udder ( Fig 1 P late 40 and P lates 4 1 4 2 and 4 4) is formed

-
.
, , , ,
o f one thick plate which is held to the main piece by arms proj ect i ng ,
therefrom on either side o f the plate .
A lthough in a s i d e p l a t e r u dd e r the plates are thin they never

,
-
, , ,
the le ss contribute great strength and sti ffnes s to the rudder

,
To apprec i ate .
their capabilities in this respect imagine a rudder consisting of the stock ,
and one s ide plate only ( Fig 5 P late 3 9) and suppose it to be held hard
-
.
,
over by the tiller with a stream o f water impinging upon it I t i s at once

,
.
evident that the thin flexible plate would yield greatly to the water I f ,
.
now a second plate be connected to the other side o f the stock ( Fi g .
the first in b ending would bear against it and cause it to bend also A s
, , ,
.
the resistance is now that o f two plates the sti ffness of the rudder would ,
be doubled but poor in the fi rst instance it would still be very i nferi or
, , ,
.
I t will be observed that as a result o f the b ending the edges o f the plate s , ,
are no longer opposite each other one of them has crept forward I f now ,
.
, ,
t iki gly i ll u t t d i P P d t ’
1
Thi ff t i s e ec f H l Sh w p p
s s r n s ra e n r o e sso r e e- a s a e r, r ess u r e ue o
fl o w r ou n d s u bmerg ed s u r a ces , f
”
Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on
.
f
o N a v m
a l A r c/ ecl s ,
‘
1 90 0 .
2
See Si r W . H . Whi te s ’
N a v a l A r c/z i lecln r e, ”
p age 6 6 6 .
S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 26 6
[ .
this sliding movement were prevented the conditions would at once be so ,
altered as enormou sly to increase the strength and sti ffness The desired .
e ffect might be secured by riveting the marginal parts o f the plates directly
together or better by interposing a distance piece such as is formed by
, , , ,
the r udder bow ( Fig When so arranged the plates being no longer
. ,
independent can have no relative sliding movement the one still tends to
, ,
creep forward on the other ; but to do so it must pull the distance piece ,
or ho w with it and thus compress or buckle the other plate ; and i f this
, ,
did not buckle the pulling plate in endeavouring to make it do so would

, , ,
stretch that is to s ay while the one plate would su ffer tension the other
-
, ,
would suffer compression I t is evident therefore that the resistance .

, ,
o ffered by the rudder to side bending would now b e o f qui te a di fferent

character to that which it offered when the plates were detached then it
was measured by that o f two thin plates to lateral b ending but now b y ,
their resistance to stretchin g or compressing as a whole .
I f the plates were united only by the bow and stock they might under , ,
excessive stress fail to c o operate fo r the one which su ffered compression

,
-
,
might collap s e against the other when of cour s e their resistance would , , ,
again become that of two detached plates I n practice thi s i s prevented .
by the horizontal a rms fitted at intervals between the main piece and b ow .
The strengthening e ffect o f the side plate s is proportional to the distance

between them and their sti ffening e ffect as the square of such distance
,
that is to say if the stock and bo w were twice as thick transversely the
, , ,
same plates would have double the strengthening and four times the ,
sti ffening e ffect .
I t is not o f course the side plates alone that constitute the strength of
, ,
the rudder fo r the massive frame it s el f may be capable of giving a ll the

,
required resistance The turning e ffect o f the tiller is transmitted down

.
the stock and o f course much o f it is conveyed to the body of the rudder
, , ,
by the bow and radial arms ; but as the plates are on the outside they ,
receive the brunt o f the bending stress just as the upper and lower layers ,
of a loaded beam are the most strained and the first to fail Their .
capabilities however are often greatly prejudiced by i n sufli c ien t or defective

, ,
‘
riveting fo r they are only held to the bow and stock by a single row of
,
rivets and these are s ometime s unsound due to the holes in the plate s not
, ,
being coincident with those in the forging or to the rivets being insufficiently ,
staved up to fill the holes in the latter The liability o f the rudder rivets .
to loosen is constantly observed ; it is due of course to the severe stresses , ,
a ffecting them coupled in many cases with their own defectiveness

, , ,
.
Those in the middle of the h o w are usually the first to fail for here the ,
pushing and pulling e ffect of the plates i s most intense ; when many con
se c uti v e rivets have loosened the frame being deprived o f the strengthening , ,
e ffect of the plates is very apt to break in the b ow or arms I n large

, .
rudders the plates are now o ften connected to the bow and stock by a
double row o f rivets thus ensuring ample strength , .
Ar t 2 6 7
. I n a s i n gl e p l a t e r u d d e r ( P late 4 1 ) the plate is from
.
-
two to three times as thick as those of a side plate rudder varying from -
,
5 nch in a s mall vessel to 1 3; inch in the largest As the plate has no

i .
direct connection with the stock it is evident that the torsional force of ,
t h e latter can only be conveyed to it by the arms they alone turn i t a n d ,
hold it against the impinging water This circumstance constitutes a ve ry .
important di fference between the centre and side plate type of rudder i n -
the latter the two plates give substantial assistance to the frame ; i n the ,
former the plate only ac ts un de r the impulse of the arms H ere there fore .
, ,
the latter have a special duty fo r which owing to their comparative thinness , , ,
2 50 P RA C TI CA L SH IPE UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 26 7 .
this wa s insufficient To secure a maximum of s ti ff ne s s in the s tock it is

. ,
not tapered so much towards the heel as that of a side plate rudder ; in the -
latter the taper amounts to about 5 0 per cent in sect i onal area and m the .
,
former 3 5 or 4 5 per cent according as the frame i s Soll d or built .

,
.
C o m p a r i n g t h e s i d e p l a t e w i t h t h e s i n gl e p l a t e t yp e o f -
,
-
r u d d er the principal advantage o f the latter is that it has no inaccessible

,
interior and is little a ffected by wear and tear I t may b e observed that
,
.
although many of the earlier rudders of this type proved weak tho s e ,
now constructed are perfectly strong the sizes o f the various parts being ,
much greater than formerly I n a side plate rudder the e ffect of corrosion .
-
sooner or later demands repairs re riveting or renewal of the plates but

'
-
,
i f the r iveting i s sound and su fficient and if the plates are substantial and ,
are kept well coated this may be po s tponed almost indefinitely Weight ,
.
for weight a side plate rudder has the advantage of s uperior strength and
,
-
rigidity and it is less costly

,
.
A rt 2 6 8 A nother distinct type o f rudder is formed of o n e s t e e l

c a s t i n g—body and stock To avoid irregular s hrinkage the body need
. .
.
,
not be provided with sti ffening ribs the necessary strength being s ecured ,
by giving it ample thickne s s especially towards the main piece Such , .
rudders are difficult to cast especially when of large size for the stresses , ,
set up in cooling are so severe that i f they do not fracture they warp , ,
badly They are advantageou s in that once cast they are practically
. , ,
finished They are suitable for small vessels but have not as yet inspired
.
, , ,
much confidence I n some large modern ocean liners the rudder is of

.
, ,
ca s t steel in several segments connected by hori z ontal flange couplings the

, , ,
flange s giving great lateral strength and sti ff ness to the body .
A rt 2 6 9 . R u d d er fr a m e s whether o f side or centre plate type

.
,
-
,
may either b e fo r ge d o r c a s t When forged the di fferent part s are made .
separately and are then welded together ; the usual p o s i t i on o f t h e

,
w e ld s is shown in Fig 4 P late 3 9 and Fig 2 P late 4 0 . I n small , ,

.
,
.
rudders the stock may b e forged in one piece without weld s 3 but when ,
large the head portion i s made separately so that it may be conveniently ,
turned ; and it may then b e either welded or j o i n t e d by a c o u p li n g to

the remainder I n a ca s t s teel rudder the frame m ay be cast in one piece
.
-
,
but if large the head is cast separately for the ab ove reasons and as cast ,
steel is not welded the two parts are united by a flange coupling Several
, .
method s of arranging the couplings are shown in Fig 4 P late 3 9 ; Fig 1 .

, .
,
P late 4 0 and P lates 4 1 and 4 2 The couplings shown in Figs 7 and 8 . .

,
P late 4 2 permit of the lower part o f the rudder being li fted — fo r repairing
the pintles —without disturb ing the tiller and steering gear The flanges o f
,
the coupling are o f course machined so that their faces may fit accurately
, , ,
together and in the horizontal variety to relieve the bolts of the torsional
, , ,
force a key s haped projection i s formed on one of the parts and fits in
,
-
,
a groove in the other but more usually grooves are formed in both and a , ,
key fixed in one of them by studs The bolts o f course are turned so as .
, ,
to fit accurately in their holes Their combined sectional area may be less .
than that o f the rudder head for owing to their distance from the axis o f , ,
the latter their leverage or moment of resistance is greater than that o f the
,
material o f the head Although a well fi tted locking key greatly assists .
-
the bolts the circumstance is regarded rather as a means of increasing

,
the rigidity and security of the j oint than as one permitting of a reduction
in the size or number of the bolts .
I n ca s ting the frame o f a side plate rudder the b o w is a source o f -

,
troubl e fo r being slender it cools more rapidly than the stock and so by
, , , , ,
contracting at an earlier period tends to pull the s tock — still hot and so ft ,
Ar t 27 2]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 25!
out of line To avoid this one or t wo breaks or openings are introduced

.
,
in the ho w its continuity being made good subsequently by neatly fitted

,
scarphing pieces ( P late 4 3 ) and proj ecting lugs may be cast on the bow to
ensure a good connection ( see Fig 4 P late .
,
A r t 2 7 0 The s i d e p l a t e s should be in one length ; but when large

. .
plates are not obtainable they may be butt jointed in the middle on ,
-
,
one of the arms increased in breadth to take the two rows of rivets ,
.
A butted j oint is objectio n able however for as it is rapidly a ff ected by , , ,
corrosion it soon becomes an open crevice The rudder is peculiarly

, .
subj ect to c o rr o s i on particularly in screw steamer s owing to the back , ,
wash o f the propeller A similar e ffect is observed in the honeycombing o f .
the back surface of iron or steel propeller blades ; here it is remarkable ,
but as yet it s precise cause is not properly understood The rivets are the .
first to su ffer their heads and points rapidly disappearing ; to minimize the
,
evil the holes in the plates are countersunk and the heads and points left
,
full L loyd s rules require the rivets in side plate rudders to be the same
.
’
-
diameter as those in the thick garboard plate s and to be spaced 5 diameters ,
apart The plates if not well coated also corrode rapidly especially at
.
, , ,
their margins ; they should therefore be sub s tantial ; Lloyd s rules require , ,
’
them to b e of the same thickness as the lower plates of the bulkheads .
Formerly the a fter edges of the plates were extended so as to project

2 or 3 inches beyond the bow ; this was thought to have a steadying
influence on the rudder and to check side jarring ,
.
Th e r u d d e r i s c a r e f u lly c a u lk e d so that water may not enter and ,

s et up internal corrosion but in most cases this measure is ineffectual for , ,
the inevitable corrosion o f the rivets and plate edges soon provides an
entrance To minimize the evil it was formerly the invariable practice to
.
,
fi ll t h e i n t e ri o r with water e xcluding material ; sometimes wood was -
employed otherwise a concrete of portland cement and coke or tar and

, ,
coke N o w fillings are o ften dispensed with When adopted the material
.
, . ,
should b e so dense and well packed as to exclude all water and it should ,
be light so as to minimize the weight and friction of the rudder Wood

,
.
is objectionable for it is liable to decay ; cement or tar concretes are

,
permanent and have an anti corrosive influence on the plates To fill the
,
-
.
rudder it is laid on its side with the lower plate in place the upper one
, ,
being put on subsequently Sometimes in order thoroughly to fill the .

,
interior cement or tar is injected by a force pump through a hole i n

,
the plating I f wood i s employed It should be well bedded in red lead

.
,
.
A r t 2 7 1 I n a s i n gl e p l a t e r u dd e r in which the frame is a forg i ng

.
-
,
the gr o o v e — i f there is one —may be machined in the stock before the

.
arms are welded on in which case a good fit for the plate may be secured ,
.
I f a c asting the groove is cast in the main piece and not being subsequently
, , ,
machined the fi t of the plate is u s ually imperfect Sometimes considerable

, .
di fficulty i s experienced in introducing the plate b etween the arms and its ,
forward edge into the groove owing to the arms not lying perfectly fa i r i n , ,
two parallel planes or to the edge of the plate being twisted as regards the
,
groove To force it into place rigging screw s are employed and as a

.
, , ,
result the rudder stock may b e strained and distorted thus thro wmg the
-
—
, ,
—
pintles out o f line To avoid this the groove i f not dispensed th l s .
W i
,
u sually made an easy fit for the plate tightness being secured afterwards ,
by caulking ; in this case however it is evident that its use fulness i n , ,
s ti ffening the stock disappears in great measure .
A r t 27 2 The r u d d e r p i n t l e s should be strong and numerous for

. . ,
they alone hold the rudder against side shocks from the waves i f weak or ,
fe w in number they would be unduly strained and might fracture become

, , ,
2 52 .
[ .
loose or su ffer rapid wear ; also the stock when held only at wide i n te rv als
, , , ,
might be insufficiently supported Their diameter is usually half that of .
the rudder head their distance apart varying from 4 feet in a small rudder
-
,
to 65 feet in a large one A s they form unyielding points in the stock i t .

,
is here that the arms of the rudder frame should be placed Th e uppermost -
.
pintle should be placed as high as possible ( but not so high as to prej ud i ce

the s tren gth of the frame at the junction o f the head and body ) so as to ,
reduce the length of the unsupported rudder head This has a bear i ng at
.
-
.
the upper deck but the distance from here to the first pintle may b e very
,
considerable and though the head su ffers no side stresses its great length
, ,
between bearings would reduce its e fficiency under intense torsional stress .
I n large vessels there is often an intermediate bearing at the top f the

o
transom floor and in s ome cases a band is fitted around the head just
,
below the counter .
I t is very important that the p i n t l e s and the holes in the sternpost

gudgeons should be p r e c i s ely i n li n e with one another I f unfair then .
,
as on e or two of the pintles would press constantly on one side of the

gudgeons they would soon wear oval and at the same time wear oval the
, , , ,
gudgeon holes A lso alone taking contact they might should the rudder
-
.
, , ,
be s truck by a heavy sea su ffer excessive stress not infrequently they are ,
broken from this cause Th e hole s in the rudder gudgeons are usually .
bored before the stern frame i s erected Formerly in the case of sailing -
.
,
ships they were bored after the post was erected and the shell plating
,
riveted to it the centres of the holes being accurately lined o ff by a

,
stretched wire and sights This practice was adopted in order to avo rd
.
the chance o f the holes being thrown out of line by twi s ting of the post
during the riveting operation I f the post is a casting the holes in the .
,
gudgeons are cast about 5 inch smaller than the finished size b eing ,
enlarged subsequently by a long boring bar and cutter the bar passing ,
through the holes and being accurately adjusted in line .
“
Formerly the p le s were always s oli d i e they were forged in
i n t ”
, . .
-
one with the rudder frame ( Fig 2 P late 4 0 ) but now except in small -
.
, ,
“
rudders they are practically always fi t t e d a s separate parts ( Fig
,
”
.
Fitted pintles are superior in that they may be accurately turned and be , ,
readily rene wed should they break or become worn The solid pintles of .
an old vessel usually require renewal at some time or o t her on account ,
of exce s sive wear ; the som ewhat clumsy method of doing so is shown in
Fig 5 When constructing a rudder with solid pintles the latter are
. .
usually chipped into cylindrical form by hand so that their accuracy of ,
form is necessarily inferior Solid pintles have the advantage of never .
w rki ng s lack and if originally in line and well bushed they are perfectly
e fzC i ent
, , ,
.
F i t t e d p i n t l e s must be fixed with absolute tightnes s o the rwi se the ‘
long continued jarring would soon loosen them There are two methods
-
—
.
of fi x tur e the c yli n d r i c al and the t a p er e d I n the former ( Fig 3 . .

,
P late the hole in the 5 7mg (i e the projection provided on the rudder . .
stock ) is bored a tight fit fo r the pintle which is then driven in until it s ,
shoulder bears on the snug its upper end being clenched around the edge , .
O therwise instead o f driving them up they may b e shrunk in the snug s

, , ,
being heated to enlarge the holes sufficiently to take the pintles ( which are
made a size large) when o f course the subsequent contraction nip s them
, , , ,
Wi th immense tightness I f the holes are accurately bored with a smooth.
surface shrunk i n pintles cannot work slack but o f course they can not
,
-
, ,
,
readily be taken out fo r re turning re bushing or renewal To permit -

,
-
, .
o f th i s it is usual to taper the pintles and heave them up in tapered

,
,
[Ar t 27 3 .
hove up as require d I n heavy rudders to reduce the friction and rapid

.
,
w ear two or more of the pintles may be arranged to take a share o f the
,
weight the holes in their particular gu dgeons not being bored through
,
.
When to avoid li fting the rudder the gu dgeon bushes are arranged to with
, ,
draw from below ( see Fig 6 P late this method o f supporting the
.
,
rudder is inapplicable ; in wh ich case the ordinary snugs may be arranged

to bear upon their gudgeons a n n u l ar d i sc s o f W h i t e m e t a l be ing intro
,
duc e d to take the wear and reduce friction ( Fi g This is an excellent .
method and may be employed advantageously in all rudders I n some

,
.
rudders the p i n t le s have c o n i c a l e n d s which rest in correspondingly ,
formed discs each having a small axial hole to guide the pintles as they
,
wear ( see Fig 2 P late By this formation side jarring of the rudder
.
,
is prevented independently o f the condition o f the bushing ; but as the

pintles only take contact at the bottom the side stresses by acting on them , ,
with considerable leverage may have a marked side bending tendency and ,
-
,
may thus more readily loosen them ordinary pintle s bear in the gu dgeons
right up to their root so that side stres s es have a shearing rather tha n a
,
bending e ffect with strong short pintles however it is an excellent plan , , , .
I n some vessels the r u d d e r is u p b o rn e fr o m w i t h i n t h e h u ll Th e .
bearing may take the for m of two collars on the rudder head ( Fig 4 P late .
,
in way of the deck bearing the latter being formed with a proj ecting ,
annular flange to fit between the two collars in such a way as not only to ,
take the weight o f the rudder but to lock it against rising For ordinary , .
rudders there i s little or no advantage in such internal support ; a large

bearing s urface is secured accessible for lubrication but with steam steerin g
, ,
gear the small fric tion o f the rudder is not prej udicial I n the case of a .
b al a n c e d r u d d e r such as is fitted in war s hips an internal s upport may b e ,
necessary I n the rudder shown in P late 4 3 there is only one pintle at the
.
,
heel this takes no weight the s ole piece of the ste rn frame in which it works
,
-
being intended merely to hold it again s t side stresses fo r which duty it is fitted ,
by forming it as a flat web or hori z ontal fin The i n t e rn a l b e ar i n g is .
here formed by an annular surface or flange on the bottom of the tiller or

cro s s head which rests on a corresponding su rface S on the top of the
,
sternpost I f the rudder is very heavy conical roller bearings may be

.
,
fitted between the su rfaces otherwise they merely slide upon one another, ,
a projecting lip on the lower one serving to retain the lubricant I n the .
balanced rudder shown in P late 4 4 there are three bearings inclu ding the ,
heel pintle and the lower of the two bearings ( a detail sketch of which
,
is given ) takes all the weight or may share it with the heel , .
A r t 2 7 4 Th e ru d d e r must b e held down or l o c k e d to prevent it

. .
, ,
from jumping up and perhaps unshipping itsel f With fitted pintles the .
usual plan is to form one or two of them with a head on the lower end
( these particular pintles being inserted a fter the rudder is shipped ) which , ,
should the rudder rise takes contact with the b ottom o f the gu dgeon ( see
,
Fig 1 P late
.
,
I f at any time it is required to unship the rudder it
, , ,
shoul d be po s sible to do s o without dry docking the vessel for in foreign -
ports there may be no dock and even i f there were it m ight not be ,
possible to unship the ru dder for when its heel was on the bottom of the ,
dock its lo n g head might still b e within the hull ( to meet s uch ca s es ,
some d o cks are provided with a deep hole or pit) A ccordingly with this .
,
in view the lo c k i n g p i n t l e s should evidently be the uppermo s t so that

, ,
they may be withdrawn when the vessel is floating at load dra ught ; if
below water a diver would have to be employed With solid or shrunk
, .
i h pintles a small projecting bracket is b olted to the rudder stock

, ,
below the upper gu dgeon or to the stern post above the upper rudder snu g
, .
Art 27 5 ] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 2 55
O therwise , the Space between the stock and the sternpost and the two
upper pintles is filled by a piece of hard wood ( held in place by cheek
plates bolted to the rudder stock ) or by a single trough section plate I n ,
-
.
some rudders to reduce the water disturbance fillings are introduced in

, ,
the vacant spaces between the pintles but their upper ends should be cut ,
short all but that o f the upper one so that the rudder may be li fted with
, ,
out their removal .
Ar t 2 7 5 I f the r u d d e r when struck by a wave were fr e e t o s w i n g

. .
, ,
r o u n d ( through a breakdown of the steering gear it would if it did n ot

) , ,
foul the propeller be brought up by the stock jamming against the stern
,
post and as a result its pintles might su ffer severe stres s— j ust as would
, , ,
the hinges of a door if swung open beyond a certain point To provide .
again s t this s t o p s are fitted ( see Fig 4 P late 4 1 and Fig s 2 3 and 4
, .
, ,
.
, , ,
P late These are small proj ection s on the rudder stock and s tern post ,
( one or the other or both) the face s of which take conta ct when the rudder
, ,
has reached its maximum angle A s they are very near the axis of the .
pintles their stopping force is exerted with s mall leverage and so they
, ,
are naturally very ine fficient in arresting forcible movement Their arm
or leverage— which measure s their capabilitie s — is the distance squarely
.
measured between a line perpendicular to the face of the stop and the
central axis of the pintles ( the distance AB Figs 2 3 and 4 P late , .
, , ,
To secure the greatest leverage there fore it is evident that the fa c e s o f , ,
t h e s t o p s s h o u ld b e d i s p o s e d r a d i a lly t o t h e p i n t le s that they ,

should extend well out transversely and that they should b e so formed ,
that contact may occur towards the outer edge These matters are o ften .
neglected ; in s ome cases as shown in Fig 4 P late 4 1 and Fig 2 P late , .

, , .
,
4 2 the face of the s top is almost tangential to the pintle s so that there is
, ,
practically no leverage the two s urfaces taking contact by an indirect,
sliding or wedging movement productive o f the most intense side stres s ,
on the contiguous pintle I n some rudders th e back of the flange .
coupling is de s igned to act a s a s top ( Fig 1 P late but more usually .

,
they are placed in way of the snugs or gudgeons Large rudders are .
generally provided with two pairs o f stops an upper and a lower which , ,
minimizes the stre ss es on the pintle s and distributes the twisting e ffect on
the rudder .
I n view of the ine ffi cien cy of rudder post s t o p s it i s usual to fit -

,
others o n d e c k in the form of a chock or bracket securely bolted to
, ,
plating on the beams in such position that they may take contact at the
, ,
proper angle with the tiller or quadrant They are very e ffective fo r
, .
,
they act with a long leverage and cause no stres s on the pintles They .
are arranged to s top the rudder before the rudder post stop s come in to play -
,
so th at the latter serve merely as a sa feguard against the remote contingency

o f fracture of the tiller or rudder head I t is well that the steering engine .
should be arranged to stop automatically before the rudder is brought up

by the s tops otherwise the gear and the rudder head would b e uselessly
,
strained by the full power of the engine Also where a cushioning device .
,
is introduced between the engine and the rudder head ( Art the .
di fference between the hard over angle of the engine and that of the stops -
should still provide play for the cushioning e ffect A s already noticed the .
,
angle at which the rudder exerts the greatest steering e ffect on the s hip
is about 4 0 deg s An y movement beyond this Would therefore not only
.
, ,
be useless but might prejudice the ves s el s man oeuvring qualities owing to
,
’
,
the longer period occupied in shifting the helm from the bar d over points -
and further the greater range of movement would involve a larger steering
,
gear quadrant etc

, , .
2 56 .
[ .
Ar t 2 7 6 . u d d e r s of the type illu s trated in P late 4 3

. B al a n c e d r , ,
must be exceptionally strong fo r having no pintles between head and , ,
heel they derive no support from the sternpost against lateral bending
,
pressures which moreover owing to the exceptionally large area o f the

, , ,
rudder and the high speed of the vessel may b e specially severe The ,
.
frame is of cast steel formed usually as shown in P late 4 3 ,

The portion ,
.
representing the stock is made very wide so that it may withstand intense ,
side stresses The head also is large fo r not only is it liable to severe
.
,
torsional stress ( when the vessel is steaming full speed astern ) but it must ,
form a perfectly rigid pivot however intense the lateral force s tending to ,
bend the rudder between head and heel A balanced rudder c ommonly .
fitted in torpedo b oats is shown in Fig 1 1 P late 3 9 the lower part extends .
,
below and forward o f the rudder post to which it is pivoted in the usual ,
way A n d another design adopted in some single s crew turret deck steamers
.
- -
is shown in P late 4 4 .
A r t 27 7 C r o s s c h a n n el p a dd l e s t e a m e r s which m u st go a s tern
. .
-
when entering or leaving narrow and exposed harbours are usually pro ,
v i de d with an a u x i li a r y r u d d e r a t t h e b o w so that whether moving ,
ahead or astern their steering qualities may be maintained I t mu s t not

, .
proj ect like an ordinary rudder fo r with the vessel steamin g ahead at high ,
speed it could not endure the side shocks of the waves ; it i s there fore
, , ,
placed abaft the stem bar being so formed as to maintain the fairne s s of ,
the vessel s bow lines ( see Fig 1 2 P late

’
The stock i s of semi circular .
,
-
section fitting in a corresponding hollow in the post or h u ll abaft it ; and

,
the external stern bar forms a guard around it s forward edge I n order .
that when s teamin g full speed ahead ( when o f course only the stern rudder , ,
is used) it may be kept securely amidships a vertical locking bar is fitted ,
in the hull over it the lower end of which sockets in the upper part of the
,
rudder and which may be lifted from within a s required The rudder is
, .
controlled by a tiller and chains the latter leading to independent hand ,
or steam steering gear at the bow or on the bridge deck amidship s Some .
b ow r u dders are constructed of plates and bars as shown in Figs 9 and 1 0 , .
but the later one s of this type have only a centre plate and are built up on ,
each side with teak wood .
A r t 2 7 8 To prevent water entering the hull where the r u d d e r head

. .
pierces the counter the h e a d i s e n c a se d i n a w a t e r t i gh t t u b e termed

, ,
“ ” “
the r u d d er c a s i n g t u be ”
or tr u n k ”
I f thi s extended to the
, ,
. .
weather deck then of course although water might pa s s up or down it

, , , ,
could not enter the hull ( see Fig 2 P late 3 3 and Fig 1 P late If .
, , .
,
a stu ffi ng box were fitted on the counter plating around the rudder head ,
a tube might be di s pensed with but this is hardly fea s ible owing to the ,
di fficulty of access ; in warships it is the usual plan but here of course , , ,
the design is di fferent in many respect s ( Fig 8 P late 3 9 and P late .

, ,
Th e trunk must be considerably larger— fore and aft— than the rudder
head for when it is required to unship the ru dder it mu s t be drawn
, ,
backwards s o that it s pintle s may clear the gudgeon s ; as it need not

,
be large at the top it is u s ually tapered , .
I f the trunk terminates at the top of the tran s om floor a s i s common , ,
two s t u ffi n g b o x e s are required one a t t h e t o p o f t h e t u b e to keep ,
out sea water and one around the rudder head where it pierces the weather
,
deck ( see Fig 4 P late 3 3 and Fig 2 P late .

, They not only act as , .
,
stuffing boxes but as b earings holding the ru dder head again st the stresses
, ,
in duced by the one sided pull of the tiller They may be formed like an
-
.
ordinary stuffing box as shown at A Fig 2 and in Fig 3 P late 4 5 but , , .

, .
, ,
when watertightness is not essential the us u al arrangement is that shown in ,

58 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
C H A P TE R XX I .
Ar t . For constr uctive purposes s teel or iron is in every respect

27 9 .
,
superior to wood ; the most distinguishing feature however is the facility , ,
with which the component parts may be united by ri v e t i n g and with ,
such e fficien cy that the stren gth across the j oints may be little i f at all , ,
in ferior to what it is elsewhere I n j o i n t i n g t i m b e r by scarphing and .

,
bolting the e fficiency o f the connection is very poor ; it i s impossible to

,
obtain at the j oints strength or rigidity in any way representing that of

, ,
the intact log for when subj ected to stress now tensile now compressive
, , , , ,
the so ft wood gives way under the cutting pressure of the s mall hard ,
b olts so that the parts may strain and slide over each other O n this
,
.
ac c o uift not many of the various lengths composing the di fferent parts
,
of a wooden hull are directly connected ; each frame for in s tance is , ,
composed of two timb ers placed alongside each of which is made up o f ,
short pieces merely butt j ointed ; but as the joints of the one are placed
,
midway between those of the other the absolute weakness of either at its ,
j oints is compensated by the full strength prevailing here in the other

, .
A s a rule only important parts such as the keel keelson shelves etc , , , .
,
are j ointed by scarphing and bolting for as these stand alone in large , ,
single logs an unconnected joint would b e a point o f absolute weakness

, .
The gr eater portion of the numerous minor fastenings in a wooden hull

are in the form of treenails i e cylindrical pegs of hard wood from 1 to ,
. .
,
1 } inches diameter
7 these are better than b olts in that not being so hard ,
and small they do not so readily cut into the wood enlarge the holes and
, , ,
work s lack They are apt to decay however which is a serious matter
.
, , .
A r t 2 8 0 Th e method o f j o i n t i n g a n gle b ar s is shown in Figs 7

. . .
and 8 P late 4 7 The ordinary mode o f connection is by a b o s o m p i e c e

, .
( Fig . I n order that when under a longitudinal pull there may

,
be no
weakness at the j oint the sectional area o f the bo s om piece should not
,
b e less than that of the bars connected at the weakest spot in either i e , , . .
across the rivet holes and the numb er o f rivets connecting it to each bar
should be such that their combined sectional area ( or more correctly , ,
their shearing strength ) is also not le s s than that o f the bar A s the .
flanges o f the bosom piece are narrower than those of the bar and as its ,
heel is cut away it must be considerably thicker to secure the same

,
sectional area in practice however ordinary bosom pieces are not usually , ,
made any thicker than the bars connected and consequently the tensile
‘
, , ,
strength is smaller at the joint tha n elsewhere ; but this is usually unim
portant fo r in most bars tensile s trength is subsidiary to sti ffness the
, ,
scantlings being in excess as regards the former Lloyd s rules requ ire at .
’
least six rivets i n the end of each of the two bars connected and in , ,
keelson angles that the bosom pieces shall not be shorter than two feet
, .
I n many ca ses instead o f fitting the joint piece in the bosom o f the bar
, ,
i t may be placed alon side as a b a c k

g p i e c e ( Fig This method is
, .
Ar t 280]
. P RA C T] CA L S H I P E UI L DI N G . 2 59
advantageous in that it red uces the number o f three ply rivets the back -
,
piece is more easily fitted ; its scantlings may b e the same as those of the
bar and its heel need not b e removed
, .
The importance o f high e ffi c i e n c y ( i e a degree o f strength approach . .
ing very nearly that of the intact bar) i n t h e en d j o i n t s o f angle bars ,
etc varies with the duty of the part I n some cases j oint pieces may
.
, .
b e omitted as fo r instance when the bar serves merely as a corner

, , ,
angle connecting parts of little or no structural importance ( such as

,
the side s o f deck houses or the double frame angles connecting bulk ,
heads to the shell decks and double bottom whose purpose is to

, , ,
secure rigidity and watertightness) or which are not subject to stresses ,
requiring perfect continuity of strength A s regards watertightness a well .

,
fitted joint may b e caulked more readily when not covered by a bosom
piece and by it s omission three ply riveting is avoided The j oints of
,
-
.
the upper deck gunwale bar amidships in long vessels should be specially
-
, , ,
e fficient ; the workmanship as regards closeness of fit and fairness of the ,
holes should be perfect the sectional area o f the bosom piece should be
, ,
equal to that of the gunwale bar and the rivets should be sufficiently ,
numerous to give the required shearing strength .
Th e j o i n t s o f b u lb a n gle b a r s such as are employed for the side

-
,
stringers etc are also connected by angle bosom pieces ( see Fig 1 0
,
.
, .
,
P late I n the case o f a stringer composed o f a b u l b p l a t e and

double angles the j oints o f the former may be connected as shown in Figs
, .
1 1 and 1 2 When scarphed as in Fig 1 1 Lloyd s rules require the

. .
,
’
length of the scarph to be twice the width of the bulb plate this method
involves tapered liners behind the angles and requires the removal of ,
part o f the bulb I t is evident that in the joints o f a keelson or part

.
,
subject to deflecting stress the scarphed portion whether it b e strapped or , ,
lapped should be long for if short the leverage on the terminal rivets
, ,
would be so great as readily to strain them ; with the same number o f

rivets their strength or moment o f resi s tance to a deflecting force increases
,
with the length o f the scarph When the bulb plate is j ointed with a .
strap ( see Fig this should of cour se be the full width of the s ame ;
.
, ,
and to pass it over the vertical flange of the angle bar it may either be
, ,
joggled or a flush surface secured by fitting a liner Sometimes only a .
narrow strap is fitted on the portion of the bulb plate which is clear o f
,
the angle ; this of course is improper it is done under the impression

, , ,
that as the angle bars cover part o f the butt they serve the purpose of a ,
strap fo r this portion but o f course a double duty is then imposed on

, , ,
them I n many cases instead of fitting a thick single strap it is pre ferred
.
, ,
to fit two o f half thickness one on either side ; b y placing the rivets in

, ,
double shear this makes a ve ry e fficient connection

,
.
With regard to the j o i n t s o f t h e c en t r e k e el s o n tho s e of the ,
vertical plate are treble riveted the ends being lapped or connected with ,
double straps ( Figs 1 to 6 P late A lapped j oint is the more simple

.
,
it involves tapered liners at each of the four angle bars ( Fig but when .
a slotting machine is available the plate may be tapered in way o f the ,
angles as shown in Fig 2 Sometimes instead of tapering the plate the

, . .
, ,
portion in way o f the angles is cut off ( Fig but as regards strength .
, ,
this arrangement is not commenda ble When the joints of the vertical .
plate are butted ( Fig L loyd s rules require the combined thickness
.
’
o f the two straps to be 3 5 inch greater than that o f the vertical plate
6
.
The straps may be joggle d between the angle bars ( Fig or liners may .
be introduced ( Fig 4) the latter plan is clumsy and makes all the rivet s
.
fiv e pliers
-
The j oints of the covering plate are treble riveted lapped or
.
,
[Ar t 28 0 .
strapped ; and in large keelsons having wide angle bars there should be
, , ,
four longitudinal rows o f rivets .
A r t 2 8 1 I f the various e n d j o i n t s in the structure of a ship were

. .
1
not points of w eaknes s their r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n whether cl ose together , ,
or wide apart would be unimportant but as they are points o f weakness

, , ,
their disposition requires care and attention I n wood ships where as .

, ,
already seen the joints are often absolutely weak a long distance between
, ,
“
contiguous ones or a go o d s h i ft as it is termed is essential to the
”
, , ,
strength o f the whole I n the early iron vessels in which the plates and .
,
bars were short and the j oints not so perfect as now a su fficient shi ft , ,
particularly amidships where the maximum longitudinal stresses prevail , ,
was o ften di fficult to secure I n modern steel vessels however the various .
, ,
part s are usually of such length that so per fect a shi ft may b e obtained as
to render comparatively unimportant any inherent weakness in individual
j oints O f course in any particular combination o f parts the influence o f
.
, ,
the disposition o f the j oints on the strength of the w hole varies much with
the character and duties o f the combination I n fore and aft parts such .
- -
,
as the shell plating ( Figs 3 and 4 P late 4 6 and P late decks and .
, ,
keelsons which are subj ect to longitudinal stresses the j oints— especially
, ,
amidships should b e so well distributed that two or more may not

-
comb ine to form one zig z ag line o f marked transverse weakness O n the .
other hand in parts such as the transverse frames bulkheads etc which
, , , .
,
are not subj ect to intense tensile stress the disposition o f the j oints is ,
much less important Nevertheless as a good shi ft is usually as easily .

,
ob tained as a bad one the securing of it should be s tudied in all parts , ,
however subsidiary .
Th e i n fl u e n c e o f t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e j o i n t s on t h e s t r e n gt h
o f a compound part such as the shell may be readily appreciated by ,
considering two conj oined strakes by themselves First consider the case .
shown in Fig 1 5 P late 4 6 in which the two end j o i n ts b ei n g unconnected

.
, , , ,
are absolutely weak H ere it is evident that the strength of the comb ination .
,
however remote the j oints cannot exceed that o f one plate ; in order , ,
however that it may b e even so much as this there must be a s u fficient

, ,
number o f edge rivets b etween the two j oints I f there were only one a s .
,
shown i n Fig 1 6 its resistance to shearing would evidently represent the

.
,
strength of the combination ; i f there were two the strength would be ,
doubled I t is clear there fore that to secure the maximum s trength

.
, ,
( which w ith unconnected j oints is that of one plate ) the numb er 0

, , ,
intervening edge rivets must b e such that their comb ined resistance to
shearing is at least equal to the tensile strength of one intact plate I n .
Fig 1 5 the sectional area o f each plate ( less t hat removed by one ri vet
.
,
hole ) is 1 1 square inches and as that o f the 1 4 1 inch e dge rivets is als o ,
-
1 1 square inches the strength of the combination is the same whether

, ,
when pulled asunder the fracture go es straight across as shown in Fig 1 7 , , .

,
or in seeking to avail itsel f of the weakness at th e other j oint it shear s

, ,
the 1 4 rivets as shown in Fig 1 8 O bserve that mere distance betwee n

, . .
the j oints does not a ffect the strength i f the seam were double riveted i t
might b e reduced by half fo r there would still be the same number o f ,
interveni n g rivet s .
The preci s e use fulness of an edge union in increasing the strength 0 ,
two parts which together resist tensile stress i s forcibly illustrated in Figs , .
5 to 1 1 P late 4 6 which depict two three stranded ropes sustaining a singl e

, ,
-
load I n Fig 5 the ropes are intact and it is evident that to bind them
. .
,
Th t m j m t ig ifi j i t f l gi tudi l p t i
’
e er efl a o t di ti s ti
n es a cro ss o n o a on na ar , n co n ra s nc on
t
o a f d ft
o re -a n m dg j m t (
-a
Fi g 3 P l t
se a , or e e o see .
, a e
[Ar t . 28 1
is evident that to prevent the fracture from taking a zigzag course vi a: the
,
w eak joint at C i e to compel it to travel straight down through the intact

,
. .
plate immediately below it the number of edge rivets between C and D ,
must b e such a s to give a shearing strength equal to the loss o f strength at

C ; which in the case illustrated i s the full strength o f the plate
,
I t is ,
.
evident that with the same spacing o f edge rivets the weaker the j oints the ,
greater must be the fore a n d a ft distance between them and conversely - ~

, ,
the stronger they are the less the need for such remoteness i f as strong as ,
the intact plate they might be placed in the same transverse line .
A r t 2 8 2 I n di fferent vessels the relative strengths ( as regards the

. .
intact plate) o f the various s h e ll j o i n t s varies ; fo r it depends on the

thickness o f the plates the si z e number and material o f the rivets To , , , .
ensure there fore that the joints may not in any case form a zig z ag line o f
, , , ,
weakness they should be placed systematically a s r e m o t e a s p r a c t i c a b le

,
from each other Lloyd s rules in this respect ( see Fig 3 P late
.
’
, .
,
require those in adjacent strakes to be at least two frame spaces apart or ,
ab out 4 feet which with treble riveted end j oints and double riveted landing
, ,
- -
edges more than discounts any likelihood o f their forming a zigzag line o f
,
weakness The s h e e r s tr a k e being the upper margin o f the shell may be

.
, ,
likened to the hem of a garment any weak spot in which is o f course a , , ,
likely place fo r a tear ; and as from its position remote from the neutral , ,
axis it is more liable than any other part o f the bull to severe tensional
,
stress it is evident that e fficiency in its j oints is of the utmost importance

, .
I n practice therefore while the j oints below may in small vessels be double
, , , ,
riveted those of the sheer strake ( except in the smallest vessels ) are never
,
less than treble riveted and in large vessels double buttstrap s may be ,
employed not only for the sheer strake but fo r the strake below and
, ,
fo r the deck stringer plate A n d further where as in small vessels the .

, , , ,
landings o f the di fferent strakes may be single riveted that o f the sheer ,
strake is al ways double fo r as just noticed this minimizes the prej udicial , ,
e ff ect o f any inherent weakness in its j oints or in those of the strake ,
below for it compels a fracture once begun to travel st raight down

, , ,
through the intact strake below or in other words prevents it from , , ,
availing itsel f o f contiguous weak points in the strake below .
I t should be observed that a ll s t r uc t u r a l p a r t s are n e c e s s a r i ly

w e a k e n e d against tensional stresses b y t h e v a r i o u s c r o s s l i n e s o f
r i v e t h ol e s required to bind them together and to the framework Th e .
maximum strength o f a strake o f shell plating for instance is limited to its , ,
sectional a rea where reduced by a line of frame rivets o f deck plating where ,
reduced by a line of beam rivets and of keelsons and stringers where ,
reduced by the rivets connecting them to the floors or frames A s ordinary .
frame rivets are spaced 7 dia meters apart they reduce the e ffective breadth ,
o f each strake by one seventh which means that the longitudinal strength -
,
of the entire shell at each frame is only 8 6 per cent of what it is b etween .
them The loss is really greater for owing to the material removed by the
.
, ,
countersink o f the holes 8 6 becomes 8 1 With the u s ual rivet pitch , .

,
therefore 8 1 per cent represents the highest useful e fficiency o f the joints
, .
,
and so to make them stronger would not be ad vantageous I n the case .
shown in Fig 1 P late 4 6 th e strength o f B strake at line Dd is less than

.
, ,
it is in line Fe for while in the former the rivets are spaced 3 —

, 5 diameters
apart in the latter they are 7 diameters ; and in order there fore that a
, , ,
fracture travelling down the frame may not step back to Dd as i n Fig 2
, , ,
.
,
and thus avail itself of the greater weakness in thi s line the number o f ,
landing rivets between D and E and d and (3 must b e such as to give a

shearing strength at least equal to the tensile strength of the material
Ar t 28 3 ] . P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 63
removed by the extra rivet holes in the j oint ; that is to say the comb i ned ,
shearing strength of the landing rivets must be equal to the difference

in the s trength of B strake at the frame and at the joint I n Fig 2 the . .
,
zigzag fracture there shown necessitates the shearing of eight landing rivets .
Th e l a p p e d j o i n t s o f the shell plating are o ften placed so c l o s e t o

t h e fr a m e s that no landing i i v e ts occur between them ( see Fig 2 .
,
P late 5 1 and Art ,I n these cases therefore as the outer row is in

.
, , ,
e ffect in one line with the frame rivets above and below its weakening
, ,
e ffect repre s ents that o f the frame line across this s trake An d as the .
spacing o f the frame rivet s is 7 diameters and those of the j oints the ,
loss o f strength in the line of frame rivets is doubled at this place To .
secure the greatest theoretical e fficiency against fore and aft tensional stress - -
,
the joints should evidently be placed as nearly as practicable midway , ,
bet ween the weak frame lines I n ordinary merchant vessels however .
1
, ,
a line of frame rivet holes cannot fairly be regarded as a line o f weak

ness i e of prej udicial weakness ; fo r the thickness o f the shell plating is
, . .
assigned with such perforations in vie w i e with the knowledge that only some , . .
six sevenths of its sectional area is availabl e against tensional stresses and
-
in modern steel ships so large is the margin o f strength that any local ,
weakening e ffect due to the still greater perforation at contiguous joints

does not seriously affect the strength o f the hull as a whole Nevertheless .
,
it is evident that care should be taken not to place the joints of neighbouring
strakes close to the same frame : Lloyd s rules ( Fig 3 P late 4 6 ) require ’
.
,
that there shall b e at least two intact strakes between joints in the same
frame space and in most cases this minimum is exceeded ( Fig .
A rt 2 8 3 N otice now those matters which govern the e ffi c i e n c y o r

. .
,
s t r e n gt h o f r i v e t e d j o i n t s
,
P lates may be connected together either .
by a lapp ed or a buffed joint ( see Figs 6 to 1 7 P late A butted joint it .

, ,
will be observed is practically three lapped ones the buttstrap representing

, ,
the third or intermediate plate Formerly all end joints were butted ; and .
so the term bull is o ften used in a general way to signi fy any end j oint
”
,
the somewhat contradictory expression lapped bull meaning an over

“
lapped end joint I n ordinary butted j oints there is only one strap but
.
,
when special strength is required two are fitted one on each side What ,
. ,
ever the type of j oint the riveting may be si ngle double treble or qua dr uple ;
, , , ,
i e there may be one two three or four cross rows o f rivets in the end o f
each part connected—i h rare cases five
. .
, , ,
Wh e n s tr a i n e d t o d e s t r u c t i o n a j oint may give way in three ,
distinct ways depending on the number and distribution o f the rivets ( see
,
P late A ll the rivets in the end o f one part may shear the plates ,
remaining intact ( Figs 4 1 1 O n e o f the plates ( or the connecting

.
, ,
strap ) may fracture across a line weakened by rivet holes ( Figs 2 7 1 4 1 9 .

, , , ,
21 ,
23 O r the fracture may be a compound one the plate breaking
, ,
at a line rendered specially weak by rivet hole s and shearing simultaneously

some rivets in another line ( Figs 3 8 9 1 0 1 5 1 6 1 7 2 4 and .
, , , , , , , ,
I t may be observed that fracture of a buttstrap is usually precluded by

making it rather thicker than the plates .
Numerous e x p e r i m en t s have been made from time to time to a sce r

t ain the relative effi ciency of di fferent methods o f j ointing and to obta in ,
precise in formation on various matters w hich might serve as a basis i n

designing and computing the s t r e n gt h o f j o i n t s in future practice I t was .
required to ascertain the relative strengths of plates and rivets and o f steel ,
ti g t d y ubj W H Whi t r T m ’
i t f th i S
i lB
1
F or an n e re s t n s u p p o s s ec , se e r . . e s a e , ra .
I m l tutz
'
qf N l A
zon 8 73 lav aSi N th b y p p t but d t
1 a so r a an i e a rn a
’
s a e r c o n ri e o
th m S i ty i
e sa e866 oc e n 1 .
Art 28 3
[ .
and iron rivets the resista nce which rivets o f di fferent size exercise against
shearing how this compares with their tensional strength and whether it is
, ,
a ffected by the shape of their head or point ; also to What extent i f any , , ,
j oints riveted by hydraulic power are stronger than those riveted by hand .
Further it was desired to a s certain how and to what extent the strength o f
, , ,
a plate between the rivet holes is prej udiced by punching or drilling and
the value of the restoring e ffect o f countersinking the holes and of annealing ,
the plates A lso to what extent all these matters are a ffected by the
.
,
spacing and distribution o f the rivets or by the method of j ointing whether , ,
by a lap or by single or double buttstra ps .
Some o f the more important conclu s ions which these experiments

established will now be noticed I t should be observed however that the .
, ,
results obtained by di fferent and even by the same investigator s often vary , ,
considerably due to a number of causes thus no two joints can be

,
identical the preparatory work of punch ing the plates and of riveting them
,
together being one o f no great nicety ; then in experiments apparently ,
identical there may exist diff erences in the conditions which although
, , ,
inappreciable may have a commanding e ffect on the behaviour of the j oint ;

,
the mechanical qualitie s of the material may not b e the same or they may ,
undergo a change by the work o f making the joints I n the following the .
general average result s will be given .

1
A r t 2 8 4 The sh e a r i n g s t r e n gt h o f s t e e l o r i r o n r i v e t s is less
. .
than the tensile by 1 5 to 2 0 per cent and it is independent o f the size of

,
.
,
the rivet I ron rivets are still extensively used they are made of a specially
.
good iron having a tensile strength varying from 2 2 to 2 6 tons per square
,
inch Their shearing strength unlike that of steel rivet s is fairly uni form
.
, ,
it varies however according as the plates connected are o f s teel or iron it

, ,
is greater in the latter where it is about 1 9 tons per square inch ; in the
,
former it is some 1 4 per cent le s s or about 1 65 tons per square inch .

,
.
Th e probable cause o f the smaller strength in steel plates is that as these ,
are harder than iron plates they bear upon the rivets wi th a more unyielding
,
edge a steel j oint forming in e ffect a more e fficient shears Th e tensile

'
, , , .
strength of s teel rivet s varies from 2 6 to 3 0 tons per square inch and their ,
shearing strength may be taken as 2 2 or 2 4 tons per square i n ch ; e x pe ri

ments however show it to vary con s iderably a steel possessing high ten s ile
, , ,
strength sometimes giving comparatively poor results under shear .
E xcepting single riveted lap j oints the shearing strength of rivets is

-
,
much the same in all joints When a l a p j oi n t is s u bj e c t e d t o t e n s i l e

.
s t r e s s the plates originally in di ff erent planes at once tend to place

, , ,
themselves in the same one so as to lie in the direct line of stress ( see ,
Figs 1 to 3 P late
. I n the ca s e of a sin gle riveted lap j oint owing to
,
-
,
its narrownes s the d e fo rm a t i on is con s iderable and as the rivets are

, , ,
t herefore subj ected not only to s hearing stress but to endwise tension
, , ,
they give a somewhat lower shearing strength I t is fo u nd that when the .
heads and points o f the rivet s are large they check the deformation of the
j oint and result in a higher shearing strength I t will be observed from
, .
the sketches that the deformation diminishes with the breadth of the
overlap .
A s t r a p p e d j o i n t also su ffer s d e fo rm a t i o n under s tress the plates ,
and strap yielding laterally so as to place the central part of the latter ,
in the line of stress ( see Figs 4 to 6 P late Th e thicker the strap .

,
Th e e xp
e ri m en ts
fro m w h i ch m o st o f th ese are de ri ed a re th o se o f P ro fesso v r
K e n n ed , r ec o rd ed i n t he P r os I n sti tuti on of M ee/z a m ea l E ng meer s , 1 8 8 5 Mr Wi di sh
y . . l
. ll
a n d M r M a r te , Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on o N av a l A r e/
f zz teets , 1 88
.
5 an d 1 8 78 a n d M er e /
t au t
S trippi ng E xper i men ts o n S teel, i ssued b th e Bo ard o f Tr a de i n 1 88 1
y .
S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 28 6
P R A C TI C A L [
’
6 . .
found that by punching inch holes at 2 inch pitch in a f inch plate the §-
7 ,
-
, ,
strength was increased by 1 per cent ; when punched in a § inch plate ~
there was a loss o f 6 per cent With 1 inch holes at 3 inch pitch in a .
-
,
-
,
ii
i
inch plate
- the loss o f strength was 1 7
, 5 per cent a n d in a 1 inch plate “
.
-
,
2 4 per cent Th e milder the s t eel the less is it a ffected by punching ; a

.
,
s teel of 2 6 tons ten s ile strength is less susceptible to injury than one o f 3 2
tons and if of hard or in ferior quality it may b e rendered perfectly brittle
and unreliable I ron plates do not su ffer so much nor in so variable a
.
degree When steel began to supersede iron it was of uncertain and o ften
.
,
o f very in ferior quality ; and the injury which it su ffered from the punch
was o ften so pronounced as greatly to delay its general adoption 1
.
I n s h e a r i n g a p l a t e the pressure and rending a c t i o n o f t h e k n i fe ,
has a similar e ffect on the contiguous steel to that produced b y the punch .
I n a tensile test piece for instance the edges must always be planed for i f , , ,
the rough sheared edge were not removed its strength would b e s mall and
arbitrary and it would snap in two with little or no elongation and con
,
traction of area A s in the case of punching the thicker the plate the more
.
,
damaging the effect of the shears ; it extends further into the plate in test ,
pieces 1 inch thick for instance it i s found nece ss ary to remove at least , ,
1
7, inch from the sheared edge .
This curious e ff e c t o f t h e p u n c h or sh e a r s i s e x p l a i n e d by the

fact that the material around the hole s or contigu ous to the edge is , ,
rendered hard and brittle I f s teel b e worked cold ( i e i f it be rolled . . .

,
hammered bent or twisted so as to alter the molecular formation) while

, , , ,
its strength will be increa s ed by the process its ductility will be reduced , .
C old drawn wire for instance may be many times stronger than the metal
-
, ,
from which it is drawn but it will b e much less pliable or ductile ,

In .
punching a hole the pre s s ur e of the punch just before it begins to shear or
, ,
force out the cylindrical punching compresses the plate not only in the , ,
direction of its own movement but radially from the hole due to the side , ,
swelling or flowing tendency of the material directly under the punch ; and ,
further as the punching is forced out an e ffect akin to wire drawing i s

, ,
produced on the material at the edge of the hole The s e causes combined .
produce the familiar e ffects of c o ld w o r k i n g i e th e material around the ,

. .
hole ( in an annulus from about T— to T3 inch thick according as the plate l

g
3
,
is thin or thick ) becomes stronger but at the same time loses its ductility , , ,
and becomes comparatively brittle The thicker the plate the greater the .
pressure required of the punch or shears and so the more marked the dis ,
turb i n g e ffect on the molecular arrangement of the steel thin plates may
be little a ffected thick ones may b e seriously impaired , .
The fact that the damage done by the punch is due to the formation of
a thin annulus of brittle metal may be readily demon s trated Thus if a .
,
hole punched in a test piece is ri m e re d out to a rather larger diameter ( say

or 3 5 inch larger) it will no longer cause a lo s s of strength ; fo r the
3
,
narrow z one o f damaged material b eing removed the hole will in e ffect , , ,
be a drilled one and it will then strengthen rather than weaken the test
—
,
piece per s quare inch at the point of fracture I t is proved again, .
by the fact that i f a test piece havin g a punched hole is annealed , , ,

i e heated to redness and cooled
. . the hole will no longer have a ,
p ej udi c al e ff ect ;
r fo r by the action of annealing the original , ,
mechanical qualitie s of s teel are restored and con s equently in the , ,
S m f th p ul i i ti
o e odd f t f th e ly t l
ec d i b d by Si N th i l
ar e s an e ec s o e e ar s ee a re esc r e r a an e
B by i
a rn a hi p p O tn n tis
f pl t of i
a d t l
e rs , nip ou ld g
n c con n ec on o a es r on an s ee zn s z tn
”
—
,
Tr a n s I n sti tuti on E d i d 8
.
4 n g i n eers a n d S n ip o u z l er s n S cot la n , 1 6 5 66 ; an d On i r on
a n d s teel or s /
f
”
z z én i ldz n
p g, Tr a n s I n s ti tu ti on of N a v a l A r c i tects , 1 8 7 5 . .
Art 28 6 ]
case o f a punched test piece the brittle annulus assumes its normal ,
state Some refined experiments were made by M Barba ; by care ful

.
.
1
machining he cut out from around two holes one punched and the
, , ,
other drilled an annulus of metal {15 inch thick The one fro m the drilled
, .
hole was found to be per fectly ductile it could be collapsed quite flat and ,
opened again some distance before cracking ; but the annulus from the
punched hole was so brittle that it cracked on a ttempti ng to collapse i t
When however the latter was annealed it became perfectly ductile ; it
.
, , ,
could then be rolled out flat and still further back upon itsel f be fore , , , ,
cracking This shows that the action o f the punch merely hardens the steel
.
,
and does not as was sometimes thought produce minute radial cracks fo r
, , , ,
o f course these would not be corrected by annealing

, The reason why the .
brittle annulus o f steel existing around each punched hole should reduce
the tensile strength of a plate or test piece is explained by the fact that ,
while the ductile material yields readily and stretches to a stress the brittle ,
material does not it therefore takes the bulk of the stress and being s oon , ,
overpowered cracks when o f course a fracture being s tarted complete

, , , , ,
rupture immediately en s ues .
E xperiments indicate that w h e n p l a t e s a r e r i v e t e d t o ge t h e r ,

mu c h o f t h e l o s s o f s t r e n gt h caused by the punch d i s a p p e a r s This .
may be due to an annealing e ffect produced by the insertion and hammering

up o f the hot rivet or to the bending or deformation o f the plates when
,
the j oint is pulled asunder which having the e ffect of cold working annuls
, , ,
to some extent the similar but local effect o f the punch M r Wildish . .
found that whereas in a é inch plate the damage caused by punching

,
-
g i n c h holes lowered the strength from 2 8 ; tons to 2 2 tons the strength ,
of a similar plate when riveted rose to nearly 2 5 tons i e a loss o f

, , , . .
1 2 per cent in place o f 2 .

3 per cent I n thinner plates which as already .
, ,
seen are not so prejudicially affected by the punch the beneficial action of
, ,
the riveting may make the final loss o f strength quite inconsiderable .
I n the e a r l y d a y s o f s t e e l the inj ury which plates and bars su ffered

from the punch was a subj ect of much thought for owing to the variable , ,
and in ferior qualities o f the steel the loss of strength was often exceedingly ,
large ( sometimes 5 0 per and although iron plate s were known to

suff er the damage in their case was small and being fairly constant could
, , , ,
b e neglected With improvements in the manu facture of steel however

. , ,
the e ffect o f the punch became less serious nevertheless it was su ffi ciently ,
marked to raise the question whether or not pains should be taken to

correct it i e whether it was advisable and desirable to a n n e al ev e r y
, . .
s t r u c t u r a l p ar t o f the hull in which holes were punched or to e n l a r ge ,
t h e h o l e s b y r i m eri n g A s a means o f ensuring perfect efficiency i n

.
the material either plan would doubtless b e commendable but on the

, , ,
other hand various practical considerations exist which render b oth

,
inexpedient .
I n the case o f b o i l e r s the highest e fficiency in material and workman

,
ship is essential and accordingly the r i v e t h o le s are usually d r i l le d or

, , , , ,
if punched the plates are annealed But a boiler has widely d i fferent
, .
duties from the hull o f a ship it is designed to withstand a certai n proo f

test and a working pressure o f fixed magnitude ; and to ensure perfect
, ,
sa fety under these conditions the highest structural e fficiency i s essenti al ,

.
I n the s t r u c t u r e o f a s h i p there is no fixed maximum stress ; severe

tensile stresses may sometimes be experienced but they are confined to ,
such parts as the sheer s trake A s regards the greate r p o rti on o f the .
structure there is a large margin of strength against tens i le stresses I n

O
.
,
S 1
hi b k
ee Tl u f t l f
s oo t u t
, p p
u zep ub l
se oi h d 1 8 75
s ee or con s r c i ve r oses , s e .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 28 6
268 .
[ .
the case of iron ships it was not found necessary or expedient to eliminate
the damaging e fle c t o f the punch and although thick steel plates may ,
su ffer perhaps twice as much as iron ones thinner may be little more ,
a ffected But moreover steel is some 5 0 per cent stronger than iron
.
, ,
.
,
and although much of this superiority is discounted by the 2 0 per cent .
reduction made in the scantlings there s till remains an excess o f strength ,
of some 2 0 per cent I t is evident therefore that the adoption of costly

.
, ,
refinements in the building procedur e such a s ri m e ri ng all punched holes ,
or annealing all plates is not called for ,

.
But although in the structure generally it is not found expedient or

, ,
necessary to take special measures towards remedying the damage done by

the punch this is not the case in importa nt parts subj ect to severe tensile
,
stress I n the case for instance of the sheer strake upper deck stringer
.
, , ,
-
,
and garboard strakes when the plates exceed a thickness o f inch ( in

,
which case the injurious e ff ect o f the punch may be considerable ) Lloyd s ,
’
rules state that all holes are to b e punched a size small and then b e ri me re d
or countersunk to the required diameter or else the plates are to be annealed ; ,
and further that all buttstraps exceeding a thickness o f inch are to be

, ,
similarly treated I t should be observed that more tha n h alf of the holes
.
1
in the shell plating are countersunk which operation removes most of the ,
damaged material and although in the others the damaged material

remain s its prej udicial e ffect is discounted in some measure by the greater
,
sectional area le ft between the holes The holes in the buttstrap s are not .
countersunk as are those of the plates they connect ; and so in thick

, ,
ones connecting important parts liable to intense stress it is well that the
, ,
damaging e ffect o f the punch should be corrected by annealing especially ,
as in these small parts this is a simple matter When corrective measures .
are adopted in the case o f the sheer strake etc instead o f annealing the , .
,
plates ( which is tediou s and is apt to cause shrinkage or shortening o f the

plate) the holes are punched small the cylindrical ones being subsequently
, ,
ri m e red and the others countersunk to size Th e r i m e ri n g may b e done .
by machine before the plates are put in place but it is better to do it after
, ,
they are s crewed together for then besides removing the damaged steel it
, , ,
secures the very desirable condition of perfectly fair holes and sound
ri vet i ng .
A rt 2 8 7 There are t w o fe a t u r e s o f w e a k n e s s i n a j o i n t : ( 1 )
. .
the tendency of the rivets to shear and ( 2 ) o f the plates to break across ,
at a line rendered weak by rivet holes The first may be entirely provided .
against by simply in creasing the number of rivets Th e second cannot be .
altogether eliminated for of course the rows of rivet holes must always
, , ,
constitute lines o f weakness ; it may b e modified in almost any degree ,
however by a suitable disposition of the rivets I n one case for instance

, .
, ,
the rivet holes in a row might be so close together as to cut away say , ,
0 per cent of the plate reducing its e ffective breadth and strength by this
5 .
,
amount while in another if twice as far apart ( a corresponding increase

, ,
being made in the number of rows ) the loss would only be hal f as great , ,
or 2 5 per cent The rivet pitch might be increased indefinitely until there
.
,
remained only one rivet in each cross ro w “

The strength obtained .
”
would then be the greatest possible namely that of the intact plat e , ,
reduced in breadth by one rivet hole I f the plate were say 1 0 inches .
, ,
wide ( Fig 1 P late .and the rivets 1 inch in diameter the efi ci ency o f
, ,
”
the j om t would b e 90 per cent if 2 0 inches wide 9 5 per cent I n the .

,
.
j o int shown in Fig 1 the theoretical e fficiency is 90 per cent ; it can

. .
evi dently only fracture in one way by the plate breaking across at either ,
Thi ul i t w t i tl y f d s r e s no no s r c e n o rc e .
[ .
ela s ticity the end ones would su ffer more than the others ; they would
, ,
therefore be the first to s train and become loose the others be i ng a ffected
, ,
con s ecutively .
1
The u n e q u a l s t r e s s s u ffe r e d b y t h e r i v e t s i n a lon g j 0 1n t due ,
to elasticity o f the steel may b e illustrated by a strip of rubber ; i f the end ,
is fixed say by a couple o f nails to a b oard then o f course when the

, , , , ,
rubber is stretched only the nail remote from the end will suffer stress and
give use ful resistance The stretch of a steel plate within the elastic limit
.
is so small as not to a ffect appreciably the efficiency o f ordinary end j oints

in the case o f long joints however such as the landing edges of the shell , ,
plating it is common to find that the terminal rivets near some point of
, ,
weakness have become loose while the others beyond being less strained
, , , ,
are una ffected A more important matter is the elastic gi v e o r yi e ld

.
o f t h e r i v e t s th e m se lv et under shearing stress compared with which the ,
stretch o f a plate is inconsiderable For instance when subj ected to a .

,
stress of 2 tons per square inch while a rivet would yield about T35
}
7 ,
inch a plate in a length o f 3 inches ( the distance between two rivets )

, , ,
would only stretch about 3 3 inch or 4 5 per cent of the yield of 0 5

0 , .
the rivet 2
.
The principle of the diamond joint is very generally applied in the case
of s t r a p p e d j o i n t s in which the o u t e r r o w s o f r i v e t s may be spaced
,
from 5 0 to 1 0 0 per cent f u r t h e r a p a r t than the others ( see Figs 2 2 and . .
25 ,
P late I n the joint shown in Figs 2 2 to 2 4 the outer rows o f .
rivets are 5 0 per cent further apart tha n the others and as fracture of .
,
either plate can only occur through one of these ( this as shown in the ,
sketches being the weakest mode of fracture) the lesser perforation results
, ,
in a greater ultimate strength A s a wide spacing reduces the total .
number o f rivets it can only be adopted in treble or quadruple riveted

'
,
-
j oints ; even in treble riveted joints a double pitch cannot always be -
advantageou s ly employed for as the rivet s in thick plates are compara , ,
ti v e ly small and weak the omission o f hal f of those in the outer rows if it, ,
did not diminish too much the combined shearing strength might too ,
much reduce the power of those in the outer rows to resist the distortion
shown in Fig 6 P late 4 8 The former defect i s shown in Figs 2 5 to 2 7
.
, . .
,
P late 4 9 where it will b e observed that the weakest mode o f fracture is

,
not in the line o f the outer row ( of widely spaced rivets ) but in the line ,
o f the second or by shearing all the rivets ,

I n practice therefore in the .
, ,
ca s e o f plates thicker than about 5 inch on ly one third of the rivets in the ,
-
outer rows is omitted ( Fig which places them one and a half times .
,
in place o f twice as far apart When great strength is required double

, .
,
buttstra ps are employed for as the rivets are then in double shear they , , ,
are virtually of large size and as in this type of joint there is no distortion
under stress a wide spacing in the outer rows is not prejudicial I n
, .
lapped j oints a close spacing is usually maintained in all rows for although , ,
as regards ultimate tensile strength a wide spacing in the outer rows might ,
be advantageous it would result in greater distortion under stress i e the

, ,
. .
edges o f the plates would too readily O pen ( as shown in Fig 3 P late .
,
reducing the efficiency of the joint and destroying the caulking I t may .
be noticed here that the rules of the British C orporation permit of a

5 0 per cent greater pitch in the outer rows of treble and quadruple riveted
.
-
end joints whether lapped or strapped ( Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late

, but the .
,
A i t n ti g tud y f th i p i
n e res ip l n
ppli d t d iff
s t ki dof j i t wi ll s r nc e , as a e o e re n n s o o n s,
b f u d i M M lt
e o n n
p p S
r. m t i M t g th f i t d j
on s
’
a t T
er , o e n o es on e s r en o r ve e oz n s ,
”
ra ns.
Ins ti t ti
u fN l A nt t
on o 88 5 ava rc z ec s , 1 .
2
K dy T
e nn e I ti tuti o
,f N l A n i t t
r ans. 1 885 p ns on av a rc ec s , , . 2 12 .
Ar t 28 9]. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 1
pitch o f the inner rivet rows is only 3 diameters in place of the 3 3 diameters 2
requ ired by Lloyd s ru le s ’
.
Ar t 2 8 8 The en d j o i n t s o f t h e s h e l l are not designed in a

. .
manner to secure the highest ultimate strength fo r in practice it is found ,
advantageous to forego some theoretical efficiency in favour o f large rivet

strength I n the treble riveted lap joints generally adopted for the shell
.
-
( Fig 8 P late
.
,
the strength of the rivets when of steel may be more , ,
than 5 0 per cent greater than that of the plate between them ; with iron
.
rivets however whose strength may be 2 0 or 3 0 per cent less than that of
, , .
steel rivets the di s crepancy is much smaller This e x c e s s o f ri v e t

, .
s t r e n gth is found useful in checking s training tendencies in the joints

through yielding of the rivets When a joint is te s ted by tensile stress .
,
long before it actually breaks the rivets begin to yield and allow the parts ,
to slip ; and although i f tested to destruction the rivets might prove , ,
stronger than the plate still a j oint which had strained in this way would , , ,
fo r practical purposes b e reckoned as having failed I t should be observed , .
that in testing an experimental joint the conditions are very di fferent from ,
those which prevail in the structure o f a ship the joints in the latter may
be much more severely tried for the stress is not so uniformly applied as to ,
subject eac h rivet to the same pull nor does it act only in one direction , ,
fo r one moment it is a pull and the next a push ; and moreover other , , ,
stresses may occur simultaneou sly vertical and lateral as well as longi ,
tudi nal Th e necessity for large rivet strength is shown by the circum
.
stance that while the rivets o ften strain and b ecome loose the plates
, ,
bet ween them rarely fracture I n many cases for instance the s heer .
, ,
strake joints have strained so markedly that the intense local stress imposed
on the intact plate belo w has caused it to fracture and in other cases the
straining of a sheer strake j oint has communicated with adjacent joints or
-
points o f weakness in the continuous strake by loosening the intervening ,
landing rivets Such straining is of course due to insufficiency in the

.
, ,
h olding or clamping power o f the rivets and it is evident that to prevent , ,
it the faying surfaces o f the joints must be bound together by numerous

,
rivets o ften largely in excess of what their ultimate strength in relation to

,
that o f the plate might indicate as prope r .

1
A r t 2 8 9 There is another important matter which emphasizes the

. .
need fo r ample rivet power namely the securing of large fr i c t i on a l , ,
r e s i s t a n c e i n th e j o i n t When a j oint is pulled a s under its resistance .
presents two phases : it o ffers at first a frictional resistance during which ,
there is absolutely no straining or relative movement of th e parts when this

is overcome which happens under a comparatively small stress the rivets
, ,
begin to yield and allow the parts to strain or slide over one another The .
intensity of the frictional force depends on how tightly the rivets bind the
t wo plates together and on the roughness of the faying surfaces ,
When .
tightly bound the minute roughnesses o f the surfaces become interlocked

, ,
so that on attempting to pull the one plate over the other they give fo r a
, , ,
time a perfectly unyielding frictional resistance ; during this phase the

,
rivets are not strained the j oint in fact behaves like a solid plate , , ,
.
V arious experiments have been made to ascertain the magnitude o f the

frictional resistance o f riveted j oints i e the stress at which relative slipping , . .
movement becomes perceptible I n the case o f butted joints they were .

,
made by riveting a narrow test plate having oval holes between two others , ,
( Fig 8
. P late ,
and pulling on it until it slipped ; and in lap j oints by ,
m ak ing oval holes in one plate and clenching the rivets on washers ( see
1
A i t r ti g p p
n th i
n e es ubj t w i ll b fn d i M H a yW t
er o n t i b ti s s ec e o un n r. en r es
’
s c on r u on
to th e Tr a n s . I n sti tuti on o
f N a v al A r cni tects, 1 884 .
P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 28 9
.
[ .
Fig . Mr Wildish found that the frictional resistance with r inch rivets
.
1 -
,
having snap heads and points was equal to 6 4 tons per rivet ; and with
—inch r i vets 4 7 2 tons ; and when the points and heads were countersunk
,
—
3
,
—
,
9 40 tons fo r 1 inch rivets and 4 95

- tons fo r inch rivets T hese results
,
°
~
.
are higher than those obtained by other investigators Mr K ennedy . .
found that an ordinary single riveted j oint began to slip visibly when the -
stress reached 2 3 5 per cent o f the breaking strength but when hydraulic
°
.
, ,
riveted at 3 4 to 5 7 per cent ; that is to say a j oint riveted by hydraulic

,
.
,
pressure was found to have about twice the frictional resistance o f one
riveted by hand H e also found that the frictional resistance was much the
.
same whether a joint had single or double straps why this is so is not ,
clear for with two strap s the double surface should give double the
,
frictional resistance ; it is probably due to the fact that double straps ,
when under stress tend to fall away from the plates I t should b e
,
.
observed that the ulti ma te s trength o f a j oint is not a ffected by the

magnitude of its frictional resistance for this is overcome at an early ,
period and accordingly although a hydraulic riveted joint has a higher

, ,
-
frictional resista nce than one riveted by hand there may b e no di fference ,
in the br eaki ng strengths .
I n the riveted joints of a ship as indeed of all riveted structures it is , ,
a very important matter to secure in such ample measure this valuable

frictional resi s tance that under working conditions it may not be ex
, , ,
c e e de d for then in the absence of incipient straining the rivets can

, ,
su ffer little or no stress I t may be obtained in any required degree by .
simply multiplying the rivet s fo r whether the faying sur faces be large or ,
small two rivets produce twice the frictional pressure that one does The
, .
roughness o f the faying su rface s is not very amenable to treatment but it is ,
evident that no foreign matter such as would prevent close and un i form ,
contact should b e allowed to remain between the surfaces borings from

, ,
drilled or ri mered holes for instan ce and rust scale should be care fully , ,
removed be fore the part s are riveted together I t should be remarked .
that the thi n skin of hard scale which forms between the s urfaces of old
joints is advantageous fo r while by acting lik e a cement it makes the
, , ,
j oint perfectly watertight it also greatly increa s es the solidi ty and frictional
,
resistance This fact explains very well how it is that new vessels in
.
,
which the various j oints ha ve not had time to rust up are so much
“
,
”
more liable to strain in their riveting tha n old ones the de s ign and trade ,
in each case being the same I n most of the j o i nt s of a ship th e stresses .

,
experienced under ordina ry working conditions do not exceed their frictional

resistance ; in large vessels however those su ffered by parts such as the , ,
s heer strake especially at the ends of deck erections are o ften in excess
, , .
A rt 2 9 0 A s regards the d i a m e t e r s a n d di s p o s i t i o n o f t h e r i v e t s
. .
in the various joints there are several matters to consider I t may be

, .
stated generally that l a r ge n e s s in the rivets is a d v an t a ge o u s ; for as ,
their sectional area or strength increases a s the square o f their diameter ,
an increa se in their size permits of a great reduction in their number a

1 inch rivet for instance is equivalent a s regards shearing strength to four
-
, , , ,
é in ch ones
- I n practice however there are various matters which limit
.
, ,
their diameter ; thus in thin plates say inch thick it is evident that
, , ,
1 inch rivet s would be quite disproportionately large Fig 1 2 P late

-
( .
,
for the individual strength of each one would be greatly i n excess of any
shearing force which the plates could bring to bear upon it L ong before .
the rivet was seriously strained the hole i n a plate so thin would stretch ,
oval or tear and the excessive bea r i ng p r essur e ( i e the pressure on the
,
. .
1
Tr a n s I n sti tu ti on
.
f
o N a va l A r cIt i tects , 1 88
5 .
Ar t 29 1 ]
Ar t 2 9 1 . . The foregoing table

exhibits the r e q u i r em e n t s o f Llo yd s ’
r u le s a s t o ri v e ti n g I t will
be ob s erved that the smallest rivet is.
inch ; this is rather larger than twice the thickness of the f inch plating
fo r which it is applicable but it is found by experience and by the ordinary
conditions o f practice to give good results ; é—
, ,
inch rivets would also be

,
quite s uitable but b eing only two thirds as strong a greater number would
, ,
-
,
b e required and the cost of workmanship would be increased O n com

paring a 1 inch rivet in a fi un ch plate with a —
.
-
g inch one in a {F i n c h plate -
,
it appears d isproportionately small ; but as already seen this is the largest , ,
that ca n be conveniently hammered up and moreover unlike excessive , , ,
size ( the prejudicial e ffects of which have ju s t been noticed) relative ,
smallness is not necessarily accompanied by lack of e fficiency for any ,
required shearing strength in the rivets of a j oint may be obtained by

simply increasing their number Thus while in thin plates single riveting .
,
may suffice in thicker double is employed or i f necessary treble or

, , , , ,
quadruple or the joint may be connected by double straps which at

, ,
once increases the capabilitie s of the rivets by about 7 5 per cent .
I t is seldom if ever necessary to use a rivet of smaller diameter than

the thickness o f the plate ; i f much smaller the holes would have to be
drilled ; they could not be punched fo r the pressure on the tool would
be greater than ordinary tool steel could withstand A good —
,
inch .
punch may perforate a 1 inch plate but it would not endure very long -
,
.
Th e s t r en gt h o f a p u n c h being that of a short cylinder under com ,

pression varies as it s sectional area i e as the squa r e of its diameter ; but
, ,
. .
the work it does or the pres s ure i t s uffers in punching a hole in any
,
particular plate varies as its circu mference ( the length of the sheared edge
,
of the hole ) which of course varies as its diameter ; accordingly if the

, , , ,
diameter of a punch were say reduced by 5 0 per cent then while the , , .
, ,
work required of it in punching a hole would be half as great it would only ,
be one quarter as strong and would therefore su ffer t wice as much com
-
, , ,
pressive stress per square inch .
E xcepting the few r i v e t s used in keels sternpost s etc which may be , , .

,
as large as i i inch diameter there are only fi v e s i z e s e m p lo ye d in ,
ordinary ship work : g gt 1 inch and 1 — inch ( 1 % inch rivets being only , , ,
1
8
-
,
required fo r plates inch thick are little used ) For light s cantlinged ,
.
yachts etc é— ,
inch and inch rivets are employed but when so small as 3
.
,
-
,
they are usually clinched cold A s shown in the table on the opposite page .
,
each si z e of rivet serves fo r s everal thicknesses of plate and with a view , ,
to securing greater theoretical uniformity it has been attempted to introduce ,
intermediate si z es etc ; but this course did not meet with favour
, .
,
because while securing no practical benefit as regards the e fficiency o f the

,
riveting it caused inconvenience and complications for it involved numerous

, ,
punches and dies a n d mistakes occurred in their use Simplicity and

,
.
convenience in the practical work of the shipyard are often found more
importan t than theoretical perfection .
1
Th e d i a m e t e r o f t h e ri v e t s i s r e gul a t e d b y t h e t h i c k e s t of the
plates or bars through which they pass This is evidently proper fo r it . ,
may be the thickest part which is pulled into position by the rivets A n .
exception may be made however where very thick plates are connected , ,
to very thin as fo r in stance the thin bulwark to the thick sheer strake
, , ,
1
I n th e G rea t E as ter n th e p ri n ci ple o f si mp i ca ti o n w as p ar ti c u a r s tud i ed ; lfi l ly
th e r e w as o n ly
o ne s i z e o f ri e t,
g-i n ch a n d o n e
, p i t c h , 3 v
-i n h
c a n d ,
e c e p ti n g so m e o f th e x
j ll
e n d o i n ts o f the sh e , a ll o i n ts w e r e si n g e r i e te d j The re w e re o n l tw o th i c kn e sse s o f l v . y
p l a t l
e s , gi n ch fo r th e sh el a n d i n n e r b o t to m , a n d 5 i n ch fo r th e re m ai n d er an d o n o ne ly
l
si z e o f a n g e b ar , 4 by 4 by 3 i n ch ( se e Sco tt R usse l s
’ ”
N a v a l A r c/zz teet u r e, p age l
r t 29 1
[
A .
and in the case o f small flanged angle bars where a large rivet would cut ,
away too much o f the material ; i n a 3 inch flange for i nstance the rivets -
, ,
should not exceed g inch The diameter o f the rivets is usually the same
-
8
.
whether they pass through t wo or more thicknesses To pull together .
th ree parts causes much the sa me stress on the rivets as to pull t wo

together fo r it is only the two outer ones that are pulled against the
,
c e n ti a l
. When there are more than three thicknesses however the rivets , ,
may su ffer abnormal stress and so in important parts they should b e , , ,
increased either in size or number .
Th e l o n g r i v e t s connecting the shell to the keel stem or sternpost , ,
are always o f ex t r a l a r ge s i z e : Lloyd s rules require them to be inch ’ }

7
larger than is otherwise appropriate fo r the plating I n side bar keels .

-
there are five thicknesses to pull together and as in doing so the rivets ,
may su ffer severe tensile stress ( tending to pull their heads o ff) they should ,
evidently be specially strong I n bar keels stern frames etc as there are .
,
-
, .
,
only two plates to pull together the rivets may su ffer no unusual stress ; ,
nevertheless they should be extra strong for their great length reduces the
, ,
rigidity o f their binding e ffect When subj ect to tensile stress the stretch .
,
o f a rivet or rod ( within the elastic limit ) varies as its length and , ,
accordingly although a long rivet may exert the same binding or clamping
,
e ffect as a short one it is more yielding i e under sudden stress it may , , . .
stretch and let the parts slip But apart from their duty in binding the .
,
plating the rivets in a bar keel are pai ti c ula rly exposed to intense shearing
,
and other stresses due to grounding ; a fter such a casualty it is not

uncommon to find many o f the keel rivets loose or broken a circumstance ,
which o f course is well provided again s t by making them large and s trong
, ,
.
Th e pitch of keel rivets is usually 5 diameters ; with thin plates this is

rather large for caulking purposes Th e riveting o f the rudder is de s cribed .
in A rts 2 6 6 2 6 7 and 2 7 0 and further remarks on the riveting of keels

.
, , ,
wi ll be found in A rt 7 5 . .
A r t 29 2 R i v e t h o le s must be punched rather l a r ge r t h a n t h e

. .
r i v et s ,
s o that the latter may be inserted when swollen by heat ; the
finished diameter of a rivet when staved up is there fore rather greater , , , ,
than it wa s originally I n specifying the size of rivets it is the original or

.
,
manufactured diameter that is referred to and this fact should be borne in ,
mind when estimatin g the shearing strength of the rivets in a j oint The .
allowance made for the swellin g of the rivet s should evidently vary with
their diameter ; in practice however very little precision is ob s erved in
this matter the allowance generally i riade varying roughly from — inch for
, ,
, 1 6
a grivet to 3 3 inch fo r a 3 one I n many cases the allowance for small
3
.
rivets is more than su fficient ( the men prefer to make large holes fo r it ,
ensures the easy insertion of the rivets even though the holes may be ,
un fair) but as these are u s ually short they may be readily staved up so as
, ,
to fill the holes I n the case of keel and stern frame rivets which are not
.
-
,
easily sta ved up the holes should be no larger than is necessary i e the hot
, , . .
rivets should fit tightly in the holes ( Art .
A r t 2 9 3 Th e p i t c h o f t h e r i v e t s ( i e the distance apart centre to

. . . .
,
centre in each row ) is an importa nt matter for it is this which sets a limit
, ,
to the effi ciency of the joint The pitch specified in Lloyd s rules fo r the .
’
end j oints o f steel shell plating is 33 diameters and for those o f iron plating ,
4 diameters When steel superseded iron while its greater strength permitted
.
,
o f thinner plates i t did not allow o f any reduction in the size or number o f
,
the rivets fo r of course the superior strength o f steel plating does not
, , ,
exten d to the riveting o f its j o i nts But even a strict identity in the .
riveting of steel and i ron vessels would only be correct i f the thin steel
Ar t 294
[ .
This is particularly the case in edge seams for owing to the well developed , ,
-
fibre o f iron plates their cross tensile strength is considerably less than their
,
longitu d inal I t is on account o f this that iron buttstra p s must always be cut
.
crosswise from the plate so that the fibre may lie fore and aft in the d irection
,
- -
,
o f the stress I n steel plates there is no fibre and little i f any di fference
.
, , ,
in the mechanical qualities w hether tested longitudinally or cros s wise ,

.
A r t 2 9 5 I n the riveting o f watertight j oints what is known as w a t er

. .
t i gh t p i t c h is a variable quantity anything under 5 diameters i s u s ually

regarded as such but whether rightly so or not depends on the thickness o f
,
the plates the water pressure and the kind o f joint I n a lap j oint it
, ,
.
must be such that the plates in the distance betw een a pair of rivets may , ,
not be so flexible as to spring asunder under the separating action of the

caulking tool and subsequently when water under pressure enters between
,
the faying surfaces Th e more uni formly the plates are bound together by
.
,
closely spaced rivets the more readily is the j oint caulked and the more
,
secure and permanent the watertightn es s I f the rivets were so close .
together as to have a pe rfectly contin uous clamping e ffect the contact of ,
the faying s urfaces would be so perfect that the j oint would be watertight
without caulking I f on the other hand they were wide apart say
.
, , ,
1 0 inches in a inch plate the contact the faying surfaces between each
5 -
o f ,
pair of rivets distant 2 0 times the thicknes s of the plate would evidently
, , , ,
be quite imperfect to caulk the edge moreover would be impossible for , , ,
while the staving e ffect of the tool might produce contact at one Spot the ,
same e ff ect at the next would disturb it But although a pitch of 1 0 inches .
would be absurdly large for é inch plating it might b e compatible with -

,
watertightness in r inch plating i f the caulking surfaces were brou ght

-
,
thoroughly close by the riveting and the caulking were carefully done i e , ,
. .
with such light uniform blows that their staving tendency at one place did
,
not inj ure the contact s ecured elsewhere but the watertigh tness would not
be substantial or permanent ; if water under pres s ure entered bet ween the
faying surfaces it would se parate the plates su ffi ciently to pass through
, ,
bulging them in small arcs between the rivets and when subj ected to the , ,
blows of wear and tear the shocks would di s turb the caulkin g , .
Th e tendency of water under pre s sure to force the plates asunder

between the rivets is proportional to the distance between the latter Th e .
short piece o f plate between two rivets may be regarded as a beam s ubject
to a distributed load of fixed intensity per unit o f length s o that twice the ,
length or rivet pitch means twice the load or bulging tendency I f the
, ,
.
load ( or total water pressure acting between each pair o f rivets ) were
invariable then as the flexibility of a b eam varies as the cub e o f its length
, , ,
and in versely as the cube of it s thickness the rivet pitch necessary to ,
secure equality o f sti ffness in resisting water pressure would be proportiona l ,
simply to the thickness of the plate I f fo r instance in a 5 inch plate a

, .
, , 1
1-
,
pitch o f nine times the thickness or 2 3 inches were suitable for water , ,
tightness then i n a 1 inch plate a pitch of nine times the thickness or

, ,
-
, ,
9 inches would be equally suitable the resistance o ffered to deflection

, ,
being the same in either ca se But as the water pres s ure acting between .
the rivets is proportional to the di s tance between them it would be four ,
times as great in the 1 inch plate so that the tendency to deflect would -
,
also b e four times greater it is evident therefore that to secure equality , ,
the pitch in the case o f the r inch plate must b e reduced The reduction -
.
,
however need only b e c omparatively small for not only doe s it carry with
, ,
it a co rresponding diminution in the water pressure but an increase in ,
sti ff ness proportional inversely to the third power o f the reduction in

, ,
len gth I f the pitch be estimated on the above basis ( i e so as to give

. . .
,
Art 29 6 ]
in plates of di fferent thickness equal sti ffne s s between the rivets and , ,
assuming a pitch of nine times the thickness to be suitable fo r a 5 inch -
plate ) it will be found that the pitch in ri ve t dia me te rs suitable fo r a

'
, ,
5 5 5 and 5 inch plate having respectively 5 Z 5 and 1 inch rivets

, , ,
-
, , , ,
-
,
will be approximately 3 5 4 45 and 5 diameters , , ,

.
I n ordinary ship work the rivet pitch generally adopted in watertight

joint s is 4 to 45 diameters ; for although in thick plates this may be
unnecessarily small still owing to the small size of the rivets compared
, ,
with the thickness o f the plate the greater number is advantageous in ,
securing ample rivet strength and although s imilarly i n the case o f thin , ,
plates it may be disproportionately large still it is not unsuitable here , ,
either fo r thin plates are not usually subject to the same intense water
,
pres s ure as thick ones and as the rivets are large in proportion to the ,
t hickness o f the plate they may though few in number be amply strong , , , .
Th e water pressures prevailing in a ship are of course comparatively , ,
small a head of 3 4 feet— which represents 1 5 pounds per square inch

—being rarely attained even in the largest vessels I n steam b oilers the
,
pressure may be 2 0 0 pounds per square inch w hich repre s ents a head o f ,
water of 4 5 0 feet here there fore not only must the plates b e thick but , , ,
the rivet pitch small I n ship work while a pitch o f 4 to 45 diameters is .

,
generally suitable a closer pitch may b e adopted in special cases where

, , ,
fo r instance owing to inaccessibility the caulking is di fficult to perform

, , ,
and where at the same time absolute watertightness is essential as in

, , ,
watertight collar angles and connecting bars of ballast tanks or bulk

heads where the rivets pass through several thicknesses ; here thorough
, ,
initial contact by means of closely pitched rivets is most desirable fo r ,
watertightness is then assured almost indepe n dently of the caulking I n .
the case o f butted j oints not liable to intense water pressure the rivet , ,
pitch a s regards watertightness is less important than in lapped j oints fo r

, , ,
the caulking tool does not tend to lift or separate the plates Th e rivets '
i n the end joints of the shell plating ( when treble or double riveted ) are
spaced 3 5 diameters apart but this clo s e pitch is for strength not for ,
'
,
watertightness I n the case of oil vessels however even so close a pitch

.
, ,
as 35 diameters is too great fo r oil tightness in these vessels there fore a -

, ,
pitch of 3 diameters is usually adopted for oil tight parts -

.
Lloyd s rules speci fy the rivet pitches required for the

’
Ar t 2 9 6 . .
variou s part s of the hull There are seven in all namely 35 4 5 5 55 .

, , , , , , ,
6 and 7 diameters
, .
A 3 5 d i a m e t e r p i t c h i s required for double or treble riveted end -
joints o f shell plating o f Spar upper middle and s helter or awning deck , , ,
-
stringer plates and o f bridge deck stringer plates where the length o f the
,
-
b ridge exceeds one third the vessel s length amidship s ( Art -

’
.
A 4 d i a m e t e r p i t c h is specified for all quadruple riveted j oints

-
,
for the end j oints of deck plating lower deck and hold stringer plates the ,
-
,
stringer plates of deck erections ( other than bridge decks exceeding one
third the vessel s length ) tie plate s floor plates tank margin plates and
’
, , ,
-
girders fo r all the j oints o f tank top plating for the shell landings before
,
-
,
and abaft the flat mids h ip body i f the frame spacing is 2 6 inches or ’
greater and fo r the shell landings on the flat part of the b ottom for
,
one fifth the length at the fore end of vessels whose form is full at this
-
part or which have a to n nage coe fficient of 0 7 8 or above .
A 4 5—
,
d i a m e t er p i t c h is specified fo r the joint s of bulkhead plat i ng ,
for the fore and aft seams of deck plating fo r gunwale bars and tank
- -
,
margin shell angles and for the shell landings before and abaft the fla t,
’
midshi p body i f the frame spacing is less than 2 6 inches .
[ t 29 6
Ar .
A 5 d i am e t er p i t ch
- is specified fo r the angles connecting vertical
plate to flat plate keels for the caulked shell angle o f watertight bulkheads
-
, ,
fo r all the j oints o f masts and yards fo r the rivets connecting deck plating ,
to beams where the la tter are on alternate frames and have only a single
top flange and fo r the rivets in bar keels stems stern fl ames and rudders , ,
-
, .
A 55—
,
d i a m e t e r p i t c h i s specified for the rivets connecting the shell

to the frames on the fla t part o f the b ottom fo r one fi fth the length at ,
the fore end o f ves s els whose form is full at this part or which have a ,
tonnage coefficient of or above .
A 6 d i a m e t e r p i t c h is specified for the rivets connecting the shell to

-
the frames in way o f deep and peak tanks ; and fo r a ll shell to frame rivets - -
where the frame spac i ng i s 2 6 inches and ab ove .
A 7 d i a m e t e r p i t c h is specified where a mere binding e ff ect is

required ; fo r the rivets connect i ng the frames to the shell ( with the ab ove
exceptions ) reverse frames to tank top plating and floors hold stringer
,
-
,
-
and web frame face angles the di fferent bars o f side stringers keelsons
-
, , ,
and deck girders and the bars o f built beams to one another deck platin g
, ,
to beams ( excepting beams having a single top flange and which are spaced
on alternate frames ) bulkhead sti ffeners and all the angle bars of inter
, ,
costal tank girders or longi tudi n als Formerly 8 diameters was the usual .
pitch for all these parts but it was found desirable to reduce it to bind
, ,
the parts more thoroughly together and to avoid the prejudicial e ffect of ,
corrosion mentioned in A rt 4 6 6 . .
The pitch of the rivets in the shell landings amidships where the frame ,
spacing as measured on the shell does not vary is given in the table
, , ,
below I t should be ob served that owing to the constantly varying

.
,
dimension s and form o f the di fferent parts o f the hull it is impossible to ,
adhere to any precise pitch those specified ab ove are the m aximum
allowed by Lloyd s R egister I n some cases smaller are adopted
’
. .
M I N I M U M N U M BE R I
O F R VE TS I N E DG E s o r P LAT N G I B E TWE E N
FR A M E S A M I D S H I P S , E X C LU D I N G I
R V E TS IN FR AM E S .
N um be r of R i v e ts i n e a ch r o w .
5 p ac mg 0f Fr ames
D i am e te r of R i v e ts .
g i n ch .
5 i n ch . P 5 i n ch . 1 i n ch . 1 5 i n ch .
A r t 2 9 7 Th e
. .
j
en d s o f
oi n t
t h e s h e ll p l a t i n g are now p r a c t i c a l l y
alw a ys l a p p e d . Formerly this practice was regarded with disfavour ;
Ar t 29 7
[ .
line of frame rivets I n a treble riveted l a p p e d j o i n t this cannot well be

.
-
done fo r to check the lateral de formation shown in Fig 3 P late 4 8 and

, ,
.
, ,
avoid starting the caulking the outer rows o f rivets should have the full ,
binding e ffect due to a close spacing I n the case however o f qua druple . , ,
riveted lap joints which owing to their greater breadth are subj ect to less
, , ,
de formation under stress the pitch o f the outer rows is sometimes increased ,
t o 5 diameters as shown in Fig 1 7 P late 5 0 other wise the pitch of all

,
.
,
the rivets is increased to 4 diameters as shown in Fig 9 To secure ,

. .
greater e fficiency in lap j oints it has been proposed to fit a back strap as , ,
shown in Fig 1 2 P late 5 9 which while retaining a close spacing in the

.
, , ,
rivets next the caulking edge admits o f widely spaced terminal rows but ,
this arrangement has found little or no favour in shipbuilding Butted .
joints have the further advantage that the rivets are only s trained when
the plates are s ubject to ten s ile stress for of course the abutment of the , , ,
ends o f the plates o ffers a perfect resistance to compression I n the sheer .
strake fo r instance which may su ffer alternately intense tensile and com
, ,
pressive s tress the rivets in a lapped j oint are one moment strained in one
,
direction and the next in the other ( as s uming the stress to exceed the
frictional resistance of the j oint ) I n a butted j oint the straining tendency .
has a smaller range and so must be less trying on the riveting but of , ,
course this superiority can only be apparent under a stress exces s ive as
,
regards the shearing strength o f the rivets .
A r t 29 8 A d o u b l e s t r a p p e d j o i n t ha s several advanta geou s

. .
-
features owing to the double shear of the rivets fewer are required and , ,
so the joint may be short ; and as owing to its symmetry there is no , ,
distortion under stress a wide pitch in the outer rows is always admissible ,
.
I n practice however the pitch is limited on account of the caulking for

, , ,
double straps are individually thin — little more than half the thickness of
the plates connected — and as the rivets are o f the large s i z e appropriate to
the latter a spacing say of 7 diameters might have an insu fficient binding
, , ,
e ffect on the caulking edge of the thin strap I n boiler work where a high .
,
e fficiency in the j oints is required this is sometimes overcome by forming ,
the straps as shown in Fig 2 0 P late 5 0 where it will be observed that .

, , ,
while the transverse pitch o f the outer rows is large the curved caulking ,
edge of the strap is well bound by closely pitched rivets M ore u sually .
,
however b oth straps are made the full thickness o f the plates connected
,
( plates 1 5 inch thick fo r instance are commonly connected by two treble

, ,
ri veted straps each 1 5 inch thick the rivet being 1 5 inch diameter) so
, , ,
that their edges may b e well caulked even though the rivets are widely ,
spaced ; the usual pitch for the outer rows in such cases is ab out 6 5 , ,
diameters and for the inner row s 3 5 diameters

, .
D ouble buttstrap s may be double treble or quadruple riveted When , ,

.
double riveted they form a substitute for a treble riveted single strapped -
,
-
,
or lapped joint When employed fo r the sheer strake or deck stringer

.
they are usually treble riveted in which case they form a substitute for a ,
quadruple riveted overlap or for a single strap having four or five rows
-
,
o f rivets which of course would b e too broad fo r an ordinary frame space

, , , .
They are not o ften quadruple riveted unless with a view to reducing the ,
bearing pres sure on the side o f the rivet holes in the plate the intensity ,
o f which is a disadvantage peculiar to double s traps The combined .
thickness of double straps is made greater than that of the plate by 2 0

to 2 5 per cent and i f in one o f the straps the holes are coun tersunk
.
, , , ,
its thickness is further increased by 5 o r inch to make good the 1

5 ,
sectional area removed by the countersink .
A r t 2 9 9 L l o y d s r u l e s a s r e ga r d s t h e b r e a d t h o f l a p j o i n t s
. .
’
Ar t 3 00]
3
an d b u t t s t r a p s are shown in Figs 6 , etc , P late 5 0 , and in the table , . .
page 2 7 4 I t is also specified that in overlapped end joints the distance

.
between cross ro w s o f rivets , centre to centre , shall be 3 5 diameters , in

strapped j oints 3 diameters and in edge seams 2 5 diameters ; and further ,
that no rivet shall be nearer the edge o f the plate than its own diameter—
, ,
edge of plate to side of rivet I t will be found on comparing the above .

,
requirements with the specified breadths of overlap or of straps that there ,
is a small margin o f breadth This may be u sefully applied in slightly .
increasing the di s tance of the outer rows of rivets from the edges o f the
plate a rather greater distance than the minimum o f 1 diameter being
,
advantageous as a provision again s t irregularities in punching the holes ,
and in allowing some spare material for chipping should it at any time b e
required to rec aulk the joint the latter operation being preceded by ,
chipping the edge to remove the old caulk I n old vessels the edges of .
the shell plates are sometimes s o eaten away by corrosion as to bring them
close to the rivets a circumstance nece s sitating new plates The rows
, .
o f rivet s are spaced further apart in a lapped joint than in a strapped one ,
b ecause while there is always ample room between the frame s for an
,
overlap there is not always s ufficient for a treble riveted strap and of
,
-
, ,
course width of overlap is advantageous in reducing the tendency o f the

,
joint to distort under fore and a ft stress ( Figs 1 to 3 P late -

Th e breadth -
.
,
of the overlap of double riveted end j oints is rather greater than that of -
the landings for the end joints are subject to fore and aft s tress with its
,
- -
,
distorting tendency I n some cases th e breadth of overlap adopted is

.
considerably greater than that specified in Lloyd s rules ( Fig 2 7 P late ’

.
,
it being found convenient to so proportionate it that the vertical rows

o f rivets may fall in line with the ordinary holes in the landings When .
this is not done an extra pair of rivets may be required in the landings ,
in way o f each joint ( Fig With do uble straps as the rivets are in.
,
double sheer they may bear with greater pressure on the edge o f the
,
plate in the holes and so it is well in their case that the inner rows of
, , ,
rivets should be placed at rather a greater distance than 1 diameter from

the ends of the plates .
Ar t 3 00 Llo yd s r u le s require ( in vessels over

. .
’
plating
numeral ) all overlapped en d j o i n t s o f s h e ll p l a t i n g to be treble riveted ,
with three full rows of rivets except in small ve ss els where those for one ,
quarter the len gth at the bow and s te m may be double riveted I n large .
vessels ( over plating numeral) whose length exceeds twelve times

the depth the j oints amidships of the s heer strake and strake below and
, ,
those of the upper deck stringer plate must have treble riveted double
-
,
-
strap s in place o f the ordinary treble riveted overlap connection ; other -
wise quadruple riveted overlap j oints may b e substituted A s noticed in

,
- .
A rt 1 1 8 when shell plates exceed a certain breadth the weakening e ffect

.
,
o f individual j oints becomes more pronounced ; in such cases there fore , ,
to secure greater e fficiency they are quadruple instead o f tre ble riveted ,
the pitch o f the rivets being increased to 4 diameters instead o f 3 5 ( Fig 9 .

,
P late in some ca s es the pitch of the inner rows is retained at 3 5 and ,
that of the outer increased to 5 diameters ( Fig A s regards the now .
uncommon butted joints Lloyd s rules are not so simple ; as vessels ,

’
increase in size the requirements as to treble riveting are applied in a

,
gradual way : first to the sheer strake and to one two or three strakes , , ,
at the bilge then to the remaining outer strakes and finally to all An d
, ,
.
,
according to the ves s el s size the treble riveting is required fo r half length
’
, ,
three quarter length or all fore and a ft the pitch o f the outer r ows of
-
,
- -
,
rivets and the thickness o f the straps being also governed by the Si ze of
the vessel .
[Ar t 3 01 .
The r i v e t s in the di fferent rows may be placed opposite

A r t 3 01 . .
one another , in c h a i n fashion , or they may be z i gz a gge d ( see Fig 1 8 , .
P late I n the early days o f iron shipbuilding th e zigzag arrangement

was common , fo r it was thought to be the stronger ; later , however , it was
ascertained by experiment that the strength o f a joint is practically the
same either way a n d as chain riveti n g lends itsel f better to ship work it
, ,
is now exclusively adopted and is required by the classification societies ,

.
Z ig z ag riveting is obj ecti onable in that the rivets o f the landings do not ,
fall symmetrically with the end j oints and are apt to foul the ends o f the ,
p lates the frames or other cross bars ( see Fig

, ,
The only part s in .
which z igzag riveting is still sometimes adopted are the masts keels stems , , ,
a n d quadruple riveted lapped j oints I n the case of angle bars subj ect
-
.
to longitudinal stress it is evident that to minimize the weakening effect

, ,
o f the rivet holes those in the two flanges s hould not be placed opposite
,
one another ( A Fig 1 3 P late When a flange is o f moderate breadth

, .
, ,
say 4 inches or less the rivets may b e placed all in one line ; if over
, ,
“
4 inches they should b e slightly zigzagged or reeled as it i s termed ”
, , ,
( B Fig
,
the better to distribute their binding e ffect ; if very wide
.
,
say 6 inches or more there should b e two rows o f rivet s ( C Fig

, , , .
arranged zig z ag each at say 3 0 per cent greater pitch ; or the pitch of
, , , .
the row next the toe of the bar m ay be reduced and that of the others ,
correspondingly increased ( D Fig the better to secure watertightness , .
and avoid the bursting e ffect o f corrosion .
A r t 3 02 The r i v e t i n g o f th e s h e ll l a n d i n gs binds the di fferent

. .
strakes into one continuous sur face so that stresses in whatever direction , ,
they m ay act are at once distributed over the whole A n d a s already

, .
,
noticed it is this riveting that prevents a communication of the weakness

,
of contiguous end j oints not directly over each other When a vessel i s .
subjected to longitudinal bending forces the strakes o f shell plating tend ,
to slide over one another both longitudinally and vertically ; and the ,
riveting o f the landings in resisting this movement is s ubjected to shearing

, ,
stress This straining tendency of the strake s is the same as that which
.
prevails in the horizontal layers of the beam shown in Fig 2 P late 1 1 4 .

, .
B oth straining tendencies vertical and longitudinal become more inten s e , ,
towards the n eutral a x i s or mid depth of the hull ; they are cumulative ; the
,
-
s heer strake has the least tendency to slide fore and aft and downwards - -
over its neighbour ; the n e x t ha s a greater because combined with its own ~
, ,
tendency it is a ffected or impelled by that o f the Sheer strake ; finally the

, ,
st rakes next the neutral axis have the maximum tendency Further a s in .
,
the case of a uniformly loaded beam the straining tendency and consequent , ,
shearing e ffect on the landing rivets become s more pronounced towards the ,
vessel s ends This circum s tance indicates the neces s ity of maintaining all
’
.
fore and aft the full strength o f the edge riveting ; it i s sometimes thought
pe rmissible to reduce it towards the ends where the plating is thin but , ,
Lloyd s rules specify that when double riveting is required amidships it

’
, ,
shall be carried all fore and aft and in vessels 4 8 0 feet in length it is now
required that the landings towards the b ow and ste m shall b e treble riveted
for one quarter the length but only those near mid depth where the above ,
-
,
straining tendency is at a maximum ( P late 9 0 ) and in ves s els between

4 5 0 and 4 8 0 feet in length additional riveting is required in the landings ,
at these places I t should be observed that in resisting the above fore

.
,
and aft straining tendency of the strakes the edge riveting is not much
-
,
assisted by the numerous cross frames fo r in thi s direction these are not ,
rigid and the smallest lateral yielding is suffi cient to permit of seriou s
fore and—
,
-
aft straining o f the rigid rivets in the landings Further while .
,
6 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
strake and this trans ference o f course can only be made through the
, , ,
rivets in the landing connecting the two parts I n practice the prevalence .
of exce s sive stress in the riveting o f the landings at the ends o f a bridge
hou s e is ( unle s s they are double riveted ) constantly ob s erved I n vessels .
even of moderate size it is common where the landings are single ,
riveted to find some of the rivets at this part loose and not only at the
, ,
en d o f the bridge but at other points o f similar discontinuity s u ch a s

, ,
the ends o f bulwark doors and cargo ports This weakness is now .
1
avoided by double riveting the landings o f the bridge side plating at

each end as shown in Fig 1 3 P late I 5 P recisely the same strain i ng
,
.
, .
tendency pre vails in the deck plating at the ends o f large hatchways which .
, ,
as discontin uities in the deck plating are homologous with the ends of the ,
side plating o f deck erections i e the riveting of the seams just beyond ,
. .
,
the corners o f the hatchway is subject to special shearing stress This is ,

.
well checked by fitting doubling patches around the corners as shown in ,
Fig 2 3 P late 5 8 and Fig 4 P late 8 6 ( Art

.
, , .
, .
A rt 3 04 Wh e n s t r a k e s o f p l a t i n g a r e d o u bl e d with a view to
. .
increasing their longitudinal strength t h e j o i n t s of the two thicknesses ,
S hould of course be a s thoro u ghly connected as i f each stood alone ( Fig

, ,
.
21 ,
P late E ven in so fundamental a matter misconception sometimes
prevails it being thought that as the one strake cover s the joints o f the
, ,
other it takes the place of and ser ves as a strap or tha t a less powerful
, , ,
s trap may su ffice This o f course is ab su rd fo r with no s trap the two

.
, , ,
strakes would b e reduced at every j oint to one ; or with an imperfect ,
strap to something le ss than two T0 double a s trake and omit the butt
,
.
straps would weaken rather than strengthen the structure for as the ,
sectional area at each j oint would be reduced by half each j oint would
form like a notch in a stick —a point of marked relative weakness and
,
— , ,
in consequence would su ffer intense local stress O f course when plating

, .
,
not subject to severe ten s ile s tres s is doubled locally merely to increase ,
its lateral s ti ffnes s (as when the bow plating is doubled to resist impinge
ment with ice or to give a flush s urface for the rub of the cables or
,
anchors) the straps may be omitted in both thickne s ses

, .
The disposition of the rivets in a doubled strake i s shown in Fig 2 1 .

,
P late 5 0 The straps of the inner thickness are placed inside and those
.
,
o f the outer outside so that each may be directly over its j oint
,
To place .
those of the outer thickness inside ( see Fig 7 P late as is sometimes .

,
done is improper be cause under severe stress when the j oint tends to
, , , ,
open most of th e stress falls on the inner thickness the s trap being remote
,
from the joint does not give a prompt and e ffective resistance and the
, ,
rivets as regards the connected strake are in single shear The butts of
, , .
doubled strake s are only connected by single straps but if in the absence ,
of a doubling the more e ffi cient double strap connection should be required

,
-
,
then the Single strap should for the greatest e fficiency be o f extra strength , , ,
for to adopt a les s e fficient means of j ointing beca use o f the doubling ,
would be to di s count s ome of the reinforcing e ffect for which it is fitted .
V ery commonly the j oints o f the inner thickness are riveted up before the
o u ter one i s fitted ( in any case some of the frame rivets are us u ally closed , ,
to hold it in place ) ; this avoids some three ply riveting b ut does not -
, ,
by redu cing the perforation of the outer thickness increase the strength , ,
fo r o f cour s e all the closely pitched rivets in the joints o f the outer thick
, ,
ness must pass through both The two plates must be bo u nd together by .
well distributed rivets ; a closely pitched (about 5 diameters ) ro w is placed

-
ti g i v ti g ti l l t w i ll b f u d i D B uh
1
A i t n n e res f th n n es a on o p p ese o ca s resses e o n n r . r
’
n s a e r,
Tr a n s I n sti tutzon of N a va l A r c/I i tects,
. 1 88 9 .
Art 3 05 ]
7
along the edge and in the central area s between the frames a fe w tack
, , ,
r i vets are introduced C are mu s t be observed in riveting double plating

.
that the two surface s are drawn into close contact throughout and to ensure ,
this and avoid puckering the central rivets should b e closed be fore the
, ,
marginal ones ; and more especially is this the ca s e with curved plates ,
such a s the bilge strake s P articular care must be observed to secure fair
.
holes in the three ply riveting o f the joints frames and gunwale bar ; and
-
, ,
fo r this purpose it is well especially in thick and important parts that the, ,
holes of the middle thickness should b e punched s mall and ri mere d to size
a fter the parts are put together ( see C Fig 3 P late 5 2 and Art , .
, , .
A r t 3 05 P u n c h e d h ol e s a re n o t c yli n d r i c a l but slightly conica l

. .
, ,
a form which is advantageou s a s regards the e fficiency of the riveting The .
taper is due to the circum s tance that the hole in the di e or bols ter of a
punching machine must b e a little larger than the punch ; because in the
up— and down movement o f the latter there i s always more or less side
-
play and s ome clearance is there fore necessary in order that its edge
, , ,
may not foul that o f the bolster and cause damage to both ( see Fig 5 .
,
P late Further i f the hole in the bolster were just the size o f the
,
punch a greater pressure would b e required in punching which besides

, , ,
reducing the endurance o f the punch would increase its injurious e ffect ,
on the material o f the plate ( experiments Show that the maximum pressure
required o f the punch is much the same whether the hole in the bolster
b e large or small but the average pressure or work done is greater when
, , ,
it is small ; see E ngi n eer i ng D ecember 2 7 I n punching a hole

, , ,
the ac tual work of extrusion is accomplished before the punch is half

through the plate but to ensure that the bur r —the cylindrical disc
,
”
o f —
metal is ejected it is made to pas s right through and into the b olster .
,
To facilitate the passage of the p u nch through the plate it al s o is slightly ,
tapered from its face upwards

, .
A ccording to the clearance allowed in the die the hole in the plate ,
may be more or less co n ical ; i f the clearance is too great however the , ,
edge o f the die does not Shear the lower edge o f the hole ; the action is
then a tearing one and results in a jagged projection or rag around the
,
“
, ,
hole ( see Fig 6 P late .The clearance allowed varies considerably ;

,
the average is ab out one sixth of the thickness o f the plate giving 5 inch
-
,
for 5 plates and 5 5 i nch for 5 plates But in practice wi th plates 1

.
,
and bar s o f varying thickness and p unches of di fferent si z es no great , ,

,
nicety is observe d ; and within certain limits the precise clearance i s

unimportant Sometimes however great carelessness is displayed in the
.
, ,
matter o f punches and dies the die may be much too large for the punch ,
or the edges o f both may be chipped and blunt producing in either case ,
an objectionable rag around the hole O r the die may not be concentric .
with the punch or the latter may have too much side play causing twisted
, ,
holes and a one si ded rag ( Fig -

O f course when the holes are counter .
,
sunk these defects disappear but if not the rivet heads cannot bed , , ,
properly on the plate (see Figs 9 and 1 0 and D Fig .

, , .
Several ki n d s o f p u n c h e s are shown in Fi g 8 P late 5 2 The .

, .
ordinary flat en ded punch ( Fig 5 ) is practically the only one employed in
-
.
shipbuilding The slop i ng f aced and sp i r a l varieties ( B and C Fig 8 ) are

.
-
,
.
found by experiment to have a slightly less injurious e ffect on the steel

‘
fo r as they cut or shear their way gradually through the plate the pressure ,
is at no time so intense as with a flat ended punch ; this circumstance -

,
however has little practical value and as punches o f this type are not
, ,
easily kept in order they have met with little or no favour The fi n der
,
.
po i n t punch shown at
,
A in Fig 8 is advantageous where great precision .
,
[ .
is required fo r when the centre of the hole ab out to b e punched is marked

, ,
previously with a centre punch dab the finder point by engaging with the -
, ,
latter acts as a guide I n punching holes with an ordinary punch perfect

,
.
precision is u nattainable even i f the holes are neatly marked which as , , ,
a rule they are not The fi n de r point punch is only useful when the centre
,
.
-
o f the holes can be accurately marked by centre punch and as i n Ship ,
w ork this is seldom practicable it is little used ; for boiler and bridge ,
work however it is often employed A nother punch s ometimes employed

, ,
.
for very thick plates is shown at D Fig 8 I t ap pear s to penetrate the ,

. .
plate more easily than a flat ended punch the maximum pressure being -
,
small due to the fact that the rounded central part breaks up the steel in
,
advance o f the cutting edge .
A r t 3 06 I n c o m p a r i n g d r i ll e d w i t h p u n c h e d h ol e s the fact
. .
,
that the latter have a natural taper is advantageous as regards the e ffi ciency
of the riveting for as the taper is really a slight countersink the shank of
, ,
the ri v et holds the parts together independently of the head or point .

1
This is often observed where rivet heads may be accidentally broken o ff or ,
where the heads of the shell rivets on a vessel s bottom may be worn away ’
,
the shanks in either ca s e forming immovable watertight plugs ; if the holes

, ,
were drilled and parallel the rivets in the absence of their heads might , , ,
fall out O f course to secure this benefit it is essential that th e taper o f

.
, ,
the holes should face outwards or as it is expressed t/ze p la tes etc s/zould , , , , .
,
be p unc/zed f r om tbc f ayi ng s urface ( B Fig 1 2 P late This is also

”
.
, ,
necessary in order to ensure a close j oint and sound rivets for if the holes ,
were reversed ( as shown at A Fig 1 the shank might not ( with careless ,
.
riveting ) b e staved up su fficiently to s well in the middle and fill the hole ;
and the burr which exist s more or less around all punched holes might
prevent close contact of the plates and thus destroy the frictional resistance ,
of the j oint I n a d rilled hole the parallel s hank is not so likely to b e

.
thoroughly staved up as in a punched one fo r the latter opens outwards ,
to the hammer blows An d further a rivet in a parallel hole is more likely .

, ,
to stretch under stress for it is only held by its s omewhat distant head ,
and point whereas in a punched hole the shank being enlarged both
, ,
ways is locked as it were against stretching I n three ply riveting the

, , , .
-
fact that with punched holes those in the central thickne s s are not
, ,
cylindrical ( Fig 3 ) is a serious disadvantage ; in order that the rivet shanks

.
may entirely fill the holes those in the central thickne s s in important , ,
parts should be punched small and ri me re d to size when the parts are in
,
place ( see C Fig , .
Ar t 3 07 Formerly r i v e t s were manufactured of the same diameter

. .
,
throughout ( s ee E Fig 3 P late 5 3 ) now excepting very small rivets the ,

.
, , ,
n e ck or part o f the Shank immediately under the head is slightly

, ,
t a p e r e d o r s w o l l e n ( C Fig so as to fill the natural countersink of , .
the punched hole I n small rivets the swelling is a mere fillet but in .
,
others it is a well formed cone I f in a large rivet the neck were not -
.
, ,
tapered the staving e ffect o f the hammer blows on the di s tant point might
,
not cau s e it to swell sufficiently to fill the hole just under the head
( B , Fig 1 1 P late
. and i,
f in a watertight j oint the rivet head did not , ,
bed tightly on the plate water might find its way through this plate by the ,
ill fi tti n g neck I t Should be observed however that when the riveting is
-
.
, ,
prope rly performed the staving e ffect of the hammer blows is usually
sufficient to close every crevice o f the holes to b e filled whether the neck ,
S tt R co l l t t d th t i m v l h bui lt th h ll iv t h l w
usse s a e t a n so e esse s e e s e r e o es e re n o
co u t k b t h d
n e r su n ly th tu l t p d t pu hi g w i th l g di —T
,
u a on e na ra a er ue o nc n a ar e e r an s.
I n s tz tu tzon o
f N ava l A r c z tec/s , 1 88 7 ,
pa ge 308 .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 3 08
90 .
[ .
of their assured tightne s s countersunk headed rivets were tried for the ,
-
S hell plating etc of oil vessels but they were not found to be advantageous
, .
, , .
To employ them extensively involves extra work in countersinking ; when

used in bars the material removed by the countersink reduces the sectional
,
area of the flange and they have the considerable di s advantage of not
,
b eing readily tested .
With fl a tt en e d c o u n t e r s u n k h e a d s ( C and D Fig 2 P late 5 3 ) , .

,
the holes are not countersunk usually however the natural countersink due , ,
to the punch is increased by the use o f an extra large die When finished .
“
this rivet head resembles a large flat button I n some yards Bull headed .
-
rivets are pre ferred to countersunk ones for this work ( I Fig 3 ) they are , .
advantageous in that the head is deeper when finished ( L Fig The , .
advantage o f this cla s s o f rivet head lie s in the fact that as the bearing ,
shoulder i s formed by the hammering watertightness is assured despite ,
irregularities in the holding up I t is therefore a convenient rivet to use .

, ,
in awkward places where it may be di ffi cult to hold up and yet where

, ,
watertightne s s is essential thus it is often employed for the riveting in the ,
confined space of a double b ottom fo r the tank top margin plates etc , , , .
A s regard s strength it is not an e fficient type of head for it is too thi n to

, ,
g i ve a substantial clamping e ffect its use should therefore b e confined to , ,
part s not structurally important I t is often employed for the framework .
of light scantlinged paddle steamers etc for it is light and it s large area
-
, .
, ,
distributes it s clamping e ffect on the thin material I n some case s it i s us ed .
in holes Slightly countersunk ( E Fig , .
P l u g h e a d e d r i v e t s ( I Fig 2 and Fig 3 P late 5 3 ) have never had

-
, .
, .
,
an extensive uSe they are found to b e de fective in clamping power and

, ,
are now rarely employed A plug head is practically a pan head with the .
s houlder removed and the advantage claimed fo r it at one time wa s the

,
a s surance that the head being a tapered plug could be driven into the hole , ,
with a special degree of solidity and tightness But with well proportioned .
pan headed rivets the tapered n e ck fi ts with no l ess s olidity and they have
-
, ,
the advantage of a large bearing s houlder which not only distribute s and ,
increases the clamping power of the rivet but under a severe stre s s tending , , ,
to strain and di s tort the j oint check s t he sid e tripping and loo s ening e ffect
-
,
-
on the rivet When s ubjected to inten s e s tres s steel behaves like a pla st ic
.
,
substance ; and so the large proj ecting plug head having little bearing on -
,
the plate may draw into the hole and by tripping sideway s accommodate
, , ,
i tself to the straining o f the j oint A plu g headed rivet may be loo sened .
-
by s triking it a heavy blow on the head I n process o f hammering up a .

,
slight shoulder becomes indented around the head ( see I Fig and i f , .
the latter is well heated so as to s ecure a large bearing shoulder it would , ,
as s ume in some measure the excellent characteristics of a pan head

, , .
A r t 3 09 R i v e t p o i n t s of variou s kind s are shown in Fig 1 P late

. . .
,
53 . T h e h a mm e r e d p o i n t ( E Fig 1 ) is the most readily made for it , .

,
is expeditiously clinched and requires no chipping A s regard s strength .

,
there i s little di ffe ren e e between it and a counter s unk point The length .
of the rivet should b e such as to provide suffi cient material because when , ,
too short the point as shown at G Fig 1 is small and button like ; it
, , , .
,
-
s hould be a well formed flat cone and preferably its s ide s should be
-
, , ,
slightly rounded ( F Fig This point is used for nearly all internal
,
.
work not requiring a flush surface I t is sometimes employed for tank .
tops and even for deck s ; but counter s unk points of full type are preferable
for these parts .
The s n a p p o i n t ( H Fig 1 P late 5 3 ) is not much used and as it is , .

, , ,
not an e fficient one only for parts not subject to severe structural stresses
, ,
Art 3 10]
s uch as bulkheads ca s ings etc O n acco u nt of its pleasing symmetrical

, , .
,
appearance it is suitable for parts exposed to view in pas s enger ac c omm o

, ,
dation and in the engine space To form it the rivet point is first staved .
,
up by squarely directed hammer blow s until the shank grips in the hole
,
-
, ,
whereupon a snap tool ( Fig 8 ) being held upon it and struck a fe w heavy .
blows results in a smooth polishe d heme sphe ri cal point I t is not a reliable
, , , .
point fo r instead of receiving a series of direct blows each one staving it

, ,
up more and more s olidly many of the blow s may expend their energy on ,
the plate alongside especially i f the rivet be too short ( I Fig , a circum , .
stance indicated by the marks made u pon the plate by the edge of the s nap
to ol ; and moreover the point is not always concentric w ith the shank
, , .
V ery small rivets 5, inch and le ss are closed cold and in such cases the
3-
, , ,
point i s usually formed with a snap tool I n small steel boats such as are .
,
employed on tropical rivers or lakes the s hell rivets are often formed with ,
snap points because to countersink and flush rivet plating thinner than
, ,
5 inch would ,
give very un s ubstantial results Small rivets of good so ft .
,
quality wh ether of s teel or iron may be moulded cold with perfect ea s e

, ,
under the hammer suggesting in their behaviour lead rather than steel
, , , .
The c o u n t e r s u n k p o i n t ( A B C and D Fig 1 P late 5 3 ) is the , , , , .

,
mo s t effi cient ; ex peri meri ts with riveted joints Show it to be the best both ,
as regards frictional res i stance and ultimate strength ; and it tends to

1
s ounde r work for a s the length o f the rivet s hank requiring s taving is
,
reduced by the countersink the solidity of the finished rivet i s more ,
assured The point may be finished o ff quite flush slightly convex or

.
, ,
full like a hammered point Those in the under water part of the s hell
,
.
-
should be s lightly convex ( s ee B Fig s o as to provide sub s tance for , .
corro s ion for the rivet point s are o ften found to corrode faster than the
,
s urroun ding plate I n other places they may be fini shed off quit e flush ;
.
a slight fulness is generally advantageous but to so form them requires ,
more time and care on the part of the ri veter s which unless insisted upon , , ,
are not a lways bestowed The point s and head s of the keel rivet s are .
,
of cour s e counters u nk and they are usually le ft s pecially full The points
, ,
an d heads of the rudder rivets are peculiarly liable to c o rrosw n formerly

they were of s nap type b u t as the s e were found to di s appear rapidly ,
and leave the plates loose they are now always counter s unk and in , , ,
addition made full like a hammered point ( see C and D Fig

, , In , .
deck and tank top plating the rivet s have u s ually countersunk points and ,
in some cases they are le ft full like a hammered point ( D Fig which i s , , .
advantageous i n the case of thin plating where a flu s h countersu nk point , ,
might be insu ffi ciently s ubstantial I n the ca s e o f an un s heathed plated .
deck projecting r i vet points are advantageo us in improving the foot

,
hold .
Art 3 1 0 I n co u nter su nk holes the d e p t h an d a n gle o f t h e

. .
,
c o u n t e rs i n k are matters requiring consideration Lloyd s rules require .

’
the countersink to extend right through the plate when this i s le s s than
— 5 inch thick ( Fig 1 P 5 )
0 when 5 inch thick and above it nee d
late
.
, ,
only extend through o f the thicknes s ( Fig The rule s of the British
9
O
0
.
C orporation require it to extend right through the plate ; and tho s e of the
Burea u V eritas require it to extend at least two thirds thro u gh ( Fig A .
through countersink is advantage ous in that it ensures the removal o f the

greater part of the material damaged by the punch The work of counter .
sinking l s done i n a rough and ready fa shion and to save time and reduce - -
, ,
the work of clinching the rivet po i nts there i s a natural tendencyon the part ,
of the workmen to make the countersink small and shallow a c i rcum s tanc e ,
Wi ldi h T I t tuti o f N v l A /i t t
1
s ,
88 5 p g 90
r a n s. ns i n o a a rc t ec s, 1 , a e 1 ,
292 P RA C TI C A L .
[ .
which is well provided against by the unequivocal requirement that it

shall extend right through the plate A s regards strength if the plates .
,
are fairly thick a countersunk point only two thirds through is quite as
, ,
-
,
strong as one completely through and in boiler work this is the usual ,
proportion but here the holes are drilled and the countersinking is care
,
fully done C ontrary to what might b e supposed the sharp edge of a

. ,
through countersink does not lower the shearing resistance o f the rivet for ,
this is found to be practically the same whether the hole has a shar p edge
or a square shoulder I t should be observed that the sharp edge does not .
act like a chisel fo r when the j oint is s trained so as to shear the rivet the
, ,
plate and rivet point move as one s o that the contour o f their buried ,
surfaces is immaterial I n thin plates a through countersink is desirable .

,
for the strength o f the rivet point so that it may not be so slender as to ,
break or pull through the plate and to provide substance against corrosion , .
I t ha s also the advantage of allowing unfair holes to be more readily faired ,
and by reducing the length o f the rivet shank it conduces to sounder rivets
, , .
The a n gle of countersink is greater in thin plates than in thick ( see

Fig 4 P late
.
,
for in the former the rivets are relatively large and
strong and so to give them a su ffi cient grip of the plate their points must
, , ,
be large or obtuse : if too acute they might pull through the plate ( see ,
Fig . I n cases o f damage by collision where the forces are irresi s tible , ,
or where as in old vessels rust ha s accumulated between the faying

, ,
surfaces it is common to find that thin plates have pulled over their rivet
,
points O n the other hand the angle of countersink should not be too
.
,
great ; for the edge o f the rivet point might be so thin and kni fe like as to -
have little endurance and in clinching it the hammer blo w s might not , ,
caulk it tightly in which case water having access it would s oon b e

, , ,
eaten away by corrosion The general practice and that specified by .

,
Lloyd s rules is to make the face diameter o f the rivet point 1 5 times that
’
of the punched hole the resulting angles are shown in Fig 4 With plates . .
o f varying thickness it would o f course b e di ffi cult to conform exactly , ,
with this rule but departures there from if moderate are unimportant
, , , .
Ar t 3 11 A s the ends of the b u tt s t r a p s o f the o u t e r s t r a k e s of

. .
shell plating are not fitted with any great precision again s t th e edges o f the
contiguous strakes there exists at each end an aperture more or less ,
minute through which b efore caulking the eye may o ften see daylight
, , ,
( see Fig 1 4 P late .I n some of the earlier iron vessels it was thought
,
nece s sary to cover these points either by joggling the strap over the ,
landing or by fitting short covering s traps over all ( s ee A and B Fig

,
‘
, .
This however wa s soon found to be unnecessary for a small discontinuity

, , ,
in the backing up material does not a ff ect the watertightness of the caulking
-
on the outside O f course with a badly fi tted strap and an open or corroded
.
,
-
butt the watertightness may be only that due to the choking or cementing
,
e ffect o f corrosion I n oil vessels ordinary inside s traps are inadmissible ;

.
,
fo r not only is oil more searchin g than water but it preclude s the forma ,
tion o f rust with its valuable leak stopping propertie s

. I n these vessels -
.
1
the shell joints may only b e butted i f the straps are placed outside this ,
disposition admitting o f very pe rfect caulking I n the case of boiler s the .

,
existence of the ab ove small uncovered apertu res in butted j oints is i n c o m

patible with steam tightness and so the ends of the straps instead o f being
-
, ,
I t is a c uri o us i s so me ti m es fo un d i n th e tan ks o f o i l esse s

thi n g th a t c o rr o si o n
'
v l .
I t o cc ur s , n o do ub t, d ur i n g th e p e ri o d s w h en th e tan ks are used fo r w a ter ba ast I t is ll .
y
fo un d chi e fl i n th e b o tto m sh e ll l
p a ti ng , th e o uter s trak es be i n g so me ti mes co rrod ed i n
g l l
a fo r e -an d -a ft ch an n e , c o se to th e e d e s o f th e i n n e r stra kes Fo r thi s reaso n i t i s n o w .
so me ti m es th o u h t
g p ro p e r to cem en t th e bo tto m she l p ati n g, as i n o rd i n ar esse s l l yv l .
294 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . A
[ rt 3 1 2 .
is ho w it disposes itsel f when severely s tressed ( see Fig 3 P late there .

,
can be little further lateral straining .
A rt 3 1 3 By the usual unprecise method of punching th e correspond

. . ,
ing r i v e t h ole s in connected parts c a n n e v e r b e p e r fe c tly c o i n c i d en t

( holes of varying d e gre ss of un fairness are Shown in Fig 1 P late T h e .
,
discrepancy should o f course be small and say only 5 inch it may be

i f,
5
, , , , 6 ,
c or r e c t e d by d r i ft i n g The dr if t ( Fig 1 4) is a very use ful tool ; it is

. .
simply a tapered steel pin which when driven into a hole slightly un fair , , ,
so enlarges it and strains the plates relatively to each other that the holes ,
in the two parts become practically fair and cylindrical G ood steel is not .
injured by moderate dri fting in experiments made to ascertain its

endurance of t he stretching and distorting effect of the drift a hole ,
punched near the edg e of a plate may b e enlarged to more than twice its
original diameter without s howing cracks E xcessive drifting is of cour s e .
, ,
objectionable for it tend s to s tave up the edge of the plate in the hole s o
, ,
that the faying surfaces cannot lie in uni form contact ( a de fect o ften
observed in the joints of badly fitted thin plating) and it may also produce ,
internal stresse s objectionable in important parts I n the case o f iron .
plates drifting i s a severe and dan gerous expedient for the inferior material
, ,
o f which iron ship plate s are made doe s not stretch like steel it crack s ,
and s plit s when subjected to the most moderate treatment .
When holes are so unfair that they overlap by ab out 5 inch the ,
projecting edge s are very commonly chipped o ff with a gouge or p i cked “

,
”
as it is termed the dri ft being used finally to smo oth o ff irregularities

, .
( see A and B Fig 1 P late 5 2 where the shaded parts repre s ent material
, .
, ,
removed) I f carefully corrected in thi s way the rivet may b e s ound and
.
fairly efficient A s a rule the hole in only one thickness is enlarged this
.
, ,
being su fficient to permit of the entrance of a full sized rivet and if -

,
corrected in this way it is well fo r the soundness of the rivet that in the ,
case of countersunk holes the counter s unk plate should b e the one ,
corrected irregularities b eing then better filled by the rivet ; this will b e
,
observed on comparing the rivets shown at F and G with those at L and ,
M ( Fig When insu fficiently corrected an unfair hole may not admit
.
,
a full sized rivet and riveter s will then sometimes use a small o n e perhaps
-
, ,
one wa s ted thin in the fire when of course the likelihood of its being , , ,
s u fficiently staved up to fill the hole is s mall ( see K Fig , .
H ole s which are unfair to the extent o f 5 inch or more should be , ,
c o rr e c t e d not by gouging or drifting but b y ri m e ri n g The tool

, ,
.
usually employed is merely a modified drill ( see C Fig 1 3 P late , .

,
This tool is not an e fficient one its e ffect is little better than that of a ,
gouge fo r it only removes material from one thickne s s making the hole in
, ,
thi s plate oval To secure perfectly fair holes a rimer s uch as that Shown
.
,
at A B D or E Fig 1 3 should be employed Th e imperfect fairing

, , , , .
, .
e ffect of rimer C is shown at A Fig 2 where it will be ob served that o nly ,

.
,
one of the overlapping s houlders in the un fair hole is removed making the ,
hole in this plate oval I n using a rimer it should be passed s u ffi ciently

.
i nto the hole to enlarge that in b oth plates leaving b oth circ ular see
( B , ,
Fig 2 ) it s hould there fore be o f large size more or less according to the
.
, , ,
degree of unfairne s s A portable pneumatic hand drill is now sometimes

.
used with advantage for ri m eri ng unfair holes in the shell and other parts
( the ri me rin g tool generally used with it is shown at E) it does its work
both quickly and well A ba lf bli n d hole is one in which the holes in
.
-
”
th e two parts hal f overlap each other see D Fig and it is evident
( , .
that unless its diameter is increa s ed by 5 0 per cent it cannot be made .
cyl i ndrical H oles so un fair should of course never occur but when by
.
, , ,
Ar t 3 1 4]
, P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . 2 95
accident they do the expedient adopted i s to pas s through a large rimer

, ,
and use an extra large rivet or one having a neck specially enlarged to fit ,
the oval hole When hole s are counters unk un fairnesses may sometimes be
.
,
well corrected by enlarging and deepening the countersink ( see C Fig , .
I t should be observed that the rimer should not be us ed until the parts are
tightly screwed together ready for riveting s o that there may be no chance ,
of the drillings entering between the faying surfaces and thu s precluding
close contact and sound riveting ; otherwise the part s s hould be sprung
a sunder after the ri m e ri ng to remove the borings
, , .
U n fa i r h o le s are most p r ej u di c i a l to the efficiency of the riveting ,
fo r it is evident that rivets such as those shown at L M N j and K Fig 1 , , , , , , .

,
P late 5 2 can give but poor resistance to straining of the joint

, I t should .
be observed that the defects shown in the rivets at J and K are exaggerated ,
for i f the rivets were well closed and hammered up the vacancies shown in
the sketches would be much s maller The impracticability of ensuring that .
every punched hole shall be quite fair is a reason fo r introducing in ,
important joints more rivets than would be justified merely by a con

sideration of their combined shearing strength I n good work there .
,
should b e no holes so non coincident as not to b e capable of being well -
faired by moderate dri fting I f in any one part there should be a con .
, ,
'
s i de rable number of un fair holes the part should b e rejected as unfit for ,
a high class structu re I t has sometimes been urged that to ensure perfect
-
.
,
riveting all holes in the s hell plating should be drilled as in a boiler ;

, ,
but this would greatly increase the cost a i i d ti ni e of con s truction and , ,
a s already noticed punched holes have some mechanical advantages

, .
Nevertheless in important parts such as the sheer strake and upper deck
, ,
-
stringer o f large vessels the plan of sy s tematically drilling or ri meri ng the

,
holes in place is sometimes advantageously adopted ; the work being

expeditiously and economically performed by the use of portable electric
or pneumatic drills .
. .
—
A r t 3 14 Whatever the fo r m o f a p l a t e d s u r fa c e fair or other
wise — before riveting it is r e n d e r e d fi x e d a n d p e r m an en t by t h e
,
r i v eti n g So long as conjoined plates are not rigidly united they may
.
,
be bent laterally by the application of a small force and i f when so bent , , ,
they are riveted they will retain their relative position or form Wh e n
,
.
handed over to the riveters a plated s urface may be lumpy and irregu lar , ,
especially i f the plating is thin ; and as they are responsible for i t s final
fairness their first operation is to set it fair by bolts wedges or shores
, , , .
I n many yards however the riveters are relieved of this d uty a special
, , ,
set of men being employed to screw up and fair the plates before they
start to rivet them ( Art .
The r i v e t s a r e h e a t e d in s mall portable hearth s They are placed .
point downwards in the fire s o that their heads may remain co mparatively ,
cool for if hot like the point they would flatten too much under the
, , ,
hammer V ery commonly a perforated plate is laid on the fire so that

.
,
the points only of the rivets ( each one placed in a hole ) may receive the
full e ffect of the blast They should not lie too long in the fire for they
.
,
thin away by oxidation and may deteriorate in their mechanical qualities,

.
I n the case of large iron rivets the point may be heated almost to a plastic ,
welding temperature but small ones need not be s o hot Steel rivets i f
,
.
heated to the same high temperat ure would be very near the burning
point at which they would be seriously i nj ui ed they are there fore not
, , ,
worked so hot a s iron rivets ( Art .
A r i v e t s q u a d consist s o f three men and one or two boys ; one of

the latter heat s the rivets the other conveys them to and inserts them ,
A rt 3 1 4
[ .
in the hole ( if there is only one boy he m ay merely thro w the rivets ,
“
to the holder ou) two o f the men clinch the po i nt while the third holds
-
, ,
up the head R iveting hammers are illustrated i n Figs 1 5 to 2 1 P late 4 7

”
. .
, ,
their weight vari es from 3 to 8 pounds according to the si z e o f the rivet ,
and its location P arts about to be riveted must first be pulled perfectly
.
close together by numerous bolts ( service “

for the rivets cannot
be depended on to draw the m together and if not close the hammering , , ,
may stretch the parts and alter the form o f the surface the one plate ,
creeping over the other V ery long plates should be fixed in place by a
.
few well distributed tack rivets to prevent creeping action during the ,
riveting ; and they should be riveted up from the centre towards the ends .
I n the region about to be riveted b olts are placed in every second or ,
third hole so as to secure absolute contact o f the faying surfaces ; for

,
i f these were not quite close the hot rivet would have to pull t hem ,
together and this through bulging of its shank it might not do To

, , ,
.
save labour and expedite the work riveters are i nclined to use fewer bolts ,
than is desirable fo r the assurance of thoroughly close work .
The p r o c e d u r e o f c l o s i n g a r i v e t is as follows : the hot rivet b e ing

inserted in the hole the bolder — up strikes the head a fe w blows ( to lay
,
it up so that it m ay b ed fairly on the plate) and then holds it up with

,
the hammer ( boldi ng up bum mer Fig 1 5 P late 4 7) against the blows
“ -
,
”
.
,
rapidly delivered on the point A t first the point is struck fairly end o n .
, ,
-
,
so that the Shank may be staved up and fit tightly in the hole throughout
its length right up to the head ; i f it is a countersunk point and the rivet
shank is rather long it is then s truck towards one side so as to bend i t
, ,
'
over in such a way that the surplus material not required to fill the ,
countersink may all bulge to one side and thus be readily chipped off
, ,
while still hot A fter chipping o ff the rag the rivet is allowed to stand
.
,
for a fe w minutes until it has cooled ; it then receives a second series of

blows delivered with care all around the edge o f the point which caulks
—
, , ,
it and i h —
good work fi n i she s it o ff so smoo thly as to make it difficult
to discern any precise line of demarkation between rivet and plate The .
period between the first and second series o f blows is occupied in giving
a second series to the last rivet dealt with and in dri fting the hole for ,
the next and clenching it as just described I f the final series were .
delivered immediately after the first the rivet when finished being still , , ,
hot might b e loosened by the contraction in the diameter o f its shank

,
and point and by the subsequent drifting of the adjacent hole and
,
hammering up of the rivet A fter the first series o f blows the rivet .
,
point usually shows a slightly bluish temper colour ( especially if it

be a steel rivet ) and the second series i f given at the proper
, ,
time when the rivet is cold should dissipate this t/ze fi n i s/zed poi n t
, , ,
.
s lzou i ng n o colour
r I n very hot weather when the rivets cool slowly
.
, ,
it is advantageous with large rivets to delay giving the final series

, ,
of blows until two others have been clinched While giving the final .
serie s o f blows the plate also is struck along the edge and between the
, ,
rivets so as to brin g the fayi n g surfaces everywhere into close contact

, ,
this being an important condition and one specially looked to when the
work is subsequently examined and tested R iveting work is prejudiced .
by wet weather fo r w hen water gets between the faying surfaces o f the
,
jo i nt it chills the hot rivet shank and the film of steam which form s ,
alongside prevents close contact o f the faying surfaces

Th e rivets on the flat of the bottom are awkwardly placed fo
.
r hammering
up ; in heavy work long sha fted h e av y h a m m er s are employed fo r

,
-
dealing sw i nging blows at arm s length small se or c a u l k i n g “ ’
,
298 PR A C TICAL S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 3 1 5 .
avoid the awkward work of countersinking these particular rivet holes an d ,
the di fficulty of renewing the rivets should they break or become loose
( an O peration nece s sitating the withdrawal o f the tube ) tap rivets are ,
usually s ubstituted at this place ( A and B Fig 3 P late 5 ,

.
,
Ar t 3 1 6 All r i v e t i n g w o r k mu s t b e c a r e fu l ly i n s p ec t e d a n d
. .
t e s t e d to ens u re that each rivet is tight and sound and that the faying
, ,
s urfaces are everywhere in close contact P iece work riveters are not .
-
remunerated for their work until it has been tested and found good The .
c lo s e n e s s o f a j o i n t is tested by a thin bladed kni fe the insertion o f

.
-
,
which between the faying s urfaces s hould not be po ss ible ; in bad work it
may enter so freely as to encounter the rivet shanks The j oints o f the .
plating are usually well closed but bet ween the frames and shell or inter ,
posed liners the contact is o ften more or less defective in places ,
especially where the frames are b evelled I f in the ca s e o f deep rigid .

, ,
frames o f solid section the bevel is inaccurate the riveters may experienc e , ,
di ffi culty in pulling the flange and the shell plating into clo s e contact at both
toe and heel more e s pecially when the b evel is too great for then while
, , ,
the toe is against the shell the more rigid heel is not When close contact , .
cannot be secured the clumsy expedient i s adopted of inserting feather ,
edged and tapered liner s in the vacancies ( Fig 1 8 P late 93 ) and some .
,
time s s trips o f sheet iron are caulked in between the heel of the frame and
the s h ell The importance of close contact of the frame s and shell plating
.
is evident in its absence heavy blows from the wave s might readily loosen ,
the shell rivets I f a joint in which the faying surface s are not in contact
.
, ,
is struck by a hammer between the rivets a hollow jarring noise and ,
absence of sharp rebound in the hammer will proclaim the defect ; a fter
stranding when the shell riveting may be strained that of the landings
, ,
may b e conveniently tested in this way The s oli d i t y o f t h e r i v e t s .
the m selves may b e tested by sound by to u ch or by the rebound o f the , ,
te s ting hammer The head or point of a tight rivet when struck by a

.
hammer gives a clear ring the hammer rebounding sharply if not tigh t it ,
will s ound more or less cracked and the hammer will not rebound sharply ,
when rivets are struck consecutively a bad one will at once announce ,
itself The usual method of testing combine s the s ense of touch with that
.
of sou nd While the finger is held again s t one s ide of the ri vet head the
.
,
other is s truck a side blow with a small te s ting hammer ; i f the rivet is
tight and so lid the finger will not be sensible of the blow if not perfectly ,
tight a jar will be felt more o r le ss pronounced and the hammer will not ,
_
rebound s harply They may b e equally well tested by s triking the head
.
while the finger is held on the point or vi ce ven d A defective rivet

‘
.
,
may usually be made good by further hammering but if this doe s not ,
prove an immediate remedy the fault is seriou s and it should be renewed , ,

'
R ivets which pass through several thicknesses or whose heads may not
,
be properly laid up are very apt to jar under the testing hammer ; an d ,
sometimes to prevent this the ri veters will caulk ( or jag ) the head
,
“
,
”
l ocally as shown at N Fig 1 P late 5 2 ) but this of course is very

, , .
, , ,
i mproper fo r although the jamming e ffect of the caulking may stop the jar
, ,
1 t does not improve the s olidity of the rivet it simply make s a bad rivet
,
appear good .
A r t 3 1 7 Ta p s t u d o r s c r ew e d r i v e t s are illustrated at A and B

. .
, , ,
n 3 P late 5 3 Their ultimate strength a s ascertained by ex periments

, .
,
w i th riveted j oints is little i f at all inferior to that o f clinched or through

, , ,
r vets ; but otherwise they are less e fficient for they do not fill the holes with
i 1
,
ab solute soli dity their clamping e ffect is in ferior and they are liable to
‘
, ,
Wi l d h T m I ti tuti f N l A /i t n 88 5
1
is , ra . ns on o a va rc t a ,
1 .
Art 3 18 ] P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LDI N G . 2 99
become loose through corrosion and wasting of the thread For connecting .
thin material they are particularly objectionable for the thread having s o , ,
small a grip may s trip through stress or corrosion or the rivets may work
, ,
back and loo s en the joint ; when used in thin plates they s hould pass right ,
through so that a lock nut may be hove up on the projecting point I n

, .
shipbuilding however their use i s practically confined to the riveting of

, ,
the shell plating to the s tern frame where if the work is properly done the -
, , ,
above obj ection s become unimportant H ere they are advantageous in .

,
that as they are short and inextensible they need not be s o large as
, ,
through rivet s ( their diameter is o f cour s e mea s ured under the thread) ; , ,
the latter weaken very considerably the forging and as already s een , , ,
unle ss they are closed with the greate s t care their soundness i s more or ,
less doubtful I n certain places the u s e of tap rivets is inevitable as for

.
, ,
‘
instance at the upper and lower turn of the bossed portion of the stern
,
frame where an ordinary rivet would not pa s s squarely through the surface
, ,
and at other i n acces s ible places where ordinary rivets could not be inserted ,
or clinched .
Tap rivet s should grip tightly in the s crewed hole s o that they may ,
have no tendency to s lacken under s ide stress and vibration ; to ensure

this and provide against corrosion of the thre ad those in the stern frame ,
-
should enter to a depth at least one and a hal f times their diamete r which , ,
of cou rse is more than i s nece ssary a s regard s mere stren gth against an out
,
ward pull Th e countersunk head should be concentric with the shank

.
,
and it should fit truly in the countersink of the plate fo r i f not the one , , ,
s ided contact would result in a one sided straining e ffect tending to break -
,
o ff the head A s ordinarily fitted the head seldom fits with precision in
.
,
the plate to ensure this the rivets should be turned and the holes drilled
and countersunk in p lace An ill fi tti n g head cannot as with an ordinary
.
-
,
rivet be corrected by staving it up with a hammer such t reatment would

,
break it o ff at the neck I t can only b e caulked on the surface an . ,
important operati on however in that it locks the rivet against turning back
, ,
and prevents the entrance of water with its corrosive e ffect : The counter
sink in the plate mu s t not pa s s quite through otherwise the rivet would ,
jam before it exerted a proper clamping e ffect For the purpose of heaving .
up the rivet a s quare projection is provided on the head which of course , , ,
is sub s equently cut o ff Sometimes the proj ection is formed with a nick
.
around its base ( B Fig 3 P late so that when screwed up to a certain

, .
,
tightne s s the spanner may wrench it o ff a plan which ensures that all rivets ,
shall be well and equally tightened I n wars hips tap rivets are exten
, , .
si v e ly used ; the light angle bar s connecting to the protective deck fo r ,
insta nce are tap riveted thereto for as this plating may be s everal inches
,
-
,
thick large through rivets Would b e quit e inapplicable ( P late

,
A rt 3 1 8 H y d r a u l i c r i v e t i n g is s uperior to hand in that there i s

. .
,
little chance of unsound rivets and the di fferent parts however stiff may , , ,
be forced into absolute contact thus securing a high frictional re s istance ,

.
The s o u ndne s s of hand closed rivet s varies with the conscientious care and
-
energy of the men and even in careful work i f the holes are not fair the
, , ,
rivet shanks may not absolutely fill them A rivet that is closed by hydraulic .
power is subjected to such intense compression that the material o f it s

shank flows almost like wax so that even in very un fair holes every crevice ,
may be filled The action of an hydraulic riveter is illustrated in Fig 1 9

. .
,
P late 5 0 the rivet head is held up by the one die o f the machine while ,
the other taking contact with the point first crushes up the shank and then
, ,
mould s the point in it s cup shaped re cess any exces s of material oozing out
-
,
as a thin collar I n order that the s hank may stave up before the point it
. ,
[
A r t 3 1 8 .
should be hotter if anything and with this in View the points o f long rivets
, , ,
are chilled in water The rivets should not be hotter than a b right red . ,
otherwise they would flow in so liquid a fashion that some o f the shank
material might ooze bet ween the faying surfaces ; when the parts are not
screwed tightly together this sometimes occurs .
Steel rivets that are quite cold may b e closed by hydraulic power but ,
so great a pre s sure is necessary ( about 1 4 0 tons per square inch o f rivet
section ) that the plate being nipped w ith the rivet may also flow and
, , ,
become indented ; this e ffect may sometimes b e observed in rivets situated

near the edge of a plate or bar by a slight bulging of the edge in way o f ,
each rivet The pressure adopted in practice varies with the class of work
.
and the j udgment o f those in charge The water p r e s s u r e a t t h e .
a c c u m u l a t o r is usually ab out 1 5 0 0 pounds pe r square inch but although

fixed in amount at this the sou rce the a c t u a l p r e s s u r e br o u gh t t o , ,
b e a r o n t h e r i v e t s depends on the design and dimensions o f the

particular machine employed — i e on the diameter of the ram and its . .
leverage I n heavy boiler work the rivets are usually subjected to a

.
pressure of about 1 0 0 tons per square inch of their sectional area I n ship .
work as the plates etc are much thinner a considerably smaller pressure
, , .
, ,
su ffices 7 5 tons per s quare inch is not usually exceeded and with this as the ,
standard a machine suitable for inch rivets would e ert a total pressure
,
-
x
of 4 5 tons The precise pressure is unimportant but it is well that it

.
,
should be large rather than small for al though a pressure of 5 0 tons per ,
square inch would be su ff cient if the rivets were always red hot it might i ,
be inadequate should they happen to b e fairly cold .
Th e p r o c e d u r e adopted i n m a c h i n e r i v e t i n g is first to screw the

parts together with a bol t in every second hole fo r a distance o f 5 or 6
feet and when the intermediate holes are drifted and all is ready some
, ,
—
,
ten or twelve rivets heated in bulk in a small reverberatory furnace are —

,
inserted and closed forthwith in little more than a minute I f the work is
—
.
,
not clos e i e i f the parts do not lie perfectly close together between the
—
. .
rivets the nec essary contact is at once secured by nipping them together
with the machine I n machine riveting it is therefore the preparatory
.
, ,
work that takes time the rivet s themselves may b e closed almost as fa s t
as they are put in the holes I t is the association o f expedition with .
e ffi ciency that makes machine riveting preferable to hand The work may .
b e done too hurriedly however the machine may not be held squarely on ,
the rivet so that the shank may not be properly staved up and the point
,
may not be concentric with the shank and sometimes a rivet may be too ,
short resulting in an insufficiently s taved s hank or an imp erfectly formed

point I n heavy work—such as keel riveting— the machine should not be
,
~
.
removed until the rivet has cooled somewhat fo r if released when it is still ,
hot and so ft the parts might spring a s under ; by working the rivets fairly
,
cold however the need for this delay becomes unimportant especially with
, , ,
ligh t parts I n heavy boiler work each large rivet receives a second
.
squeeze a fter it has cooled O rdinary pan headed rivets are generally used .
-
fo r machine work the finished head and point being almost invariably of
,
snap type I f a countersunk point is required a fairly flat die may be

.
,
used but as the point must always proj ect somewhat ( so that it and not
, ,
the plate may receive the pres s ure o f the machine) hand chipping and
, ,
caulking are required to finish off This necessity is a deterrent to the use .
o f the machine for counter s unk riveting When the sheer strake is machine .
riveted the points may be o f snap type for of course when above water
, , , , ,
these are not objectionable .
H ydraulic rivetin g is adopted more or less extensively in all large ship

[Ar t 3 1 8
together during the closing of the rivet ; as already noticed perfect pre ,
liminary contact of the faying surfaces is very important in machine riveting .
R iveting machines are not all worked by hydraulic power in some com ,
pressed air is used and in others steam ; and they may do their work by ,
steady pressure as in an hydraulic machine or by percu ssion as in hand

, , ,
work A i r p r e s s u r e o r p n e um a t i c m a ch i n e s are advantageo us in

.
, ,
some respects but those usually employed have the disadvantage of giving
,
a pressure which varies with the length of the rivet ; for as the air pressure
is only about 70 pounds per square inch the necessary inten s e pre s sure on ,
the rivet head is usually secured by working the die with a toggle j oint a ,
mechanism which exert s an effort more or less intense according a s it s

range of movement is great or small ; with hydraulic power the die exert s
the s ame pressure at all points of its stroke An improved pneu matic .
machine is now obtainable in which a sort of lever cam takes the place of
1
the toggle joint and thu s secures more uniform pres s ure Ai r p er c u ss i o n
, .
m a c h i n e s are advantageou s in that they are ve ry much lighter than tho s e

which operate by pressure but as their action is simply that of a hammer
( giving very short rapid strokes ) they are no more e
, fficient in making ,
sound rivet s than are ordinary hand hammers and owing to their short , ,
stroke their capabilitie s in clo s ing the work are very poor M achines of
, .
thi s type are much used in some o f the N orth A merican shipyards but in -
,
thi s countr y they have as yet found little favour , , .

2
A r t 3 1 9 A lthough steel has almost entirely s uper s eded iron for the
. .
hull it ha s not yet done so for the rivets for the greater number of s teel
, ,
vessel s are s till riveted with i r on r i v e t s S t e el ri v et s are preferable in .
that they are tougher more ductile and stron ger ; they are exclusively used, ,
in G overnment dockyards and also in many private yard s an exception , ,
however is u sual ly made of the large rivet s used for keel s etc where for
, , .
, ,
ea s e in manipulation soft iron i s preferable Formerly steel was regarded , .

,
a s an un s uitable material for rivets due principally to the circu mstance that ,
it wa s attempted to work steel rivet s at the same high temperat ure as those
of iron a treatment which they could not well s tand Both steel and iron
, .
are injured by overheating ; they burn and emit showers of spark s b u t in ,
the ca s e of iron long before the burning temperature i s atta ined it as su mes
,
the plastic condition suitable for welding or for easy manipulation under the ‘
hammer an d even if it s hould b e overheated and b u rn it is not s o ,
seriously inj u red that it cannot b e worked With steel on the other hand .
, ,
the pla s tic or welding temperatu re is little removed from the burning point ,
and in burning it suffer s more than iron a small mas s s u ch a s a rivet

, , ,
b eing s o inj u red as to crack and crumble under the hammer The softer .
the steel the further removed the burning temperature from the plastic
‘
, ,
and so the le s s likely is it to b e injured by overheating ; and no doubt

much of the di ffi culty experienced with the early s teel rivets wa s due to
lack of mildne ss in the s teel Steel rivets are n o w us ed with the mo s t .
satisfactory re s ult s ; the one point to b e observed in their manipulation is

not to heat them beyond a b right yellow ; iron rivets are o ften rai s ed
almo s t to a white heat The circumstance that iron rivets when slightly .
burned are not s o injured that they cannot b e worked i s not a point in
their fa vour for such rivets are brittle and unreliable The principle
.
, .
reason for the continued u s e of iron rivet s is the greater ea s e with which
they may be hammered up Steel rivet s are tougher a drawback which is .
,
emphasized by the lower temperatu re at which they are worked to close

Fi l di g p t t
’
e n s a en .
2
A d p ti f th m hi w i ll b f und i n
escri on o
p p r by M W T
ese B b c ck ac n es e o a a e r. . . a o ,
T77 1713 I n s ti tuti on
.
f Nav al A n ni /acts
o
,
1 8 99 .
Ar t 3 20]. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
30 3
them is more laborious and con s equently piecework riveters demand

, , ,
higher remun eration when using them .
Th e iron used for rivet s is a high class material ; it has none of the -
brittleness of common plate iron but is al most as ductile as steel A s , .
already seen its ten s ile strength is about 2 4 tons per square inch but its
, ,
shearing strength when connecting steel plates is low being only about
, , ,
16
1
tons Steel rivets vary greatly l n strength but with a co mparatively
.
,
soft steel of 2 8 tons tensile strength a shearing strength of at least 2 3 tons

per squ are inch 13 probable Steel rivets are therefore abo u t 4 0 per cent
.
, , .
stronger tha n those of iron which of course is a very important advantage

, , , .
The greater toughness of s teel rivets may b e ob s erved when cutt i ng them
out in repair work for while the h ead o f an ordinary i ron rivet will often
,
fly off when struck one or two blow s with a chisel and s ledge hammer ,
that of a steel rivet may require to be almo s t cut off I ron rivets however .
, ,
vary much for when of good quality they are a s tough to the chisel as
‘
those o f steel They are often defective in having an open reedy grain
.
,
which cau s es the head and shank to Split du ring the hammering up .
I t may be mentioned here that in repair work the removal of counter

sunk rivets whose heads owing to inacce s sibility cannot be s truck off with
, ,
a sledge hammer and chisel is accomplished by drilling a hole almost ,
through the point ( see Fig 4 P late 5 2 ) and then punching the rivet .
,
shank inwards unle s s electric or pneumatic drills are available such work ,
is o f course slow and laboriou s The removal of keel stem and stern
, ,
.
, ,
frame rivets i s accompli shed by striking them alternately on the head

and point with a sledge hammer which causes the s hank after a few , ,
blows to break across at the neck of the countersink

, .
Ar t 3 2 0 Lloyd s requirements for the steel bar s used for boiler rivet s
’
. .
are a tensile strength of 2 6 to 3 0 tons per square inch and an elongation ,
under test o f not less than 2 0 per cent in a length of 8 inche s ; and the .
same class o f material is generally employed for ship rivets The A dmiralty .
t e s t s fo r s t e e l bars for ordinary r i v e t s is a tensile strength of 2 6 to 3 0

tons per square inch and 2 5 per cent elongation and fo r b oiler rivets 2 4 .
,
to 2 7 tons with 2 5 per cent elongation Steel rivets and rivet bars are . .
also subj ected to various ductility tests ( see Figs 2 8 to 3 4 P late the .
,
most important of which is the s taving up mushroom fashion o f the end of ,

-
,
the bar or the head of the rivet ( Fig 3 1 ) whether hot or cold it should .
flatten out as thin as a S ixpence without cracking around the edge ; if

flattened hot the head may attain a diameter more than three times that
,
o f the shank A nother standard test is to bend the bar double squeezing
.
,
the two parts quite close together ( Fig Whether the s teel has a high .
or a low tensile strength i a whether it b e at the upper limit o f 3 0 tons or

,
. .
at the lower o ne of 2 6 there is usually little appreciable di fference in its

,
behaviour under these tests and in vie w o f this and of the advantage o f ,
strong rivets it is evidently well and proper to employ a fairly strong steel
,
.
I n s ome cases steel rivets are made from an exceedingly mild material ,
little stronger than good iron .
The u s e o f s t e e l r i v e t s for shipwork i s so limited that L l oyd s r u l e s

’
assume all to be of iron ; to make special rules appropriate to the greater

strength of s teel ri vet s would not be expedient for it would be di fficult to ,
ensure that all the rivet s actually u sed are of steel and that they have the ,
high shearing strength anticipated The ru les of the B u r e au Ve ri t a s .
s tate that if steel r i vets having a tensile strength exceeding 2 2 tons are
, ,
used a suitable reduction may be permitted in their diameter The rules

,
.
o f the B r i t i s h C o r p or a t i o n recommend the u s e of steel rivets The .
general s cheme of riveting adopted by the Ad m i r al ty di ffer s con s iderably

P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G 0
04 .
[Ar t.3 2
from Merchant practice O nly steel rivets are used There are no fixed
. .
rules as to sizes of rivets and the number in the j oints ; these matters are
based on theoretical re quirements as to equality o f plate and rivet s trength ,
computations being made fo r each important joint and the r i vets arranged
accordingly A s warships are not subject to the same inten s e str uctural
.
stresses as merchant vessels and as the plates are comparatively thin the
, ,
riveting is usually much less extensive ; the shell j o i nts are usually butted ,
and even in the largest battle ship are not usually more than double riveted ,
and the rivet pitch l s wider than that adopted m merchant vessels A s a.
rule the countersink is not extended quite through the plate Buttstra ps
.
a re rather narrower and are not specially thickened

, .
[Ar t 3 21 .
early days of iron shipbuilding plate edge planing machines were hardly -
thought of ; to make tightl y fitting j oints the ends of the plates were sheared
rather full and were then staved u p by numerous hammer blows so that
,
they might fit properly against one another I n the staving process a .
projecting ridge was formed which was regarded a s an advantage for a fter , ,
the plates were riveted together watertightness was at once secured by

hammering the ridge into the j oint flush with the plate surface This , .
procedure appears now to be barbarous in the extreme especially with ,
iron plates brittle laminated and readily split ; the e ffect of corrosion
, , ,
in such j oints owing to the disintegration caused by the hammering must

, ,
have been rapid and destructive .
I n ordinary c a u l k i n g work light h a mm er s are employed ; w h ere the

plates are yery thick heavier ones may be advantageously used Some
, .
times i n large vessels the j oints o f the shell plating are nam d i e two e . .
workmen operate together the one holding the caulking tool ( which is pro ,
v i de d with a loosely attached handle ) and the other striking it with a
lon g shafted hammer but with good fitting and rivetin g work this method
-
of caulking is likely to be injurious rather than beneficial for it may force ,
the faying sur faces apart and not b e uniform in its e ffect Many o f the
, .
seams are so disposed that in caulking them the hammer must be held in , ,
the le ft hand ; the lapped shell j oint s on the starboard side for instance , ,
require a le ft hand caulk No t all caulkers are skilled with the left hand
-
.
,
and s o it i s well in arranging the internal work so to dispose the seams as

, ,
to avoid left hand caulking in the transverse bulkheads for instance the
-
, ,
horizontal caulking edge s should face upwards and if caulked on the ,
forward s urface the vertical edges should face to port .
C a ulk i n g w o r k requires conscientious care as a rule it is well done ,
and if not the fault is usually in the fitting and riveting the j oints not
, ,
being properly closed in the first instance The perfection o f the work is .
t e s t e d by the general appearance of the groove formed by the tool its ,
width and depth and by applying the point of a thin knife ; in dark places
, ,
s uch as the bottom seam s o f the shell plating the inspection is assisted b y ,
a small mirror held so as to reflect the seam or to throw upon it a beam

,
of light The groove s hould be from to 1 inch wide according to the

.
3
3 ,
thickne s s of the plate ; a narrow groove implies a shallow caulk I f a .
j oint i s not closely riveted as is somet i mes the case with the edges of the,
bilge s trake s ( see Fig 8 P late a large amount of staving e ffort with
.
, ,
its result a deep groove is required to raise the necessary bearing

, ,
shoulder I f closely fitted very little bearing shoulder is required and so

.
, ,
the groove may be s hallow The depth of the groove is therefore no .

, ,
criterion o f the perfection o f the caulking for although a deep one may ,
apparently denote a solid conscientious caulk a shallow one i f the j oint , , ,
i s r iveted perfectly close may really be the superi or indicating a well , ,
riveted j oint Sometimes in careless work the caulking tool is held so

.
, ,
improperly as to raise a furrow in the surface o f the other plate ( see Fig .
A r t 3 22 Some excellent p n e um a t i c c a u lk i n g t o o l s are now

. .
available but as yet they are not extensively used in the shipyard
,
They .
1
are worked by compres s ed air and deliver short stroke blows with vibratory ,
-
rapidity I n operation they are held in the hand and require merely to
.
,
be guided along the s eam the tool indenting a deep groove with great ,
rapidity They have b een proved very suitable for straight forward w ork
.
,
such as the shell decks and tank top but the inconvenience o f the tubing
, , ,
necessary to convey the pressure air makes them awkward to use fo r odd
m hi w il l b f u d i M M Ew
’
A d i p ti
e sc r f f th on o on e o R e se ac nes e o n n r. ac an o ss s
p p r T
a e , I
f a n s. t t t f E d S/
n s i u i on o
g s ip b i ld i S t l d 893
n z neer an z u er s n co an ,
1 .
Ar t 324]
39 7
j obs The same machine may be adapted for chipping purpo s es ; when a
.
chisel is s u bstituted for the caulking tool it can chip the edge of a plate or ,
the point o f a rivet with remarkable expedition P neumatic caulking .

,
chipping and riveting tools or hammers are n o w exten s ively used in s ome
, , ,
o f the shipyards in the U nited States o f A merica .
A r t 3 23 Th e c a u lk i n g e d ge s o f the shell plating are sm o o t h l y

. .
p l a n e d and if before caulking there is any apparent unfairne s s it is

, , , ,
corrected by chipping O ther plating i f it is thin is o ften not planed .

, ,
before caulking A s hearing machine when in good order can cut the
.
, ,
edge of a thin plate so smoothly and squarely that a close scru tiny may
b e nece s sary to ascertain whether or not i t has been planed But of .
,
course according to the way a planing machine is worked it may make a

, ,
s mooth or a very rough cut i f so rough that it resembles a s heared edge ,
the planing is o f lit tle value With ordinary shears and thick plates the .
,
kni fe tends to round over the upper e dge leaving the lower one sharp and ,
square or raising a small bur r r ag or fi n as shown in Fig 7 P late 5 4 , , , .

, .
When it is not intended to plane the edge of a plate it should be so shorn ,
that the sharp edge may be aga i n st the other plate ( see A Fig fo r the n ,
.
the faying surfaces of the j oint will be in close contact right up to the
edge and when this is well hammered d uring the ri veting it will b e almost
,
watertight without caulking ; the e ffect when disposed contrari wise is , ,
shown at B Fi g 7 A lthough a sheared edge may be tightly caulked the

, . .
,
work is inferior to what it is when it is smoothly planed or chipped ( in some

yards the deck tank top and bulkhead plates are neither planed nor chipped
,
-
before caulking) for when in the latter condition a minimum of staving

,
will produce uniform contact ; wi th a rough sheared edge ( as also with a ,
roughly planed one ) little particles o f metal from the ragged edge are apt
to be driven into the seam by the caulking tool so that the caulking is less ,
perfect and more care is required to secure watertightness a circumstance ,
which piecework caulkers observe by demanding higher remuneration for

the work .
Th e t o e s o f a n a n gl e b a r being slightly rou n ded should be p l a n e d , ,
o r c h i p p e d b e for e c a u l k i n g ( see the watertight reverse bar in Fig 1 2 .

,
P late I n many cases however watertight bars are caulked wi thout , ,
any preliminary planing or chipping but this is not good practice Small , .
odd bars are usually chipped when riveted in place as a prelude to the ,
caulking ; long bars however are usually planed Straight bars may be , , .
planed in an ordinary plate edge planing machine ; i f curved they may b e -
planed before bending but i f the curvature or bevelling is extensive and , ,
involves furnacing ( as in bulkhead frame angles ) the work might inj ure the ,
planed edge and in such cases therefore hand chipping in place is

, , , , ,
usually resorted to An ordinary planing machine is not very suitable

.
even for straight bars for as these are never perfectly straight the tool , ,
must be guided to en s ure an even cut Special planing machines are n ow .
made for this work ( Fig 1 8 P late 1 1 5 ) when in operation the bar is dra w n
.
,
between rollers while fixed cutters one for each flange plane simultaneously
, , ,
the edges o f both .
A r t 3 24 The caulking o f a straight s ea m is a simple matter ; but in

. .
the case of s m i t h e d a n gle b a r s such as watertight collar angles a nd the ,

watertight divisions of a double bottom it is not so easy I n collar angles ,
.
,
fo r instance such as those shown in Figs 3 to 1 0 P late 5 5 it is practically

, .
, ,
impossible to fit them with precision at all the corners o f the parts surrounded ;
the riveting cannot as in a seam produce contact at every point and so, , ,
chips or wedges of iron must be driven into the crevices as a preliminary to

the caul king To make all tight requires a skil ful use of the caulking tool ;
.
A r t 3 24
[ .
there is no well formed groove to guide it and in places it has to be a ppli e d

-
,
over a wide area For such work a tool ( B F1g 9 P late 5 4) having a
.
,
.
,
s errated edge ( made by striking it while hot on a fi le) is used fo r when ,
a smooth one is applied to an irregular surface it is apt to skid and jar the
hand of the operator This tool is also used fo r caulking butted joints
. ,
hence the ter m antt toot

“
I t is sometimes employed for ordinary edge .
”
caulking but its use here is improper fo r while by more quickly indenting
, , ,
a groove it expedites the work it tends to break up and damage the steel
, ,
.
A r t 3 2 5 R iveted j oints may when necessary be made watertight

. .
, ,
without caulking by placing soft oily material between the faying surfaces
, ,
.
The most durable s o ft p a c k i n g consists of strips o f woven fla n nel dipped in

re d le a d fi tt sheeting however is the material ge n e ra llye m plo ye d and some
, , ,
times simple p u t t y o r V u l c a n c e m e n t ( the latter is merely a cheap form

o f putty the consistency o f which may be reg ulated in the same way by the
, ,
a dd i tion o f oil ) T h e use of soft packing is

.
— o r should b e — c o n fin e d to
joints which cannot be properly caulked or as an auxiliary to the caulking ,
in places where through intricacies in the work or inaccessibility the

, ,
caulking being di fficult to per form is not entirely reliable it is commonly

, ,
used fo r instance fo r watertight collar angles tank divisions margin plate

, , , ,
-
lu s etc
ff
b , .
A j oint that o wes its watertightness to so ft packing is in ferior to one that

is riveted metal to metal and caulked ; fo r with so ft oily material between , ,
the faying surfaces the rigidity o f the union must be in ferior there can be
, ,
little frictional resistance and with the lapse o f time there is a chance o f
,
the so ft material decomposing losing its water excluding properties and ,

-
,
destroying the solidity o f the j oint The interstices of a m e t a l t o m e t a l .

- -
j o i n t become in course o f t 1me hermetically sealed by a hard cohesive

, , ,
fi lm or scale o f r ust which increases the frictional resistance and solidity

, ,
o f the j oint and secures watertightness independently o f the caulking

,
Few .
vessels when launched a re absolutely watert i ght at every j oint and rivet but ,
in a very short time the formation of rust within the minu te crevices forming
the leaks proves a perfect remedy A n d similarly in old vessels many o f .
, ,
the seams do not owe their watertightne s s to the caulking fo r the edges of ,
the plates may be worn away beyond the caulking and yet be per fectly ,
tight When oily packing is introduced bet ween the faying surfaces it
.
,
prevents the formation of rust with its valuable solidi fying and tightening ,
e ffect For this reason in high class work its use is very limited Th e
.
,
-
, .
classification societies speci fy metal to metal j oints - -

.
“
A r t 3 2 6 I n m any places so ft packing in the form of a s t o p w a t e r
. .
”
,
-
,
is essential to watertightn ess The purpose o f a sto p water may be illustrated .

-
by considering th e case o f say a deep tank bulkhead A lthough the , ,

-
.
bulkhead itsel f may be per fectly watertight it is evident that each shell ,
landing traversing it may form a conduit for the water for a s this is free
, , , ,
to enter between the faying surfaces o f the landing it may travel fore and ,
a ft and escape at any point of the un c aulked edge I f both edges of the .
landing were caulked it would form a sort o f flattened pipe into w hich
water could neither enter nor escape ; but o f course to caulk the inner , ,
edge o f the shell landings all fore an d a ft would be impracticable The - -

.
simple plan is there fore adopted of choking up the landing where it

, ,
traverses the bulkhead by a stop water o f felt and re dlead Stop-waters

,
-
.
must b e inserted at every place where two conj oined thicknesses traverse
a watertight surface at the watertight bulkheads they are required between
the di fferent angles o f the keelsons and side stringers and in the lan dings ,
o f the shell deck plating and tank top ; also between the angles of the
, , ,
vertical keel in way o f tank divisions ; and between the frames reverse ,
3 19 .
[ .
the connecti n g angles ( when single) being reversed as at A Fig 7 P late 1 7 , , .

, .
But the c lassi fi ca tion soc i et i es now require th e angles to be placed opposite
each other as at B which involves three ply r i vets Th e objection to
, ,
.
these however is one that can be overcome by care ful workmanship with
, , ,
or without the j udicious use o f so ft packing and as noticed in A rt 1 9 2 , , .

,
th e structural strength is s u perior when the two severed parts have a direct
t h rough attachment A s a rule however it is preferred to reverse the .
, ,
angles an d as compensation for the inferior holding e ffect fit the outer one
, , ,
with an extra large flange as shown at C I t is chiefly in tanks whose ,

.
constant duty it is to retain water and which must withstand a pressure ,
test that special care is taken to avoid such three ply rivets as would
,
-
necessitate so ft packing O rdinary bulkheads which may never b e called .

,
upon to with hold water usually receive less attention I n o i l v e s s e ls , .
particular care is taken to avoid th ree ply rivets for of course greasy -
, , ,
packing material is inapplicable a s a leak stopper fo r paraffi n oil To secure - .
oil tightness there fore the most perfect workmanship is essential the parts
-
, , ,
must be accurately fitted the rivets c losely spaced and all holes made , ,
perfectly fair so as to en s ure their b eing properly plugged by the rivet

shanks .
Ar t 3 2 8 I n c a u lk i n g a watertight surface such a s a bulkhead it

. .
,
should b e done entirely fr o m o n e s i d e ; if partly on one and partly on

the other there is no termination for the caulk a n d in the absence o f so ft
, , ,
packing perfect watertightness is impossible I n properly executed work

, .
the furrows formed by the caulking tool should have no termination they
should abut on others and form as it were continuous loops ; i f at any , ,
point the caulking stopped short the water w ould ( unless stop waters ,
o -
were introduced) b e free to enter between the faying surfaces or edges

o f the p lates pass along and escape With double bulkhead frame
, .
angles only one o f them is caulked ( in the case of the bulkheads of

,
deep tanks b oth angles are often caulked) usually the after one in the ,
case o f the forward bulkheads for owing to its open bevel it is more , , ,
accessible : and of course the remainder o f the bulkhead should be

, ,
caulked from this side When a part is to b e caulked care must be taken .
,
that the edges are everywhere accessible to the caulking tool the end s of
the bulkhead stiffe ne rs fo r instance should be cut about an inch short of , ,
the boundary angle s etc and similarly in the case of the tank m argin , .
, , ,
angle the frames etc should be cut clear of its toes ( see Fig 1 8 P late
, , .
,
.
,
P articular care is always taken to sec u re watertightness in the collision ,
a fter peak and deep tank bulkheads for the work ha s to be tested and
-
,
-
,
de fect s m ade good ; a thick layer o f putty is usually placed over the open
crevice bet ween the double frame angles which becomes squeezed out by ,
the riveting and forms a good stop water With a bar keel the triangular - .
spaces between the garboard plates and its upper edge are usually filled
by driving in wedges of iron watertightness being ensured by a good body ,
of cement .
Where continuous parts such as the keelsons stringers and frames , , , ,
pierce watertight plating such as the bulkheads and tank top they must be , ,
surrounded by s m i th e d a n gle b ar s termed t ot/a r r ( see Figs 3 to

“
,
”
.
1 4 P late hese are made by workmen known as “ ”

T a ng le s mi t/
i
, 5 s ,
who make the necessary templates and fit the collars ready fo r riveting .
Their design varies according to the s hape and po s ition o f the part sur
rounded i t being studied to simplify and minimize the fitting caulking
, , ,
and riveting work .
A r t 3 29 Sometimes when a large number of c o lla rs o f identical

. .
,
form are required as where beams pierce lon git udinal b u lkheads or ,
Art 3 3 1 ]
31 1
casings they are m ade o f c ast st e el or m alle a ble c a st i r on in bulk

, , ,
from a single pattern and knee pieces such as are used at the corners of ,
fresh water tanks ( Fig 1 5 P late 5

- are very commonly made of cast
.
,
steel Watertight collars m ust of course fit closely around the part but
.
, , ,
the hole in the watertight plating may be large so that the part may be ,
easily reeved through ( Figs 1 1 to 1 4 ) and it is usual in such cases to place .
“
on the side O pposite to the collar angle a well fitte d plate or plate -
,
collar which serves to cover up the large hole to sti ffen the thin plating
,
”
,
against the bursting e ffect of the caulking and to retain the putty usually ,
inserted behind the collar angle ( Fig Sometimes carelessness is .
displayed in the collaring of deck stringer plates etc where they pierce -
, .
,
watertight bulkheads ; the collars should of course entirely surrou nd the , ,
stringer and gunwale bar and be all on the one s ide of the bulkhead as , ,
shown in Figs 5 and 7 P late 2 2 or Fig 1 1 P late 5 5

.
, , .
, .
A r t 3 3 0 A caulked watertight sur face i s equally tight whether the

. .
w a t e r p r e s s e s o n t h e c a u lk e d o r o n t h e u n c a u lk e d s i d e ; in the
“
latter case the water i s free to enter between the faying s urfaces o f
the joints a favourable circumstance in that the rapid formation o f rust
, ,
within the j oints conduce s to watertightness irrespective of the caulking but ,
un favourable in that entering freely between the faying surfaces it may

, , ,
tend if excessive to spring them apart start the caulking and strain the
, , , ,
rivet heads or point s As regards the securing o f watertightnes s in new

.
vessels it is very advantageous that the caulking side should be open to

,
inspection when the bulkheads and tanks are tested by water pressure .
A deep tank b u lkhead for instance is alway s ca ulked on the su r face

-
, ,
extern al to the tanks so that when tested by filling the tank with water
, , ,
any de fect s are at once ob s erved and may be corrected forthwith ; if it

were caulked on the inner surface then as leakage water might travel , ,
along the joints and ooze out extensively by the uncaulked edges it would ,
give no preci s e indication of the nature and position of the leak wi thin ,
whether due to defective caulking or rivets A s the leak could not b e .
properly corrected from the o u tside the tank would have to be emptied , ,
the d efect searched for and made good as far as practicable and the bulk ,
head retested Each tank o f th e double bottom is separately tested and

.
, ,
as it is at its watertight ends that defective workmanship and leakage are

most likely to oc cur these parts must be examined durin g the test ; and
, ,
to permit of defects being readily made good care should be observed that ,
the caulking is not on the water side during the test I n many cases th e .
precautionary measure i s taken o f caulking both sides of watertight divisions ,
the heel of the bar on the one s ide and the toes on the other and in the ca se ,
o f deep tank bulkheads both of the double marginal angles are usually
-
caulked and s top waters inserted a t e v ery landing between them I f in Fig
,
- .
,
.
1 2 P late 5 4 the heel of the revers e bar were caulked water could not pass
, , ,
from one ta nk to the other vi a the de fective rivet I f on testing a tank .

, ,
leaky rivets which cannot be corrected by cau lking are di s covered they ,
should of course be renewed and not with studs s crewed in from the
, , ,
outside This involves emptying the tank and it i s desirable that it should
.
,
be again fi lled and retested otherwise it would be uncertain that the defects ,
"
unless o f a simple n ature— had been properly remedied or that the ,
performance of the work had not disturbed the watertightne ss of contigu ous
parts .
A r t 3 3 1 The masts and yard s are not generally caulked the masts
. .
should b e for a few feet above the deck so that in the interval of time
,
.
, ,
b efore a rust tight j oint is formed water m ay not freely enter the seams
-
,
an d pas s down into the hold I n high cla s s work all s pars are caulked -
.
,
’
3 12 .
[ .
this being advantageous in preventing water from entering the joint s and
cau s ing corrosion the e ffects o f which are noticed in A rt 4 6 6 A n d fo r a
,
. .
,
similar reason all joints o f thin plating etc exposed to the weather o n
, ,
.
,
de ck should be caulked The s h a ft tunnel is o f course carefully caulked .

, , ,
and the classification societies require that in new ships it sha ll be tested
with water this bei n g done usually by hose from the outside P articular
,
.
care must be observ ed in securing watertightness of the upper deck gunwale -
bar where the buttstrap s o f the sheer strake or the chain plate s for the
,
shrouds may overlap it (A rt L loyd s rules require the watertightness .

’
o f the upper deck to be tested by playing water upon it from a hose and ,
w h ere there is a gutter waterway it should be tested before cementing ;

sometimes this is done by forming a tro ugh with deals about a foot deep , ,
and filling it with water These precautions are very necessary for in new .
,
ships valuable cargo h a s s ometimes been damage d by deck leakage through ,
undiscovered de fective j oints or rivet s .
A r t 3 3 2 The b all a s t t a n k s of all new ves s els are t e st e d by

. .
filling them with water and in the case of old vessels the classification , , ,
societies require periodical tests at least every four years I n new vessels , .
the tanks are rarely found per fectly tight on the first test the shell portion
generally is for the fitting caulking and rivetin g work is here a simple
, , ,
a ff air but in the case o f the tank top sides and ends the work is not so , , ,
easy and consequently some o f the three ply riveting or the caulking in
, , ,
-
,
awkward places is o ften defective I n old ships periodical tests are use ful
, .
in assuring that no leakiness or other defect ha s developed through wear

and tear for as the structure of a tank is discontinuous and compara
,
t i v e ly slender it s endurance o f s tress is not equal to tha t o f the shell

, .
I n these tests it is not uncommon to find the tanks more or less leaky If .
extensive leakage were to occur when the vessel wa s at sea the c on se ,
q u e n c e s might of course b e serious for before

, those on board became , ,
aware o f the circumstance the water passing from the tank into the hold , , ,
might damage valuable cargo O f course i f a vessel s tanks are constantly .

,
’
used their condition whether tight or leaky is practically under constant

, , ,
test but sometimes they may not be used for long periods or they may not
, ,
b e filled su fficiently to cause pressure and bring defects to light .
A s the w a t e r p r e s s u r e endured by a tank depends on the vessel s

’
draught the pressure applied in testing is also regulated by this quantity

, .
Water like all fluids presses equally in all directions A sub merged
, , .
surface however disposed suffers a pressure equal to the weight o f a

, ,
column o f water whose height is the depth o f submergence ( measured to

the centre o f gravity o f the surface ) and whose cross section has an area ,
equal to that of the surface I t follows therefore that the bottom plating .
, ,
o f a vessel whose load draught is say 1 8 feet is subjected to an upward , , ,
pressure of about half a ton per square foot ( fo r 3 6 cubic feet o f fresh ,
water weigh one ton ) I f now in this vessel the double bottom were
.
, , ,
full of water and a valve in the shell plating were opened all pressure
, ,
would at once be transferred to the tank top the shell being submerged , ,
would su ffer pressure a s before but being now pressed equally on b oth sides ,
it would be in equilibrium and neglecting it s weight —might be removed

,
— ,
without a ffecting the vessel s flotation The vessel w ould then float on ’
.
her tank top which if 1 8 feet below the sur face wo u ld sustain a pressure
, , ,
o f half a ton per square foot This is the maximum pressure which the .
tank would su ffer and there fore it is the pre s sure that should be applied
, , ,
in testing it When a tank is tested afloat it is usually done in this simple

.
—
way by opening the flooding valve so that the sea may freely enter I f .
the ve s sel were floatin g at li ght draught say 9 feet in place of 1 8 then of , , ,
3 14 .
[ .
sometime s only made for filling them through an air pipe by a hose from ,
the d eck Lloyd s rules re quire deep tanks to be tested by a head o f

.
’
water 8 feet ab ove the tank top .
The o i l t a n k s o f petroleum vessels are subj ected to a m o r e s e v e r e

t e s t than water ballast tanks L loyd s rules speci fy a head o f water 1 5 feet
’
-
above the deck forming the cro wn o f the tank This however is not u s ually .
, ,
more than 9 feet above the normal surface of the oil in the expansion
trunks which usually lies ab out 6 feet above the crown of the tank ( Fig 1 1
, .
,
P late The pressure due to a 1 5 feet head of water is about 93 pounds -
per square inch ; but this is only what the crown of the tank su ffers the ,
pressure a ffecting the bottom plating in a tank say 2 0 feet deep would be , , ,
1 ton per square foot When the vessel is afloat much of this pressure
.
is o f course coun terbalanced by that of the sea but not so the pre s sure
, , ,
on the transverse bulkheads which in a bulkhead say 2 0 feet by 2 0 feet , , ,
( the portion on one side o f the centre line bulkhead ) would amount
,
to nearly 3 0 0 tons To withstand so great a pressure without s igns

.
of straining or leakiness it i s evident that a large flat su rface like a bulk

,
head must be very strongly constructed I t i s proper that the tanks of oil .
vessels should b e tested by a pressure somewhat higher than that which

occurs in actual s ervice for oil i s more searching than water and so when
, , ,
employing water as the testing fluid the greater head compen sate s in ,
a measure for it s greater viscosity Further a s the containing walls of a .

,
deep tank may be subjected to blows of a severely s training nature and a s ,
the ordinary fluid pressure a ffec t ing them may b e largely accentuated by
the vessel s plunging movements ( Art ’
their capabilities are better .
ascertained by a high pressure test .
I n the actual w or k o f t e s t i n g t a n k s there are s everal point s to

consider I t mu s t first be ascertained that the tank is quite full of water ;
.
often it appears to be so but owing to insu ffi cient or badly disposed air , ,
pipes volumes of air may be imprisoned under the tank top when o f
, , ,
cour s e should there be a s mall leak as only air would escape therefrom
, , ,
it might not be observed A lso it must b e ascertained that the water i s at

.
,
the required height in the air pipes and that it remains so during the ,
inspection When filling a tank whether through a flooding valve or hose

. , ,
the water may at one moment fill the s ounding pipe and the next sub s ide
and leave it empty ; this of cou rse is due to the irregular escape of air , ,
imprisoned in the tank .
The increase in the capacity of a tank under pressure due to upward ,
b u l gi n g o f t h e t h i n t a n k t o p p l a t i n g between the floor s and longi -
tudin a ls is o ften very considerable

,
I t m ay be demonstrated in s everal .
ways : when filling a tank fo r instance it ma y b e ascertained ( by taking , ,
soundings ) that it is quite full and that the water in the sounding pipe is ,
lying just ab ove the level o f the tank top now if th e walls of the tank were -
,
perfectly rigid it is evident that about a gallon of water would be s u ffi cient

,
to fill the pipe to the top and at once place the tank under test pressure ; ,
yet actually with the hose flowing full bore into the pipe it may take s ome
, ,
-
,
minutes to fill it This of course is explained by the fact that as the water
.
, ,
rises in th e pipe s o does the pressure on the tank top increa s e ; the j platin g ,
there fore bulges upwa rds m ore and more and thus increases the cubic
, ,
capacity of the t a nk Such bulging may be ob s erved more or le s s in all tanks

.
in those built on the M c I n tyre system it is o ften very pronounced ( A rt .
I t s e ffect in increasing the capacity of the tank may be strikin gly illustrated
by di sconnecting the s ta nd pipe ( at the tank top ) when the ta nk is under -
pressure a large quantity of water will then escape rising in a jet and
, ,
continuing to flow for a co nsiderable time O n observing the tank top . .

,
Art 3 3 4]
315
the various bulges will be found to disappear the flexible plating resuming ,
its normal form and it is o f course this subsidence or bellows like action , , ,
-
o f the plating that causes the ejection of the water

, .
When a tank is filled for testing soundings may be taken to ascertain ,
the depth i f filled when afloat th rough a valve th e latter should be le ft , ,
open during the test to ensure the continuance of the pressure Sometimes .
a temporary stand pipe is screwed i nto the tank top and a small barrel fixed
-
,
on the top to act as a reservoir and filler ; otherwise when the tank is ,
filled b y hose thro ugh a sounding pipe the top of the stand -pipe may ,
be bent over so that a constant stream o f water is s uing therefrom ( a barrel

,
being provided for its rec eption) indicates that the proper head of water is
maintaine d Sometimes the stand pipe is pierced with small holes about a
.
-
foot apart each one being plugged up so that by withdrawing them from
, ,
the t0 p downwards the heigh t o f the water in the p i pe may be ascertained

at any time The best method of testing the tanks of new vessels and one
.
very generally adopted is to connect a hose to one of the drain pltigs 1n the
,
shell plating and lead an escape pipe up from the tank top and overb oard
, ,
through the side at the level of the load line so that a constant stream of ,
w ater issuing there from may announce that the tank is under pressure .
The ta nk top and side gutters must o f course h e kept dry during the test , , ,
sawdust being used to absorb leakage water .
A r t 3 3 3 The i n t er i o r o f a t a n k is u s ually c e m e n t e d b e fo re
. .
t h e t e s t th e sh ell with a thick layer and the remainder with cement wash
,
.
This I S not improper fo r alt hough thick cement on the shell might stop a
,
leak there 18 here little chance of leakage ; in vessels not having a double
,
b ottom the shell is cemented before the launch and there would b e no ,
reason fo r omitting it when there happened to b e an inner bottom The .
cement wash is so thin th a t it has practically no leak stopping properties - .
A s there is al w ays a chance of leakiness in the angle bar connecting the

‘
tank margin plate to the shell the cementing of the gutter at the side of ,
the tank must be de ferred until a fter the tank is tested An d so also .
should the cementing o f the frame space on either side of the watertight
d ivisions and more particularly i f the tank is to b e used for fresh water for
,
drinking purposes for of course the smalle s t leakage o f salt water into a
, , ,
~
fresh water tank would be a serious matter

-
To ensure watertightness a .
,
ve ry im proper use is sometimes made o f cement ; for where confidence is ,
not felt i n the caulking o f awkward corners in way o f smithed collars etc , , .
bad workmanship i s sometimes provided against by introducing at these

places within the tank thick masse s of cement An d sometimes certain
, , .
rivets in the margin plate in which watertightness is di fficult to secure a re , ,
covered over on the inside with a coating of th ick redlead ; but this of ,
course is improper fo r it mi ght make an unsound leaky rivet appear tight

, , ,
during the test .
A r t 3 3 4 There are many parts whose w a t e rt i gh t n e s s cannot be

. .
t e s t e d b y solid water and in such ca s es a h o s e may be employed ,

When .
c are fully directed a powerful jet o f water will readily discover a leak its
, ,
e ffect when impinging with force on a j oint bei ng precisely that o f still
water under sta tical pressure but of course on account o f its momentary , , ,
or transitory character i t is possible that a small leak might b e passed over

,
.
The ordinary transverse bulkheads are so m etimes tested by hose and as , ,
already seen the classification societies require that the tunnel and the
,
deck w hether plated or of wood shall b e s o tested

, ,
.
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G A rt 3 3 5
.
[ .
C H A P TE R XX I I I .
Art . 335 . varies with the general

Th e t h i c k n e s s of a w ood deck l
size of the vessel with the character of the deck and with the species of
, ,
timber Thickness is advantageous in giving strength and rigidity so that

.
,
when supporting heavy weights or when struck by falling seas the planks , ,
may not strain up or down between the beams relatively to one another so ,
a s to start the caulking and cau s e leakiness and in providing a margin

against the thinning e ffect of wear and tear The thicknesse s specified i n .
Lloyd s rules for pine upper decks vary from 2 5 inches in vessels less than
’
2 8 0 0 plating numeral to 4 inches in those over plating numeral

, .
I t is evident that sti ff er and stronger planks are required in large vessels not ,
only on account o f the wider beam spacing but because of the more intense ,
stresses local and otherwise which accompany increase in size D eck

, ,
.
planks so thick as 4 inches are only found i n the upper decks o f sailing
ships for in steamers of similar size the deck is usually plated When
, .
teak is s ubstituted for pine L loyd s rules permit o f a reduction in thickness ,

’
o f one sixth on account o f its greater strength and durability

-
,
A lower deck .
is usually thinner than an upper one by 1 5 or 2 5 per cent ; and i f not .
required fo r structural purposes it may be laid in an incomplete fashion

( see P late I n the spar deck type o f vessel L loyd s rules require both -
’
the upper and s econd decks to be 3 3; inches thick I n awning deck vessels 1
.
-
the second deck is regarded as the main deck the awning deck above ,
being 2 5 per cent thinner ; and this also applies to poop bridge or
.
, ,
forecastle decks .
The thickness of w o o d s h e a t h i n g must be such a s will permit of

substa ntial caulking and o f the b olt heads being sunk so far below the
surface that when the deck is w orn thin they may still remain covered by
, ,
the dowels ; also it must b e s uch as will ensure freedom from war ing
tendencies in the planks Lloyd s rules as to the thicknes s o f pine she atl ii ng
,
’
.
is 3 inches for upper decks and 2 5 for lower ; and for teak sheathing 2 3 ,
and 2 inches respectively .
Those deck planks which pass over tie plates stringers etc are , , .
,
checked on the under s ide and the joints etc o f the plates should be so , , .
,
arranged that the check in the planks doe s not exceed one thickness of
plating Sometime s instead o f checking the planks thin pieces o f wood
.
, , ,
or p ads are placed on the b ea ms to bring them level wi th the plates this
,
is objectio nable however for the pads are liable to decay and displace
, ,
ments ; it is not allowed by the classification societies I n the ca se of .
w ood sheathing the planks on the inner strake s are usually of the spe cified
thickness those on the outer being thinner by the thickness o f the plating
,
.
The usual b r e a d t h o f d e c k p l a n k s is 5 inche s fo r although to make ,
them wider would reduce workmanship they would b e more liable to ,
f l l w i g th t m w od h th i g w i l l b u d
1 ”
I th n e w od de k
o and
n , e er s oo c o s ea n e se
di stm cti v ely

0
.
3 18 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LDI N G .
[Ar t 3 3 7 .
A lthough the costliness of teak prohibits its general use it is largely ,
employed for those portions of pine decks where the prevailing conditions
are apt to cau s e rapid decay or wear and tear P ine when m contact with .
,
i ron and water ab sorb s rust and I S then prone to decay and particularly if
, , ,
it is the ends of the planks w hich abut on the t ron fo r the fibres by capillary , ,
attraction more readily absorb the rusty moisture I n a pine weather

,
.
deck it is therefore the universal practice and is required by Lloyd s

, , ,
’
rules to fit all around it next the gunwale a m a r gi n o r w a t e rw a y

, , , ,
p l a n k of,
teak wood or greenheart T h e latter i s a harder wood than .
teak but it is not readily procured and i s now rarely used P itch pine is
, , .
sometimes used fo r the marg i n plank o f decks other tha n the u pper deck
but it is very in ferior to teak and is liable to split especially when i ri
,
‘
, ,
broad planks Towards the bow and s tern the margin plank is checked
.
as shown in Fig 1 9 P late 5 6 so that the ends o f the deck planks may not
.
, ,
abut thereon with too slender a point for i f they did they would split under ,
the caulking tool C are should be observed in s mall vessels that the
.
, ,
breadth o f the stringer plate at the bow and ste m is su ffi cient to a fford
support within the margin plank for the ends of the deck planks .
I n high class vessels having pine upper decks a b o u n d a ry p l an k of

-
, ,
teak wood is generally fitted around all iron deck erections houses , ,
casings hatchways masts ventilators etc ( Fig

, ,
Teak planks are , , . .
also very commonly fitted on the central portion of the deck under and
forward of the Windlass to take the chafe of the cables and to strengthen ,
the deck against the pull and vibration of the Windlass I n sailing ships .
-
a broad plank of teak wood is generally laid all fore and aft by the s1de s of - -
the hatchways and deck houses which as already noticed sti ffens the deck , , ,
at the ends of these parts and is less liable to decay than yellow pine in way
of the variou s eye and ring bolts required fo r lashings and running gear , .
Where the steam pipes to the winches etc pass over t he deck it is common , .
, ,
to fit directly below them a broad plank o f teak wood fo r when exposed to

, , ,
heat and moisture soft pine soon decays ; in some cases a cemented gutter
is s ubstituted for wood at these places ( A rt When winches and .
bollards sit on a wood deck a doubling or sole piece of teak ab out , ,
2 inches thick is usually interposed to provide a sti ff foundation and

, , ,
protect the deck planks .
A r t 3 3 8 Y e ll o w p i n e d e c k p l an k s vary greatly 1n q
. . uality the best
-
are quite free from knots and make a beauti ful white deck They vary greatly , .
i n length 3 6 feet is about the average but 4 0 or 5 0 feet is not uncommon , .
They should have fe w— i f any — k n o t s and none at all o f the objectionable ,
sort which may b ecome loose and cause rent s in the planks K nots on .
the upper surface o f a deck are objectionable for although not necessarily ,
hurtful to the planks they form hard points and do not wear down with ,
the surrounding surface .
D eck planks should be quite free from s a p w o o d A s this occurs .
under the bark of the tree it is only found in the outer planks of the log , ,
due to the removal of too thin an outer slab Sa p wood is of a pale or .
greenish colour it i s spongy and absorbent and readily d e cays and in doing
, ,
so a ffects the contiguou s timber They should also b e fr e e from s h a k e s .
or open rent s in the grain o f the wood Shakes are chiefly found in those .
planks whi ch are cut from the out s ide o f the log due it may be to long , , ,
exposure of the un s awn log to the weather or they may b e caused by too
rapid seasoning or drying o f the timber in ovens They usually indicate a .
coarse incompact grain due to rapid growth of the tree ; this e ffect o f
, ,
rapid growth is particularly noticeable in O regon pine di fferent logs of ,
which when viewed in section varying greatly in the density or closenes s

, ,
Ar t 3 4 1 ]
. P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
3 19
-
oftheir growth ring s I n laying a deck care is of course observed to

. , , ,
‘
place the best side of the planks uppermost for small sur face shakes or ,
knots when belo w or in the seams are co mparatively unimportant

, , , .
U sually it is only the end of the plank that is s haky and s o by reducing its , ,
length the bad portion may be removed very commonly howe ver to
, , , ,
save material or where lengt h i s needed the workmen remove too little
, ,
.
Shaky butts are the mo s t common de fect in a deck ; it is a very objection

able one for it greatly increase s the marked tendency to decay at thes e
,
places .
A r t 3 3 9 O re go n p i n e i s s traight in the grain and free from knot s

. . .
I t is proc urable in very long lengths o ften twice that o f yello w pine The ’
.
,
great length of O regon pine logs makes the m very suitab le fo r masts and
-
spars and they have the advantage of being considerably lighter than pitch
,
p i ne the timber generally used fo r this purpose as a rule however they

, , , ,
are not found to be so durable When employed fo r decks it is somewhat .
objectionable on account of its large incompact grain which causes the , ,
growth rings to separate or split away from each other This fault may b e .
minimized however by so placing the planks that the surfaces of the

, ,
growth rings lie vertically ( Fig 2 7 P late for then they are squeezed .
,
together against opening tendencies by the contiguous planks and the

clamping e ffect o f the caulking Lloyd s rules require O regon pine deck .
’
-
planks to be disposed in this manner .
Ar t 3 4 0 P i t c h p i n e is harder and tougher and can withstand

. .
,
more wear and tear than yello w pine and for these reason s it is generally ,
pre ferred fo r the decks o f cargo vessels A pitch pine deck usually presents .
-
a rough surface and owing to its resinou s nature it absorb s and fi xes dirt
, , , ,
circumstances which make it unsu itable for the decks o f passenger ves s els .
A serio u s objection to this material is the liability o f the planks when not ,
properly seasoned to develop shakes which in time may become rents and
, ,
cause leakiness in the deck A lthough a shake on the upper surface o f

‘
a plank may not appear below it may neverthele ss cause leakiness fo r it , , , ,
may pass diagonally into the seam below the oakum Broad planks are .
more liable to spli t than narro w ones the latter being better clamped by ,
the contiguous planks and fo r?this reason pitch pine planks should not be
,
-
broader than 5 inches Lloyd s rules specify this as a maximum .

’
.
A r t 3 4 1 The s e a s o n i n g o f t i m b e r i s the gradual drying or

. .
,
elimination of its natural j uices I f not thoroughly seasoned it shrinks and .

,
is liable to decay when covered up or confined Shrinkage of the planks o f .
a deck a fter laying is of course very obj ectionable fo r with t he gradual

, , , ,
open i ng of the seams and butts re caulki ng becomes necessary and this , , ,
when the seams begin to open on the underside is never quite satis factory ,
.
Seasoning may be natural or artificial When the former the planks are .
,
simply stacked and exposed to the air Deck planks o f yellow pine if .
,
4 inches thick should lie about six months a fter sawing but when thinner
, ,
a lesser period may su ffice P itch pine planks should season fo r at least .
-
six months fo r they are resinous and do not dry rapidly and as they are
, ,
liable to split during the process a long period o f seasoning is a good test ,
o f their fitne s s fo r a deck and O regon pine deck planks should also season -
fo r at least six months for they also are liable to split Lloyd s rules speci fy
’
, .
these periods of seasoning When seasoned artificially the planks are .

,
stacke d in sheds or ovens in which the air is kept at a high tempera

“
, ,
ture they then dry much faster but if the heat is too great ( 1t should not ,
exceed 1 2 0 degrees Fahr ) they are apt to warp and split and some o f their.
,
natural properties may su ffer I n the building o f a ves s el the sawing o f the .
deck planks s hould be the fir st operation preceding even the laying o f the ,
rt 3 4 1
[
A .
keel After the planks are sawn they are planed this is done in a machine
.
which operates on all four sides simultaneously and as all planks pass ,
through the same machine they are identical in breadth and thickness .
Many shipyards do not saw their own deck planks but buy them planed , ,
and finished from a saw mill ,

-
.
A r t 3 4 2 Th e b o lt h o l e s fo r t h e d e c k p l an k s may be pu nched in
. .
the beams when these are being made or a fterwards with a bear when the , , ,
beams are erected and the planks are lined o ff I f punched first they .
should o f course be carefully spaced so as to fall at the centre of each

, , ,
plank ; and i f the exact breadth o f the planks is known there i s little ,
di ffi culty in securing this result for all are parallel to the vessel s centre ,
’
line ; and in the fairing o f the framework of the hull the centres o f the
, ,
variou s beams ( recorded by a nick ) are or should be kept strictly in line , ,

.
I n the case o f wood sheathing the bolt holes in the deck plating are placed
close to each beam ( Fig 2 0 P late H ere also they may be punched .
, , ,
be fore the plates are fitted and if the work is care fully done they should ,
fall fairly in the centre of each plank ( Art O ften however they are .
, ,
inaccurately spaced and in many cases there fore to ensure fair holes they
, , , ,
are drilled a fter the plating is fitted and the planks are lined o ff electric or ,
pneumatic drills being conveniently used fo r the purpose When laying the .
deck the planks first dealt with should be those o n either side hal fway
, ,
between the centre line and gunwale fo r then any slight di ff erence in the ,
spacing of the holes and the breadth of the deck planks will be distributed ,
and b e nowhere so pronounced i e there will be a better average fairness , . .
in the holes .
C are should be observed in laying the first planks to place them in a ,
perfectly straight fore and aft line fo r then of course all the others will b e
- -
, , ,
fair . I n yachts for the sake o f appearance the planks are often taper ed
, ,
towards the bow and stern in w hich case the position of their edges is first ,
lined o ff on the beams with chalk and each plank tapered to suit The , .
actual w o r k o f l ayi n g a d e c k is simple : three or four planks when ,
placed in position are clamped close together by wedges ( see Fig 1 8 ,

.
,
P late I f they cross over diagonal tie plates etc these are pencilled , .
,
in from below and the planks turned up and checked the beams are then
,
thickly painted the planks relaid the bolt holes bored up from belo w the
, , ,
holes enlarged for the dowels the bolts driven down and the nuts hove up , ,
below I t is important that the weather should be dry when laying decks
.
,
fo r if the planks are s w ollen by moisture their subsequent shrinkage m a y

greatly prej udice the e fficiency o f the caulking Sometimes for instance .
, ,
in laying the decks o f two sister vessels an extra strake of pla n king may be ,
introduced in one o f them i f in her case the weather happens to be dry , , ,
during the work and in the other wet , , .
A r t 3 4 3 Th e usual arrangement of d e c k b o lt i n g is shown in Figs 1 8

. . .
to 2 4 P late 5 6 P lanks o f ordinary breadth receive one bolt at each beam

, . .
I f over 6 inches broad L loyd s rules require t wo b olts one o f which i f the
’
, , ,
breadth does not exceed 8 inches may be a square headed wood screw ,
-
, ,
hove up from below I f more than 8 inches b road both must b e .

,
through bolts D ouble bolting is therefore only found in broad margin

.
, ,
planks and the like I n cargo vessels having plated decks the wood .
sheathing required in the crew s forecastle and cabin spaces is o ften fitted ’
in broa d 1 2 inch planks held down merely by a bolt near either end the
-
, ,
surface being lightly caulked and pa ye d I n the case o f thin shade deck s s ,
and the decks o f steel yachts the plank s are usually fastened from below by ,
w ood screws L loyd s rules fo r the diameter o f deck bolts is and

’
.
% inch according as the planks are 4 i or 3 inches thick

, They are , , .
32 2 P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art .
344
su fficiently under the w edging action o f the caulking iron ; the caulking is
then no less efficient and the thin seams improve the appearance of the
,
deck ; with closely fitted seams however more care is required in driving , ,
the oakum fo r the caulking iron is apt to break the edges o f the planks this
,
is particularly the case at the butts and here there fore an O pening should , , ,
al w ays be provided When the seams are quite close the first thread O f
.
oakum s hould be untarred for it enters easily and opens the seam for the ,
others .
Th e o a k u m is usually driven down about hal f the thickness o f the

planks I n decks which have been frequently re ca ulke d ( owing to shrinkage
.
o f the planks ) the oakum may ultimately be forced right through the seams
( A,
Fig 2 7 P late
. in which
, case its solidity and the watertightness O f the
deck can never b e assured This is sometimes provided against by making.
a fore and aft groove in the sides of the deck p lanks ( Fig
- -
for should .
the oakum descend so fa r as to enter this it curls up and goes no further ,

.
I n a deck that is well laid and well caulked all the seams should receive
the same quantity of oakum and should be finally O f the s ame breadth , , ,
the planks should lie close together on the under side and of course they , , ,
should sit close on the beams O akum consists of tarred hemp teazed . ,
into a flo ssy cord termed a thread “

U sually three threads are driven
,
.
”
into each seam C a u l k i n g t o o l s o r i r o n s resemble a thin broad blunt

the edge of the one used fo r finishi ng o ff has a V—
.
, , , ,
chisel ( Fig . shaped

groove The oakum is driven down until it is perfectly ha rd and it should
.
,
then lie about inch b elow the su rface When removed from a seam it .
has an appearance and consistency not unlike leather I n ordinary caulk .
ing a light one handed mallet is employed in heavy work as a final

,
-
,
o peration a large li e f si ng ma llet or beetle is s ometimes used I n hor s ing

,
-
, ,
.
the seams two workmen co operate one swinging the beetle and the other -
,
holding the caulking iron— with handle a ffi xed I n wood vessels the
-
.
seams o f the thick outer planking are always horsed ; but deck planks ,
unless they are o f thick hard wood do not require it Some further ,
.
observation s on the caulking and durability of wood decks will be found

in Art 1 6 3
. .
After the seams are cau lked they are p a ye d ; i e fiat pi te/z i s ru n in . .
over the oakum P itch is made by boiling coal tar which proce s s b y
.
, ,
evaporating certain constituent oils m uses it to s olidi fy when cold A ,

.
superior pitch is made with A r enangel ta r it is less brittle and doe s not s o ,
readily become sticky in hot weather and being of a light colour it is cleaner , , ,
.
I n better class work ma r i n e g lue is u s ed This is made with caoutchouc .
and shellac dissolved in naptha ; it i s a strongly adhesive glue impe rvious

, ,
to water and does not become sticky I ts adhesive properties are prej udiced
, .
by oil so tha t this should not be employed as is usual for lubricating the
, , ,
caulking irons I n passenger ve s sels and yachts the promenade and cabin
.
decks are sometimes payed with w tzi te p utty this gives an elegant
ap pearance to the deck but putty is not so e fficient as pitch or glue
, .
A r t 3 4 5 I f in h e a v y w e a t h e r a large wave should fall on a wood

. .
, ,
deck it m ay s t a r t t h e c a u lk i n g t e the deck planks may be so jarred

, . .
as to loosen the hard oakum lying between them I n extreme case s the .
planks themselves may sta rt i e they may strain or jump relatively to one ,
. .
, ,
another so markedly as to strain the bolting and rise from the b eams To
, .
provide against these effects a weather deck should evidently be thick , , , ,
especially when the beams are wide a part the planks should b e clampe d
to the beams by strong and tightly hove up bolts the bolt heads s hould be - -
large and the gromets below them not too bulky O ld decks are more easily
, .
started than new fo r in cour s e of time the n u ts of the b olt s may loosen and
, ,
Ar t 3 4 7 ]
3 23
the planks work up from the beams An d in old vessels a scale of rust often .
forms on the tops o f the beams which by forcing the planks upwards and , ,
corroding the bolts may break the latter 111 s ome cases rust over hal f an
, .
,
inch thick may be found below the planks in old vessels its presence on
,
fore and a ft tie plates may o ften be observed by a well marked transverse
- - -
undulation in the deck surface To provide against it all iron work should .
,
b e thickly coated with paint or A rchangel tar and cement before laying , ,
the deck .
A r t 3 4 6 Wo o d d e c k s gra dually become s o t h i n b y w e ar a n d

. .
t e ar a s to requ ire renewal Lloyd s rules in this respect require a 4 inch

’
.
-
deck to be renewed when worn down to 3 inches a 3 3 inch when 2 % inches -
and a 3 inch when 2 } inches I n many cases however they require to

-
2 .
, ,
be renewed on account o f d e c ay Local decay is often made good with .
gr av i n g p i e c e s i e neatly inlaid pieces of wood about 1 inch thick

, . . In , .
old decks these are O ften numerous in new pine decks there should of ,
course be none in those of teak they are not so O bjectionable for teak is
, ,
not s o liable to decay and an original defect ( defects in tea k wood usually
,
take the form of hollo w cavities) doe s not necessarily prejudice its durability .
They are O bjectionable in pine decks beca u se decay may proceed under
neath them and not being observed may ultimately cause leakiness The
, , , .
objectionable character of a graving piece may sometimes be observed by

stamping upon it fo r in many ca s es this will cause dirty water to splutter
,
up from below Sometimes where the wood upper deck may have become
.
,
thin or de fective by decay it is doubled with planks about 2 inches thick

, , ,
fixed in place each one over a seam by galvanized screws or through bolts
, , .
To repair a deck in this way is of course les s costly than to rene w it , , .
A r t 3 4 7 P reviou s ly to caulking the deck it is p l an e d so a s to

. .
, ,
make all the planks flush I f laid on clinker strakes o f deck plating there .
is O ften much material to remove in which case it is dubbed down by the ,
adze E lectric planing machines are n o w available for this work ; they
.
operate in much the same manner as a garden lawn mower and save much ,
time and hard labour I n pa s senger spaces where the u nder side of a .
,
deck is exposed to view it also is planed and a nice appearance i s some , ,
time s secu red by running a head on one of the lower edge s o f each plank .
Light s h a d e d e c k s not employed for promenading purposes are , ,
u sually of thin fe a t h er an d groov e p l an k i n g ( P late I f the - -
plank s are broad and thin ( s ay les s than 2 inches ) they are usually covered ,
with tightly stretched waterproofed canva s fixed in place by teak wood , ,

-
and lead margins I n passen ger vessels designed for the tropics if the
.
,
shade deck forms the roof of deck house cabins and is not itself sheltered -
,
by an awning it is usually covered with feather and groove boarding laid

,
- -
,
on bearer s so a s to leave a 3 inch space between Fig 1 3 P late 5 6 ) hen

( w -
.
,
so arranged the sun s rays do not heat the roo f proper o f the cabin ’
.
I n many ca rgo vessels only a part of the weather deck is laid or

s heathed with wood the rest being plated The wood portion is fitted , .
where there is cabin or crew accommodation below with a view to avoiding ,
extremes of temperature and sw e a t i n g (Art A cross the end of the .
partial wood deck an angle bar is riveted to form an abutm ent for the ends ,
of the planks and take the caulking ( Fig 6 P late The caulking o f a .
,
wood deck has a po werful wedging action which tends to force the plank s ,
towards the gunwale to provide against this therefore and relieve the , ,
bolts from side stress a marginal angle bar should in all cases be provided,
to support the outer plank and at the same time take the caulking A t , , , .
the ends of bridge deck s etc the exposed ends O f the planks are covered , .
,
with a teak wood mou l di n g o r they may ab ut on an an gle bar as shown

-
, ,
3 24 .
[ .
in Figs 3 to 5 P late 5 6 ; and a cross covering board of teak is fitted on

.
,
the top to take the rail stanchions and awning stanchion sockets The -
.
fitting and caulking o f the moulding shown in Fig 3 should be carefully .
done so that water may not pass along the seams of the planks and enter
,
the cabin or other spaces within .
A r t 3 4 8 I n wood s hip s the timber frame s are planked on their

. .
inner surface as well as their outer the inner planking which is termed the ,
c ei li n g does not serve as a watertight inner skin but is necessary for

”
, ,
the structural strength of the hull I n s teel and iron ve s sels ceiling .
planking is only fitted on the floors or tank top as a flooring for the ,
cargo the vessel s sides are co v ered with open sparring ( P lates 1 0 1 and 1 0
’
When stowing perishable cargo it is not usually laid directly on the ceiling ,
planking but a layer of d u n n a ge w oo d ( wa s te pieces of timb er o f all

,
sorts and size s ) is interpo s ed Dunnage wood i s al s o used to fill up .
vacancies between the packages so that they may not move and cha fe ,
when the vessel pitches and rolls at s ea I n wood ship s a thick layer of .
dunnage wood is particularly neces s ary for as these vessels are apt to leak ,
and a s the space s below the ceiling are small a comparatively s mall ,
volume o f bilge water might ri s e ab ove it and damage the cargo I n s ome .
ca s e s dunnage wood is useful as a means of elevating heavy cargoes s o ,
that the vessel may not be too s ti ff and uneasy at s ea .
I n double bottom vessel s c e i li n g p l a n k i n g i s not e ss ential for the

-
,
t a n k t o p itself a ffords the necessary platform for cargo it i s usually fitted ,
however for it may dispense with the necessity fo r dunnage wood and is
, ,
useful in protecting the tank top platin g and distributing the pressure of -
heavy cargo I t may b e laid on wood b earers or gro u nd s ( P late

. so
a s to provide an air space from 1 to 3 inche s deep between it and the , ,
tank top or it may be laid directly on the plating vA n air s pace is .
advantageous in that s hould any water leak through the tank top it may
, ,
flow into the side gutters without wetting or appearing above the ceiling , ,
and if by chance a large volume of water should accum ulate in one of the
, ,
side gutters perhaps through choking of the pump at thi s s ide it may flow
, ,
across the tank top u nder the ceiling to the other gutter When laid
, , .
directly on the tank top leak age water might of cou r s e ri s e above it but
, , , ,
ina s much as there i s very little chance of leakage and as delica te cargoe s ,
are always well dunnaged the circumstance become s unimportant I n , .
practice therefore it is now fairly common to lay the ceiling directly on

, ,
the tank top introducing where required fillings or pads for levelling
, , ,
p u rpo s e s .
When laid on grounds the latter are dispo s ed tran s ver s ely s o that ,
drainage water may flow a cross the tank top to the side gu tters and they ,
should be neatly fitted s o a s to lie solidly on the plating The plank s may .
be fixed to the grounds by large driving nails but s ometime s they are laid ,
x r —
down witho u t fi tu e s ingly or in batche s The ceiling is of course ,
.
, ,
extended over the side gutters and in order that the latter may be readily ,
accessible fo r cleaning it is arranged in hatche s at thi s place or i n s uch a

, ,
way as to be readily lifted An d small hatche s are provided over the man .
holes i n the tank top ( Figs 3 and 8 P late I n case s where ceiling i s
.
,
dispen s ed with the tank top plating being expo s ed to local pressure and to
,
-
,
the wear and tear incidenta l to loading and discharging operations should ,
be mad e rather thicker than what it i s ordinarily Thi s however is .

, ,
not al ways done Although di s pensed with el s ewhere it is usually retained

.
,
belo w the hatchway s for here the tank top i s exposed to blows from heavy
,
weights thrown or falling from ab ove ; and of course it must always be

, , ,
fitted over the s ide gutters ( P late To hold the isolated planking i n
[
A r t 349 .
would be advantageous to prevent contact with coal and fo r th i s reason , ,

'
and fo r cleanliness the sides O f small coasting vessels which may carry coal
,
and general cargo alternately are sometimes closely ceiled An d in vessels .
w hich con s tantly carry grain in bulk the sides of the grain holds are o ften
closely ceiled and the s ea ms c hi n tz e d .
C argo battens may be bolted to the reverse frames ( at every third or

fourth) or they may be fixed in portable fashion by cleats ( see Fig 2
, , .
,
P late Th e latter method is the more usual ; it is advantageous in

that the s parring is easily fitt ed and may be taken down without trouble for
cleaning and painting the steel work Th e cleats are bolted or ri veted to .
the reverse frames or they may b e of the patent detachable pattern shown
,
in Fig 1 . I n course of time wood sparring breaks up and requires

.
renewal and in some vessels to avoid this bars of convex iron about 3 by
, , , ,
inch are s ubstituted being either riveted to the reverse frames or secured
, ,
like ordinary battens They are particularly s uitable in deep ballast tanks
.
which are also used for cargo I n the cargo spaces of high class vessels it .
-
is common to fit proj ecting wood ferri ngs on all salient angle bars such as ,
the bulkhead and tunnel stiffeners hold beams etc so that packages of , , .
,
cargo pressing thereon may not be broken and cut by the sharp edges .
A r t 3 5 0 I n c a bi n s a n d s t o r ero o m s the vessel s side is covered with

’
. .
li n i n g or clea ding o f feather and groove boarding ab out } inch thick I n

, ,
- -
, 7 .
order to hold this in place f err i ngs are fixed on the sides o f the frame s ( by ,
bolts screws or by s mall horizonta l s hores or tom s from the adjacent

, , , ,
frame) and the lining is then nailed to the fe rri ngs ( see Figs 7 and 8
, .
,
P late The lining directly below the sidelights should be fitted in a

portable fashion so that it may be easily removed fo r cleaning and painting
,
the s teelwork for owing to rain or leakage water trickling down from the
, ,
lights the s hell plating is here particularly liable to corro s ion in old
,
ves s els it is sometimes ru s ted through in holes .
I n well fi n i she d cab in s the underside of the deck overhead is covered

-
with panelling and the beams with mouldings of yellow pine or base wood
, , ,
enamelled white All this joiner work may b e secured in place by fe rri ngs
.
bolted to the sides of the beams the panelling lying bet ween these ( if the
deck is plated) being nailed to cro s s grounds who s e ends are supported by ,
the fe rri n gs ( s ee Fig 1 5 P late or ferr i n gs may be screwed to the deck

.
,
sheathing through holes drilled in the deck plating ( Fig

, .
The c ab i n b u lk h e a d s are constructed in variou s ways Tho s e which .
form mere partitions between sleeping cabins are of feather and groove - -
boarding but when exposed to vie w in passageways and saloons they

, , ,
are either of poli s hed hard wood or of pine enamelled white The ,
.
method of constru cting them i s shown i n Figs 1 4 and 1 6 P late 5 6 A .

,
.
shallow rabbeted ca nt or t ea mi ng is fixed to the deck by screw nails and

, ,
over it to the deck above a corresponding r unn er or li ntel The latter if

, , .
,
disposed fore and aft is fixed to the lo wer edge s of the beam s with lugs or
- -
, , ,
i f the b eam s are of tee b u lb pattern with small tap s crews screwed into the
-
,
bulb or by s lotting the ru nner at the bulb and driving in wedges as shown
, ,
in Fig 1 6 Between the s e two parts wood uprights are erected at dista nces
. .
,
to suit the prearranged design of panelling doorways etc The bulkhead , , .
proper is built in the j oiner s or cabinet maker s shop in separate pieces ’
,
-
’
, , ,
“
termed frames each one resembling a wide panelle d door o f the proper
, ,
dimensions to fit between a certain pair o f uprights the cant and the runner ,
.
To provide for the free passage of light and air into and out o f the cabins ,
the upper part o f the bulkhead between the beams may be o f ornamental , ,
ca s t iron fretwork or of thin expanded metal in the form o f a fine trelli s

-
,
or hinged fanlight s may be fitted ; and gratin gs are provided at the lower
Ar t 3 5 3 ]
3
7
part usually in the doors I n passenger vessels having numerous cabins

, .
the outer bulkheads are usually O f the well known j a lousie f r a mi ng the -
,
advantage of which lies in the circumstance that while forming a ,
substantial screen it allows the free passage o f air ( see Fig

, I n high .
cla s s passenger vessels the saloon bulkheads are o ften of the most elaborate
description composed of various polished hard woods ornamented with
, ,
carving and hand painting A s a rule hard wood panelling is made with .
,
-
veneer for this as regards durability and appearance is little if at all

, , , , ,
inferior to solid wood .
A s regards the f u rn i s h i n gs a n d fi tt i n gs o f t h e c a bi n s so great ,
is the variety in the matter o f finish and artistic merit and efficiency as ,
regards compactness etc that no good purpose would be served by

, .
,
describing them Formerly the sleeping berths or bunks were built o f

.
, ,
wood as fixtures ; now they are practically al ways of iron ; their con
,
struction as specialities representing an importa nt industry A s a rule

, , .
they are arranged to fold up so that through the day when not in use the , , ,
cabins may b e more roomy A n d fo r a similar purpose the wash basins .

, ,
are o f folding or collapsible type .
A r t 3 5 1 I n most vessels there are one or more d e c k h o u s e s

.
. In .
steamers one is always found at the front o f the bridge deck where it ,
may serve several purposes : that o f a steering or wheel house a chart or ,
navigating house a companion or stairway entrance to the cabin spaces

,
belo w or of a sleeping cabin for the captain ( see P lates 1 0 9 and

, In
most vessels the crew are berthed in the foreca s tle or in the tween deck ,
’
space directly below it I n modern sailing ships they are usually aecom
.
-
m o da te d in a deck house which also contains the galley and donkey boiler ,
-
room ( Figs 1 2 and 3 P late .

, ,
A t one time deck houses were al w ays o f
,
teak wood ; now they are usually of steel or iron A teak wood house when .
-
,
small is built in the j oiner s shop A lthough nominally of teak wood the
,
’
.
,
sides are usually of feather and groove pine sometimes in two thicknesses - -
, ,
with teak panelling nailed 011 the outside The coaming when of wood .
, ,
is sometimes fitted to the top o f the wood deck but it is better to bolt it ,
direct to tie plates riveted on the beams Large wood deck houses are .
built in place and they have usually an inner coaming of steel and angle
, ,
bar frames and beams To provide against side straining tendencies a .

,
couple of diagonal stays should b e incorporated with the end walls .
A r t 3 5 2 A c o mp a n i o n may be described as an entrance and cover

. .
to a stairway leading from the weather deck to the cabin spaces below .
The old fashioned companion shown in Fig 1 2 P late 5 6 forms an awkward

-
, .
, ,
kind of entrance for one has to stoop more or less to pass through ; when
,
of wood this is usually remedied somewhat by making the roo f slide ;

,
when of iron they are made higher I n modern s teamers deck houses
, .
take the place of companions The latter are still employed however fo r .
, ,
the entrance to the crew s quarters forward ( P late 1 1 0 ) when placed here
’
they are of steel for a wood companion apart from its costliness and other
, ,
disadvantages might b e stove in when placed near the bow P art o f the
,
.
engine room skylight is sometimes built as a companion to give access to

-
,
the engine room from the bridge deck A n d in large passenger vessels .
portable wood companions are O ften fitted over a portion o f the hatchw ays ,
as a supplementary means O f access belo w fo r the numerous second a n d ,
third class passengers

- .
A r t 3 5 3 A s shown in Figs 9 1 0 and 1 1 P late 5 6 there are three

. . .
, , , ,
t y p e s o f s k yli gh t ; but besides these there is the lean to or dwar f ,

-
skylight commonly employed in pas s enger vessels fo r lighting the passage

,
ways and cabins in the tween decks ( Fig 5 P late 8 and Fig 2 1 P late 7 5
’
.
, ,
.
,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 3 5 3
323 .
[ .
and P late Th e skylight illustrated in Fig 9 P late 5 6 gives a.

, ,
handsome lo fty appearance to a saloon ; and in m any cases to secure

, ,
still further this desirable e ffect a large open sha ft or well like a deck
, , ,
house without bottom is built over the saloon and the skylight placed
, ,
on the top An d in some large ocean passenger vessels instead o f an

.
, , ,
ordinary skylight a lo fty stained—

,
glass dome is provided protected on the ,
outside by an outer casing o f steel having numerous bull s eye lights and
,
’
-
electric lamps may be placed between the glass dome and the outer cover ,
so as to shed a pleasant radiance below Th e en gine room skylight is

.
-
usually built o f thin steel which owing to the moist hot air of the engine
, ,
room is more suitable than wood and makes a stronger more durable
, , , ,
lighter and less costly skylight

,
.
[Ar t 3 5 4 .
the vessel s form and proportions her displacement and the height of her
’
, ,
centre of gravity A broad shallow vessel is likely to have a large

.
,
metacentric height and in consequ ence is likely to be sti ff to have a

, , , ,
short period and to roll not necessarily through large angles but in a
, , ,
violent and jerky fashion ; but this again is depend ent on the cargo , ,
stowage ; if in light trim the ab ove e ffects are usually greatly accentuate d ,
if heavy weights are carried in the upper tween decks so as to raise the ’
centre of gravity of the hull and contents the sti ffness or metacentric ,
height due to her proportions and form may be nullified she may become ,
crank or even top heavy and in con s equence comparatively steady under
-
, , ,
the more usual wave conditions .
A s just noticed a sti ff vessel ( i e one having a large me tacentric heig ht )

, . .
is likely to have a short period and to be an uneasy roller But not .
necessarily for if large and heavy she may possess great inertia which of
, , , , ,
cours e is incompatible with rapid oscillatory movement A n d while

, .
,
maintaining the sti ffness the pe riod of oscillation may b e lengthened by ,
stowing whatever heavy weights are carried remote transversely from the
centre line or axis ab out which the vessel rolls ; i e by placing them . .
towards either side or by lowering some to the bottom of the hold and
—
,
raising others similar weights — by an equal distance upwards Such .
procedure would not alter the position o f the centre of gravity of the hull
or the me tacentric height but by increasing the vessel s moment of inertia , ,
’
it would lengthen her period of oscillation The principle may be observed .
in the familiar see saw in which the oscillations become slow or fast -
,
according as the weight s are shifted from or towards the centre This , , .
principle is a governing one in the design of warships The very large .
beam o f these vessels result s in great natural s ti ffness which in itself would ,
lead to uneasy j erky rolling but owing to the heavy masses ( armour guns
, , , ,
and coal) di s posed close to the sides their great sti ffnes s is not prejudicial ,
on the contrary they may roll slowly and easily I n the later ironclads
, .
the metacentric height is about 3 feet ; thi s is q u ite three times what is
common in a loaded merchant vessel yet their period of oscillation may ,
be as long as 8 seconds for a single 1 011 I n merchant ve s sels the period .
varies greatly due to the wide di fference in the form proportions weight
, , , ,
and cargo stowage when loaded the period of a small vessel may be 3 or ,
4 seconds but that of a la rge one may be as long as 1 0 s econds

,
When in .
ballast trim the metacentric height of a full modern cargo vessel may be , ,
5 or 6 feet or three or four times what it is when fully loaded with homo
,
n e o us cargo
g e ; and a s their period of oscillation is therefore very small , , ,
they are immensely sti ff and uneasy at sea .
A r t 3 5 5 With a vie w to ascertaining the v a l u e o f b i l ge k e e l s in

. .
reducing rolling some very interesting e x p er i m e n t s were made by the

,
A dmiralty with H M S R evenge a fi rst-class ironclad of 1 4 0 0 0 tons dis

. . .
,
placement She was built in the first in s tance without bilge keels and
,
1
, , ,
subsequently they were added and as is u sual in warships they were large , , , ,
being 3 feet in depth by 2 0 0 feet in length or about half the length of the ,
ship R olling experiments were made in b ot h conditions and among

.
,
other results it was found that while without bilge keels an angle of roll , , ,
o f 1 3 degrees O 11 either side of the vertical could b e attained by merely
moving the guns athwartship an angle o f only 6 or 8 degrees could be ,
attained a fter bilge keels were fitted and only when the heeling e ffect o f ,
the guns was supplemented by that o f 4 0 0 men r unning across the deck at
1
Se e S i r W . H . Whi te s pap e r i n’
th e Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N a v a l A r elzi teets fo r
.
5
l
a so se e Mr . A n d re w Y o ung
’
s
p p a e r, Tr a n s N or th -E a st Coas t I n sti tuti on of E ng meer s
.
a nd S l ap/mi le? ” fo r 1 8 94—95 .

Art 3 5 6 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G .
31
suitable interval s ; that is to say the angle of oscillation was reduced by ,
the bilge keels by ab out 5 0 per cent and that under a greater oscillating .
,
in fluence A gain while in the ab sence of bilge keels the vessel rolled
.
o f her own accord — some

, , ,
4 5 times before the angle of roll diminished

from 6 to 2 degrees with bilge keels the same lo s s o f movement or , ,
momentum occurred a fter only 8 rolls ; that i s to say a s tate o f com ,
para ti ve re s t prevailed in about one sixth of the time The s e re s ults were -
.
n o t anticipated and until recently the action of the bilge keel s in producing
,
them was n o t under s tood Formerly their steadying e ffect was wrongly .
assumed to be simply that due to their resi s tance as flat surfaces moving
laterally through the water like a submerged paddle which when the , , ,
speed is 1 foot per second has been fou nd by experiment to be only about ,
lb per square foot and to vary with the square of the s peed But
.
,
.
the retarding force known to be O perating in the case of the R evenge on ,
the basi s of her known momentum would require that the factor should ,
b e some ten times greater No w it appears that their powerful extinctive .

,
e ffect on the rolling is due to the discontinuous motions or under water ,

-
c urrents which they set up 1

.
Similar experiments were made with the vessel steaming ahead when it ,
was found that the steadying e ffect of the bilge keels was even greater than
when at rest and the more so the greater the speed This may be explained
, .
by the fact that when the ve s sel is steaming the bilge keels constantly e n
, ,
counter undisturbed water all o f which they have to impress with lateral ,
motion whereas when the vessel is at rest they only put in motion the
, , ,
limited mass of water included in their len gth A nother important point .
was noted namely that notwithstanding the additional surface o ffered by

, ,
the bilge keels to the reta rding e ffect of fluid friction the vessel s speed and ,
’
resistance were not appreciably a ffected I ndeed experience with .

,
merchant vessels indicates that in heavy weather at sea the steadying , ,
e ffect of bilge keels is beneficial as regards the average speed on a voyage .
A s regards steering qualities the presence of bilge keels is again favour ,
able conducing to greater s teadine s s on a course and reduci n g the

, ,
diameter of the turning circle .
I n warship s rolling tendencie s are very obj ectionable for each roll may ,
expose the unprotected side below the armour and it is evident that the ,
ship which is steadi é st is the most likely to aim well with her guns For .
the s e reason s war s hips are al ways provided with large bilge keels I n sea
,
.
going merchant ve s sels the tendency to roll was formerly regarded as a

characteristic more or les s inevitable and unimportant The steadying .
e ffect o f bilge keels was considered a doubt ful matter and a s they are , ,
somewhat objectionable in themselves it was rarely thought expedient to ,
fit them They are detrimental in increasing the first cost and weight of
.
the hull they are liable to damage and may be an inconvenience in dry
,
dock No w however wit h more certain knowl edge o f their beneficial

.
, ,
e ffects they are a common feature in both passenger and cargo steamers
,
.
An d many of the older vessels which have proved themselves heavy rollers , ,
have been provided with bilge keels and always with good re s ults in ,
improved behaviour at sea Sailing ships do not 1 0 11 for they are held .
-
,
down to leeward by the wind they do not there fore require bilge keels , ,
.
A r t 3 5 6 I n vessels having the usual full midship section and sharp

’
. .
bilge the b i lge k e el s must be c o m p a r a t i v ely s h a llo w fo r i f large as

, , ,
in warships they would project beyond the line o f the bottom or side in
, ,
which case as they would be the first parts to take contact with the ground
,
"
See Mr G H B ryan . . .
’
s
p a
p e r, Tno acti on f
o bi lg e keels, Tr a n s . I n sti tu ti on f
o
N a va l A r c/zi tects, 1 900 .

[Ar t 3 5 6 .
or with quay walls they would b e readily damaged I n ordinary ca s e s they

,
.
do not exceed 1 2 inches a common si z e being 9 or 1 0 inche s When a ,

.
depth of a foot is exceeded they are usually constructed of plates as shown ,
in Fig 1 7 P late 5 7 A bilge keel o f thi s formation ha s great lateral

.
, .
strength —a necessary quality fo r when so large the mere side pressure , , ,
caused by rolling becomes a force o f considerable magnitude I n com .
paring the shallow bilge keels fitted in merchant vessels with those adopted
in warships it might appear that they would b e comparatively ineff ectual in
,
checking rolling But this does not follow fo r merchant ve s sels have
.
,
usually a much shorter period so that rolling more quickly their bilge , , ,
keels move faster through the water Further although when heavily .
,
laden a merchant vessel may roll slowly and acquire momentu m so great
as not readily to b e destroyed by small bilge keels it is unusual for s eriou s ,
rolling to occur under such circumstances The need for bilge keels occu rs .
principally when a vessel is in ballast for she is then sti ff and at her worst ,
as regards rolling and it is j u st under this condition that bilge keel s are
,
mo s t e ffective .
B ilge keels are not u s ually longer than half the length of the ve ss el ,
a common proportion is about one third of the length I t i s on the bilge - .
amidship s that they are most e ffective for as they are here most remote ,
from the central fore and a ft axis about which the vessel rolls they sweep
- -
,
through the water with the greatest velocity and consequently meet with , , ,
the maximum o f resistance I n full cargo vessel s they are usually only fitted.
on the straight midship region ; in which case the angle bars etc do not
’
,
.
,
require to be bent and the con s tructive work is simplified They are
, .
worked parallel to the plate landings at about the middle of the curve of ,
the bilge I n a fi n e lined vessel where they may have a considerable fore
.
-
,
and aft curvature they are us ually disposed in such a way that when viewed
-
, ,
fore and aft they appear a s a s traight diagonal line their entire surface
- -
, ,
lying in one plane ; it i s s uppo s ed that they do not then interfere with the
fore and aft s tream like flow of the water pa s t the ship
- - -
.
B i lge k e e l s are particularly liable to be b e n t a n d t o r n The most .
fruitful cause of damage i s the coming in contact with quay walls due ,
to the ve s sel heeling over when lying alongside with her bilge again st
the wall Then in some harb ours there exist clo s e to the wharfs the
.
, , ,
stumps of old piles and the s e also are a common source of damage to
,
bilge keels Damage may al s o b e incurred through grounding but very

.
,
commonly though the bottom of the ship may b e damaged the bilge
, ,
keels are uninjured I njury to a bilge keel may b e accompanied by

.
serious consequences for s hould the rivet s connecting it to the shell be

, ,
a ffected the water may flow into the s hip I n warships to preclude thi s
, .
, ,
the rivets are screwed through the s hell plating and their points within ,
provided with nuts so that however exten s ive the damage to the bilge
, ,
keel the watertightness of the shell may b e u naffected I n ordinary cases

, .
the danger is well provided agai nst by making the root or part o f the b ilge ,
keel in immediate contact with the shell particularly substantial and , ,
riveting it with superior firmnes s for then the disruptive e ffect of an ,
external force i s usually limited to the less substantial outer part bending ,
or tearing it away but leaving intact the remainder Th e effi cacy of this
, .
provision is constantly observed for damage to bilge keels is a most ,
common occurrence yet rarely does it a ffect more than the outer part
,
.
B i l ge k e el s are formed in di fferent ways A common fo r m a t i o n is .
a bulb and double angle bar s ( Fig 1 2 P late I t is both substantia l .

,
and secu re for while the bulb bar i s well s upported it only in case of
, , , ,
damage is likely to be bent or torn To repair this type o f bilge keel

, .
,
[Ar t.3 5 6
( Fig 7) .to do so does not involve welding work if the material removed ,
to form the taper is cut from the heel of the bulb plate
,
.
C oasting vessels engaged i n a trade which requires them to lie

alongside quay walls or frequently to pass through narrow dock entrances
, ,
are usually provided with a timber F en d e r so that it instead of the thin , ,
shell plating may take the pressure and blows incurred by forcible contact
,
with the walls ( Fig 1 8 P late I n the case o f vessels not so provided
.
, ,
cork or rope fenders or round sectioned pieces of timber ( short cuttings

,
from a spar) are hung betwe e n the hull and the wall ; these however do
, , ,
not distribute the pressures and unless the shell plating is very thick it is
, , ,
apt i f there is any sea running to become badly indented and the riveting
, , ,
loosened The fender usually extends for ab out two thirds the vessel s
.
-
’
length amidships on one or both sides and is placed just above the load
, ,
waterline I t is formed of a stout log o f A merican e lm sc a rph jointed and

‘
.
, ,
bolted by vertical bolts through the horizontal flanges of two an gle bars
riveted to the shell one ab ove and below ; and an iron rubbing plate
, ,
ab out 1 inch thick is fixed on the face of the log by s hort driving b olts
, ,
or dumps
“
The timber must not be bolted through the shell for the
.
,
bolts would strain and bec ome leaky u nder the crushing pre s sure s sustained
by the fender When waves strike u pwards against the lower s urface o f
.
the fender they cause concussions which are very objectionable especially
, ,
in passenger vessels the intensity of the blow s is lessened to some extent by

sloping the lower surfa ce upwards as shown in Fig 1 8 Should a vessel , . .
,
when lying a gainst a wall take an outward list the bilge as well as the
, , ,
fender ma y take contact with the wall and accordingly to avoid damage
, , , ,
to the bilge plating it is common to fit a thick external dou bling plate at

,
this part .
Art 3 5 7 ] , P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
3 35
C H A P TE R X XV .
Ar t 3 5 7 . protect the crew and passengers an o p e n r a i l or a c lo s e

. To ,
b u lw a r k is fitted around the weather deck ( Figs 5 and 8 P late A .

,
bulwark gives better protection than a rail fo r it prevents to a large extent , , ,
waves from breaking 0 11 board it gives therefore more security to the , ,
deck fittings hatches ventilators etc and by keeping heavy masses o f

, , , .
, ,
water O ff the deck he lps to maintain the vessel s weath erly qualities The
,
’
.
nearer the weather deck to the sea level the greater the chance o f its being
.
s wept by the waves and so the more the need fo r a bulw ark They are , .
,
there fore fitted in all low freeboard vessels ; in the case o f shelter decks
,
-
,
awning d ecks and deck erections an open rail su ffi ces ; as spar deck
,
-
vessels may load deeply they have usually a bulwark ,

.
I n s a i li n g s h i p s a b u lw a r k i s pa rticularly nec essary ( P lates 1 0 0

and fo r when inclined by the wind the lee gunwale may be
, ,
almost level with the water surface when o f course the deck is , , ,
re adily s w ept by the waves I t also a ffords stab i lity or sti ffness fo r i f .
, ,
when heeled over the sea were to overwhelm the lee side of the deck the
, ,
weight o f water would tend to increase the heel acting for the moment , , ,
like badly stow ed additional cargo if kept o ff the deck by a bulwark the
-
,
same force would be present but it would be a buoyant one tending to , ,
right the vessel O f course a bulwark cannot keep back all water for thi s
.
, ,
would pass through the open scupper holes and mooring pipes but it may ,
do so temporarily at a critical moment when the vessel is suddenly , ,
forced over by a squall A bulwark on the weather side is also use ful .
,
fo r under its protection the crew are able to move fore and aft however
, ,
- -
,
fierce the wind and sea .
A lthough a bulwark is use ful in keeping water off the deck it has the ,
disadvantage o f retaining that which may find it s way over it But the .
chance of a dangerously large volume of water pa ssing over the bulwark

is small ; and if it did the greater part would at once disappear owing to
, , ,
the sheer o f the deck and the rolling and pitching of the vessel ; and ,
“
moreover the evil is minimized by providing numerous f r eei ng p or ts
, ,
”
i e
. . openings in the bul warks having flaps hinged in such a way that , ,
they may open o utwards u nder pressure of deck water ( see Fig 3 .
,
P late
I n a w e ll d e c k v e s s e l the well between the foreca s tle and bridge
-
,
( Fig 2 P late 2 6 ) is particularly liable to receive large volumes of water ;

.
,
and to retain them fo r it is short its bulwark is high and it is bounde d

, , ,
by a cross bulkhead at either end H ere there fore freeing ports o f extra .
, ,
large size are required because if insufficient to clear the well quickly the , ,
vessel having a heavy mass o f water on board would in e ffect be over

, , , ,
loaded with a very undesirable trim by the bow and further the hatchway
, , ,
at this part if entirely submerged might not entirely exclude the water
, ,
from the hold So important is this matter that in these vessels the
.
fr e e i n g p o r t a r e a is taken account of in the assignment o f the fr e eb o a r d

-
.
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G A rt 3 5 7
3 39 [ .
The area should o f course be prop ortionate to the length of the well and
, , ,
be relatively larger in short wells fo r not only are these more likely to hold ,
deep water but they imply a smaller freeboard Lloyd s requirements

,
.
’
and the standard adopted in the Load line Ac t is an area o f 1 square -

,
foot ( on each side) for each 5 feet in the length o f the bulwark fo r wells ,
over 6 5 feet long ; fo r shorter wells it becomes greater increasing to ,
1 5 square foot in the case of one 3 0 feet long .
For bulwarks other than the ab ove there is no fixed practice as to

freeing port area I n steamers the length o f the bulwarks is reduced by
-
.
the deck erections and here the usual practice is to provide a freeing port
,
at each end of each portion and one or two intermediately if the distance ,
between i s great The most e ffective position is of cour s e towards the

.
, ,
ends of the bulwark where owing to the cros s bulkhead of the deck , ,
erection there is a natural tendency for water to acc umulate ; and more
,
particularly towards midships where the deck is at its lowest level I n ’

, .
sailing ships freeing ports are fitted at intervals of 4 0 or 5 0 feet the larger
-
,
number towards midships and the after e n d ’

.
A r t 3 5 8 F r e e i n g p o r t s vary con s iderably in their design ( see Figs

. . .
3 1 0 1 2 1 3 P late
, , ,
When of large size the lower part may be
,
hinged to the upper ( Fig so that it may open to a small body of .
water I n s ome the hinges are placed at the forward end s o that the
.
, ,
port may swing open horizontally A s it is important that the door should .
open readily to a small pre s sure of deck water the hinge s should be well ,
constructed with bras s pins to avoid rusting and sti ffness Sometimes
,
.
link like eye s are substituted for hinges which while very strong ensure at
-
, , ,
all times easy movement of the door Bolt s or catches are provided for .
use in fine weather to hold the door shut and avoid incessant jarrin g , .
I n some cases no door s are provided only a permanent grille of round ,
iron bars fixed in an angle frame The doors are liable to violent blows
, .
from the wa ves and s hould heavy weather b e encountered they are often
, , ,
damaged ; they and their mounting s should therefore be substantial and , , ,
the corner s of the opening should preferably b e cut with a radius for when ,
square they are apt to form starting points for cracks in the bulwark plate .
A r t 3 5 9 The h e i gh t o f t h e b u lw a r k varies greatly

. . I n s ailing .
ships 45 feet is perhaps the average but toward s the h ow it u s ually sweeps
, ,
upwards fo r the sake of appearance and to give better protection at the

, ,
ends I n steamers it may be 11 0 higher than an open rail or about

.
,
2
1
3
,
feet but when the distance bet w een deck erections is very short as in ,
the well of well deck vessels it may be of their height so that when viewed
-
, ,
externally there is no apparent discontinuity in the topside plating .
I n s a i li n g sh i p s t h e b u lw a r k must be specially strong fo r a s the

-
,
leeward on e is usually close to the sea level it is exposed to blows and ,
pressures from the waves Steamers unlike sailing ships do not often lie .
,
-
,
at the mercy of the waves and the r bulwark is shorter and lower ,
i .
B ulwarks are of thin plating usually fi inch single riveted to the upper , ,
edge o f the sheer strake ; but they are strengthened by the fore and a ft - -
rail and by supporting s t a y s ( see P lates 1 0 0 and

,
Lloyd s rules
’
require the bulwark stays of sailing ships to b e not further apart than -
5 feet and that, they shall support the bulwark about mid height as well as -
at the main rail the thin bulwark plating bei n g doubled in way of them
, .
The plates of the bulwark are so arranged that their j oints may fall in
way of every second or third stay their buttstra ps or laps forming the ,
necessary doublings special doubling straps are then introduced for the
interme d iate stays but sometimes angle bar s ti ffener s are advantageously
,
-
substituted ( see Fig 4 P late .

,
[ rt 3 6 0
A .
they should not when fixed at the proper inclination impose upon it any
, ,
transver s e s tress ( see P late

A r t 3 6 1 I n steamers to avoid the neces s ity o f lifting cargo over the
. .
,
bul wark large gan gw a y d o o r s are sometimes provided at each hatchway

, .
Formerly they were usually in halves bi n gi ng forward and a ft but now , ,
the more simple plan is generally adopted O f hinging the m downwards on

deck ( see Fig 1 P late . When the bulwark is very deep as in the well
, ,
o f some well deck vessels the doors are o ften divided hori z ontal ly so that
-
, , ,
when the upper doors are open the lower may form an ordinary low ,
bulwark The end s o f the b u l wark at the doors must be particul arly well
.
stayed ( Fig fo r they are liable to blo ws fro m passing cargo and there
.
,
is a natural transverse weakness due to the discontinuity I n the details .
o f their design gangway doors vary considerably When closed they are .
locked in position by sliding b olts and by a central stay holding both ,
doors i f there are two The bulwark is usually designed as a fair .
contin uation of the s u rface o f the hull below in small tug boat s however , ,
it is very commonly set in at an angle so that when alongside of other ,
vessels it may escape contact .
A r t 3 6 2 P rovision m u st b e made for pas s ing line s overboard from

. .
various points to moor the ship when lying alongside a quay and for shi ft
, ,
ing her in harb our To pass these lines through the bulwark m o o r i n g
.
,
p i p e s are provided usually four on each side one at either end of the bridge
, ,
and one near the poop and forecastle ( see Fig 9 P late 5 9 and Figs 1 and 2 .
, , .
,
P late They may su ffer great stress fo r through surging o f the ship , ,
in a tide way or river stout wire lines havi ng a breaking strength of many
-
, ,
ton s are sometimes pulled asunder They are usually o f cast iron and
, .
,
the thin b u l wark plating should b e doubled in way o f them fo r if it ,
yielded to the strain the pipe might fracture To ma ke fast the mooring .
lines large cast iron b oll ar d s or t i m b e r h e a d s are b olted to the deck

,
-
,
in such a position as will give a straight lead ( end o n as regards the bolla rd ) -
to the mooring pipe ( see Fig s 9 1 4 1 5 1 6 P late 5 9 and Figs 1 and 2 P late .
, , , , , .
,
—
Similar bollards sometimes termed “
b i ts —are provided on the
forecastle deck fo r towing as well as mooring purposes Bollards should be
, .
well secured to the deck ; i f the deck is not plated a special plate is fitted ,
at this part O ften they are merely bolted by the deck plating with or
.
,
without a foundation or s ole piece of wood ( Fig 9 P late but it is well .

,
( especially in the case of larg e towing bollards ) to fit sti f

f ening bars between ,
the beams ( Fig or else a stout chock o f timber with or without a plate on
.
,
its lower surface ( F 1g 1 4) a wood chock not only gives solidity to the deck
.
,
but by increasing the length of the holding down b olts gives a certain
,
-
,
amount of elasticity or spring against s udden j erks With an open rail .

,
the bollards may b e placed so close to the gunwale that the mooring line
may pas s directly over the side a strong tabular foundation b eing built ,
for them over the gutter waterway ( Fig I f the bollard is not placed .
clo s e to the gunwale a fa i r le a d must b e provided as a sub stitute fo r the

,
-
mooring pipe fitted in a close bulwark ( Fig Fair leads are also fitted .
-
at the bow and ste m fo r towing purposes and when large they are provided
,
with rollers ( Fig 9 P late to permit of the towing line being hauled in
.
,
with little friction however indirect its outboard lead

,
.
A r t 3 6 3 Th e stanchions o f an O p e n r a i l ( Fig 5 P late 5 9) are of

. . .
,
forged iron stamped under the st eam hammer from a stout bar ; a hole is
,
dril led in each ball a loose fit for the rails which when passed through are
, , , ,
tightened by wedging and caulking Stanchions of cast steel in cruci form sec .
,
tion were tried at one time but met with little favour They may be riveted
, ,
.
to the top o f the sheer strake ( Fig 5 ) or to the stringer plate ( Fig or they . .
Ar t 3 6 4]
may be bolted to the water way plank ( Fig 7 ) to place them in from the .
gunwale i s advantageous fo r they are then less liable to be damaged by

,
contact with other vessels etc I n pa s senger steamers a teak wood rail is
, .
-
usually substituted for the upper rod ( Fig 5 ot herwise a tube of large .
diameter may be employed ( see Fig I n vessels having a promena d e .
or shade deck open at the sides the rail stanchions are extended upwards to
, ,
support it i f the deck is light only alternate ones (see Fig 1 7 P late 5 9 and , .
, ,
P late These s tanchions are o ften formed o f T bars ( Fig 5 P late 7 6 .

, ,
and Fig 5 P late

.
,
I f forged they must be substantial their upper ends
are provided with a forged palm usually L sha pe d so that it may take the , ,
ends of the promenade deck beams a n d at the same time connect them to the
-
,
fore and aft face plate of the flying deck A breast the hatchways an open rail
- -
.
,
is formed as a sort of portable gateway the stanchions fitting in sockets and ,
s imilar socket stanchions with chain rails are provided on the forecastle
, ,
deck in way o f the anchors unless t hese are o f self stowing type A t the ,
-
.
front o f the bridge d eck in way o f the compass the stanchions and rods are
, ,
sometimes of brass to avoid galvanic e ffects elsewhere of course they are o f

, , ,
galvanized iron P rovision must be made for erecting a w n i n g s tan c h i o n s

.
these may be of light tubing with solid welded ends ( see Figs 7 and 8 P late
,
.
,
the upper parts being suitably formed to support the ends o f cross ra fters
and take the fore an d aft ridge lines I n passenger vessels portable rails
- -
.
and stanchions are provide d around the lower deck hatc hways as a ,
protection fo r the passengers when these are open ; otherwise a portable

wood casing ( o f open sparring ) may be fitted from deck to deck .
A r t 3 6 4 The weather deck h a t c h w a y s ( P late 5 8 ) are features more

. .
-
or less v ulnerable fo r when waves break over t he ship there is a chance of

,
the cover s being displaced in which case water would pass into the hold , ,
damage cargo endanger the ship etc They are closed by stout wooden
, , .
shutters termed ba tekes watertightness being secured by spreading

, ,
”
over all a tarpaulin or Iza tc/z cover usually tw o or three one over the other
, , ,
( see Fig . T h e margin o f the tarpaulin hangs over the coaming against ,
which it is pressed by flat bars termed ba teli ba tten s clamped by wedges , ,

”
.
The ba tc he s are held down by the t igh tly stretched tarpaulins also by flat _
loc/ei ng ba r s laid across the top which are secured at the ends by a padlock , ,
s o that there may be no unauthori z ed entry into the hold .
I t is evident that hatchways closed in this way cannot as regards ,
w atertightness and general security be compared with the surrounding deck ,
surface I n fine weather they may be perfectly secure but in stormy weather
.
,
they are a source o f anxiety to those on board and are constantly under
inspection I t is not an uncommon occurrence for the tarpaulins to be torn
.
by the sea and wind or by loose deck gear thrown about by the w
,
aves .
A n d it sometimes happens that the wood hatches under the tarpaul i n are
j erked out o f place by the concussive e ffects of falling waves when o f , ,
course the tarpauli ns being unsupported may tear and admit water The
, , ,
.
fixture o f the margin of the tarpaulin is a vulnerable feature The hatc h .
battens are clamped against the coaming by wooden wedges w h1ch fit i n ,
cleats riveted to the coaming ( Fig or by pinching screws ( Fi g .

.
Wedges present a large surface to the dislodging action o f deck water but , ,
on the other hand they possess el a sticity which pinching screws do not and
, , ,
when swollen by the water they do not readily work loose ; fo r th 1s reason
.
they are generally pre ferred .
A s the h a t c h b a t t e n s are slender and are not usually perfectly ,
straight they may not press the covers every where tightly aga m st the
, , ,
coaming They should therefore be substantial at least i nch th i ck

.
, , ,
and the cleats should be placed at close intervals not greater than 2 feet ,
.
[Ar t 3 6 4 .
Sometimes battens of angle section are adopted which owing to their , ,
greater sti ffness have a b etter clamping e ffect I n heavy weather deck
,
.
,
water dashing against the coaming may find its way upwards b elo w the
tarpaulins and aided by the wind may even li ft them and tear them to
, , ,
pieces I t should be observed that when water in violent movement is

.
suddenly arrested it exerts a pressure on the arresting s urface and possesses ,
l eak searching characteristics p ecisely similar to those displayed by still r
water unde r a hydrostatic hea d A n excellent hatch battening arrangement 1 -

,
free in great measure from the ab ove objections is shown in Fig 1 8 H ere , . .
,
instead o f a few isolated cleat s a continuou s one in the form o f a s mall Z , ,
bar is riveted to the coaming which by forming a trough for the battens
, , , ,
the e dges o f the tarpaulin and wedges protects them from water pressure ,
and the dislodging e ffect o f the wind and waves When the end coaming .
of a hatchway is formed by a transverse bulkhead or by the end o f a deck

house ( Fig 1 O A) special provision must be made for properly fixing the
.
,
tarpaulins ; by forming a channel or trough into which the margin of the ,
tarpaulin may be turned down and be tightly battened again s t the coaming ,
in the usual way .
A r t 3 6 5 The h e i gh t o f t h e c o a m i n gs of weather deck hatchways

. .
is an important matter I n stormy weather the deck may be frequently .
flooded with water so that evidently when the hatch coamings are high , , , ,
the covers are less likely to be inundated and s ubj ected to the trying ordeal
of preventing its passage below Formerly 1 foot was the usual height ; .
now 2 feet is more common ( Lloyd s rules s pecify this as a minimum ’
for ordinary up per and spar decks ) but much depends on the character of ,
the deck I n well deck vessels fo r instance the coaming o f the hatch way
.
-
, ,
in the w ell where the deck may be constantly covered with water is often
, ,
3 feet high A n awning or

. bridge deck on th e other hand stands high , ,
above the sea level and has no bulwark to re ta in a volume of deck water ;
,
here therefore a height o f 1 5 feet may be ample A n d similarly with the

, ,
.
trunk deck and turret deck type of steamer ( P late s 1 1 1 and in the
former the sides of the trunk erection may be regarded as forming a
continuous hatch coaming 7 or 8 feet high so that evidently the coamings , , , ,
proper around the O penings in the trunk deck may with sa fety be quite
, ,
low The height o f the coamings may also be governed b y the degree o f
.
security of the battening ; in A merican whale back vessels fo r instance -

, ,
there are no coamings at all for the hatchways — mere openings in the ,
deck plating — are closed with per fect security and watertightness by
b olted plates .
Di fferent m e t h o d s o f fo r m i n g t h e c o a m i n gs are shown in P late 5 8 .
Formerly a fo r e a n d a ft c a r l i n g was fitted to support the ends o f the

- -
half beams and the coaming was then superposed ( Fig

-
, N ow carlings .
are usually dispensed with the coaming itsel f being extended downwards ,
to take its place ( Fig I n the case o f lower decks a distinct carling is
.
,
still sometimes fitted and the coami n g ab ove i f there is one may be formed
, , ,
o f a deep bulb angle ( see Figs 1 2 1 3 and Th e coaming of lower .

, ,
deck hatchways is usually shallow fo r i f high it would interfere with ,
the working o f t ween deck cargo and o f course there is little chance
’
-
, , ,
o f the hatchways being inundated by deck water I f a lower deck .

-
hatchway is long a coaming is u s e ful and necessary beca use it then

, ,
forms a power ful fore and a ft girder well able to support the ends of - -
,
the hal f beams ; in s ome cases when only a shallow carling has been
-
,
fitted both it and the hal f beams have been bent down and broken by
,
-
the weight o f tween deck cargo stowed alongside and on the hatches
’
-
.
’ ”
B ro .r n s P aten t Con ti n u ous H a tc/z Clea t .
3 42 .
[ .
The portable hatch beams or webs are secured between double vertical
angles riveted to the coaming forming a groove fo r the end of the plate
, , ,
and permitting o f a bolt attachment as shown in Fig 7 P late 5 8 Together , .

, .
with the support which the w e b beams a fford to the fore and a fters and - -
h atches they have considerable structural capabilities fo r when securely

, ,
bolted they make good the transverse strength lost by the absence o f
thro ugh deck beams I n practice however their capabilities in this respect
.
, ,
a re fre quently nulli fi e d by the circumstance that they are o ften improperly
bolted very commonly only one out o f six or seven b olts is put in place ,
or none a t all i f the angle lugs are closed at the bottom so as to sustain
the beam and in many cases the lugs become cracked or broken When
, .
this is so the beam serves merely as a strut ; it is o f no use as a tie

, .
Sometimes to avoid the ab ove a sort o f dovetail groove is substituted

, ,
fo r the double angle attachment formed of a steel casting ( B Fi g

-
or , , .
a dished steel plate ( A Fig I t is evident that the shallow cro s s

, .
beam shown in Fig 5 is o f little service in the above respects for it is

.
,
secured only to the yielding upper part of the coaming ; in order that it
may tie the severed half beams it should have a knee at either end or a
-
, ,
knee may be fitted on the outside of the coaming as shown in Fig 1 , .

,
P late 5 7 When loading or discharging cargo the portable hatch beams

.
,
are usually removed ; but not always in which case the angles upon the ,
upper and lower e dges are apt to be bent and broken ; they should ,
there fore be substantial or large double hal f round mouldings may be

, , , ,
-
substituted .
Similar web beams and fore and a fters are provided for the hatchways - -
o f lower decks I f the hatchway is wide and the side coamings shallow the
.
,
cross beams take the form sho w n in Fig 1 1 P late 5 8 fo r if they were .
, ,
shallow throughout they might be too weak ; in such cases Lloyd s rules ’
r equire the depth o f the beam at the mid dle to be 2 5 per cent greater than .
at the ends Failure of the portable beams o f lower deck hatchways was
.
-
formerly not uncommon ; it occurred as a result o f heavy weather when ,
the vertical movement of the ship caused a large virtual incre a se in the
weight o f the cargo stowed on the top of the ba tche s When the hatchways .
are wider than they are long which in m odern vessels o f broad beam is , , ,
very commonly the case the portable beams may b e placed fore and aft
,
- -
,
fo r having a shorter span they are then stronger and more capa ble
, , When .
the same homogeneous cargo is sto w ed in both the hold an d tween decks ’
,
the lower deck ba tc hes are not always closed in which case the cargo
-
,
in the tween decks simply rests on that in the hold below The hatch
’
.
coamings may h ave r o u n d e d o r s q u a r e c o rn e r s ( Fig 2 A s regards .
the closing o f the hatchway round corners are less convenient than square
, ,
fo r the hatch battens do not clamp the tarpaulins so well and special corner ,
hatches are required ; fo r this reason there fore square corners are usually , ,
pre ferred I n discharging cargo stowed remote from the hatchway it must
.
, ,
i n the first place be hauled along laterally This is done by attaching

, .
thereto the hoisting line o f the derrick which rubbing with force against , ,
the lower edge o f the coaming plate may not only su ffer itsel f but i f it b e , , ,
a chain may injure the edge o f the coaming This may be obviated by
,
.
curving the lo w er edge o f the coaming as shown in Fi gs 8 and 1 2 or by .

,
fitting a half round moulding to take the cha fe ( Figs 7 and

-
.
Th e upper edge of the coaming must be sti ff ened and rounded o ff to

avoid cutting the tarpaulins and a suitable le dge ( 1 5 inch wide) must be
,
provided fo r the ends o f the hatches This may be done by riveting a half .
round moulding on the outside usually o f hollow section and a ledge within , ,
( g 7 late
F i 1
. P , or by employin g a sin gle bar of a section appropriate
Ar t 3 6 7 ]
3 43
to both purposes ( see Figs 1 6 and I t is important t hat the inner .
s u r face o f the coaming should be free from proj ections so that cargo in ,
process of hoisting or lowering may not catch The h a t c h m o u ld i n g .
s hown in Fig 1 8 dispenses with a projecting ledge and being a single part
.
, , ,
is more easily fitted As the hatches usually lie athwartship a ledge is n o t

.
,
required on the end coaming Sockets are riveted to the coaming to .
support the end s of the fore and a fters they may be o f steel or iron - -
,
wrought or cast and they s hould be su fficiently substantial to withstand

,
blow s from cargo ( Figs 3 and I f the fore and afters are of timber a
.
- -
,
short plate should be fitted at their ends ( Fig o n their lower surface ; .
fo r as the supporting sockets are shallow — to minimize their obstructive

—
e ect the wood is subject to such local pressure that it is apt to crush and
ff
wear away when o f course there i s a danger of its slipping past the
, , ,
socket Lloyd s rules require that the s ockets shall be su ffi ciently deep to
.
’
give at least 2 inches bearing for the fore and afters - -

.
Formerly the w o o d h a t c h e s were built of thin boards with connecting ,
grounds or cross pieces below No w they are always o f s olid timber .
( Figs 5 and
. 2 3 P late 2
5 or 3 inches thick formed by tie bolting two
, ,
-
1 2 inch planks of white or red pine

-
They are subj ect to particularly .
rough usage during loading and discharging operations s o that they soon ,
S plit and break up They have there fore to be frequently overhauled fo r

.
, , ,
if their surface when all are in place should contain holes and wide
, ,
crevices the tarpaulins when subj ected to sea pressure might tear and
, , ,
admit water ; and further when their edges are worn they are more
, , ,
readily dislodged by shocks from the waves I n passe n ger ves s els and .
those in the fruit trade which require ample ventilation supplementary , , ,
grated hatche s are usually provided Small hatchways are sometimes .
covered with a booby hatch This is simply a teak wood cov er -

.
”
-
,
having a sliding shutter to act as a companion way The after hatchway -

.
in sailing ships is O ften covered in this way

- .
A r t 3 6 7 Deep ballast tanks which are intended also to serve for

. . ,
cargo must have w a t er t i gh t h a t c h w a ys ( Figs 1 to 4 P late

, Two .
,
comparatively small ones are usually provide d one on either side of the ,
longitudinal wash bulkhead ( Figs 4 and 5 P late close together so as .

, ,
to fall below the s ingle hatchway of the deck above ; if a single large central
one were provided the watertight cover would be very unwieldy The cover
, .
is in one piece formed usually o f a s ingle large plate if in two there would
,
'
be a cross joint di fficult to make watertight The watertight joint with the
, .
coaming may be made in di fferent ways as shown in Figs 1 to 4 P late 7 1 , .

, .
I f rubber s trips are used they should be secured at bot/z edges fo r rubber ,
is apt to stick to the coaming and tear when the cover is li fted ( see B ,
Fig 2 P late 7 1 and Figs 7 and 1 1 P late

.
, , O n account of the cost
.
,
and p e rishable nature of rubber and the rather extensive fitting work ,
involved in its fix sure it is usually preferred to s ecure a watertight j oint by

,
means of putty and rope yarn placed between the cover and an angle bar ,
fitted on the edge of the coaming ( Fig 2 P late 7 1 ) or specially prepared .

,
packing may be inserted in a groove in the cover or coaming a s shown ,
in Fig 1 A Fig 2 and Fig 3 The coaming should be 1 8 or 2 4 inche s

.
, .
, . .
high so that the space within the hatchway may be su fficiently large to
,
act as a feeder and thus ensure the tank proper being a lways quite full
,
o f water I t is sometimes formed of a large bulb angle bar but this does
.
-
,
not secure the above advantage A coaming plate should of cour s e b e .

, ,
sti ffened at or near the edge with an angle bar so that it may resist blows
, , ,
from cargo and pressure from the water contained in the ta nk The cover .
should be sti ffened with cross bars disposed parallel to the shortest edge , ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G Art 3 6 7
3 44 .
[ .
and they s hould be tapered at their ends so as to relieve the terminal ,
connecting rivets of un due stress Th e plate itself should be thick for it .

,
:
is exposed to rough usage and it should be sti ffened around its edge with ,
an angle frame or doubl i ng strip so as to distribute the clamping pressure ,
of the bolts Sometimes it is made of cast steel but it is then very heavy
.
,
and cumbrous I t is well to provide a stud bolt in the cover by removing

.
,
w h ich the height o f the water when the tank is nearly full may be readily
, , ,
ascertained and a manhole may al s o be provided to give ready acces s to ,
the tank The securing bolt s may be linked or pivoted to eye plates or
.
, ,
lugs riveted on the coaming or they may pass through an angle bar on the
coaming ( see Fi gs 1 2 and Th e lower decks o f warships usually act
.
, ,
as watertight divisions so that all hatchways are of watertight type and as ,
they are not subj ect to the wear and tear due to loading and di s charging
cargo lightne s s and strength are the governing features in their design ;
,
their lids are hinged and the bolts are provided with bras s t u rn b u c k les ,
instead of nuts so that they may b e hove up quickly by hand ( see Fig 1 1
, .
,
P late
A r t 3 6 8 I n v e s s e ls d e s i gn e d for t h e c o a s t i n g c o a l t r a d e it i s
. .
,
desirable that the hatchways s hould be large ( Fig 7 P late so that .

,
when the coal is shot through them it may fill the hold s su fficiently full
to s ink the vessel to he r load line without the necessity for laborious hand
trimming I t should be ob s erved that coal (light North country coal )
.
-
requ i res for each ton weight a space of about 44 cubic feet and as ves s els ,
designed for the coal trade can usually carry at load drau ght a weight of b
—
cargo i n tons — equal to the total hold space in units of about 5 1 cubi c
feet the space which of nece ss ity remain s vacant is only ab out one s eventh
,
-
o f the whole I n order therefore to dispense with hand trimming the

.
, , ,
hatchways s hou ld b e s o large that the coal when merely shot through ,
them may fill at least six sevenths of the total hold space for if not the
,
-
,
vessel would not in the absence of hand trimming be fully loaded l o she
, , , . .
would not be brought down to her load line .
A heap of coal will retain its form unless the inclination of its sides is
steeper than about 3 5 degrees— the limiting angle of repo s e I t follows .
”
,
therefore that u nless the coal shot through the hatchway s is trimmed
,
laterally there must exist vacant spaces tria ng u lar in section in the
, , ,
i e under the deck at the sides of the hatchways ; al s o it is

. .
,
evident that the wider the hatchways the smaller these spaces will become .
V ery wide s e lf t r i mm i n g h a t c h w ays tend to injure the s trength of

‘‘
th e hull owin g to the removal of so much deck plating and at the s ame
, , ,
time the extensiveness of the vulnerable hatch covers may prejudice the
,
vessel s safety in stormy weather at sea These objection s are met by

’
.
increasing the s trength of the deck at the side s o f the hatchway and of the ,
coaming plate s and by raising the latter high above the deck so that the
, ,
covers may not be inundated by deck water At one time it wa s common .
to slope the coaming s inwards so as to reduce the area of the hatch ,
covers a s s hown in Fig 2 and 3 P late 5 7 I t will be observed that the

1
, .
, .
coaming is here really a portion of the deck inclined upward s for the ,
beam s are extended to its upper edge .
As ju s t seen there must exist— i n the absence of hand trimming ,

-
empty spaces i n the wings No w in loading a ve s sel it would evidently .

, ,
be improper to permit the coal to retain its natural angle of repose for ,
with the rolling of the ship it would slip downwards and in heavy weather ,
the tossing and jerking might cause the whole mass to move to one side
“
P r i ce Ha tc/z w ay S e e Mr D en to n Tr a n s
’ ’
s P a ten t S elf t/ z m m zng . . s pa pe r, .
I n s ti tu tzon f
o N a va l A r c/zi tects, 1 8 75 .
[Art 3 6 9 .
and ventilation the lower one forms a bulwark I n passenger vessels or

, .
,
those carrying cattle iron gratings are provided for use in fine weather
,
.
Wood ships are very commonly employed in the timber trade a n d to ,
permit o f long logs being loaded or discharged endwise into or from the ,
hold a b o w p o r t is usually provided close to the stem someti mes one fo r

,
-
,
the tween decks and one for the hold Similar ports are s ometimes
’
.
provided in iron ships but as in these there is a collision bulkhea d they , ,
involve the unde s irable feature of a detachable b u lkhead plate ( Art .
through which to pa s s the logs A s bow ports are particularly exposed to .

-
blows from the waves they should be securely fastened by tap bolts hove ,
-
,
up from the outside through a double thickness of plating ; internal strong

backs might be loosened by the continuous jarring An d care should b e .
observed that the strength and sti ffne s s o f the vessel s bow is not prejudiced ’
by the port web frames or stringer s being introduced to make good the
,
transverse strength lost by the cutting o f frames etc , .
A r t 3 7 0 A n important feature of a modern ca rgo vessel is the

. .
facilities for rapidly lo a d i n g an d di s c h a r gi n g c ar go from the various

holds and tween decks ( see P lates 6 1 and
’
Their adequacy depen d s
on the size and number of the hatchways on the s u ffi ciency of the ,
lifting appliances the derricks and winches and on the s tru ctural design of
, ,
the ship The cargo situated directly under a hatchway may be li fted and
.
swung overboard with expedition ; that not directly under must first b e
transported laterally and it is evident that to minimize the labour and
,
time involved the hatchways should be numerou s and large Formerly

, .
,
expedition in loading and discharging was not so urgent for freights were ,
usually so high as to en s ure in any case a good profit now de s patch and , ,
economy are often es s ential to commercial succe s s and accordingly in , ,
modern vessels the hatchways are usually numerous and of large size and ,
the means of working the cargo elaborate and extensive I n vessels o f .
moderate beam ha tchways 2 6 feet long by 1 6 feet broad are common and
,
in vessels o f large beam hatchways 1 8 feet long by 2 4 feet wide are not ,
unu s u al Width is advantageou s in minimi z ing the distance of the hatch

.
—
way from the vessel s side s o that the shore cran es often of limited ’
,
—
outreach may plumb the hatchway also in permitting of di s charging ,
operations being conducted simultaneously on b oth sides of the s hip I n .
some cases the better to secure these advantages in s tead of one central
, ,
hatchway two are provided o n e to port and one to starboard j ust clear of
, , ,
the deck stringer This is a common arrangement in passenger ve s sels

.
having large central deck houses or cabin spaces and which b eing , ,
employed in foreign coasting trade where the cargo i s di s charged into ,
lighters require special facilities for working it

,
.
Th e arrangement of d err i c k s a n d W i n c h e s varie s greatly ( s ee Figs .
9 to 1 2 P late
,
I n some regular liners deck machinery may seldom
be required for e fli c i en t hydraulic cranes may b e avai lable at their own
,
special loading and discharging berths I n practice however all steamers .

, ,
are provided with s team winches in large modern cargo ves s els there are
usually two to each large hatchway M odern s ailing ship s are usually .
-
p rovided with a steam winch which serves not only for working cargo but , ,
fo r warping the ship working the Windlass and pumps by mes s enger chain
, ,
and fo r a purcha s e for the halyards and other heavy hauling work ; as a
rule however it is never u s ed at s ea I t and its donkey boiler are placed
, ,
.
together in the midship deck house the warping end s of the winch pro
’
,
j e c ti n g on either side sometime s however a small donkey boiler and winch , ,
are provided fixed together on a bogey so that they may b e transported to

,
any particular hatchway Sailing ship s are generally loaded and d ischarged .
-
Ar t 3 7 1 ]
3 47
by shore cranes or if these are not available by hand winches one of

, , , ,
which is usually placed at each hatchway the li fting lines being suspended ,
from the yards or stays They may lie in port fo r long periods a source
.
,
o f loss w hich in their case is less important than in steamers owing to ,
their smaller first cost and working expenses .
A r t 3 7 1 O rdinary d e r r i c k s are of pitch pine or spruce and are

. . ,
usually capable of lifting a load of about five tons weight When specially .
heavy weights must be li fted they are made of s teel like a yard and they , ,
ma y be pivoted on the deck in front o f the mast as in Fig 1 P late 6 1 , .

, .
A n e ffi cient derrick should be capable of li fting a large package from the

hatchway and of swinging it quite clear of the vessel s side on to the quay
,
’
i f it can only deposit the package on deck supplementary lifting gear and ,
double handling become necessary I ts o u treach might o f cour s e be .

, ,
increased by lowering it s head in the manner of a land crane but , ,
excepting hydraulic derricks— this is practica lly never done its head stay
“
is o f fixed length ( Fig to make it a running tackle or toppi ng lift
.
, ,
would complicate the o perations D erricks may b e pivoted and stayed .
from the mast or from special d e r ri c k p o s t s p laced anywhere on the

, ,
deck Formerly only mast derricks were used but in modern vessels of
.
,
great beam i f the mast is near the hatchways and the derrick plumbs the
,
centre thereof it might not be capable o f swinging a large package overboard

,
or su fficiently clear o f the side ( see Fig By providing special derrick .
posts on either side o f the hatchway the neces sary condition s may be readily
, ,
satisfied and by a comparatively s hort derrick ( Figs 1 0 and

,
A .
similar result may sometimes b e secured without a derrick post by pivoting ,
th e derrick on the deck alongside o f the mast and leading its head stay ,
to the end of a ho rizontal bar fixed and stayed aloft on the mast and , ,
projecting there from over the heel o f the derrick .
I t is desirable fo r the p r o p e r w o r k i n g o f a d e r r i c k that the point

of fixture o f its head stay should be over or nearly over its heel pivot , , ,
for i f much to one side the de rrick would constantly swing towards that
side ; this circumstance however is commonly taken advantage of the , , ,
upper end o f the stay being fixed slightly to port or starboard so that the ,
derrick m ay swing overboard of its own accord a single guy towards ,
the other side being su ffi cient to pull it back over the hatchway The .
rake o f a mast a n d the fixture on the vessel s side aba ft it of the shrouds
, ,
’
,
and backstays detracts from its efficiency as a derrick post To obviate

, .
the e ffect of the rake a projecting s tructure i s commonly b u ilt on the mast
,
to take the heels of the derricks in such position that they m ay be nearly ,
plumb with the ends o f their stays above I n some modern s teamers the .
main purpose o f the masts is to serve as derrick posts ; and to increase ,
their capabilities in this respect they are sometimes fitted quite plumb , ,
witho ut rake For li fting very heavy bulky m asses a mast derrick is
.
, ,
superior to one s wung from a po s t for it may be pivoted high ab ove the ,
deck and be o f great length so as to give ample dri ft ; and as it s head

, ,
stay fixed to the lo fty mast may leave it horizontally or with an upward
, , ,
inclination it may neither su ffer undue tension nor convey undue com
,
pressive stress to the derrick To secure the same conditions with a .
derrick post one of great length is required Sometimes mast derricks

, .
are stayed horizonta lly from the mast at a point hi gh above the deck and , ,
as in such ca ses the thrust o f the derrick may cause s evere local stre s s on
th e mast this should be specially strengthened
, Steam cranes are sometimes .
adopted in coasting vessels as a substitute fo r derricks and winches they

are advantageous in tha t they may be placed anywhere on the deck and ,
may be rea dily worked for they conta i n their own hoisting and slewing gear
, .
3 18 P R A C TI CA L -
S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 3 7 1 .
D e rri ck p o s ts ( Figs 4 5 and 6 P late 6 1

) which are designed to .
, , ,
withs tand w ithout stays the whole pull o f the derrick must be strongly
, , ,
constructed They are usually from 1 5 to 2 0 inches diameter of plating

.
,
about 5 inch thick at the deck to 5 inch at the top When stayed they .
may b e considerably thinner They us ually pass down to the second deck .
( Fig 4 )
. i f secured to the upper deck only side bracket plates are fitted , ,
and the beams and deck plating below suitably strengthened I n many .
cases the end o f a deck erection serves as a convenient support ( Fig .
A high class derrick post and gear is shown in Fig 6

-
D errick posts also . .
serve the use ful purpose of ventilators for the hold and tween deck this ’
,
indeed being O ften an O bject in fitting them ( Art

, .
The disposition o f the W i n c h e s with regard to the derricks is an

important matter ( see Figs 9 to 1 2 P late The h oisting or whipping .
,
line sh ould pass from the leading block o f the derrick square to the winding ,
barrel or whipping drum of the winch ; for if not a special arrangement of

leading blocks becomes necessary I n the case o f mast derricks if there is .
,
a single winch it is of course placed at the centre line if there are two
, , , ,
and if the derricks are close together then to secure a fair lead to both , , ,
they are sometimes disposed at an angle ( Fig The necessary e ffect . ,
however is o ften secured by placing the two derricks remote transversely

,
from each other providing for the purpose a projecting structure on the
, , ,
mast ( Figs 7 8 and . When derrick posts are adopted the winches
, , ,
may be disposed in whatever manner is most suitable ( Fig s 1 0 and 1 1 ) .
very commonly while the winches are placed close together out of the way
, ,
at the end of a hatchway their main spindle is extended outwards ( usually ,
by means o f a portable extension piece ) towards the derrick po s t ( Fig .
and is provided with a large whipping drum suitable for continuous and ,
quick winding .
I n an ordinary steam winch the cylinders are small the nece ss ary power ,
being secured by toothed wheel gearing The gain in power by gearing is -

. ,
o f course accompanied by a lo s s of speed in the lift and to maintain this

, , ,
therefore the engine is driven at high speed with the result that there is
, ,
much noise and vibration I n passenger vessels ordinary s team winches .

,
are consequently a source o f great discomfort I n some high class vessels

, , .
-
,
not having hydraulic gear a special type of steam winch is employed , ,
designed to run without noise and vibration This is accomplished by .
dispensing with all gearing the necessary power bein g secured by extra ,
large cylinders of oscillating type geared direct to large cranks on the

main spindle A s there is thus a minimum number of moving parts no
.
— ,
connecting rods or pinion wheels — and as the piston speed is small the ,
winch works steadily and comparatively noiselessly .
A r t 3 7 2 I n high class passenger vessel s h y d r a u li c d e r ri c k s or

. .
-
cranes are now often employed a s a substitute for steam w inches 1

A .
hydraulic derrick carries fixed upon itself all the necessary mechanism , ,
( hydraulic rams pulleys and chains ) not o n ly for lifting the load but for
, , , ,
slewing it from side to side and altering the hoist or inclination so as to ,
vary the outreach They are superior to steam winches in that they work .
,
with great expedition noiselessly and without vibration they occupy no , ,
d eck space they require no hot steam pipes ( wh ich ca use a considerable
,
loss o f power b y condensation) but are operated by a couple of small water ,
pipes which being cold may be led alo n g anywhere in the tween decks
, , ,
’
instead of on the upper deck where exposed to the weather I n vessels ,

.
carrying passengers th e absence of noise and vibration is of course a most , , ,
F d ori p ti af hyd h d k m hi
e sc r y M B w p p onT o ra u c ec ac n er , see r . ro
’
n s a e rs , rans .
I n s ti tuti on f N av a l A r c/z i tects , SS3 an d 1 8

o I 90 .
3 50 [Art 3 7 4
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . .
c h a i r s of wrought iron cast iron or steel ( Figs 1 1 to 1 4 P late

, , ,
.
,
and to protect them plate covers are bolted to the chairs or to an a n gle
, ,
bar riveted to the hatch coaming or casing I n heavy weather the pipes .
are particularly expo s ed to damage ; not infrequently a wave s w eeping ,
the deck may carry away the covers and break the chairs and pipes — a
,
serious matter in the case of steam pipes to the stee ring gear To avoid .
this the plate covers and chairs should be very substantial and the former
, ,
should be turned down ( more particularly alongside of the hatchways) so ,
that the water not having free access below may not exert so great a li fting
, ,
or dislodging force A n d all bolts connecting the chairs and covers to the
.
deck should b e tapped through the plati n g and have nuts on their points
below The covers are usually of chequered plating about 5 inch thick ;
.
,
but sometimes they are of cast iron in trough section segments forming an
,
-
,
enclosed conduit for the pipe s I n s ome cases instead o f plate covers
.
, ,
fore and aft iron bars are fitted over the pipe s ( Fig 1 2 ) as these form a
- -
.
sort of ope n sparring they o ffer little sur face to the d isruptive action of
,
deck water but they also a fford less protection to the pipes ; where there
,
is only one pipe it is sometimes protected w ith an angle bar cover I n -

.
some cases t he pi pes are led along below the deck but this cannot b e ,
done when the tween deck is a cargo space because of the heat and the
’
,
chance of the pipes becoming de fective and leaky .

Art 3 75 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D IN G .
51
C H A P TE R XX VI .
Ar t 3 7 5 The construction of th e m a s t s and the arrangement of the

. .
r i ggi n g of sailing ships was formerly a subj ect of much care ful thought ;
-
an d , aided by continuous experience the current practice at any particular ,
period has generally been satisfactory A bout the year 1 8 74 however a .

, ,
n e w class of sailing ship about double the size of those formerly built
-
,
,
came into vogue ; and it wa s soon observed that although the masts and
rigging were apparently well proportioned they were much les s trustworthy ,
than those of the earlier vessels Attention was particularly directed to .
the circumsta nce by the dismasting of a number o f new ships while

on their first voyage and accordin gly L loyd s R egister instituted an , ,
’
investigation the results of which were embodied in a report drawn up by

,
the Chie f Surveyor and his assistants I n the following some of the more .
1
,
important conclusions of this report will b e noticed .
O n e of the principle causes of the di sm a s t i n g of these large vessels

was their great sti ffness : in smaller ships an excessi ve pressure of wind
made itsel f evident by an excessive heel which at once called fo r a ,
reduction o f sail ; but the new vessels were so broad and stable ( their
stability was O ften excessive on account of improper loading ) that a
pressure of wind excessive as regards the masts and rigging di d not pro
, ,
claim itself in the usual way by heeling the ship and it was on account of, ,
the absence of such premonitory heeling that the masts were sometimes
unduly pressed with sail Subsequently great improvements were made
.
,
in the rigging by the substitution of steel wire for iron wire ropes and of
,
- -
,
r igg i ng scr ew s for tightening the s hrouds etc in place of the old fa s hioned
-
.
, ,
dea d eyes an d [temp la ny a r d s ( Figs 7 and 8 P late 6 4 and P late

-
.
, ,
A n d further the adoption in large vessels o f four masts instead of three

, , , ,
( see Fig 1 P late 6 2 and P late

.
, greatly reduced the stresses on the
,
masts and rigging ; fo r of course with the same total area of sail each of
, , ,
the four masts has a smaller proportion to support I n some large modern .
,
sailing ships this principle has been carried still further by the adoption of
-
,
five masts .
The masts are subject to three distinct bending forces O n e o f these .
is o f course the wind pressure on the sails A nother is that brought

, , .
about by the rolling and pitching movement o f the ship which by causing , ,
the masts to s way from side to s ide has an e ffect identical to what may be
observed i f a slender wand is used as a switch —if whipped smartly back
,
wards and forwards it will snap The third bending force is that due to .
the top weight o f the ma s ts yards and sails which when the vessel inclines
-
, , , ,
to leewards assists the wind in bending over the masts

, .
The c a p a b i li t i e s o f t h e m a s t s a n d ri ggi n g i n resisting these forces

are dependent on numerous circum s ta nces I n ordinary cases a modern .
,
ship would be forced over on her beam ends or capsized before the masts
Rp t M ti ge or P ubl i h d i b k f m by L l yd R gi t
on as n . s e n oo or o
’
s e s er .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G A rt 3 7 5
3 52 .
[ .
gave way i e the moment o f resistance o f the masts and rigging is greater
. .
than the vessel s righting moment or moment o f stabi h ty H ere the

’
, .
strength of the masts would appear to be ample yet if the same vessel ,
were so loaded as to be excessively sti ff a sudden squall might carry away ,
the mas ts ; and with greater likelihood if it s truck her while she rolled to
w indward for the motion o f the sails against the wind would increa s e its
,
force E xcessive sti ffness with its consequent violent and j erky rolling
.
, ,
may in itsel f cause the loss of the masts

, , .
I n cases o f dismasting the masts do not all go at once but first one , ,
and as a result o f this the others I n many cases partial or complete

, , .
,
dismasting ha s resulted from the failure of a comparatively insignificant

part Thus in one case the failure o f the sheet h oop on the fore mas t was
.
,
-
followed by the loss o f the fore topgallant mast and sub sequ ently by all -
, , ,
the spars excepting the main and mizzen lower masts I n another the .
,
failure o f an eye plate for the j ib boom guys was followed by the total loss -
o f all the masts ; first the jib boom gave way when deprived of the support -
of its stay then the fore topgallant mast s tayed to the j ib boom and so -
,
-
,
on the lower masts finally falling aft on deck due to their fore and aft
, ,
- -
stays being cut by the s winging about of the yards This curious process .
o f gradual disintegration shows the n ecessity o f providing ample strength
in every part however sub sidiary ; and of the utmost care in the smith
,
work of the various mast mountings and rigging attachments —caps hoops , ,
eye plates chains shackles etc

-
, , ,
.
When subjected to a bending force a ma s t must deflect slightly before ,
it can give substantial resistance and the greater the de flection the greater , ,
its resistance So also with the windward riggi ng it must stretch before
.
, ,
it can o ff er resistance and the greater the stretch the greater its re si stance
, ,
.
Th e conzbi nea resistance o ffered by the masts and rigging to a side

’
bending force depends therefore on the e ffi ciency of their c o operation , ,

-
.
Theore t ically the full combined streng th can only be secured when the
,
c o operat i on is perfect ; i e w hen the tautness and inexten s ibility of the

-
. .
rigging i s such that the deflection o f the mast say when at the breaking , ,
po i nt stretches the rigging to such an extent that it also 15 j ust on the point
,
o f breaking I f on account o f imper fect c o operation the mast failed be fore

.
, ,
the rigging then of course muc h of the strength of the latter might never
, , ,
be called into play ; and i f its full strength were much greater than that o f
the mast the loss o f resisting power due to the premature failure of the
, ,
latter might be very great A s usually constructed the strength o f a mast

, .
,
o f a large ship is not probably more than about one seventh that of its
rigging ( on the windward side) ; and i f the latter were so elastic or exten
sible that when the mast was bent to the breaking point it ( the rigging)
, ,
exerted only one hal f its full strength then the total resistance would be ,
little more than half o f the maximum or what could be o ffered if both ,
the mast and rigging contributed their full power .
I t is evident that only a trifli n g loss of strength would occur i f the above
conditions were reversed i a i f the rigging were strained to destruction , . .
be fore the masts for although a portion of the strength o f the mast would
,
not be called into play still as i ts actual stre n gth i s probably le s s than , ,
one eighth o f the whole the loss would be trifling P erfect co operation , .
of the masts and ri gg i ng is of course unattainable ; but this i s evidently , ,
unimportant so long as the discrepancy is such that the rigging su ffers the
higher stress I n modern ships this desirable condition is secured for
.
,
by the use of steel wire rigging and rigging screws ( in place o f the old
-
fashioned iron — wire rigging and hemp lanyards) the shrouds etc are ,
.
,
rendered so inexten s ible that a small deflection of the mast at once

r t 3 75
54 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G [
A
'
.
,
downward compre s sive one an increase in the spread increas ing the former
and dimini s hing the latter .
1
Th e increa s ed supporting e ff ect due to large spread in the rigging was

recognized from the earliest period ; in wood ships and in the earlier iron ,
ve ssels a maximum o f spread was secured by pa s sing the rigging outside

,
“
the bulwark over projecting plat forms termed c/zan n els ( see Fig 1 6
, ,
”
.
,
P late I n iron ve s sels however this practice wa s soon given up for , , ,
in these the rigging could be firmly secured within the bulwark to the
upper part o f the stout sheer strake ; but of course as the smaller spread , ,
reduced the supporting power of the rigging it necessitated stronger or ,
m ore numerous shrouds The end s of the s hroud s are connected to chain .
plates riveted to the s heer s trake a s s hown in P late 1 0 0 These s hould

,
.
be ve ry strong and be attached by at least four good rivets ; for being

, ,
fixtures it is desirable that their strength should be in excess of that o f the

,
atta che d s hrouds I n sailing s hips each shroud is pa s sed round the mast
.
-
,
( above the cheek plates ) and then down again on the same side to form ,
another s hroud ( Fig 5 P late I n steamers they may be shackled

.
,
each one to a s eparate eye plate riveted to the mast or be s ecu red a s in -
, ,
Fig 7 The fore and aft stay s of th e lower ma s ts are connected to eye or
. .
- -
,
stay plates riveted to the deck plating or b olted through wood ch dcks
-
,
fitt ed b etween the beams ; and in sailing s hips to give greater s trength -
,
again s t the upward pull of the stays diagonal bars are s ometime s fitted ,
be low i n the tween decks which may be regarded as a contin u ation of

,
’
,
“
the stay s giving an additional anchorage to the s econd deck
,
”
.
I t should b e observed that the capabilities of the rigging in supporting

the masts are greatly a ffected by the di r e c t i on o f t h e W i n d and by the
sim ultaneous rolling and pitching movement o f the hull There are four , .
directions producing distinct e ff ects ( 1 ) When the wind is directly ahead .

,
o nly the fore and aft sta ys give support to the masts
-
but their supporting
-
effect is very perfect becau s e of their great spread ( 2 ) With the wind
, .
directly a s tern su pport is only given by the back s tay s and aftermost
,
shroud s on both sides of the ship ( 3 ) When directly abeam all of the
,
.
,
riggin g on the windward side assist s ( 4) When on the quarter i e hal f .

, . .
way between the beam and th e stern only the backstay s and aftermost ,
shroud s on the windward s ide assist in the su pport of the ma s t I n the .
R ep or t on M a stzng already cited the combined stren gth of the ma s t and

’
rigging was investigated fo r these four conditions for a ship of 1 6 0 0 tons ,
having rigging s et up with lanyard s A ssuming the re s i s tance given in No 1 . .
condition to b e unity the others were respectively 7 5 o 5 8 and

0 -
, , ,
The mo s t trying wind is there fore one from the quarter again s t which , , ,
only the windward backstay s and aftermost shrouds give s upport That .
these parts do s uffer disproportionate stres s is frequently observed ; for as ,
a result of heavy weather while the other rigging may show no signs o f ,
having been severely strained the backstays and cap shrouds may have ,
opened at the nips and s plice s or have actually given way This however .
, ,
may b e due in great mea s ure to the fact that the backstays are connected
, ,
to the m ast at a higher point ; the deflection of a mast (with the same
-
bendi n g force) increases as the square of the height and a s the stretch and ,
s tres s in the rigging varie s with the deflection of the ma s t the higher its ,
1
I f th e len g th o f a sh ro ud, measure d o n a sui tab e sc a e , r ep esen te d i ts tensi o n , l l r
v l
the n i ts tran s e rse p ull w o u d b e r eprese n te d by i ts spre a d, a n d i ts co mp e ssi e forc e o n r v
the m a st by the h e i gh t o f th e m ast fro m d eck to h oun ds Th e a ctua stayi ng o r supp o r ti ng . l
e ffe c t o n th e m a st i s m e asure d b
y th e m o m e n t o f th e tran s erse p ul , abo ut the d e ck o r v l
v
m ast w e dgi n g i a the tran s erse pu l o f th e shroud mu ti p i ed by the h e igh t o f th e m ast
. . l l l
r
f om deck w edg i n g t o h o un ds .
Art 3 7 7 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
355
point of attachment the more severely i s it tried Thi s is discou nted to

,
some extent by the greater length of the rigging which enables it to s tretch ,
further to the same s tress and by the smaller angle which it makes with the ,
mast but compared with the greater deflection of the ma s t the s e matters
, ,
have but a small influence I n view of this it i s evident that the upper .
rigging should if anything be le s s tightly s et u p than the lower fo r then

, , ,
all parts are more likely to be s trained alike and to contri bu te fairly to the
general strength .
A r t 3 7 6 Formerly it was the universal practice to w e d ge t h e

. .
m a s t s at the s econd deck later they were a s o ften wedged at the upper ; ,
now they are practically always so wedged Formerly when exten s ible
, .
,
hemp lanyards were employed it wa s distinctly advantageous to wedge at ,
the second deck for owing to the g reater height of the ma s t from this to
,
the hounds it had so much greater natural flexibility that the shrouds were
,
better stretched and able to exert a greater proportion of their full strength
be fore it ( the mast ) gave way or wa s unduly strained I t ha s been com .
‘
pute d that in s uch cas es the combined strength of the mast s and rigging
might b e increased by a s much as 3 0 per cent by wedging at the lower in .
place of the upper deck With modern rigging however there i s no such .
, ,
benefit ; here an increase in the flexibility of the mast i s o f little or no

value for the rigging i s so inextensible that even with the smaller deflection
,
due to wedging at the u pper deck it reaches its proof stress and exert s its ,
utmo s t strength before the ma s t bends so far as to injure itself ; greater

flexibility in the mast would n ot therefore increa s e the combined s trength , ,
of it and the rigging .
I n large wood ships the mast s are always wedged at the lower deck for ,
the stren gt h and ri gidity of a wood hull is so inferior that if wedged at the ,
upper the local s ide pre s su re of the ma s t wou ld cau s e straining and
,
leakines s of the deck and upper part of the hull I n steel and iron vessels .
,
the hull may of cours e be built with ample s trength to resist the straining
, ,
tendencies o f the ma s t s ( Art U pper deck wedging has an advantage .

-
of a potential character in that should the mast be carried away it would

break above the deck for of course it is just at its point of fi x ture— the
,
wedging— that it is most severely strained ; if on the other hand it were

, , ,
, ,
wedged at the s econd deck it might break between decks and in falling , , , ,
tear up the u pper deck to the danger of the s hip ; in s ome ca s es of ,
disma s ting this ha s actually happened To strengthen the ma s t against the .
severe local pres s ure and nip like e ffect prevailing at the wedging its -
,
plating is locally doubled ( Fig 1 0 P late and when the wedging i s .

,
at the second deck Lloyd s rules require the doubling to extend above the
,
’
upper deck so that should the mast be carried away it may not break
, ,
bet ween decks ( Fig .
Ar t 3 7 7 When subjected to a deflecting force a mast may b e rega rded

. .
,
as a b eam ; by the action o f bending the plating on the lee s ide is subjected ,
to compression and that on the other to ten s ion I f as in a beam the .

, ,
external force affecting it were only a deflecting one the ten s ional stress ,
would equal the compressive ; actually however the latter is much in , ,
excess due to the compre s sive or crushing e ffect of the weight of the mast
,
and attached spars and the downward pull of the rigging C onsequently
,
.
,
w hen a m a s t fa i l s it does so fr o m e x c e s s o f c o m p r e s s i on the

, ,
m aterial on the lee side buckling and collapsing somewhat in the manner ,
shown in Fig 9 P late 6 4 : if failu re occurred from exce s s of tension the

.
, ,
riveted j oints would pull a sunder The downward thru s t to which the .
mast of a 1 6 0 0 ton ship is liable ha s been computed the total wei ght of ,
1
M as tzng
'
l
R¢or t on .
3 56 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 3 7 7
.
[ .
the ma s t s yards etc wa s found to be 4 0 tons and the downward pull of

, , .
, ,
the rigging on the windward side — assumed to be strained to hal f its

breaking strength— 4 5 6 tons ; these two combined give a tota l of 1 9 6
tons which when divided by the sectional area o f the mast was found to
, , ,
give a stress on the material of about 3 tons per square inch This .
compressive stress o f 3 tons must there fore be added to the compressive , ,
stress brought about by the transverse bending o f the mast ; and co use ,
quently if the material were capable o f bearing without injury a maximum

, , ,
stress of 1 0 tons per square inch then the mast could only withstand a ,
bending force that would impose a compressive stress ( and o f course , ,
a corresponding tensile one) o f 7 for the 3 tons being added would make , , ,
it 1 0 I n designing a mast therefore it is very necessary to consider not

.
, ,
only its strength as a beam subject to bending st resses but also tho s e ,
characteristics which a ffect its power o f resisting excessive compres s ion .
With the same additional weight of material the s t r e n gt h o f a m a s t

may be increased in two distinct ways : by making it o f thicker plating ,
or of larger diameter I f the plating be thickened the strength will be

.
increased in exactly the same proportion ; the flexibility however will , ;
be unchanged i e the mast will be capable of deflecting a s far before

, . .
breaking although to so deflect it will require a greater force The

, .
compressive strength will also be increased in the same proportion for it ,
varies as the sectional area ; but a further increase will accrue from th e
circumstance that mere thickness increa s es the lateral sti ffness o f a plate
against the buckling tendency of excessive endwise compressive stress .
I f now the diameter be increased and the thickness maintained a much ,
greater increa s e in s trength will occur for it varie s with the square of the ,
diameter ; the flexibility however a s measured by the proof deflection or , ,
the actual distance the mast ca n bend without injury will be reduced
proportionately to the increase in diameter A s the sectional area varies .
as the diameter the compre s sive strength of the mast will of cour s e be
, , ,
increased in the same ratio .
I t follows from the above that if grea t s trength were essential and ,
flexibility unimportant the better method of securing strength in a mast,
( with a given weight o f material ) would b e to make it of large diameter

and of comparatively thin plating ; but a s uffi cient degree of flexibility i s
usually more important than strength for it ensures that the mast will not ,
s u ffer a severe stress in advance of the ri gging : and moreover a s pecial , ,
degree of strength in the mast itsel f is comparatively unimportant fo r as , ,
already seen its resi s tance to side bending is in any case small compared
, , ,
with that of the rigging I f greater strength is desired there fore it would
.
, ,
usually b e better to secure it by the former method i e by increasing the ,

. .
thickness of the plating ; for although the gain in strength would be less
marked the flexibility would be maintained A precisely similar strengthen
, .
ing e ffect to that obtained by increasing the thickness of the plating may ‘
be secured by fitting internal longitudinal angle bars ; and this arrange ,
ment is advantageous in that while the bars do not reduce the flexibility ,
of the mast they greatly augment the lateral s tiffness of its plating against
,
buckling or collapsing tendencies For thi s reason therefore large masts .

, ,
are always constructed with i n t e rn a l s t i ff en i n g b a r s usually three ( see ,

Fig 3 P late
.
,
With three bar s it is well to place one at the a fter side ,
o f the mast and the other two symmetrically at the two forward quarters ;
,
for as already noticed a mast is least supported against a wind which

, ,
tends to bend it forward and to w ard s the s ide ; and as when so bent the , ,
material at one of its forward quarters is in compression it i s that which ,
would receive the most benefit from the s ti ffening e ffect of an angle bar .
[Art 3 7 9.
a stout angle or tee bar is fitted in the step the heel of the mast being , ,
slotted to pass over it Wooden wedges or P ortland cement are inserted

.
between the ma s t and the coaming o f the step ; P ortland cement is the
better in that it does not harbour moisture and cause corrosion I n
, .
steamers the angle hoop forming the step is sometime s fitted close to the
ma s t the latter being secured thereto against turning by three or four tap
,
b olt s Small hole s should be provided in the b ottom of the step ( or in

.
the ma s t) so that the ma s t may act as an up take ventilator drawing foul

,
-
,
or heated air from the b ottom of the hold ( Art .
A rt 3 8 0 The m a s t s o f s t e a m e r s vary greatly in s 1ze and in the

. .
work required of them A s a rule they are s hort and lightly rigged and
.
, ,
at s ea there fore their downward thrust is comparatively s mall I n most

, , .
cases however steamer s masts serve al s o a s derrick post s very commonly

, ,
’
each one carries t wo derricks and in s ome ca s es four two forward and , ,
two aft ; and a s a derrick is usually capable o f lifting 5 ton s and i n some ,
cases 1 0 or 1 2 the mast may at time s b e loaded with a dead weight of 1 0

, ,
or even 2 0 ton s ; and moreover when the weight i s s lewed over the side
, , ,
the rigging on the oppo s ite s ide being p u t in tension may greatly increase , ,
the downward thrust I n many ca s e s exce ss ive compre s sive stress due
.
to the derrick s i s avoided by extending the pivot bar s supporting the heels -
of the latter down to the deck and pivoting them there in s tead of on the ,
ma s t ( see Figs 3 and 7 P late . From the above it i s evident that

, ,
the s trength requ ired in the ma s t s and steps i s dependent in great mea s ure , ,
on the arrangement of derrick s .
When a s teamer s mast s tep s on the double bottom the step i s merely
’
an angle hoop riveted to the tank top with a cro s s locking piece To
, , .
avoid unequal pres s ure on the tank top plating the end of the ma s t should -
,
be cut with preci s ion to the proper bevel When a ma s t step s on the .
s haft tunnel the top and s ides o f the latter m us t be suitably s tren gthened to
,
take its downward thru s t ( s ee Fig 1 7 P late I t is now a common .

,
plan to s tep the mast s on the lower or s econd deck thus reducing the ,
structural work and avoiding ob s tru ction in the hold ( Fig 1 3 and P late 1 .
,
I n s u ch ca s es the deck m u st of course be suitably sti ffened and well , , ,
pillared below the ma s t ; very commonly the latter fall s close to a t ransverse
b u lkhead in which ca s e it s downward thru s t may be conveyed thereto by
,
fitting a large bracket plate b elow the s tep .
When s tepped on the s econd deck the sho rt h o u s i n g or di s tance

“
, ,
b etween the heel of the ma s t and the wedging may re s ult in exce ss ive side ,
pre ssu re at the s e two place s Thus whatever the bending moment a ffecting .
,
the ma s t above the wedging ( whether by the wind or by weights lifted by

the derrick s) it must be balanced by a reverse moment of equal magnitude
,
acting below the wedging I f for in s tance ( Fi g 8 P late 6 the

.
, .
,
deflecting pres s ure acting at the top o f a mast say 4 8 feet long ab ove the ,
deck were 5 ton s then with an 8 foot tween deck s the lateral force acting
, , ,
-
’
,
in the same direction at the heel would b e 3 0 ton s and the s ide pre ssu re ,
on the ma s t at the deck wedging wou ld be these two combined or 3 5 ton s ,

.
I f now the same ma s t were stepped on the bottom of a hold ( Fig

, ,
say .
2 0 feet deep the fig u re s 3 0 and 3 5 would become 1 2 and 1 7

,
I t is evident . ,
therefore that when a ma s t has a s pecially s hort housing its s trength and
, , ,
that o f the s tep and mast hole should be suitably proportioned for the -
,
more intense side pres sures I n special cases where it would be very .
,
inconvenient to pass a mast through the tween deck s ( perhap s on account ’
of pa ss enger accommodation ) it may be hou s ed in a socke t bui lt on deck ,

~
,
termed a ta ber n acle ( Fig 1 4 P late

“
A n d in small ve ss el s which
”
.
,
pa s s under low bridges and where therefore provision must be made for
, , ,
Ar t 3 8 1 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G
59
.
.
lowering the ma s t the tabernacle is designed to permit o f its being hinged

,
down fore and aft ( Fig -

I n view o f the shortness o f the housing a
-
.
,
tabernacle should o f course be a substantial s tructure and the heel o f the

, , ,
ma s t should be of increa s ed strength .
A r t 3 8 1 A t o p m a s t may be of wood or steel ; in large modern

. .
, ,
sailing ships it is alway s of the latter material I t may be distinct from the
-
.
th e lower mast in which case it is termed a “

, fi dd e d t o p m a s t ( Fig 5 .
,
P late 6 5 and P late 6 3 )

, or if o f steel it may be built in one piece with
, ,
“
it the whole forming one long p o le m ast ( see the mainma s t Fig 1
,
”
, .
,
P late To s upport the heel of a fi dde d topmast Meek p la tes are riveted ,
on the lower mast one on either side ( Fig 5 P late , these project .
,
bracket like in front of the mast and the heel of the topmast passing
-
, ,
bet ween them is upbo rn by a fi d a massive iron bar o f rectangular section

, , ,
which passes through a hole cut in the heel o f the topmast and re s ts with
its ends on the top of either cheek plate The downward thrust of the .
topmast due to the weight it carries and the pull o f the rigging may be
, ,
very considerable in the case o f a mast 1 9 inches in diameter it has been ,
computed that at times it may equal about 8 6 tons and a s the proj ecting ,
cheek plates must take this thrust they must evidently b e sub s tantial and ,
strong They are therefore of thick plating abou t 5 0 per cent heavier
.
, , , .
than the plating o f the lo wer ma s t ; the upper edge i s s ti ffened by a large
angle bar and the for ward free edge by a hal f round moulding or small
,
angle A s the whole thrust of the topmast is taken by the comparatively

.
small fid passing through it the thin plating of the mast immediately above ,
must endure a severe cru s hing stress ; a n d accordingly local strength is , ,
provided by doubling the plating in way o f the fi d hole or by fitting within ,
the ma s t ju s t over the fi d s mall vertical lugs whose ends bear on the fi d
, , , ,
and s ometimes a cross diaphragm plate is fitted bet ween the lugs I n some .
case s the thrust o f the topmast has been in exce ss of the strength provided ,
the mas t plating tearing over the fi d or the cheek plates buckling and ,
bending Th e lower shrouds are looped ro u nd the mast over the cheek
.
,
pl ates and to avoid a sharp nip bolster s o f hard wood are fitted on the top
, , ,
o f the latter ( Fig 5 P late .

,
Th e above method of fixing the heel of the topmast has been in vogue
from th e earliest period ; its suitability is due to the circumstance that it
permits o f the topmast being struck or lowered by withdrawing the fi d ,
and letting it slide down in front o f the lower ma s t I t is not often .

,
however that a topmast requires to be lowered and of late years it has

, ,
become common to build it in one with the lower But although thi s .
arrangement simplifie s the con s tructive work very con s iderably it is not ,
always adopted for a separate topmast is advantageous in that should it be

, ,
carried away it may be readily renewed a spare wooden spar being

, ,
carried on d eck for the purpose I n a number o f the earlier ships having . ,
steel pole masts rhe upper or topmast portion was carried away breaking
, ,
o ff j ust above the termination o f the sti ffening bars of the lower mast .
This no doubt arose not only from relative weakness due to the abrupt
, , ,
stoppage of the s tiffening bars o f the lo wer mast but from the greater ,
rigidity that naturally prevails in the absence o f the usual fidde d union with
the lower mast Since then pole topmasts have been strengthened by
.
,
extending upwards two of the sti ffening bars of the lower mast in an ordinary
fi dde d topmast sti ffener s are not required by Lloyd s rules unless its length
’
exceed s 3 8 feet I t should be ob s erved that while the taper in the diameter
.
of a lo wer mast ( from wedging to hounds) is usually about 1 7 per cent that .
,
o f a topmast and topgallant mast does not exceed about 2 inche s for the
reason that the upper and topgallant yards travel up and down the ma s t on
[Ar t 3 8 1 .
a hoop termed a p an e l ( Fig 5 P late 6 and if the taper were con

,
“
.
,
si de rable this would have too much play on the mast I n steamers which .
navigate can als and rivers having bridges the topmast if long is arranged , , , ,
to telescope into the lower one by suitable sheaves and a wire line as , ,
shown in Fig 4 The rake o f the masts is merely a matter o f taste ; in

. .
sailing ships the mainmast has usually a rake o f about 1 inch to the foot
-
,
the fore and main ma s ts having inch more and inch less respectively 1
4
.
I n steamers the rake may be twice as great or there may b e none at all ,
.
A r t 3 8 2 M a s t s a n d s p a r s like other parts of t he hull are rarely

. .
, ,
built of iron st e el only being employed I f iron is used Lloyd s rules

, .
,
’
require it to be of good malleable quality to have a tensile strength of 2 0 ,
tons per square inch and to be capable of with standing certa in bending ,
tests These tests vary with the thickness of the plate ; a

. inch plate 9
6
-
must bend cold through an angle of not less than 2 5 degrees with the gra i n ,
and 8 degree s across the gra i n ; fo r thinner plates the figures 2 5 and 8 ,
gradually increase becoming 7 0 and 2 5 in inch plate s ( see Figs 2 0 to

,
3 -
1 6
.
2 4 P late
, A lthough the greater strength of steel compared with i ron , ,
admit s of a general reduction in the scan tling s of the hull o f some 2 0 per
cent s o large a di minuti on i s not admissible in the ca s e of the masts and spars
.
, .
For the most crucial stre s s su ffered by a mast is a compressive one and ,
although s teel I S ab out 5 0 per cent stronger than iron under tens i on its .
,
superi ority is m uch less marked under compression A n d further the .

, ,
m ere reducing of the thickness of a plate involve s a serious loss of lateral

s ti ffness so that the plate is less well able to resist the side buckling
,
tendencies induced by severe endwise co mpression The reduction made .
in practice varies from nothing at all in plates so thin as inch to about -

,
1 0 per cent i n inch plate s I n very thin plate s it would evidently be unwise
.
-
e
.
to make any reduction for although the strength might when the spar was , ,
new b e equal to that of an iron plate the reducing and weakening e ffect
, ,
of corrosion would be di s proportionately large I n old vessels fo r instance .

, ,
the thin plates of the yards (and even of the masts ) are often corroded
through i n hole s and evidently therefore some surplus thicknes s is , , ,
de s irable .
Lloyd s rules as to the d i a m e t er s a n d sc an t li n gs o f s t e e l m a s t s

’
yards etc are given in tabular form A short lower mast say 4 8 feet
, .
, .
,
long from heel to heel is 1 6 inches diameter by inch thick a t the ,

-
2
wedging thence towards the head and heel it tapers both in diameter and , ,
thickness ( in some vessels however the lower masts are without any
— built , ,
taper) I n a large mast 9 6 feet long the figure s 1 6 and

. b ecome 3 2 a n d , ,
6
G
2 0
1
-
3 . L ower mast s who s e length exceeds 8 4 feet must have three sti ffening , ,
angles ( Fig 3 P late vary i ng from 3 by 3 by inch to 5 by 3 by

.
, 2 2 0
8
-
9
2 0 inch according to the length of the mast L ower masts up to 7 5 feet
, c .
i n length may be b u ilt with t wo plates 1n the round i e with two strakes
”
.
, .
of plating ( Figs 1 and 2 ) if longer with three strake s ( Fig . The , .
three strake arrangement is the stronger for the end j oints only extend
-
,
one third round the mast in place o f hal f way and as the longitudinal
- -
, ,
seams owing to their double thickness are in themselves a source of

, ,
s trength the greater their number the stronger the mast The sti ffening
, .
bars are placed midway between the seams and o f course their end j oints , , ,
-
should be properly connected The masts o f steamers being only used fo r .

,
auxiliary purposes are o f smaller diameter and thinner plating than those ,
of sailing ships L loyd s rules allow a reduction o f one eighth or one fi fth
.
’
-
in the diameter according as square sails are or are not carried A n d , .

,
similarly 1n the ca se o f the mi z zen mast o f a sailing barque which ca rries

,
-
,
o nly fore and a ft sails a reduction o f one fifth l s allowed ,

-
.
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G A rt 3 8 3
36 2 .
[ .
generally used ; here the tensile s trength of the wires is about 1 0 0 tons
"
’
‘
per square inch .
Ar t 3 8 4 Formerly the b o w s p r i t was alway s composed of two

. .
spars the bowsprit proper and the j i b b o o m The latter was of wood and
,
-
.
was arranged to unship by drawing i nwards through the bowsprit cap ( Fig 2 .
,
P late No w it is usually constructed as one s teel spar termed a

, ,
“
s p i k e b o w sp r i t
”
the omission o f a detached jib boom simplifying the
,
-
con s truction and reducing the work required of the cre w ( Figs 3 and .
A s it is then considerably shorter it reduces s omewhat the area o f head ,
sail but with the four masts now adopted in all large ships this is un
, , ,
important for the fore mast is stepped nearer the b ow The bowsprit may
, .
b e s hipped in much the same way as a mast ( Figs 1 and by p assing it .
through a hole in th e knight head frame where it i s wedge d and providing -

,
'
a special abutment or step for its heel within the foreca s tle ; and formerly ,
it was further s ecured by a ga mma” beep placed outside the wedging .
Sometime s it i s riveted to the foreca s tle deck its end being cut at a suit ,
able s lant and an external angle bar fitted around its edge ( Fig O wing .
to the shortness of the bed a b ow s prit so fixed ha s a powerful lever like ,

-
actio n tending to strain the forecastle deck ; this therefore must be locally
, , ,
strengthened by thickening the deck plating and by placing the b eams 0 11

every frame and connecting them to the frames by large knee plates
( Fig . T h e most severe stress a ffecting the bowsprit is that due to the
vertical p ull of the mast stays accentuated by upward blow s from the sea ,
as the ve s sel plunges b ow s under L loyd s rule s spe cify diameters and .
’
scantling s s uitable for bowsprits of different length A t least two angle .
sti ff ener s are required and in bow s prits o ver 2 8 inche s diameter four ; and
, ,
when of this s i ze a vertical diaphragm plate is required in way of the

wedging or bed to strengthen the b owsprit against the u pward bending
,
forces ( Fig s 1 and A n d further the plating must b e doubled in way

.
, ,
o f the wedging ; or if the b ow s prit is riveted to the foreca s tle deck it must ,
b e thickened at thi s part Bow s prits may b e built with two or three .
strakes if three one o f them is discontinued in way of the small diameter

, ,
jib boom portion The end joints are treble riveted but in a wedged
-
.
, ,
bow s prit tho s e within the wedging may be do u ble The s eam s are single
, .
riveted .
The bow s pri t is stayed downwards by the b o b s t a ys ( see Figs 2 3

“
.
, ,
and 6 P late 6 , I n a s pike bowsprit there i s of course an o u t e r s t ay , ,
fo r the j ib b oom portion I n a long b owsp rit the outer s tay may make with
-
.
it s o s mall an angle a s to have very little vertical staying e ffect ; formerly

thi s was corrected by fitting a mar ti nga le or dabb/zzfz str zber proje cting as
' '
-
,
a dista nce piece or strut from the end of the bow s prit proper ( Fig .
but with short s pike bow s prits thi s i s either omitted or made ve ry short
( Fig s 5 and. O win g to its large diameter and comparative sh ortness a ,
bowsprit ha s little flexi bility ( e s pecially when riveted to the foreca stle deck ) ,
and accordingly in order that the bobstay may give prompt and useful
, ,
support it i s evident that it must alway s be perfectly taut ; with this objec t
, ,
therefore the inner b ob s tay is practically alway s a s olid bar of round iron
, ,
and very o ften the outer s tay a s well Sometime s a chain i s employed . ,
but this is not s o efficient for it is extensible and cannot be s tretched , ,
perfectly s traight and taut i e it m u st al ways s ag slightly ; in practice ,

. . ,
however this de fect i s minimized by providing it with a rigging screw

,
.
Bar b ob s tay s have the di sadvantage that they may b e b en and damaged
t
by contact with barges tow ropes etc in the case of the inner bob s tay , , . ,
this i s provided against by making it very stout ; fo r instance whereas the ,
size s o f chain bob s tays specified in L loyd s rules vary from 1 2 31 0 2 2 inche s
,
’
,
3 1
3 ,
Art 3 8 6 ]
the diameters of bar bobstay s vary from 2 to 4 inches the tensile strength
of the latter is more than double that of the former but it is not made ,
stout for tensile strength but for lateral sti ffnes s , .
Ar t 3 8 5 Large y ar d s are always of steel ; the smaller upper top

. .
gallant and royal yard s are generally o f wood Lloyd s rules specify .
’
diameters and thicknesses for steel yards of di fferent length s The diameter .
at the centre is 3 th of the length o f the ya rd that at the ends being 5 0 per
1
5 ,
cent s maller Th e thickness o f the plating varies fro m f inch ( throughout)

. .
i
é
in a yard 3 2 feet long to 2 6 inch in one 9 6 feet long diminishing towards
,
8
,
the ends by ab out 5 0 per cent Y ards are not provided with sti ffening .
angles for they are n o t like a mast subject to excessive compressive

, , ,
stress They are built with two strakes o f plating the end joints being
.
,
treble riveted and the seams s ing le D oubling plates are fitted at the .
centre to s trengthen them against the local stresses prevailing at the sling
,
and tru s s hoops by which they are suspended from the ma s t ( Fig i 3
,
.
,
P late 9 Th e procedure adopted in the act ual building o f the masts and
yards is described in Art 5 2 8 . .
Ar t 3 8 6 . An immense quantity of s m i t h w o r k is required in

.
-
connection with the masts and rigging of a sailing ship and as regards -
,
material and workmanship it should b e of excellent character for as , , ,
already noticed the failure o f even a small part may have disa s trous
,
consequences Fig 1 P late 6 2 shows the general arrangement of the

. .
, ,
ma s t s and rigging of a three ma s ted barque and P late 6 3 that of a four -

,
masted one Some of the more important items o f mast and rigg i ng
1
.
smith work are s hown on P late 6 2 I t should be observed that in the

-
.
,
matter of design mast mountings vary greatly the desired result be i ng

, ,
obtainable in various ways The lower m a s t c ap ( Fig 2 P late 6 2 and . .

, ,
Fig 5 P late 6 5 ) is a particularly massive forging Like all other fixed

.
, .
hoops it is shrunk tightly on to the mast and as a security aga i nst the
, , ,
chance of its becoming loose a fe w rivets are introduced The cap should ,
.
be fashioned to the shape of the mast for this may not be perfectly circular ,
.
Sometimes owing to imperfection in the fit the cap has loosened at sea

, ,
a serious matter for the s ecurity of the topmast and other spars The top .
mast passes loo s ely through the cap where it is wedged ; and the head of ,
the lower ma s t is covered with a s heet iron hood which should be so -

,
arranged that while excluding water it may act as a sort of mu shroom

, ,
ventilator allowing air fro m the hold to pass up the ma s t ( Fi g 1 7

,
.
,
P late 7
A s the solidity and soundne s s of a weld is less assured than that of the
solid forging it is always desirable to avoid welding as far as pract i cable i n
,
important parts The actual amount o f w eld i n g w o r k i n an y pa rti c ular

.
forging may vary very considerably ; in high class smith work I t l S reduced
o
- -
to a minimum even complicated part s b eing fo r ge d almost ent i rely fr o m

’
t h e soli d by mou lding them under the steam hammer with tools spec i ally
—
,
“ “ ”
P repared for the purpose termed “
stamps die s or cresses Such ,
”
,
”
.
work is slow and costly but as regards reliability is greatly to be des ired , , ,
.
I n G overnment work welding is avoided wherever possible in all forg i ngs .
To avoid extensive smithing and welding work m a s t c a p s have some ,
times been made o f c a s t s t e el but this practice ha s met Wi th l i ttle favour ,

,
if o n ly from the circumstance that it involves the maki ng o f costly wooden

patterns When of cast steel Lloyd s rule s requ i re stri ngent tests to be
.
,
’
made to ensure that the steel is o f good ductile qual i ty and that the
,
completed casting is sound ( Art .
l
Th g i t r
e red d i m i f th l tt
s e e v l l g th f 3 7
1 6 f t
e n s o ns o br dth e a er esse are a en o ee , ea
fe e t, d ep th 24 6 fee t the gross to n nage be i ng 2 8 1 7 .

[
A r t 3 8 6 .
lo w er yard is fixed aloft in a sort of per manent fashion ( Fig 7 P late

A .
,
6 2 and Fig 5 P late 6 5 ) it is suspended by a short sli ng cba zn one end

’
, .
, ,
of which is usually shackled to an eye plate on the mast and the other to
-
,
an eye on the sli ng beep o f the yard ; and it is held out from the mast ( so
that when braced roun d it may clear the rigging ) by a tr uss beze which is ,
provided with j oints or pivots to permit o f the yard being braced round ,
or topped up The topsail and topgallant yard are suspended from a

.
,
small cr an e pivoted to the mast cap a truss bow being fixed to the yard
, ,
and pivoted to the crane ( Fig 2 P late 6 2 and Fig 5 P late 6

.
, ,
U pper
.
,
topsail and upper topgallant yards which require to b e raised or lowered

, ,
are connected by a pivot to a hoop termed a p a rr e which runs up and

“
down on the mast ( Fig 4 P late 6 2 and Fig 5 P late

.
, ,
.
,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 3 8 7
36 6 .
[ .
matter to decide what proportion of the ultimate strength of a cable is

the ela s tic limit ; i f it were the same as that of an iron bar it would lie
between 5 0 and 6 0 per cent of the ultimate strength consequently as the .
, ,
proof stress is found by experiment to average about 6 0 per cent of the .
actual b rea king strength it is probable that it is o ften in excess of the elastic
,
limit Th e Marine D epartment of the U nited States G overnment have

.
thought it proper to adopt a smaller proof s tres s than that required by

statute in this country ; it is so chosen as not to exceed 5 0 per cent of .
the minimum breaking strength of the cable An d the rule s of the .
Bureau V eritas also specify a smaller proof stress .
A t one time it was common when launching a ship to make use of , ,
her cables to bring her up when she left the way s That this may be .
un fair treatment is evident from the fact that the severe jerk whi ch ,
generally occurs often breaks them While employing the cable s however
, .
, ,
evil results may be avoided by introducing a length of smaller chain whose ,
breaking strength is well below the proof strength o f the s hips cable for ,
then be fore the latter can feel any undue stress the former will break , .
I n cases where a ve ss el is pulled up by several cables the la s t pair which , ,
only comes into operation when the vessel s momentum ha s been largely ’
reduced is still very commonly the s hip s own cables

,
’
.
The s tatu tory t e s t s fo r u n s t u dd e d c a b le are le s s severe tha n those

for stud link cable ; the proof stress is one third less and the breaking
- -
,
stre s s is twice this reduced proof stress which makes it rather less than ,
that required for a stud link cable That the proof s tre ss should b e smaller
-
.
is very necessary on account of the tendency of the links in the ab s ence

, ,
of studs to collapse ,
.
I t i s required by statute that the end and two intermediate links of each
1 5 fathom length of cable shall be s tamped with the particulars of the test
-
and a certi fi cate having the same particulars is i s sued with each cable
, , .
There are only seven cable and anchor te s ting establishments licensed by
the Board o f Trade for carrying out the act all of which are controlled by ,
Lloyd s R egister 1
’
.
A r t 3 8 8 I t is al s o requ ired by statute that a n c h o r s for Briti s h ships

. .
,
which exceed i gcwt in weight s hall b e t e s t e d The sha nk is pulled in

-
.
, .
'
one direction and the fluke s in the other with the obj ect of testing the ,
e fficiency of the welds and of the material generally The s tress applied .
varies from about 6 ton s i n a smal l anchor weighing without it s stock _

,
cwt to 7 5 ton s in one of 1 2 2 cwt O n e of the many varieties of patent

.
, .
stockless anchors now in common use is shown in Fig 9 P late 6 6 The

, , .
, .
old fashioned stock anchor ( known as the A dmiralty pattern ) is still o ften
- -
employed it being thought by s ome to be more reliable in embedding itself

,
and holding in the ground ( Fig The stockle s s and other patented .
varieties however may hold equally well and as owing to their compactness
, , , , ,
they are more ea s ily stowed and manipulated they are now generally preferred , .
Formerly an chor s tocks were of wood their p u rpose being merely to keep
, ,
one of the fluke s downward s 0 11 the ground ; but now of course they are , ,
alway s o f iron and Lloyd s rules require their weight to be not les s than one
,
’
fifth that of the whole anchor I n the case of stockle ss anchors L loyd s rules .
,
’
require the weight of the head portion to be not less than three fifths of the _
-
whole weight ( which need be no greater than that of a complete ordinary

stock anchor) fo r in these anchor s the burying and holding po wer might
-
,
b e seriously reduced if the head were light and the le s s us eful shank heavy .
1
A i t
n ti g u t f h i
n e res bl
n th i l y h i t y d th v i u l g l
ac co n o c a n ca es, e r ear s or an e ar o s e a
en actm t i g th m w il l b f u d i
en s c o n c e rn n M Th m W T ill b k
e , Ck i e o n n r. o as . ra
’
s oo , a n
”
Ca bles and Cka i m .
Ar t 3 8 9]
36 7
S t o c kle s s c h ors are usually of cast steel They are subject to the
an .
same sta tutory tests as ordinary iron anchors also i f o f cast steel to certain , , ,
p r e l i m i n ar y t e s t s to ascertain if the casting is sound and of good ductile ,
steel The head and shank o f a stockles s anchor are separate parts
.
1
,
pivoted together and if both are o f cast steel both o f course are tested ;
, , , ,
as a rule however the stock being of simple form is a forging The tests
, , , , .
are of three kinds known as ( 1 ) the percus s ive or drop test ( 2 ) the
,
”
,
hammering and ( 3 ) the bending test “

,
”
.
”
Th e p e r c u s s i v e t e s t consists in li fting the anchor or each of its pa rts , ,
to a certain height ( 1 5 or 1 2 feet according a s its weight i s below or above ,
1 5 cwt
) and letting it drop on an iron slab
.
.
The h a mm e r i n g t e s t is made after the drop test and consists in ,
suspending the casting and striking it all over with a hammer weighing not ,
less than 7 lbs so that by the clearness of the ring it may be judged whether
.
,
or not it is free from flaws such as may have existed from the first or have
developed as a re s ult of the drop test .
The b en di n g t e s t is made with a piece cut from the ca s ting a tongue ,
of metal being sometime s ca s t on it for the purpose When turned down .
to a diameter o f 1 inch this must withstand without s ign of fracture being , ,
bent cold by hammer blows through an angle of 9 0 degrees (i e at right . .
angles with itsel f) the internal radius at the knuckle being not less than
,
inches Four but not more than four test pieces may be tried and the
. , , ,
casting is deemed satisfactory as regards ductility so long as any one of

‘
, ,
them passes the test .
Further it is required that all cast steel anchor s shall b e a n n e ale d ;

,
-
the process to occupy at least three days for small anchor s and s ix for large
( Art .
Anchors are clas s ified as b ow er s t r e a m and k e d ge , ,

”
,
”
a n c h o r s , according to their relative size and particular purpose Lloyd s ’

.
rules require all vessels to carry a kedge a stream and ( excep t ing vessels , ,
under 3 0 0 tons ) three bower anchors The kedge is the smallest anchor .
,
it is u s ed fo r kedging i e warping or hauling the ship along in a channel ,

”
. .
the stream is about t wice the weight of the kedge and it is used fo r a similar ,
purpose The bo wer anchors are roughly three times the weight o f the
.
, ,
stream ; they are the main anchors by which the ship rides ; two of them
are always in readiness for immediate use one being shackled to the port ,
and the other to the starboard cable The third is a spare anchor ; it is .
usually heavier than the others by about 1 5 per cent and is sometimes .
,
termed the best bower

“
V ery large vessels u s ually carry two spare .
”
bowers or four in all

, .
A r t 3 8 9 The locker for the cable is built in the hold or peak by

. .
,
fitting a light transverse bulkhead of iron or wood about 4 feet from the , ,
collision bulkhead the locker space between these being divided for the two
,
cables by a fore an cI aft division ( P lates 1 0 1 0 9 and

- I n mo s t cases
-
, , ,
independent side w alls are provided for if the locker extended from side ,
to side of the ship it would be unnecessarily large When it does extend .
to the vessel s sides the latter are covered with ceiling planking A s usually
’
,
.
constructed the c h a i n lo c k e r forms a dee p sha ft into which the cables

, , ,
passing down the deck pipes may stow themselves automatically with little , ,
need for hand trimming I n some case s the locker is placed between two lower .
decks b u t this is a less suitable arrangement becau se to secure the necessary

, , ,
1
The se spe ci al tests w ere reco m me n de d i n th e rep ort o f th e C o mmi tte e a pp oi n ted by
th e B ea r d of Tr a de i n 1 886 , to co n si de r th e que sti o n o f te sts fo r ca st -stee an chors, th e l
m a n ufa c ture o f w hi ch h ad n o t be en c o n tem p a ted i n the C/caz n Ca bles a n d A n cker s A cts l
ef i S6 4 to 1 8 74 .
[
A rt 3 8 9 .
internal capacity a large floor area i s required and consequently the

, , , ,
cables cannot coil themsel ves away but must be spread out by manual ,
labour ; an d to provide room fo r the men there must be about 3 feet o f

, ,
head room between the cable ( when all is stowed) and the deck over
head I n any case when the cable is being hove in men are usually
.
, ,
employed in the chain locker to prevent it from twisting and forming

kinks fo r o f course i f i t did it might jam in the deck pipe the next time
, , , ,
it was run out The inner end o f each cable is fixed in the chain locker
.
,
sometimes by merely uniting the two ends under the keelson or fore and ,
-
aft iron divisio n otherwise by shackli n g each one to a large eye pla te
,
-
riveted to one o f the vessel s floors or to the lower part of the collision ’
bulkhead I n some cases where the cable has not been secured in thi s
.
,
w a y it has all run out and been lost

,
and when ranged for inspection on
the bottom of a dry dock the inner end not kn o wii to be free has some , , ,
times lashed out to the jeopardy o f the men engaged in ranging it below .
Ar t 3 9 0 The cables pass from the locker up through the decks by

. .
, ,
c h a i n o r d e c k p i p e s ; the Windla ss is usually placed directly over the

pipes and the cables each one passing over its cable wheel are led
,
“
,
-
,
”
overboard through the h a w s e p i p e s or h aw s e h o le s ( Fig 9 P late , .

,
The hawse pipes should be so placed as to give a straight lead for the
cables i e they should be the same distance apart a s the cable wheel s of
,
. .
-
the Wi ndlass Accordin g as the cables pass directly through the ves s el s
.
’
b ow plating or firstly down through the upper or forecastle deck so the

, , , ,
hawse h ole is merely a cast iron rim ( Fig or a pipe ( Fig They -
. .
must be mas s ive and strong fo r when the vessel is at anchor with the ca ble ,
leading astern they may b e s ubjected to severe stre ss and they may su ffer
,
intense shocks and vibratory e ffects when the anchor on being dropped ,
from the forecastle deck suddenly j erk s the cable out of the locker They , .
are usually o f cast iron but when large they are sometime s of ca s t s teel
, .
They should have a massive easily curved lower lip for it i s this part that , ,
su ff ers m o s t pressure from the cable and if the vessel is often at anchor it
may become worn or deeply scored —the hawse pipes of old ve s sel s have
, ,
sometimes to be renewed from thi s cause The thickne ss of the haw s e .
pipes varies from 1 to 2 5 inches and the internal diameter should be ample ,
to pass the largest joining shackle of the cable X .
Formerly the anchors were al ways stowed on the foreca s tle deck ; but
,
in order to save the time and trouble of getting them on deck and to ,
permit of their being readily dropped overboard s e lf s t o w i n g a n c h o r s ,

-
are n o w nearly always adopted These have no stock so that the shank .
,
may b e pulled right into the hawse pipe leaving only the fluke s outside ,
( Fig 9 P late
.
,
I n con s idering the movement of the anchor as it is
pulled into the hawse pipe it is evident that the lower part of the latter ,
must receive a severe nip ; for when the anchor hanging vertically -
reaches the pipe it cannot enter until it is forced up into line by the
, ,
pressure of its contact with the lower lip of the pipe and by the pull of the
cable ; these two forces may be very intense fo r they act with small ,
leverage and to minimize them the pipe should evidently be di spo se d; a s

, , , , ,
fa r as pos s ible vertically ; or its mouth should b e large and trumpet like
,
-
.
C are should also b e taken that when the anchor is pulled up tight in the ,
pipe ( it is u sually kept home by attaching a rigging screw to its upper end )
its projecting fluke s cannot move and chatter when st ruck by the waves ;
to secure this condition external chocks or angle lug s are sometimes fitted
on the shell to take contact with the flukes
, .
Th e h a w s e p i p e s are cast from wooden pattern s fitted in place in ,
the ship The outer end i s connected to the s hell by rivet s pas s ing through
.
[Ar t . 3 91
dimen s ion s of crane s for anchor s of different weight and cranes of varying
outreach .
The u su al method of d ro p p i n g a n a n ch or ( when s tow e d on deck ) is ,
fir st to place it by means o f the davit or cran e in a po s ition overhangi n g

, ,
the gu nwale ( Fig 2 P late holding it back temporarily by loopi ng

.
,
around it two s mall chains ( the skan k— p a i n ter and ca t s tepp )

er one towards -
,
either end o f the shank ; one end o f each chain i s fi x e d on deck and the '
end link of the other pas s ed over a s ort of toggle or tr igger which , ,
when released by a simple mechanism ( Fig at once frees the anchor . .
I n warships and some merchant ve ss els the anchors are stowed on specially ,
constructe d inclined bed s s o that when released they may at once sl i de

, ,
overboard thus avoiding the preparatory work of hanging them over the
,
gunwale ( Fig
Sailing ship s are u s ually provided with c a t he a d s ( Fig 3 P late
.
-
.
,
These s erve the purpose of anchor davits or cranes but they cannot ,
deposit the anchor on deck To do this a s econd tackle the fi sh tackle is .

,
-
,
req uir e d which may b e suspended from a davit

,
or in the absence of a , ,
davit from the fore topma s t A cathead is advan tageous in that it

, .
posses s e s great strength and forms a convenient mean s of dropping

the anchor for whe n this is ab out to b e used it may b e suspended from
, ,
,it in the loop or bight of a s mall chain one end of which when let go by
, , , ,
a suitable toggle arrangement at once releases the anchor ( see Fig

~
,
.
C atheads also form convenient points of attachment fo r the fore sheets .
Formerly they were alway s of oak or greenheart but now they are mad e
, ,
of plates and bars .
A r t 3 9 2 The W i n d l a s s is a mechani s m requ i ri ng enormous strength ,

. .
both in itself and in its attachment to the deck b ecause when the vessel is ,
riding at anchor it takes the whole pull of the cables I n extreme cases
,
.
the latter may b e pulled asunder and of course even then the Windlas s , , , ,
should not su ffer for i f rendered inoperative it would not be possible to

,
work the remaining cable A lthough windlasses vary greatly in design .

,
their mode o f working is much the s ame O n e o f ordina ry type i s s hown .
in Figs 5 and 6 P late 6 6 and it may be described generally a s follo ws

.
, ,
'
Towards either end of the main horizontal spindle A B ( which is suitably ,
geared to the driving engine ) there is a large c abl e w h e el ca ble lif ter ,
- -
,
ca ble or ze i la this is a kind of drum having a deep groove

’
,
in which proj ecting whelps e ngage with the links of the cable E ach .
cable on its way from the locker to the hawse pipe pa s ses over its
, ,
particular cable wheel the movement o f which regulates that of the cable
-
, ,
paying it out heaving it in or holding it fast I n order that the one cable
, ,
.
may be worked independently of the other the cable wheels are not fixed ,
-
permanently to the driving spindle but are connected therewith by a ,
frictional coupling F and in order that when uncoupled the cable may be , ,
held fast or payed out slowly or quickly each cable wheel is provided
, ,
-
with a frictional band brake E Th e coupling is also usually a fricti o nal .
one in the form of a slightly tapered or conical hub F proj ecting from the
, , ,
cable wheel which fits into a s imilarly tapered rece s s in a contiguous wheel
-
,
keyed permanently to the spindle Th e engagem ent or release o f the .
coupling 15 e ffected by sliding the cable wheel alon g the spindle so that -
,
i ts taper ed hub may enter or leave the recess this movement being ,
e ffected by means o f a disc like nut H working 0 11 a threaded part o f the ,
spindle just outside o f the cable wheel which when turned by hand pushes -
, , ,
t he cable wheel forward by mere conta ct and p ulls it back by means

-
,
o f proj ecting catches which hook over a proj ecting rim on the outer hub of
the cable wheel -

.
Ar t 3 92]
. .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
37 1
A coupling 011 the fr i c t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e is advantageous in that should

the cable when in process of heaving up give a sudden or abnormal pull
, , ,
i t may overcome the friction of the coupling run out momentarily and
, ,
thus avoid strai n ing it s elf the Spindle and the wheel and worm gearing o f
, ,
the steam engine and further though the engine may b e in rapi d motion , ,
a frictional cou pling may be engaged or di s engaged without s hock To let .
the cable run out its cable wheel must first be uncoupled its movement
,
-
,
being then regulated by the band brake E ( Fig 6 P late which is .

,
operated by mean s of a hand wheel or screw K I t is this band brake that .
takes the pull o f the cable when the ves s el i s at anchor its power being ,
practically unlimited .
A b a n d b r a k e ( s ee Fig 6 P late 6 6 ) is fundamentally an incomplete.

, , ,
flexible hoop ( of iron u sually lined with elm wood) whose two ends when
, , ,
drawn together so tighten it upon its wheel that it and the wheel practically
, ,
become one ; little force is necessary to tighten the band for the friction ,
between it and the revolving wheel i s alone capable o f producing the required
e ffect To prevent the band from turning with the wheel it is anchored
.
,
to a fixed point by a link L attached to one of its ends or by the end itself
, , , .
The action of the brake depends on which end is connected fo r a band ,
brake can only be put in operation when the wheel revolves in such a
direction as will carry the free end towards the fixed ; fo r then by mere ,
frictional contact with the wheel the band is tightened around it any further , ,
tendency of the wheel to move resulting in an instantaneous and enormous

increa se in the tightness or grip o f the band H owever tight the band it .
,
may at once be relea s ed by merely opening the gap between it s ends fo r , ,
o f cour s e thi s at once slackens it and de s troys the fri ction

, .
I t will be observed from Fig 6 P late 6 6 that the p u ll o f t h e c a b l e .

, ,
on the upper part o f the cable wheel tend s to pull the Windlass forward and -
,
at the same time to tilt it over ; but as the pull of the cable is exactly
balanced by the pull of the connecting link L of the band brake ( which ; ,
therefore may be regarded as a continuation of the cable) and as this

, ,
passes downwards through the deck it follows that the windlass by the , ,
mere pull of the cable is forced downwards on its bed thus increasing its
, ,
resistance to displacement The single force that is equivalent to the pull

. .
o f the cable and of the brake is shown in Fig 6 by the diagonal a rrow . .
When the cable leads forward from the under side of the windlass and the ,
band brake is anchored as shown in Fig 7 the pull of the cable only tends
”
.
,
to haul the Windlass forward there is little or no toppling tendency and no , ,
stre s s on the spindle I n s ome windlasses the fixed end of the band brake
.
acts through a spring or bu ffer placed below the deck ; this provides a ,
certain cushioning e ffect allowing the brake and cable wheel to revolve
,
-
together through a small arc an d thus mitigates the concussive e ffects that,
may be brought about by any sudden jerking or surging o f the cable .

1
A band brake of ordinary type mu s t be slacked o ff when it is required

to haul in the cable fo r when once firmly locked it prevents both forward
,
and backward movement o f the cable wheel I n some windlas s es however -

.
,
2
,
the brake is so designed that although hard on as regards paying out move - -
ment of the cable wheel it does not pre vent hauling i n movement that i s
-
,
-
,
to say while it prevents the cable from running out it does not pre vent the
, ,
engine from hauling it in There is an advantage in thus not having to slack

.
o ff the brake be fore starting the engine for the brake in its normal condition ,
is hard o n and need only be slackened when it is required to pay out cable
-
,
.
I n steamer s the Wi n dl a s s i s always worked by steam I ts d r i v i n g .
e n gi n e is u su ally incorporated with it otherwise it may be placed ,
1
Cla r ke, C/I apnza n
’
s P a ten t Wi n dlass .
2
N ap )
i er s P a ten t Wi n dlass .
[Art . 3 92
somewhere near ; in very large vessels it is sometimes placed on a lower

deck and drives the Windlass above by means of a vertical s ha ft this is the
,
plan adopted in war s hips the engine being placed below the protective deck ,
.
I n s a i li n g s h i p s the Windlass is usually worked by hand but most large

-
,
ships have a s team winch amidship which is arranged to drive the Windlas s
by a m e s s e n ge r c h a i n engaging with sprocket wheels on either mechanism ,
.
I n all windla s ses provision is made for driving by hand u s ually by means
, ,
of a long rocking beam or lever and pawls I f the Windlass is placed in the .
forecastle it is very commonly arranged to drive a c a p s t an on the fore

,
castle deck above ( Fig 6 P late in which case the necessary hand
.
,
power may b e applied through the capstan bars A capsta n on the fore .
castle deck is u s e ful fo r hauling in warping or mooring lines and tow ropes -
,
and for the cat fall when working the anchors They are sometimes
-
.
arranged with a two s peed gear so that they may quickly o verhaul the -
,
slack o f a line I n the absence of a capstan warping ends are us u ally

.
,
provided on an extension of the Windlass spindle Th e Windlass must be .
securely fixed to the deck Th e deck itself is s trengthened ; if not plated .

,
local plating i s fitted special pillars are introduced and s ometimes the , ,
b eams are o f increased s trength I f there is a wood deck thick planks are .
,
fitted at thi s pa rt and wood chock s should be fitted between the beams to
, ,
take the holdin g down b olts -

.
Ar t 3 9 3 . M ost ve s sels are provid ed with

. c abl e or b o w
st o p p e r s
”
placed between the Windlass and the hawse pipes ( Figs 8 and 9
,
.
,
P late They form an auxiliary m eans of holding the cable but for this ,
purpo s e they are much less e ffi cient than the cable wheels o f the Windlass -
they may be useful however in an emergency if for in s tance when at

—
, , , , ,
anchor it s hould be required to take the cable or it s pull off the windlass
,
.
Formerly when ve ss els had old fashioned windlasses bow stopper s of some
,
-
,
-
sort were essential for when working the cable it was necessary to adjust
,
the position of it s coils on the Windlass barrel and this could not b e done ,
while there wa s a strain upon it The mode of action o f the stoppers is .
indica ted in Fig 8 The s haded block when elevated permits the cable
. .
to run freely over the top o f the stoppe r but when lowered as in Fig 8 the , ,
.
,
shoulders S present the m s elves catch the end of one of the links and stop the , ,
cable The movement o f the block is e ffected by an external lever which

.
,
works an eccentric pivot or crank within the block The stopping e ffect is . ,
of cour s e very sudden ( it is referred to as a dea d n ip so that it would be

,
-
dangerous to attempt to arrest the cable when running out I t is evident .
that owing to the comparatively small base of attachment of the stopper it

, ,
is inferior to the Windlass in res isting a heavy pull of the cable .
Ar t 3 9 4 The requirement s o f the B oard of Trade as regards b o a t s

. .
,
an d li fe -s a v i n g a p p l i a n c es are such that practically all s ea going vessels ,

-
must carry s u fficient boats for all the people on board They must be 1
.
placed under davits ready for lowering ; but where through limited space
, , ,
thi s may be impracticable some may be stowed elsewhere or collapsible , ,
boats or life rafts may be substituted for ordinary boats A t least one half
- .
o f the boats must be fi rst class li feboats o f wood or s teel ; they mu s t have -
,
wa tertight air ca s e s ( of copper or other suitable material ) secured inside ,
having a vol u me equal to one tenth the internal volume o f the b oat or one -
,
hal f of this m ay sufli c e i f the other half is represented by external cork

fenders The remaining boats need only have half as much buoyancy
.
2
F ul l i f m ti
1
th i bj t w i ll b f u d i th
n or a ffi i l pub l i ti
on on R g l ti
s su ec e o n n e o c a ca on e u a on s
a n d su
gg es ti on s as to tke s u r v ey f
o tbc lz zcll, equ i p men ts, a n d nz a ck zn ery ef s tea m s ki p s
”
ca r r
y i ng p a sse ng er s .
O n e a n d a qua r te r cub i c fe e t o f co k i s ta ken r a s e ui

q vl a en t to o n e cubi c fo o t o f co p p e r
ai r c as m g .
S H I P B HI L D I N G Art 3 9 5
[ .
one pair n ear each end is usu ally su fficient but with lon g boat s there ,
should be three pairs for boats of the usual slender con s truction if not , ,
well supported gradually sink downwards b etween the chocks and become
,
permanently misshapen Sometimes the keel is supported all fore and aft .
- -
,
in w hich case one pair o f midship chocks may su ffice to hold the boat
,
’
erect — an arrangement which tends to expedition in launching They .
are held down in the chocks by chains termed gripes ( Figs 4 and
“ ”
.
which bo ok over the gunwale and are provided each one with a , ,
sli ph o ok to permit of instantaneou s di s connection ( see A Fig I f the ,

.
vessel s ra i l is outside o f the b oat the chock s are elevated to its level so as
’
, ,
to avoid the necessity o f li fting the b oat over it when launching ( Fig .
The chocks are then usually supported on cast i ron pedestals bolted to the -
,
deck ( see Figs 2 and Sometimes however portable pedestals are

.
, ,
provided ( Fig so that when the boats are s wung outb oard by the davits
.
they may b e removed and thu s leave a clear deck for pa s sengers I n , .
many pas s enger vessels the boats are s towed on the rail with only inside ,
chocks as shown in Fig 8 Thi s i s an excellent arran gement as regards

,
1
. .
speedy launching and as only one hal f of the b oat overhang s the deck
,
-
,
there is comparatively little obstruction I t will be observed that the keel .
i s held in place by a fore and aft angle bar bolted to the rail and by - - -
,
catches B which when it is required to launch the boat may b e lowered

, , , ,
by moving the rod C This arr an gement it will b e noticed requ ires the .
, ,
davit s to be further apart than the length of the boat .
B oats chocks must be s o arranged that the boats may be launched

’
out wards without any preliminary lifting for to do thi s would involve ,
delay and with only a few men at the tackles it might be impracticable
, ,
especially i f as is common the tackles have b ecome sti ff through

, ,
disuse The chock s shown in Figs 1 and 4 P late 6 7 are the kind
. .
, ,
generally adopted When the catch C is released the outermost or .

, ,
shi fting chock may b e shoved outwards and then hinged down out
,
”
o f the way so that the b oat

( after letting go the gripes ) may at once b e
,
shoved horizontally over the ve s sel s side A nother arrangement is shown ’

.
in Fig 5 in which the shifting chock i s ca s t adri ft by striking out the

.
,
dovetailed key K V ery many methods have been proposed and patented.
,
wherein the casting adrift of the boat gripes and outer chocks so as to ,
leave the boat suspended from the tackles is accomplished by merely ,
moving a lever or turning a c rank but in the great majority of case s the ,
old fashioned arrangement just described is preferred as being sufficiently

-
,
expeditious simple reliable and free from chances of disorder

, , ,
.
A r t 3 9 6 I f the d av i t s are properly placed and have sufli ci en t out

. .
reach or overhang the l a u n c h i n g o f t h e b o a t between them is a simple

, ,
matter so much so in some cases as to be almost automatic i e assuming

, , , ,
. .
the ship to be upright and steady ; The operation is simplified and

expedited when the davits are placed wide apart and in high class ,
-
passenger v essels they are now usually distant more than the full length
o f the boats ( Figs 6 and 8 P late This of course is not es s ential
.
, , , ,
fo r the b oat s may b e launched diagonally one end at a time as shown , ,
in Fig 7 I n many ca s es however the davits are placed inconveniently

. .
, ,
close together and if at the same time their outreach should be small the
, ,
work o f launching may be one of considerable di fficulty I n view of this . ,
the boat s are s ometimes s towed on the outer side of s pecially constructed
davits fixed or hinged ; but thi s method has met with little favour
,
.
I n tu rret deck steamers ordinary davits are inapplicable so that here a

-
,
s pecial ty pe o f pivoted davit is employed I n warships the davits are .
1 ’
An dr e w s P a ten t ,
Ar t 3 9 7 ]
37 5
generally hinged so that they may be folded down in action clear o f the
, ,
gun fire .
To control the turning movement o f the davits their heads are guyed ,
fore and aft and are connected by a sp a n a purchase tackle being provide d
- -
,
for one or both of the g uys an d sometimes one fo r the span ( Fig 8 , .
,
P late I n some ca ses one of the davits is provided with screw and
worm gearing whereby it may be revolved and the boat lau nched by
, , ,
simply turning a crank

When a boat i s swung outboard permanently it i s prevented from
.
, ,
swinging abou t with the rolling of the s hip by fixing a fore and aft spar ,
- -
( r olli n
g spa r or beat beenz) from davit to davit and hauling her side in
, ,
against this by belt gr ipes and to prevent chafing the spar may be provided , ,
with pads or p uddi ngs , .
The lo w e r i n g t a c kl e s for large boat s have triple sheave block s those -

,
for small ones double sheave blocks The hauling part or f a ll passes -
.
, ,
from the upper block over a small sheave or lug on the s ide o f the davit , ,
( Fig . 8 P late
, and i s lowered a way and made fast on a belaying cleat
also fixed on the davit The lower blocks are provided with eyes which .
,
engage with hooks fixed one at either end of the boat if the hooks were
on the blocks they might after being release d catch the boat by a thwart , ,
or the gunwale and capsize her When lowering a boat in ro ugh weather
, .
,
it is very important that both tackles should be relea s ed simultaneou s ly ,
fo r i f only one were let go the boat might be suspended end up by the other -
.
This disaster may be avoided by the use of a special d i s en ga gi n g ge a r .
These vary i n design ; in the kind usually adopted the ordinary fixed
hooks are replaced by slip bo oks o f special de s ign so arranged that ,
immediately the boat is waterborne a man s tanding in her amidships may , , ,
by simply moving a lever s o alter the formation or condition o f the two ,
bo oks as to deprive them of their holding power .
A r t 3 9 7 The d i a m e t er s o f b o a t d av i t s shou ld o f course be

. .
, ,
su fficiently large to avoid all chance of their bending or breaking under

the weight o f the boat The bending tendency or moment is measured .
, ,
by multiplying hal f the weight of the boat by the outreach of the davit .
I f the ship were upright and motionless and the weight o f the boat and ,
contents were known it would be a simple matter to a s sign a diameter

,
appropriate to any required margin of strength But it may happen when .

,
the boats are lowered that the ship has a consid erable list which in , , ,
effect would increase the outreach o f the davit s ; if inclined 2 0 degrees

, ,
fo r instance the outreach ( Fig 8 P late 6 7) would b e increa s ed by about

,
.
,
one third of the height of the davit meas u red from its uppermo s t point o f
-
,
support Then again i f the ve s sel happened to roll or rise up and down
.
, , ,
with the waves the vertical movement impressed on the boat would result
,
in a virtual increa e in its weight and in consequence increase perhaps

s —
,
very largely— the bending moment on the davits I f a ffected only by a

, ,
bending moment a davit might be regarded simply a s a loaded beam but

, , ,
of course besides a bending moment it is subjected to a direct downward

, ,
compressive stress equal to hal f the weight of the boat But when the
,
.
latter stress is taken per square inch of the s ectional area of the davit it is ,
really so small as to b e quite negligible especially in view of the fact that , ,
as the maximum bending stress can only be guessed at a large factor o f ,
safety has in any case to be allowed .
The mathematical formula for the diameter of a solid round i ron ,

-
davit is
3 76 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G . A
[ rt 3 9 7 .
where D diameter in inches

th e
P half the weight of the boat in pounds
L the outreach o f the davit in inches
S the stress in pounds per square inch tensile or compressi ve , ,
beyond which it is not intended to subj ect the material o f the

davit .
Th e working stress ( S in the above formula ) fo r iron is usually taken

as 5 tons per square inch which if the ultimate strength is 2 0 tons gives , , ,
a factor o f safety o f 4 I f it be taken as then the above formula .
m a y be written in the simpler form .
Lloyd
s rules state that with boats and davits o f ordinary proportions
’
, ,
t he diameters o f the davit s should b e one sixtieth of the length of the -
boat ; but where the height and outreach of the davit or the weight o f
the boat are unusual the diameters should b e computed by the following
,
formula
utre ac h of davit in
where L B and D the length breadth and depth of the boat in feet
, ,
.
C omparing this formula with the last the weight of the boat will be found to ,
be small but its arm or leverage is increased by the addition of one third the
,
-
clear height of the davit an e ff ect which as already seen would occur i f the
, , ,
vessel were inclined 2 0 degrees from the upright With davits of exceptional .
height it is o f course very desirable that this feature s hould be introduced

, , ,
as a modifying factor in the formula .
The results of the application o f the foregoing rules for four d i fferent ,
sizes o f boats and davits are given below ,

.
D i m e ns ion s of boa t .
'
20 X6
'-
0
"
X2 6 - "
' - "
9
- "
9 x3 6
'- "
3c
'
x8
’
- "
6
N um ber of
passe nge rs
L o a ded w e i ght i n c w ts
O u tre a ch o f da i t v
H e i gh t o f d a i t v
D i ame te r o f d a i t a o w i n g v ll
5 to n s w o rki ng stress
v
D i a m e te r o f d a i t a lo w i n g l
6 1 2 to n s w o rki n g stress
v
Di a me te r o f da i t by L oyd s ’
l
fo rm u a l
D i am e te r o f da i t ta ken a s v
goth o f the bo a t s en g th
’
l
Art 3 9 8 . are t ap ere d s lightly towards the head and heel

. D av i t s ,
but the full diameter must of course be maintained from above the upper , ,
most point of support to well on to th e curved part I n merchant vessels .
th e taper allowed varies considerably i f made from rolled bars as is usual , ,
th e y may o n ly be thinned down close to the head and heel I n w ar s h i p s .
the diameter at head and heel i s 6 0 per cent o f the full diameter ; and the .
section o f the curved part is ov all e d for thi s formation while retaining the , ,
necessary strength permits o f a lighter davit ( the minor axis of the mo s t

,
37 8 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 3 99
.
[ .
account of its inacce ss ibility ( the loss of steering power perhaps rendering
it still more inaccessible ) might b e practically useless Th e temporary .
loss of steering power in heavy weather might of cour s e have most b , ,
disastrou s consequences to the s hip ; and wi th a view to preventing such

a mishap Lloyd s R egister now require s that in ve s sels over 2 5 0 feet
,
’
long the a fter steering gear shall be protected by a steel or iron deck
house or hood unless it be elevated on a poop shelter or awning
, , ,
deck .
A r t 4 00 With most steam gears the turning power is conveyed to

. .
the rudder head by means of rods and chain s These might be fixed to the
-
.
end of a t i l le r o f s i n gle a r m t yp e ( Fig 1 P late but as the turning .

,
power would then vary with the angle o f the r udder ( becoming zero if the
tiller were turn ed so far as to be in line with the chains ) it is made in the ,
form of a q uadrant ( Fig A q u a d r a n t t i l le r of ordinary con s truction

.
( Figs 1
.
3 and
,
6 P
, late 6 8 ) has a double ,groove or ch annel in it s curved
edge one for the port and one for the starboard chain The s e are fixed
,
.
to it the one at one corner and the other at the other so that while one
, ,
winds the other unwinds both of cou r s e always leaving it ta ngentially and , , , ,
exerting there fore a constant leverage or turning e ffect A l though termed

, , .
a quadrant or quadrant tiller it is not in form nece s sarily the quarter

“
,
”
,
”
, ,
of a circle it may be a half circle or even a complete circle I ts actual

,
.
shape i s governed by the direction in which the chains leave it When the .
s teering gear is forward they may leave it in an athwartship direction ,
( Figs 2 and 3 P late

.
pa ssi n g ro un d a guide pulley on either side and
, ,
thence fo rward along by the s ide of the hatchway s or gunwale ; in such cases
,
the quadrant need only contain an angle equal to the range of motion of
the rudder i e about 9 0 degrees for then the chain s will leave it tan
, . .
,
ge n ti ally at all angles I n many case s however the chains lead s traight
.
, ,
forward ( Figs 4 and and i n large ves s el s the quadrant may then take the
.
form o f a complete wheel perhap s 1 2 or 1 5 feet i n diameter ( Fig 2 ,

.
,
P late I n such a wheel it i s only a quadrant— like portion on either s ide

that is really needed for the chain s lie permanently i dle on the remainder
,
.
I n most case s therefore instead of a complete wheel two quadrants are

, , ,
fitted one on either side ( Figs 4 and 5 P late

, A complete wheel .
,
possesses s u perior strength because as a pull on the one chain is dis , ,
tributed around its peri phery it a ffects equally all the arms or spokes ,
.
I n Fi g 2 there are t wo grooves or channels on the periphery of the

.
wheel quadrant but of course when the chain lead s forward only one i s
, , ,
needed .
Q u a d r a n t s are sometime s made of c a s t s t e e l in one piece ( Fig 1 ,

.
,
P late M ore usually however the arms and hub are fo r ge d the , , ,
circumferential part being built up of plate s and bars They may be .
b olted to the rudder head as in Fig 4 or s hrunk on a key being provided , .

, ,
in either ca s e to secure them again s t turning s hould they become loose .
When shrunk on it is an awkward matter to remove them when it is

,
required to unship the rudder but this necessity s eldom if ever ari s es , , , .
When large and heavy their weight is u sually supported from the deck by ,
small wheels running on a level path ( Fig L loyd s rules present a table .
’
giving the various s i zes of quadrants ( forged or cast) suitable for each s ize
of rudder head The radiu s of the quadrant i s als o given and the
.
,
corresponding diameter of the steering chains and rods The latter should .
,
o f course vary inversely a s the former fo r the greater the radiu s of the
, ,
quadrant the greater the leverage or turning power and the le s s the pull
, ,
required of the chain accordingly to s uit ca s es in which the radiu s adopted

, ,
di ffers from that i n the table ( upon which the tabulated sizes of chain are
Art 401 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G 37 9
.
.
based ) a formula is given by which the appropriate diameter of chain may

,
be computed 1
.
A r t 4 01 There are three p o s i t i o n s fo r t h e s t e a m s t e e r i n

. .
g
ge a r : at the stern close to the rudder head in the wheel house at the
, ,
front of the bridge and at the a fter end o f the engine room casing
, .
E ach location has its advantage s and disadvantage s The first requires .
steam pipes to be led from the boiler s to the ste m and as the gear , ,
must be controlled from the wheel hou s e a line of shafting from this ,
point aft A s th e controlling shafting need only convey the small force
.
nece s sary to move the stea m valve o f the engine it may be of a light ,
description ( Fig 8 P late The advantage of so placing the gear is

.
,
that it permits of a direct connection with the rudder head and avoids ,
long steering chain s .
When the gear is on the bridge or in a m i d s h i p w h e e l h o u s e ( P late ’
as is common in small vessels chains are required to convey its force ,
to the rudder head Where the lead is straight rods take the place of chains
.
,
( Fig
. 1 7 P late
, the latter being used only in way of the guide pulleys
( Figs 1 8 and
. They are usually led along by the gunwale where they ,
are out o f the way small rollers being provided to support and guide the
,
rods ( Fig The links of the chains w here they pass over the guide
.
pulleys wear rapidly the never ceasing pivoting action causing them to cut
,
-
into one another and the pulleys themselves and their axle pins become worn
, .
A s a breakdown o f the steering chains might be a serious matter they should ,
be very substantial and be frequ ently overhauled Lloyd s rules require .

’
the diameter of the guide pulleys to be at least sixteen times that of the
chain for when too small the friction and wear of the chain is excessive
,
Wire rope is sometimes employed as a substitute for chain but it is ,
usually found to deteriorate rapidly under the constant bending and friction
o f the pulleys I n vessels which have a poop and bridge house with a
.
,
well between the chains may dip down into the well over large pulleys
, , ,
as shown in Fig 1 9 but in many cases to avoid the friction due to these ,
—
,
—
pulleys the chains o rather rods are supported on stanchions ( Fig
r , , .
,
fixed to the bulwark or to the coamings o f the hatchways and are carried ,
over the well at the level o f the poop and bridge deck I f placed over the .
bul wark they are exposed to blow s from the waves whose force even at
, , ,
this height may b e sufficient to bend or break them but with substantial
,
rods and stanchions the contingency is remote The advantage of s o .
placing the gear is that it dispenses with controlling sha fting and as it is ,
almost over the boilers the steam pipes have a short and direct lead ,
.
The third po s ition at the after end o f the e n gi n e ro o m c a s i n g is the

,
-
,
one now most commonly adopted ( P late I t involves both controlling

sha fting and steering chains but they are short and may have a direct lead , .
I n many cases th e engine has two winding barrels so placed at either side ,
o f the casing that the chains may pa s s directly from it in a straight line to ,
the quadrant thus dispensing with guide pulleys and minimi z ing friction
,
.
When so situated the engine is under the direct ob s ervation of the engine
,
room staff .
I n high class p as s en ge r v e s s els the steam s t e e r i n g ge a r is usually

-
placed a t t h e s t e r n for then its noise and vibration are not perceived by
,
the pa s sengers and there are no cl umsy steering chains A s the controlling
,
.
d th e d i am e ter f th e c hai n i n i n che s

o .
D th e di a m e te r
o f th e r udd er h e a d i n i n ches .
R th e r adi us o f th e uad ra n t i n i n ch es
q .
[Ar t 4 01
sha fting between the engine and wheel house makes little or no noise it is ,
usually led along a passageway bet w een the cabins the sha ft piercing the ,
beams or having bearings suspende d there from as shown in Fig 8 P late 6 9 , .

,
.
Sometimes it is placed above the deck alongside o f th e steam pipes but , ,
this position is objectionable fo r when seas break on deck it is liable to ,
be damaged .
A r t 4 02 A very ingenious contrivance known as a

”
. . t el e m o t o r , ,
has recently come into use by which the steering gear at the stern is ,
controlled from the bri dge by means of two 2inch copper pipes These -
.
1
contain water which by means o f a small pump or hydraulic ram actuated

, , ,
by the steering wheel in the wheel house amidships may be made to circulate ,
one way or the other and by its flow operate a small piston connected to ,
and governing the steam valve of the steering engine This appliance is .
usually assoc i ated with a type o f steering gear known as a s t e a m t i l l e r -

.
”
I n this gear the steering engine is fixed upon the tiller and moves with it
as one part it has many unique features and is often adopted in high class ,
-
vessels .
A r t 4 03 The resistance o f the rudder to the turning e ffect of the

. .
steering gear increases the further it is put over to port or starb oard and , ,
accordi n gly the greater the angle of the r udder the greater the force
, ,
required to w ork the gear I n some gears this i s specially considered .

,
their design being such that their power increases with the angle of the
r udder O n e of these is illustrated in Fig 6 P late 6 9 and the hydraulic
. .
, ,
gear shown in Fig 7 has also this characteristic I t should be observed

. .
that the advanta ge of the increased power is greatly neutralized by the

circumstance that it i s accompanied by a loss of speed ; for it is not
o ften that the ru dder is put h ard over and when it i s it is usually in a , ,
sudden emergency when ra pidity o f action is more important than easiness

, .
A r t 4 04 I n some vessels the s t e eri n g ge a r is worked by h yd r a u li c

. .
p o w er The usual arran gement as s hown in Fig 7 P late 6 9 is a pair of

.
, .
, ,
hydraulic rams one on either s ide of a straight tiller to which they connect
, ,
by a single block through which the tiller is free to slide as it swings to

,
port or s tarboard When the ves s el has other hyd raulic appliances on
.
board there is usually an accumulator in the en gine room from which a

,
constant supply of pressure water is obtainable This is conveyed to the

gear by a couple o f 1 inch or 1 2—
.
inch water pipes and the steering wheel

-
,
in the wheel house on the bri dge need only actuate a valve so designed ,
as to admit water to either ram I n modern hydraulic gears this valve is .
usually controlled from the bridge by a telemotor I n the absence of an .
accu mulator hydraulic steering gear may be worked by the direct act i on
,
of a small pumping engine placed in the engine room A couple of pipes .
are led from it to the tiller rams at the stern and according as the engine , ,
revolves one way or the other so the water is made to flow or circulate ,
along the pipes in either direction and thus actuate either the starboard ,
or port ram The pumping engine is controlled from the wheel house
.
like an ordinary s teering engine w ith which it is in e ffect identical i ts , , , ,
power however being conveyed to the tiller by water pipes instead of

, ,
by chains A rather serious obj ection to hydraulic steering gears is the

.
chance o f the water being frozen in cold we ather .
A r t 4 05 I n order that the precise a n gl e o f t h e r u d d e r may be

. .
known to the steersman in the wheel house it is usual in high cla s s , ,

-
“
vessels to provide a t e l l t a l e
,
”
This is simply a small linked chain -
.
-
t iv w ill b f u d i
1
A d i p ti M B tt B w h ’
es c r f th i on o s co n r p p i t
an ce e o n n r. e s ro n s a er n e
[ f
t tw f
i f ll uA
‘
l A l t t fl 8 9 oi w h i h h l ’
d
ae a ib h i p t t
r c z z ec s , 1 0, n c e a so e scr es s a en
H yd li D i k d C
”
S t m t ll
ea -
i er , ra u c e rr c s an ra n es .
[
A r t 406 .
but of course do es not actually do so unless a certain force — regulated

,
by the n u ts N— is excee ded

,
I n some h igh class gears the steering engine is geared directly to tb

-
rudder head or quadrant by a fr i c t i on a l c o u p li n g which slips should a

,
certain force be exceeded ; and the engine is so arranged that whatever

the movement of the rudder during the slipping it will at once bring it back
,
to its original position This refinement i s a feature o f the steam tiller

.
-
already m entioned The cushioning e ffect is here very excellent fo r

.
, ,
excepting the constant retarding force o f the friction the rudder when, ,
struck a violent blow is free to s wing round through any angle The
,
.
spring bu ffers just described pei mit of only a small movement .

Ar t 407 ]
383
C H AP TE R XX VI I I .
A r t 4 07 A s a general rule , the watertight bulkheads of

. . merchant vessels
cut o ff entirely the adjoining compartment s , s o that to pass from one to
another a man m u st go on deck and descend by the hatchways A direct .
communication may be established by fitting w a t er t i gh t d o o r s in the

b u lkhead s an d this is frequently do ne but only in s pecial cases where the
, , ,
convenience of direct comm u nication is particularly de s irable Bulkhead .
doors are objectio nable in that the integrity of the bulkheads is then
dependent on circu mstances some of which may not al ways be under con
,
trol The keeping o f them in good working order for instance and the
.
, ,
shutting o f them promptly in moments of danger are matters which depend ,
on the care intelligence and smartness of the cre w qualities which o f

, , , ,
course are variable and uncertain But apart from this the catastrophe
, .
,
which calls fo r the shutting o f the doors may also make it impossible ; fo r
even the mo s t e fficient door may be damaged or jammed by obstacle s
thrown against or through it by a sudden rush o f water .
Watertight doors vary in their design according to their purpose and

position in the ship The simplest kind i s merely an opening cut i n the
.
bulkhead over which when not in use a plate is securely bolted P roperly
, , ,
.
speaking this is a shutter rather than a door but it is generally re ferred to

, ,
“ “
as a d e t a c h a ble or p o r t a b l e p l a t e
” ”
I t is employe d in cases where .
a passage through a bulkhead is only required in harbour to facilitate loading ,
operations or the repair and overhaul o f the machinery be fore the vessel
puts to sea the plate is rebo lte d and may not be removed again fo r a long
,
ti me I f used legitimately it is a safe kind o f door but un fortunately it is

.
,
not always so used it is common for instance fo i the replacement o f the

, ,
—
plate to be neglected those i n charge perhaps a new crew or new owners
,
—fi n din g a permanent passageway a convenience and not realizing that ,
it means the abandonment o f a bulkhead and the seriou s con s equences that ,
this may involve .
D etachable plates are often fitted in the machinery bulkheads to give ,
space fo r the removal of contiguous parts o f the machinery such as the ,
fore and a ft withdrawal of the condenser tubes

- They are also sometimes .
fitted in the bulk h eads separating the t ween deck coal bunkers from the ’
contiguous t w een deck cargo space so that coal or cargo may be passed
’
from the one space to th e other I n sailing ships one is sometimes fitted
.
in the upper part o f the collision bulkhead so that logs o f timber may be ,
loaded or discharged end ou through a bow port cut i n the side near the
,
- -
stem I n making them ca i e should be observed that the s trength of the

bulkhead against bursti rig pressure is maintained i f sti ffeners are severed
.
,
they should be made good and the edges of the doorway should be sti ffened
,
by a frame The joint is usually made with putty and rope yarn and to
. ,
ensure watertightness the bolts should be closely spaced Sometimes .

,
instead o f loose bolts studs are fixed i n the bulkhead for there i s a chance
, ,
o f loose bolts being omitted .

[Art 4 08 .
A r t 4 08 facilitate the removal of a portable plate it may be

. . To ,
h i n ge d , when ,
of course it at once becomes a d o o r I f it is only intended ,
.
to be O pened i n harbour it may as before be secured by bolts and i f the , , , ,
hinges are properly made it is then a cheap and secure door I n s ome .
cases instead of b olts small cla mp s are employed ( as i n Fig 8 P late

, , .
,
but these are less secure than bolts A high clas s hinged door which i s .
,
intended to be used at sea is shown in Fig 3 P late 7 0 I t is clo s ed by , .

,
.
means o f lever clips tur n buckles or la tckes which by engaging with the , , , ,
wedge pieces pull the door tightly home against the bulkhead A water
,
.
tight joint is secured by the rubber strips fitted all around the door which is ,
pressed by the action of the clips agains t the projecting flange O f the frame
riveted around the doorway The door itsel f should be sti ffened by a light .
angle or hea vy flat i ron frame so that the binding e ffect o f the clips may
, , ,
be distributed ; and as the s e i n the event of the door being subjected to ,
water pressure ( in a direction tending to open it) may have the whole work ,
o f keeping i t shut and as they are subject to rough usuag e they s hould be
, ,
massive and closely spaced I f the door i s only opened and closed from .
one side of the b u lkhead the clips of course need only b e fitted on that , , ,
side The hinges cannot be made to serve as clips and their pin holes
.
,
-
must be oval ( in one part ) s o that the clips may move the door laterally ,
against the bulkhead and compress the rubber There s hould b e no .
discontinuity in the rubber strip where jointed at the corner s and as it is ,
apt to s tick to the part of the frame against which it i s pre s sed and tear ,
when the door is opened it should be fixed on b oth edge s by double strips , ,
of iron secured by brass screws

, .
H inged doors ought not to b e fitted on the lower part of a bulkhe ad for ,
a sudden inrush of water might not give time to shut them properly and ,
they are not suited to withstand a large head of water Th e y are suitable .
for the upper tween deck portion to give communi cation if necessary
’
,
between contiguous coal bunker or ca rgo spaces They are also very -
.
commonly fitted in pa ssenger vessels to give fore and aft communication ,

- -
between the tween deck cabin spaces otherwise separated by bulkheads

’
-
,
.
H ere they are practically always open but although in ca s e of collision , , ,
there would be no di fli culty in closing them it might be impossible to do ,
s o should a fi r e break out in their vicinity ; and in View o f this it is now

common in high class passenger vessels to employ in every ca s e sliding
,
-
, , ,
doors geared to the upper deck

, .
I n one kind of hinged watertight door the usual clips are dispensed
with their place being taken by sliding locks which may be worked
, ,
simultaneously ( like those in the door of a fi re proof safe ) by a central -
hand wheel or lever The advantage here i s the speed with which the door
.
may be fastened a fter shu t ting the one movement operating all the locks ,
.
The clamping effect of the locks however is small compared with that of , ,
ordinary clips for the e ffort o f the man who shuts the door instead O f
, ,
being concentrated at each one separately is applied simultaneously to ,
them all .
A r t 4 09 Watertight doors which are situated below water and

. .
,
which are used at sea must be geared upwards s o that they may b e closed , ,
fro m the upper deck or a deck well ab ove water for a sudden inrush of ,
water might prevent access to the door G e ar e d d o o rs are of sliding .
pattern their movement being controlled from the upper deck by a vertical
,
sha ft ( Figs 1 4 and 5 P late 7 0 and Figs 5 and 6 P late

.
, ,
They , ,
.
,
m ay slide vertically or horizontally ; as regards e ffi ciency there is little to ,
choose between the two types Vert ical doors are specially suitable fo r .
coal bunkers and as they are lighter and cheaper they are generally
,
3 86 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 4 1
. 0
margin where when clo s ed it pres s es with watertight contact against the
, , ,
cast iron frame parallel strips o f brass R are riveted and these a n d the
-
, , , ,
frame are care fully machined so as to form perfect planes and fit accurately
upon one another T0 provide fo r the wedging action similar but tapered
.
, , ,
strips E are fitted on the opposite surface of the door which o f course when
, , , , ,
the door is closed take contact with the face pieces P The back vertical
, , .
edge o f the door has of course no groove to enter but it is pressed against
, , , ,
the cast iron frame by the sha ft this being accomplished by locally
-
,
increasing the projection of the racks so that when the door is closed the , , ,
pinion wheels may press against it at that part To reduce friction .

,
horizontal doors are often provided w ith a couple o f small wheel casters .
Ar t 4 1 1 A high class v e r t i c a l d oo r is shown in Fig 4 P late 7 0

. . .
, .
The frame as be fore is of cast i ron with wrought iron face pieces but
, , ,
another method o f construction is illustrated fo r the door itself This i s a .
steel plate but instead o f fitting as in Fig 1 separate face and wedge
, , .
,
strips o f brass marginal pieces o f cast brass are provided H ere isolated
, .
projections W take the place o f a continuous tapered strip These are

, , .
advantageous in that they reduce the weight a n d owing to the smaller , ,
surface requiring planing and adjusting facilitate the fitting o f the door , ,
further should their sur face s become clogged with dirt the circumstance is
, ,
less likely to prevent the complete closing o f the door I n a vertical door .
the wedging action only takes place at the sides but as the door is wel l ,
sti ffened across the top and bottom su fficient pressure is transmitted across ,
it The nut through which th e sha ft works is o f gun metal The con
.
-
.
struction and fitting of these light high class watertight doors is not a simple ,
-
matter fo r although a fter carefully planing filing and scraping the slid i ng
, , ,
sur faces the door may work with perfect precision and closeness o f fit in
,
the shop the subse quent fitting and boltin g of it to the bulkhead may so
,
strain i t as to destroy the accuracy o f the work which must then b e ,
corrected by further filing and scrap i ng .
A r t 4 1 2 Th e ge a r e d d o o r s commonly fitted i n m e r c h a n t v e s s e l s
. .
are of cast iron ( Fig 5 P late and if care fully designed and fitted they
.
, , ,
may be perfectly e ffi cient To avoid chipping the frame so as to make it .

,
fi t the irregular sur face of the bulkhead a thin backing O f hardwood is ,
sometimes introduced ; fitting strips i f provided at all are usually too , ,
shallow to chip Wood packing simplifies the fitting work but it is

.
,
objectionable in that should the bulkhead b e called upon to act as a fi re

screen it might burn and loosen the door ; but o f course it is probable
, ,
that be fore the hardwood between the two metal surfaces was burned
away the bulkhead would itsel f have become red hot and spread the fire
,
to the cargo in the next hold Sometimes instead o f fitting wood backing .
, ,
liquid lea d is run in between the frame and the bulkhead This fills all .
interstices and makes a solid job but it is obj ectionable in that should a , ,
fi re occur the lead would at once melt and leave the door loose I n the
,
.
door shown in Fig 5 there is no parallel groove corresponding with that

.
shown in Fig 4 P late 7 0 so that when the door is O pen it fits loosely in
.
, ,
the ta pered groove and may rattle continuously at sea This is a serious .
matter fo r not only does the continuous hammering injure the sliding
,
sur faces but the engine room sta ff to stop the noise usually jam a piece
,
-
, ,
o f wood between the upper part o f the door and the bulkhead an expedient ,
which at once makes it impossible to close th e d oor from the deck and ,
sometimes even from below fo r to remove the obstruction when the door , ,
is tightly jammed may be awkward and tedious , .
A rt 4 1 3 I n practically all screw steamers there i s at least one water

. .
ti ght door viz that which gives access to the tunnel An d i n modern
, , .
Art 4 14]
387
cargo vessels there are usually two more in the bulkhead separating the ,
boiler room from the fore hold so that when the a fter part O f the latter is ,
used as a bunker the coal may be available to the stokehold These doors
, .
are practically always o f vertical type Wa t e rt i gh t d o o r s which give access .
to a c o a l b u n k er are always objectionable and they should there fore be , , ,
avoided i f practicable by so designing the coal bunkers that the con

, ,
taining wall next the stokehold is not a watertight one There are three .
objections to these doors : ( 1 ) the coal du s t sticking and clogging in the ,
oily grooves may prevent the door from shutting close ; ( 2 ) the cast iron
,
-
surfaces may become so worn away by corrosion and attrition as to destroy

all watertightness ( 3 ) should it be required suddenly to close the door ,
its opening may just at that moment be obstructed by large lumps of

, ,
coal or coal may be washed through it by the i n ru shing water The first
,
-
.
1
t wo objections may be met by carefulness on the part o f those in charge .
Th e last is not so easily avoided but it may be in great measure by fitting , , ,
a screen behind the d oor as shown in Fig 8 P late 7 1 which it w ill be ,

.
, , ,
O bserved kee s back the coal s o that when the bunker is full it may not
p , ,
lie heaped up against the door nor tumble out and obstruct the opening ,
when the door is opened This provision is always ma d e in warships . .
Sometimes the lower edge o f the door is provided with a sharp kni fe edge ,
so that it may cut through minor O bstructions Bunker doors are usually .
about 3 feet high by 2 feet wide but when the bunkers are large an d are so
, ,
situated that to work the coal men must pass through the door ways with
, ,
wheelbarrows they must be considerably larger ,

.
When watertight doors are placed within a coal bunker ( as is common

in the bulkheads subdividing the tween deck bunkers o f large vessels ) ’
-
p r o t e c t i n g s c r e en s o r c a s i n gs are sometimes fi t té d as shown in Fig 9 , .

,
P late 7 1 I n their absence the coal ( when the bunker is full) by pressi n g
.
, ,
against either side of the door would prevent it from being either opened ,
or shut When a vertical bunker door is open and coal is being passed
.
,
through it its screwed shaft may become so clogged with coal dust as to
,
prevent its working through the nut ; this is avoided in high class d oors -
by providing a tube or sheath to cover and protect the screw when the
door is open ( see Fig 4 P late The lower groove o f a hori z ontal
.
,
bunker door i f not covered when the door is open would become filled
, ,
with coal dust which o f course might prevent the shutting o f the door
, , , .
This may be provided against to a certain extent by leaving O penings in

the cast iron frame at the bottom o f the groove ; but in high class doors
- -
,
whether situated in a bunker or elsewhere the more thorough provision is ,
made o f fi tting an a u t o m a t i c s i l l p l a te as shown in Fig 7 P late 7 1 -

,
.
, .
This is so pivoted and weighted that immediately the door is O pened it

falls do w n a n d covers the groove ; and it does not prevent the closing o f
the door fo r it is raised and tipped over out o f the way by the d oor itsel f
, ,
the leading edge o f which takes contact with its bevelled end B and , ,
wedges it over as shown by the dotted lines in the section V ertical doors .
have no lower groove and in this respect they are pre ferable to hori z ontal
,
doors especially fo r coal bunkers

,
.
A r t 4 1 4 Th e c o n t r o l l i n g s h a ft o f watertight tunnel a n d stokehol d

. .
doors is led to the upper part o f the en gine room or stokehold and is ,
worked there by a wheel han dle or cross bar ( Fig 6 P late 7 1 ) the latter ,
.
,
may be fitted loosely as in a vice but a ratchet han dle is better in tha t it
, , ,
permits o f greater speed and precision and gives ample power When the ,
.
controlling shaft passes through the deck it terminates in a brass d e c k ,
p l a t e the,
top o f w hich when unscrewed exposes the end o f the sh aft ,
Th l 1
f th O g e i t t i but d t
o ss o i
e m t f thi ki d
r e on s a r e o a c rc u s a n ce o s n .
388 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G 4 4
.
[Art 1 .
which is squared to take a T shaped spanner ( see Fig 5 P late -

As .
,
fitted in merchant vessels the deck plates do not usually indicate the ,
position o f the door and sometimes there is not even an arrow to show
,
the direction o f the opening or shutting movement I n warships and high .
class merchant vessels special i n di c a t i n g d e c k p l a t e s are provided ,
from which the position o f the door may be seen at a glance by the position ,
o f the arro w s engraved on the deck plate ( Fig I n merchant vessels .
the watertight d oors are not usually arranged to work from below ; in
warships they may be worked b oth from below and above With a vertical .
door this is accomplished as shown in Fig 5 P late 7 0 by means o f a .

, ,
couple o f bevel wheels a sprocket wheel and an endless chain I f the chain
, , .
i s pu lled smartly the door may be c losed in a fe w seconds

, A similar .
arrangement may be applied to horizontal doors but the more sim ple plan ,
is usually adopted o f enlarging the hub of one o f the pinion wheels and pro ,
v i di n g it with spoke holes fo r the i nsertion o f a le v e r ba r ( Fig I n warships f
the contro lling s ha ft has seldom a direct l ead to the upper deck so that ,
b evel wheel gearing is extensively employed A ll such gearing is o f the

-
.
m ost perfect description ; the bearing brackets are of cast steel each one ,
designed to suit the peculiarities o f its particular position ; all the bevel
and pinion wheels are o f gun metal and all journals are bu s hed with -
,
b rass .
A r t 4 1 5 Much of the obj ection to wate rtight doors would disappear

. .
if the closing of them could be accomplished with great speed and little
e ffort for i f delayed it might become impossible A n d it would be still
, .
further nullified if some simple arrangement were adopted whereby the

doors would close automatically in the event of water rising up towards
their sills fo r then even the omission ( on the part of the crew) to close
,
them would not prove disastrous A large number of so called q u i c k .

-
c lo s i n g and a u t o m a t i c ge a r s have been propo sed and patented

“ ”
,
but very few have been fo und su fficiently simple and free from objectio ns
to warrant their adoption They are applicable chiefly to vertical doors
.
,
and the governing principle o f their design is usually some mechanical

arrangement ( workable both from the deck and belo w) whereby the !
ordinary gear may be uncoupled so that the door being free may fall , , ,
at once by it s own weight i f it fell suddenly however something would , ,
probably give way and to avoid this therefore its motion must be modified
, , ,
or controlled by a counter weight or by some form of brake A utomatic -

, .
closing gears usually embody a buoyant float which is placed at a lower ,
level than the sill o f the door s o that should water enter and buoy it ,
upwards it may — by suitably attached levers— free the door from the
,
restraint of its ordinary gear and allow it to drop by its own weight I n .
some high class passenger vessels the vertical doors are worked by hydraulic
-
power a hydraulic cylinder being fixed above the door which is pulled up
, ,
or pushed down by a piston rod H ydraulic power i s very s uitable for -

.
thi s work for the doors may be worked quickly or s lowly by simply
,
moving a valve handle ; and the mechanism may be so arranged that a fter
any one has opened the door and passed thr ough it will close the door ,
again gradually and automatically

,
1 I n many cases electric motors are .
advantageously employed for closin g the doors and arrangements are some ,
times made for controlling the movement of each one from the bridge .
I n practice quick closing and automatic gears are rarely adopted for
-
, ,
apart from the question of co s t they usually involve extensive and elaborate ,
I ll u t ti
s ra d d i p ti
on s an f l g um b f qui k d t m ti l i g
es cr o ns o a ar e n er o c , an au o a c c os n
d f d i ff t ki d f w t ti gh t d r w i l l b f u d i M M t ll p p i ’
gea rs, an o ei en n s o a er o o s, e o n n r. ar e s a er n
t he Tr a ns I n sti tu ti on A crz/a l A r cl utects fo r
f
’
. c 1 89 7 .
[Art 4 1 7 .
C H AP TE R XX I X .
Ar t 4 17
. all vessel s are liab le to make water p um p s must b e
. As ,
provided to clear it away not only for the safety of the ship but to avoid
,
the damage which cargo might su ffer should even a small volume of water
w ash about at th e bottom o f the hold A well built steel or iron ship may .
-
be said to be as tight as a bottle i f the batch es etc are tightly battened ,

.
,
down so that no w ater can pass through them the pumps need never be ,
used Large wood s h ips often leak so freely as to require almost

.
continuous pumping and to save manual labour the pumps o f old vessels
, , ,
are usually geared to a portable Windmill arrangement so that th ey may be ,
worked continuously and automatica lly But although under normal .

1
conditions a well built steel or iron ship is usually quite tight there i s still
-
,
al ways a possibility o f water entering fo r she may spring a leak through

l
, ,
starti n g o f the seams and riveting of the shell due either to straining in ,
heavy weather or to striking sunken wreckage and volumes of w ater may

pour thro ugh the hatchways or other deck open ings if these should b e ill
secured in heavy weather ; an d o f course collisions and stran di ngs though , , ,
unlikely occurrences may cause serious leakage , .
I n steamers water always tends to accumulate in the m a c h i n e r y

c o m p a r t m e n t through leakage from the various drain cocks pumps and
, ,
cisterns and the constant flow into the bilges o f the water used for cooling
,
the bearings and exti n guishing the hot ashes in the stokehold To clear .
this away steam bilge pumps are kept more or less constantly in operation
, .
Th e ma chinery compartment is also liable in heavy weather to downpours , ,
o f sea water through the fi ddle gratings and ventilators kept open to
y ,
supply air to the furnaces and to ventilate the hot spaces below To .
provide a gainst this the machinery openings are raised well above the
,
upper deck by means o f casings ( A rt

,
in large passen ger vessels .
,
with their high freeboard and lo fty promenade and shade decks they may ,
b e 3 0 or 4 0 feet above water I t may be observed that when waves break .
over a ship they have a surprising power of leaping upwards in exceptional

cases even the side rails of so lo fty a structure as the flying bridge are
sometimes bent and broken by blows from solid water ; the wheel house
may be stove in and the funnel and stokehold v en ti la to rs s w e pt away
,
.
Should a large volume of water accumulate in the m a c h i n e ry b i lge s ,
the result might be serious fo r as noticed in Art 2 4 9 it may in washing, ,

.
, ,
from side to side li ft the stokehold plates and throw them about to the
,
danger of pipes and valves it may also by washing coal and ashes into the, ,
bilges result in the c h o k i n g o f t h e p ump s and with these inoperative

, , , ,
the w ater might accumulate extinguish the fires and ultimately cause the , ,
loss o f the ship The danger of a sudden accumulation of water in the

.
machinery bilges is b est met by providing ample bilge space below the
A t m ti
n au o y t m f pumpi g d v ti l ti g ( Tb ) wh i th ll i g m v
a c s s e o n an en a n ar s
’
e re n e ro n o e
m t f th
en o hi p i uti l i d
e s p i m m
s v w pp
zel i d t m f
as t h r ly w h p e o e r, as a e o so e o e e ar a rs i s
”
See N a v a l S a m ce, v ol 1 8 73
’
. 2, .
Ar t 4 18 ] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
39 I
platforms I n a double bottom vessel the stokehold plates may only be a

.
-
foot or two above the tank top in which case with only the side gutters to , ,
contain bilge water a comparatively small quantity might roll over the ,
1
tank top with the results just noticed To avoi d this there fore it is usual
, .
, ,
to provide a large pump well in the machinery compartment ( Fig 2 P late .

,
1 8 and P lates 1 0 fo r o f course until this fills water cannot rise above
, 9 1 , , , ,
the tank top The plan now o ften adopted o f discontinuing the double
.
bottom under the boilers is an excellent one as regards the provi ding o f a
capacious well .
Th e p ump i n g a rr an ge m en t of a c a r go v e s s e l is a simple a fi a i r that

‘
of a la r ge p a s s e n ge r v e s s e l may be complicated and extensive ; in

w a r s h i p s owing to their numerous watertight compartments and special
,
requirements it is intricate in the extreme S a i l i n g s h i p s have only a

, .
-
pair o f large hand pumps but i f a steam winch is carried it is usua lly , ,
arranged to gear by m essenger chain to the pumps Steamers are provided .
w ith both hand and steam pumps the former are usually worked from the
deck the latter of course are in the engine room suction pipes being led
, , ,
from them to the various holds I n large steamers having ballast tanks .
, ,
there are two steam pumping systems bzége p ump s fo r the holds and val/a rt
'
pumps fo r the tanks All steam pumps however are so connected by .

, ,
piping as to be available together or separately fo r either service .
A r t 4 1 8 Th e bi l ge p u m p — o r pumps fo r they are practically al ways

. .
,
—
in duplicate is geared to and forms part of the main engine so that o f course ,
,
when this is not working the pump is inoperative in order there fore that , , ,
steam pumping power may be available at all times an independent steam ,
d o n k e y p um p is always provided and in practically all steamers there is a

donkey boiler to provide steam fo r this donkey pump and fo r other auxiliary ,
machinery in port when the main boilers are cold ( A rt 2

, ,
Th e donkey .
pump connects to the same system o f piping as the bilge pumps so that ,
b oth may do the same work together or separately The bilge pump is .
arran ge d to dra w water from every compartment in the ship ; there are thus
numerous pipes lea d ing to the pump but as there is only one in actual ,
connection therewith a special union is necessary w hereby the pumping ,
power may be distributed as required This is accomplished by means o f .
a v a lv e c h e s t which as sho w n in Figs 1 1 and 1 2 P late 7 4 is a

, , .
, ,
rectangular cast iron box to which the pu mp suction and the various
,
-
,
2
branch suctions connect I n the chest over each branch there is a scr ew
a ow zz va lve ; i f all o f these are closed the chest forms a cul d e—
.
, ,
sa c fo r the
’ ’
-
,
pump suction and o f course any one that is opened at once forms a
, , ,
continuation of it O n each valve handle there is marked the compartment

.
which it controls and by opening any particular one any particular hold
, , ,
may be pumped from .
Separate valve chests are provided for the forward and fo r the a fter
holds and as the connection to the pump is made by a single pipe the
, ,
total length o f piping is minimized by placing the former in the for ward
stokehold and the latter at the after e n d of the engine room where o f , ,
course they are always accessible To save piping there are usually tw o
, .
,
or three chests fo r each region A s already mentioned the don key pump .
,
is also available for pumping the bilges ; and in large vessels there I S a
separate ballast pump fo r the ballast tanks and a fi re engine pump a n d all ,
-
,
these have a connection ( di rect or indirect ) to the bilge valve chests so ,
The te rm
1
bilge w a te r i s used i n r efe rri ng to an y fre e w a ter i n the h o ds a sm a l ll
q ua n ti t y
o f w a te r i n a ba a st t an k i s n o t ro e r
p p so terme d ll ly .
2
The te rm suc ti o n i s use d to d e no te a n y p i p e th ro ugh Wt h w a ter 15 sucked by a
p ump .
392 .
[ .
that all the pumping power o f the ship ( excepting the circulating pump)
may be brought to bear on any particular hold ; but o f course in order , ,
that this concentration o f po w er may be use ful the suction pipes to each ,
hold must be exceptionally large or nu merou s The number size and .

, ,
disposition of the suction pipes to the various holds varies according to

the si z e o f the vessel the character o f the hold and whether or not there
, ,
is a double bottom Lloyd s rules speci fy certain requirements and as

.
’
these represent modern practice they will be specially considered in the ,
following .
A r t 4 1 9 Notice first the a rr a n ge m e n t o f p um p s u c ti o n s in a

. .
, ,
vessel not having a double bottom I n the midship h olds of a large flat
.
.
’
bottomed steamer three steam suctions are provided one over the keel ,
and one at either side near the b ilge ( see Fig 3 0 P la te ,

Th e ,
.
,
necessity for the latter is indicated in the sketch in which the vessel is ,
depicted as having taken a list and the bilge water as having run down ,
out o f range of the centre line suction if there were no side suctions the
-
,
water not being under control might increase in volume and by heeling
, , ,
the ship still further perhaps capsi z e her I n holds toward s the b ow and
,
.
ste m or in midship sharp bottomed holds suctions are only required

,
’
,
-
,
over the keel two in large holds and one i n small I n the midshi p holds
, .
’
of small flat bottomed vessels two steam suctions may su ffice one towards
-
,
’
either bilge or if sharp bottomed one centre line suction The diameters
-
,
-
.
of the b ilge suction pipe s depend on the size of the ves s el and whether there
-
,
are one two or three in a hold The general practice and that specified
, , .
,
in Lloyd s rules is 2 — ’
inch piping fo r vessels less than 5 0 0 ton s to 3 é inch
, ,
-
fo r those over 3 0 0 0 tons Th e centre line suction is usually from 3

.
-
7
to 1 inch larger than those at the sides the latter being regarded as ,
auxiliary or emergency suctions I n case a vessel should make water .
when lying in harbour with no steam in the boilers hand pump suctions ,
-
are provided to every hold Each o f these may be connected to a separate .
lift pump on the upper deck ; but in modern vessels a single D ownton
pump is us ually substituted in which case special hand pump suction pipes ,
-
may be dispensed with the steam pump suction pipes serving both ,
-
purposes .
Special p u m p i n g p o w er is always provided fo r t h e m a c h i n e r y

s p a c e ; fo r not only is water partic ularly liable to accumulate here but ,
the suction pipes are apt to b e choked by the coal dust ashes grease bits , , ,
o f waste etc which al ways gather in the ma c hinery bilges C oal dust and
, .
, .
grease form together a sti ff paste ( which forms into balls with the rolling o f
the vessel ) which quickly chokes the limber hole s in the floors so that ,
water cannot pass freely to the pump suctions to provide against this ,
there fore it is common to pass a small chain through the limber holes
, ,
from end to end o f the machinery space which when pulled backwards , ,
and forwards occasionally keeps the holes clear , .
No t less than three bilge suctions are fitted in the machinery s pace ,
one over the keel and one at each b ilge connected usually to the valve ,
chest controlling the a fter holds A n d further Lloyd s rules require an .

, ,
’
i n d e p e n d en t s u c t i o n having a direct lead fr o m t h e d o n k e y p um p

,
this I S use ful i n that being controlled by a single valve it may be put i n
, ,
operation without d elay independently o f other pumping work going on

,
through the valve chest common to the numerous hold suctions and there , ,
fore with compa rative freedom from breakdowns due to leaky or shocked
,
valves A n d as a further means o f rapidly removing in an emergency

.
, , ,
large volumes o f water from the machinery bilges the c i rcu l a t i n g p u m p ,
has a special suction leading into them This pump i s worked by the .
[Art 420 .
into the side gutters ; here therefore wells should be fitted with drain , ,
holes i n the tank top To preserve in such cases the integrity o f the tank .
, ,
top the well is sometimes formed as a p ocket or recess a single pump

, ,
s u ction being led into it to remove drainage water ( Fig .
The arrangement o f the bilge suctions in a vessel having a double

bottom depends on w hether or not wells are provided I f there is no .
well a steam suction is placed in each gutter ; i f there is o n e and the

, ,
vessel is flat bottomed another is fitted over the keel in the well i f sharp
-
, ,
bottomed the latter alone may su ffi ce I n the machinery space i f there is
,
.
,
no well two steam suctions are fitted in each gut ter ; if there is a well
, ,
one is fitted i n it and one in each gutter where it is readily accessible

, ,
fo r clearing should it b ecome choked A n d i n addition to these there is .

,
of course the independent donkey and circulating pump suctions A s

, ,
.
regards hand pumps one is fitted in each side gutter ; but in the case o f ,
small end holds where there is a well one at the centre may su ffice
, , .
A r t 4 2 1 A t the after end o f the shaft tunnel a w e ll is usually provided

. .
in which the water used to cool the bearings and leakage water from the
propeller tub e may collect be fore it is pumped out ( see F1g 1 2 P late 2 9 .
, ,
and P lates 1 0 9 and I mmediately be fore the t u n n e l w e l l bet ween it ,
and the end o f the double bottom there is very commonly a bi lge space
'
, ,
open to and forming a well for the a fter hold ( Fig 1 2 P late
,
As ,
.
,
these t w o wells adjoin one another the fitting o f two long suction pipes ,
to the valve chest in the engine room is usually avoided by placing a

t h r e e w a y o r o p e n b o t t o m c o c k or small valve che st at the a fter end
- -
, ,
of the tunnel connecting it by a single pipe to th e valve chest in the

,
engine room and fitting a short branch suction down into each w ell ( Fig
, .
1 2 P late
, I f a valve chest is adopted then if the tunnel filled with ,
,
w ater w hen the valves to both wells happened to b e open the water ,
would flow into and fill the a fter hold with a three way or open botto m
,
- -
cock this may be avoided for it may be so designed as not to ,
permit of a communica tion bet ween the suction pipes to the two
wells With a valve chest the same result may be accomplished by
.
making the v a lv e s o f n o n r e t u rn t yp e or by gearing them to the -

,
upper deck ( A rt I f the a fter peak is a ballast t an k its suction pipe

.
,
may also be fi tted as a branch to the a foresaid valve chest but then non ,
~
return valves to the hold and tunnel well are imperative When the a fter
_
peak is n ot a ballast ta nk the necessity of fitting a hand pump or steam ,
suction fo r clearing away its bilge water is avoided by fitting a cock at the
lower part o f the bulkhead by which water may be drained from it into ,
the tunnel well as the cock is in the tunnel it is always accessible ,

.
I n the case o f the fo r e p e a k if it is not a ball a st tank a small deck , , ,
hand pump only need be fitte d : a steam suction is unnecessary fo r the ,
space within the peak is small and even if water did accumulate it w ould do ,
little or no harm and moreover a stea m suction is objectionable in that as

, , , ,
it pierces the collision bulkhead it prejudices somewhat its integrity A t , , , .
one time a sluice valve was fitted on this bulkhead which served the same ,
purpose as a cock on the bulkhead of the after peak ( Art .
A r t 4 2 2 The fo r e a n d a ft p o s i t i o n o f the ends o f the b i l ge

. .
- -
s u c t i o n s in the vari ous holds depe nds on circumstances I f the vessel .
were always on even keel it would not matter to what point they were led ,
but as there is usually a trim by the stern they are evidently best placed ,
when at the a fter end of each hold which position as regards the forward , ,
holds is also advantageous in that it minimizes the length o f piping When

, .
the supplementary hand pumps a re placed at the opposite end to the steam
suctions then all bilge water may be cleared from the hold however the
, ,
Ar t 4 24 ]
39 5
vessel may trim I n small vessels in which the machinery is a ft and which
.
,
have only one long cargo hold ( Fig 1 P late the bilge water in the latter .
,
space has so w ide a fore and a ft range that even a small quantity i f it -
, ,
flowed forward might by causing a trim by the bow remain out o f range
, , ,
o f the suctions at the a fter end

; in such cases therefore an additional , ,
suction should be placed at or near the forward end o f the hold , , .
A r t 4 2 3 Th e end o f each suction pipe is surrounded by a r o s e b o x

. .
,
s t r um or s tr a i n e r This is a galvani z ed iron box ( usually o f cast iron )

, .
9 or 1 2 inches square having all its sides perforated w ith small holes ,
( Fig .1 3 P late I ts purpo s e o f course is to strain the dirty b ilge

, , ,
water so that solid matter may not pass into and choke the suction pipe or
,
the valves o f the pump Lloyd s rules require the area o f the perforations .
’
to be twice that o f the suction pipe so tha t though partially choked it ma y , , ,
still pass su fficient water I t should have a hinged lid or sliding sides to .
,
give access to its interior The suction pipe passes loosely into the box .
,
w ith its end about 1 inch above the cement Th e b ox should be fixed so .
that it may not move with the rolling o f the ship and w ear away the cement ,
and pipe .
A s an additional secu rity against choking o f the pumps a per forated ,
partition or strainer is sometimes fitted across each valve chest ( as sho w n

, ,
in Fig 1 1 P late bet ween the _pum p suction pipe and those leading to
'
.
,
the holds and an air tight lid is provi ded upon opening which the strainer -
,
may be cleared The suction pipes for pumping out the ballast tanks need
.
not be provided with rose b oxes fo r no dirt o f a kind likely to cause choking ,
finds access to the tanks the flooding valve on the vessel s side through ,
’
which they are filled being covered with a strainer V ery commonly their , .
lo w er ends are expanded trumpet fashion for then they may be placed ,
-
,
closer to the cement the large periphery o ffering ampl e passage for the ,
water the formation moreover conduces to an easy fl ow o f water into the , ,
pipe Special cast iron ends are o ften employed having studs or teeth
.
-
,
projecting downwards from the lip to ensure a suffi cient clearance from the
cement ( see A Fig 3 1 P late 7 , .
,
A r t 4 2 4 Th e arrangement of the s u c t i o n s i n t h e b a l l a s t t a n k s
. .
o f a double botto m is much th e same as that just described for the bilge
suctions I n a large fla t bottomed tank a centre line and side or wing
.
-
,
-
suctions are fitted The latter are for emptying the tank when the vessel
.
has a list for as the water sinks in the tank during the pumping it may
, ,
flow to one side and heel the ship ; as they are regarded as auxiliary they ,
are usually o f smaller diameter than the centre line suction I f there is a -
.
good rise o f floor as in the end tanks wing suctions are dispensed with I n
, ,
.
tanks which are divided by a fore and a ft central division one suction is -
,
fitted in each half Ballast suctions vary greatly in diameter from 2 inches
.
in small vessels to 4 inches in large ones is perhaps the ord inary pract i ce
but in large v e ssd s where rapidity in filling and emptying the tanks 1 5 ,
desired they may be 6 inches in diameter As ordinarily arranged two o r

,
. ,
more valve chests are provided for the forward and fo r the a fter tanks wh1c h
.
permits o f one set o f tanks being filled while another is being emptied .
I n small vessels the tanks are emptied by the donkey pum p n Large
vessels have a special ballast pump the donkey of course be i n g also , , ,
available B all a s t p u m p s vary greatly in power ; when o f ord i nary

o
capacity they may pass 6 0 tons o f water per hour but some may deal w 1th ,
as much as 3 0 0 tons Three types o f pumps are available for th i s work : .
the ordinary double acti ng p is ton pump the cen tr if uga l and the p ulse /net” ;
-
, ,
the latter ha s the advantage o f being noiseless in action .
B a ll a s t t a n k s a r e fi ll e d t h r o u gh t h e i r s u c t i o n i
p p e s For th i s .
3 96 P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 424
.
[ .
purpose a flooding pipe is led from the valve chest to a sea cock on the
vessel s bilge in the engine room ; when the cock is opened the chest fills
’
w ith sea water so that any tank may then be filled by simply opening its
,
particular valves in the chest I n high class vessels separate chests are .
-
provided for the bilge and ballast suctions in ordinary cargo vessels the ,
sam e chests are very commonly made to serve b oth purposes ; in which
case to prevent sea water from flowing into the holds the bilge suction
, ,
valves must be o f non return type The sea cocks in the engine room -
.
are fixed well up on the vessel s bilge for i f placed below the bilge they ’
might b e submerged in bilge water and inaccessib le and when filling the , ,
tanks in harbour quantities of mud might enter The bilge moreover

, .
, ,
—
is an advantageous position in that the valve o f brittle cast iron is not — -
exposed to local pressures from contact with quay walls or a stony bottom .
A deep ballast tank which extends above the light waterline cannot be
filled by gravity i e through an open valve it must be pumped up This
, . . .
is done simply by reversing the flow through the ballast pump cau s ing it to ,
draw from the sea and discharge into the tank An d even though the top .
of a deep tank may b e below the light water line provision is usually made -
,
for filling it through the pumps for i f filled by gravity th e rate o f filling as , , ,
the water rose in the tank near to the sea level would be slow P eak tanks ,
’
and others in which fresh water is carried are filled from the deck by a
hose through the s ounding or air pipes ( Fig 1 9 P late 7
,
I f the double .
,
bottom tanks are filled when the vessel is floating light in the usual way , ,
by opening a valve the speed o f inflow of the water is slow and more
, ,
particularly when it ha s to pass through valve chests and long lengths o f

pip i ng : a long 5 inch pipe for instance lying 1 5 feet below the surface
-
, , ,
would pa s s little more than 2 0 0 tons per hour I n large ve s sels therefore .
, ,
whose double b ottom tanks may b e very capacious ( in a vessel 5 0 0 feet

-
lo n g they may contain 1 8 0 0 tons ) and where it is desired to fill them ,
quickly it is usual so to a rrange the ballast pump that it may discharge into
,
them from the sea for water may be forced by a powe rful pump through
,
long and circuitous piping much faster than it would flow through them if
impelled only by the force o f gravity .
Ar t 4 2 5 . I n the m a c h i n e r y s p a c e there are numerou s u n d e r

.
w a t e r v a lv e s on the s hip s side and it is very impo rtant that these the
’
, ,
pipes leading from them and the inner distributing valves should be so , ,
arranged that s ea water may not flow into the ship as a result of carelessness
or inadvertence on the part of the engine room sta ff A t one time this -
.
danger was not always provided against and accidents sometimes occurred ,
involving the loss of the ship A ll valves or their controlling spindles .

1
, ,
should b e placed well above the lower platforms so that should water rise , ,
in the machinery space they may not at once become submerged and inac ,
cessible A n
. d for a similar reason the donkey pump and boiler should
,
— ,
-
be placed as high as practicable ( Art .
There are several ways in which water might flow into a ship by the sea
cocks in the machinery space Should a valve chest for instance have the .
, ,
double duty o f serving fo r both the bilge and balla s t suctions which is a ,
common arrangement in ordinary cargo vessels there is a chance when it is , ,
opened to the sea fo r filling the tanks o f some of the bilge suction valves ,
bein g open in which ca s e the water would pass into the hold s This
, .
da nger is avoided if separate valve chests are provided for the holds and
fo r the tanks ; or in cases where it is found expedient to use one by
, ,
making the valves of non return type A n on re t u rn v alv e is shown in .

-
S M M t l l p p i th T
ee r. ar e I t t t
’
q
s/ N l Aa/ t t 1
er 8 80 d
n e ran: n s z zc zon a va f c z z ec r , ,
an
M M rl y p p
r. o e
’
f 1 8 76
s a er o .
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G r t 4 26
39 8 .
[
A .
pass through the lightening holes in the floors to the edges of which they ,
are fixed by iron clips ( P late They m ust be fi rmly secured fo r i f they , ,
shook and vibrate d the friction with the plate edges would cause rapid ,
wear and i f the pipe got adrift it might break or become loose in its joints
, ,
leak and perhaps pass water into some other compartment I n large
,
.
vessels having numerous large ballast suctions they are sometimes led
, , , ,
along the top o f the tank each one passing down as required ( B Fig , , .
B i lge s u c t i o n p i p e s may b e o f l e a d o r i r o n malleable or cast , .
A lthough a lead pipe is dearer than an iron one it is a d vantageous in that ,
i t can b e expeditiously fitted in long lengths and it may be passe d through

‘
, ,
holes and round corners without jo i nting I f not well boxed in it may .
become battered but i f so badly as to require renewal the lead has still i ts
, ,
market value To be strong enough a large lead pipe must be thick say
.
, ,
1
} inch in the case of a 3 inch pipe ( they are o ften thinner ) ; whe n so
7
-
large there fore it is usually found expedient on the score of economy to

, , , ,
employ cast iron pipes using lead for the bends where they turn down
-
, ,
into the bilge or pass roun d corners at bulkheads etc I f an iron pipe is , .
fitted in a straight length between two bulkheads it is apt to strain at its ,
joints or fracture through longitudinal expansion and contraction ; this is

, ,
avoided by making a short portion o f the pipe where it passes through th e ,
b ulkea ds o f lead and giving it a bend ( expansion bend see Fig 3 1

“ ”
, , , .
,
P late 7 3 ) This is also advantageous in that it is not then necessary to

make the i ron pipes o f any precise length All bends i n the bilge suction .
pipes should have an easy curvature fo r sharp elbows induce choking i f , ,
a sharp bend l S unavoidable a clea f i ng plug should be provided ( as shown ,
in Fig A ll bilge suction pipes are liable to choke through grain and
.
,
re fuse accumulating and perhaps swelling therein ; when a lead pipe is

battered — as it o ften is — i t is particularly liable to choke They are some .
times cleared by pumping water forcibly through them back into the bilge ,
and sometimes provision is made for blowing through steam which may ,
be a useful arrangement in case o f fire in that it enables the holds to be ,
filled with steam so that the fire may die out for lack o f air , .
When bilge suc t ion pipes pass through a ballast ta nk ( as they must do
w hen there is a midship deep tank ) they are subjected when the tank is
’
, ,
open to the sea to the full pressure of sea water ; this part o f the pipe
,
should therefore be part icularly strong well fitted and protected I t

, , , .
should not be o f lead fo r i f battered or de fec tive ( not an uncommon ,
condition in a lead pipe ) it might fail under pressure and form a conduit ,
fo r the passage o f the sea water from the tank into the hold A de fect in .
the same pipe in a cargo hold although very undesirable would be

, , ,
comparatively unimportant .
To facilitate the repair o f choked or de fective p i p i n g the j o i n t s ,
shoul d be conveniently arranged fo r taking the di ff erent lengths asunder .
A lead pipe is usually jointed by a soldered or w iped j oi nt ( Fig 1 7 .

,
P late but it is well that a fe w fla ngca j oi n ts should b e introduced ’
( Fig . T h e usual connection o f a lead pipe where it passes through a ,
bulkhead is sho w n in Fig 2 8 the iron washer is introduced to distribute

, .
the binding pressure o f the bolts over the so ft lead flange A no ther .
method is shown in Fig 2 7 C ast iron bilge suction pipes are supplied in . .
-
comparatively short lengths and are connected by flanged joints which , ,
are made air tight with putty and felt or i f the flanges are not machined
-
, , ,
with rubber washers ( Fig Wrought iron pipes are usually supplied .
-
ti l p i p i g
1
L d pi p ea t d d b y th i k
es a re b t by w igh t no ub t
or er e f c n e ss , u e , s s an a n o
I Qi h 3 i h
nc d 4§ i h b
,
- nch ul d w i g h
, an
p ti v l y b tnc4 3 8 d 6 5 p
ore s u d o e re s ec e a ou 1 , , an o n s
p y d b t f
er ar mu h d p d
, u ,
o th p u p
co ur se , f th p ip c e en s on e r o se o e e .
Ar t 4 27 ]
3 99
in 5 feet and 2 0 feet lengths , and , to

1 -
avoid corrosion they are gal
-
,
va n i z e d They are connected either by

. flanges ( Fig or by t/zi nzole .
or sleeve j oi n zs ( Fig
‘
A thimble joint is easily ma de but as it is tightly
.
,
jammed and cannot readily be taken adri ft it is unsuitable fo r bilge s uction

, ,
pipes I n warships all pipes small or large are o f wrought iron ( excepting
.
, ,
the fire main which is o f cop per) to the exclusion o f lead or cast iron ;
-
, ,
where they pass round corners they are heated and care fully bent .
B a ll a s t s u c t i o n p i p e s over 2 inches diameter are usually o f c a s t

i r o n ; i f over say 4 inches they are o ften o f galvanized w r o u gh t i r o n
, , , .
Wrought iron is superior in that it is lighter and not being brittle is less , ,
liable to fracture by straining or shocks such as might occur i f the pipe

got adri ft or i f the vessel bumped on the ground When situated in a tank .
,
th e fracture o f a ballast suction pipe would not be a serious matter ; but i f

outside in a cargo hold it woul d fo r in filling the ta nk the hold also would
, , ,
fill The joints o f cast iron pipes are usually flanged ( Fig 2 6 P late 7 3 )
.
-
.
,
when within the double bottom however they are o ften o f spigot and faucet , ,
- -
type ( Figs 2 4 and 2 and instead o f making them tight with the usual lead
.
,
grouting ( which owing to its rigidity might not be permanently tight ) an

, , ,
india rubber packi n g ring is usually fitted over the spigot With good .
rubber this is an excellent joint for it is easily made and being flexible , , , ,
avoids the necessity for expansion ben ds when subjected to water pressure ,
howe ver it is not a secure joint and it can therefore only be employe d
, , , ,
for ballast suctions w i t/ti n a double bottom tank -

.
A r t 4 2 7 I n order that the ballast tanks may b e filled quite full

. . ,
provision must be made fo r the escape o f the contained air otherwise o f , ,
course the water would not rise For this purpose a i r p i p e s are led from
, .
the tank t0 p usually to the upper deck where should water overflow it
, , , ,
would do no harm ( Figs 1 2 and 1 4 P late 7 An air pipe should o f .

, ,
course be placed at the highest point o f the tank top I n a large tank
,
.
,
with a flat top there should be one at each corner ; in many cases there
,
are only two which may be placed both at the forward en d or one at each
, ,
e n d the one to port and the other to starboard

,
but this of course is not , ,
su fficient t o ensure the complete filling o f the tank fo r i f the vessel should ,
have a list and trim by the bo w or ste m an air cushion may form at either ,
of the other corners A s air can escape through a pipe more readily than .
water a single air pipe might be smaller than a single filling pipe I n
,
.
filling a tank ho w ever the water when it is nearly full is apt to blow up
, , , ,
the air pipes and choke the m as regards the passage o f air consequently ,
large air pipes are d esirable Th e sizes adopted in practice vary con .
side ra b ly from 1 5 to 2 inches is common but in large vessels they may ,
be 3 or even 4 inches diameter I n tanks which may be pumped up the . ,
air pipes shoul d be as large as the filling pipe fo r immediately such a tank ,
becomes full the pump may force the water up the air pipes and i f these ,
are small the resis t i nce o ffered may cause a Considerable bursting pressure
,
in the tank I t is also very important in such cases that the air p i pes
.
, ,
shoul d be permanently open ; i f close d on the upper deck with screwe d

plugs the omission to open them when the tank is being pumped up m i ght
,
have serious results ; cases have occurred where a tank top has actually
burst un der the excessive hydrostatic pressure o f the pumps A nd Si m i larly .
, ,
in emptying the tank i f the air pipes were closed a vacuum would be forme d ,
w ithin the tank tending to collapse the top —a serious matter i n the case
,
o f a deep tank whose top is supported by long flexible beams

,
.
A s regards the arrangement of the air pipes the best practice i s to carry ,
them up the vessel s si d e and through the gutter waterway o f the upper ’
deck a n d fit over them goose or swan necks ( A Fig 1 2 P late 7 3 ) o r

, ,
.
,
P RA C TI CA L S H I B B UI L D I N G Art 427
400 .
[ .
merely bend the pipe round as shown at B Fig 1 2 for then it is , .

,
permanently open and cannot unless completely submerged pass water

, , ,
into the tanks O therwise they may terminate with a screwed plug or
.
,
hinged flap cover which being flush permits o f their being carried up to
, , ,
any part of the deck The hinged cover is superior to the plug in that it
'
can open under pressure but o f course it is no better when ( as the tank i s
, , ,
being pumped out) air seeks to pass down ; further it ca nnot be lost like a ,
plug fo r this o ften happens in which case if the pipe is le ft open at sea
, , ,
when the deck i s flooded with water water may pass down the p i pe so that , ,
i f the tank is already full it may be subj ected to a permanent and obj ection
,
able hydrostatic pres s ure I n vessels which ca rry deck loads flush covers
.
,
are objection able in that they may be covered up with cargo and i n
,
accessible When fresh water is carried in the double bottom as is usual

.
,
in passenger and cattle steamers it is o f course essential that no sea water , , ,
shall gain access ; in such cases therefore automatic float valves are , ,
sometimes fitted at the ends o f the air pipes which while permanently , ,
open fo r the passage of air will close should water s eek to enter On e of , .
these valves is shown in Fig 1 3 P late 7 4 ; the ball o f light material cork .
, ,
or rubber lie s normally in the po sition shown by the dott ed lines should
,
it be immersed in water it floats up and blocks the pa ssage They may , .
be fitted in connection w ith an ordinary swan neck ( Fig 1 9 P late or .

, ,
to avoid encumbering the deck they may be fitted on the vessel s topside ,
’
plating ( as shown i n Fig 1 3 P late or i n connection with one of U tley s

.
,
’
patent ventilating sidelights ( Art .
A rt 4 2 8 S o u n d i n g t u b e s or pipes are fitted to all cargo holds

. .
,
pe aks and balla s t tanks ( Fig 3 1 P late 7 for the purpose o f ascertaining .
,
the depth o f water in the compartments O n e at the after end of each .
hold is su ffi cient but w here there is a double bottom and no well two are
, ,
required one in each s ide gutter Sounding s are taken at sea periodically
,
.
,
by pass i ng a rod 3 or 4 feet long with cord attached down the pipe and on
, , , ,
i ts withdrawal noting how much of it has become wet The pipe usually .
extends to the upper deck where it terminates wit h a screwed plug i f the ,
’
upper deck i s not s heltered from the weather it is pre fe rable where cargo , ,
is not carried in the tween de cks to stop it at the second deck for when
’
, ,
deck water is washing ab out it is a di ffi cult matter to keep the rod dry when '
sounding When on the ex posed upper deck it is well to raise the end
.
,
of the pipe a fe w inches above the deck so that the deck drainage water ,
may not pass down the pipe and wet the rod When a tank air pipe is at .
the centre line it may also serve as a tank sounding pipe and sometimes
,
-
,
sluice valve rod s are arranged for this purpose ( Art

-
E very time .
that soundings are taken the rod strikes the same patch o f cement on
the ve s sel s bottom so that in course o f time it may break it away
’
, .
C ases are on re c ord where the continued bumping o f the sounding rod
( aided by corro s ion ) has actually worn a hole through the shell plating .
To prevent this a small iron plate should be embedded in the cement

j ust below the pipe ( Fig Sometimes a plug is screw e d into the end of
.
the tube and s lots cut immediately ab ove it to admit the water ( Fig
, , .
I n order that the eng i neer whose duty it is to fill and empty the tanks , ,
may know when they are full without going on deck to take soundings the ,
sounding pipes of the tanks aba ft the boiler room bulkhead sometimes
terminate ( with a screwed plug ) within the machinery space or tunnel .
A n d in high class vessels it is common to lead a small t e ll t a l e p i p e ( about

- -
1 inch in diameter rom each tank to e machinery space each pi e

) f th p ,
terminati n g with a cock just above the platform s so that when opene d an , , ,
outflow o f water may announce when the tank is full .

P R A C TI CA L S H I B B UI L D I N G Ar t 43 0
40 2 .
[ .
removed by the steam bilge pumps kept constantly at work in this space , .
I f in an emergency it should be required to close them quickly the deck

, , ,
pl ates through which they are worked may be covered by deck cargo or ,
the key may be lost or the valves may b e inoperative or jammed or it

, , ,
may not be kno w n which is the closing and which the opening movement .
A s the valves are placed in the ve s sel s bilge below the ceiling planking
’
, ,
they receive little attention ; they may therefore become clogged with , ,
dirt so that they cannot be closed or the gearing and the sluice itself may
, ,
be disordered by corrosion and wear and tear .
For the above reasons bulkhead sl uice valves are now rarely fitted ;
each hold is provided with hand and steam pumping power more than
su fficient to cope with ordinary leakage so that in the event o f a serious ,
inflow of water imperilling the ship the bulkheads are reliable as water
, ,
tight partitions I n warships there are numerous sluice and other com
.
m un i ca ti n g valves but here the prevailing conditions are di fferent from

,
those in merchant vessels for no dirt is all owed to collect in the bilges the
, ,
valves are always accessible they are constantly worked and the mechanism , ,
is o f the most perfect kind Lloyd s rules permit of bulkhead sluice valves
.
’
on condition that they are always accessib le excepting however the , , ,
important collision bulkhead in which to ensure reliab i lity no valve , , ,
whatever is allowed I n a vessel whose holds are full of cargo the only
.
,
bulkheads whose lower parts are always acce s sible are those of the machinery
space and the a fter peak bulkhead and in these sluice valves might in an
-
, , ,
emergency be exceedingly use ful for with the c irculating pump in action
, , ,
the pumping power o f the machinery bilges is very great and it would ,
evidently be advantageous if this great power w ere also available fo r

clearing on occasion the two adj acent cargo holds When fitted on the
, , .
engine room side of the bulkheads they may be kept in good order for
-
,
they may be examined and overhauled if required during a voyage , , .
When there i s a double bottom bulkhead sluices if fitted are placed one , , ,
in each side gutter if there is no double bottom one central one su ffices ,
.
Sluice valves must be geared to the upper deck or to the second ,
deck if it be well above the load line so that they may be controlled , ,
however deep the water in the bilged compartment They are worked by .
a screwed spindle w hich may engage with a nut in one with the door o f the
, ,
sluice ( Figs 1 0 and 1 1 P late 7 or through a fixed nut above ( Fig

.
, The .
latter plan is advanta geous in that as the rod itsel f m oves up and down
,
,
with the sluice its position in the deck pla te indicate s that o f the sluice
, .
When the deck plate form s the fixed nut ( Fig the rod when the sluice .
,
is forced do w n su ffer s a compressive thrust throughout its length so that

, ,
it must be strong or well guided When the sluice door form s the nut the .
,
rod has no vertical movement in the deck plate so that the position o f the ,
valve whether open or shut is uncertain I f in such cases the closing

, , .
, ,
movement is indicated on the deck plate by an arrow the valve may be ,
jammed down tight but even then whether or not it is shut may be doubt
,
ful fo r it may b e obstructed by chip s or dirt ; but a simple means o f

,
knowing is to mark on the deck plate the number of revolutions necessary

to close the valve from its full open position .
I n warships the sluice valves and watertight doors are provided with
d e c k p l a t e s having special i n di c a t i n g m e c h a n i s m which shows the ,
position of the door or valve and these are also adopted in high class ,
-
merchant vessels Sluice valves are usually o f brass or gunmetal ; when

.
immersed i n salt bilge water they may there fore cause by galvanic action , , , ,
rapid corrosion of the contiguous iron ; to avoid this felt or hardwood ,
packing should be placed between the bulkhead and the valve and the lo wer ,
Ar t 4 3 2]
40 3
part o f the controlling rod s h ould be o f gunmetal When a straight vertical .
lead from the valve to the deck is not practicable leve i s are usually ,
i ntroduced
( see A Fig 9 P late 7 I n warships d irect lea ds are sel d om
, .
,
practicable and instea d o f levers care fully fitted bevel gearing or universal
, , ,
j o i nts are employed ; all wheels are o f gunmetal and fo r the sake o f , ,
l i ghtness and strength th e controlling spindles are o f steel tubing

, .
Very commonly instead o f fitting sluice valves on the bulkheads la rge

, ,
c o c k s about 2 inches diameter are employed Sluice valves are

, , .
advantageous in that they o ffer a large passage for water and in closing ,
them they may by their guillotine like action cut through obstructions but
,
-
, , ,
on the other hand as dirt is apt to gather on their large exposed sliding
,
surfaces it may not always be possible t o close them entirely C ocks are
, .
advantageous in that one quarter o f a turn of the rod is su ffi cient to close -
them with a s luice six or seven complete turns are required ; and further
, , ,
the condition o f a cock whether open or shut may be indicate d by a line

, ,
across the top o f the spindle Sometimes the spindle is a tube so that it .
,
may be used fo r sounding the passage of the rod through the cock serving ,
to force out ob s tructions .
A r t 4 3 1 H and d e c k p um p s have usually a straight lead to the

. .
-
b i lge and are placed close to a bulkhead w here their tail pipe may be con
, ,
v e n i e n tl cased in They are worked by a hand lever pivoted to a portable

y .
,
standard which ships into a socket in the deck ( Fig 8 P late

, Some .
,
times they are arranged to b e worked by an adj acent steam winch by ,
means o f a long connecting rod the hand lever giving place to a stout ,
bell crank Th e c/za nzoer in which the bucket o f the pump works may b e
.
o f cast iron or copper i f the former it should be lined with brass for iron
; , ,
corrodes and becoming rough greatly reduces the e fficiency of the pump
, , , .
The ta i l p ipe leading from the chamber to the bilge is usually o f lead an d ,
is hal f the diameter of the chamber H and pumps vary in size ( i e the . . .
diameter o f the chamber ) from 4 inches in a small vessel or hold to

6 inches in a large i f larger than this they cannot be conveniently worked
by a hand lever I n a fi rst class pump the bucket has a cup lea lner an d w ell
.
-
fi tte d li ft valve the lower or f oot va lve is usually o f p lug type ( see Fig
, ,
.
They discharge by overflowing on deck but in high class passenger vessels ,

-
,
to avoid soiling the deck with dirty bil ge water an overflow pipe is led ,
across under the deck through the ship s side or into an adjacent scupper
,
’
pipe A theoretically per fect pump can li ft w ater from a depth o f ab out
.
3 4 feet ( the height o f the water barometer ) but in practice the imper fection ,
o f its vacuum limits i ts lifting power to about 2 4 feet The bottom of the .
chamber shoul d therefore not be more than this height above the rose box
, ,
.
I n large vessels whose depth may exceed 2 4 feet an extension piece o f

, ,
-
cast iron is fitted above the chamber proper so that the latter may be ,
within 2 4 feet o f the rose b ox .
A r t 4 3 2 A s s a i li n g—
. . s h i p s have no steam pumping power they are ,
provi ded with s p e c i a l l y p o w e r fu l h an d p ump s These vary in si z e .
from 5 to 7 inches and they are always in duplicate i e there are t w o

, , . .
chambers and two tail pipes worked simultaneously by the same mechanism , ,
w hich consists o f a horizontal crank sha ft fly w heel and winch handles , , ,
mounted as a fixture on the pin rail around the main mast They are .
usually ordinary li ft pumps but in some cases they are o f the more po w erful ,
double acting type in which the pistons have no valves and li ft water on
-
, ,
b oth the up and down stroke Th e tail pipes are o f cast iron and as they .
,
are large and have a straight lead to the bilge they are not liable to choke , ,
and rose boxes are not essential To permit o f the pump w ell being .
examined and cleared the wood casing surrounding the pipe is made large
,
rt 4 32
40 4 P R A C TI CA L S I I I P B UI L DI N G .
[A .
enough fo r a man to pass down access to the casing being obtained ,
through a manhole o r ventilator in the upper deck The fresh water .

-
tanks are usually p laced immediately abaft the pumps so that they are ,
accessible by the same means I n ships which have a flat b ottom an .
additional wing su ction is sometimes led out to each bilge s o that when , ,
heeled over at sea all bilge water may be removed they may be worked
,
by independent hand lever pumps or in conjunction with the main cen tre ,
line pumps I n the former case the suction in the starb oard bilge should
.
have i ts chamber on the port side o f the deck (and vi ce versa ) so that i n ,
heavy weather the men working the pump may have the protection of the
weather bulwark .
H and pumps are rarely used fo r in steamers the steam pumps do all ,
the necessary work and sailing ships are usually per fectly tight A s they
,
.
are there fore liable to get out of order and be useles s i n an emergency
, , ,
they should be overhauled periodically and made to lift water for although ,
the pump gear may be all right the suction pipe may be choked or leaky ,
lead pipes for instance are sometimes gnawed through by rats

, ,
.
A rt 4 3 3 A D o w n t o n p M p is a hand force pump o f s pe cial type

. .
- 1
( Fig 4 . P late
, 7 T h e pump chamber is contained in a pedestal the ,
upper part of which forms an air chamber ( fo r continuous discharge) and

contains two cranks by means of which two piston s are made to reciprocate
,
and give the e ffect of two double acting pump s i e in such a way that each -
, . .
revolution of the pump handle may lift four times as much water as one
up and down stroke o f an ordinary bucket pump o f the sa me size
- -
A s so .
much work is performed in each revolution it i s hard to drive but long ,
crank handles may b e provided so that any number o f men may work
together I f required it m ay b e place d on a lower deck and worked from
.
,
the upper by mean s of a vertical sha ft and bevel wheel gearing Besides
,
-
.
being very powerful it has the peculiar advantage of being able to pump
,
from any one of a n umber o f compartments or from the sea and of , ,
discharging wherever required This is accomplished by leading the .
suction pi pes from the various holds ( and one from an un d er water sea cock on -
th e vessel s side ) up to a deck pla te or s ucti on p la te conveniently placed near

’
the pump where each one is covered with a screwed cap ( Fig
,
From .
the centre of the deck plate a short tail pipe is led to the Downton and ,
when it is required to pump from any particular compartment all that is ,
necessary i s to connect the end o f this tail pipe with the end of the suction
leading to that compartment this being done by means o f an adj ustable ,
( see Fig Th e discharge pipe ( or rising main a s it i s termed)

”
g oos e n eck
-
.
-
,
is led overboard but it may also connect to the fore and aft fi re mai n When
,
- - -
.
pumping from the bilge the water is o f course discharged overboard , , , .
When sea water is required fo r washing decks extinguishing fire or filling , ,
the sa ni ta ry ta nk the goose neck is coupled with the suction from the sea
,
-
valve and the discharge diverted into the fi re main through which it may
,
-
,
be impe lled wherever required .
I n steamers a D o w n t o n p um p is now very commonly s u b s t i t u t e d

,
fo r t h e n u m e r o u s d e c k h a n d p um p s I t is usually placed in a recess .
in the side o f the engine room casing at the level of the second or third -
deck I ts tail pipe is connected to the ordinary steam —

,
. pump valve chests ,
situated in the engine room and stokehold so that the steam suction ,
pipes to the various holds also serve fo r hand pumping operations The - .
advantage o f a D ownton over numerou s hand pumps is that it may be

1
A f or ce p um p d i ffers fro m a lift p um p i n tha t the ti p per p ar t o f th e cha mb e r i s c o s e d , l
s o th a t th e b uc k e t o r
p i s to n n o t o n l i fts th e w a te r , b ut fo rc e s yl it o u t, d i scha rg i n g i t
th ro ugh p i i n w h ere er r e ui re d
p g q v .
[Ar t 4 3 5 .
the various places To supply h o t s e a w a t e r fo r the baths a cistern is

.
,
provided i n which there I S placed a steam heater formed of a coil o f steam -

,
piping in connection with the boilers ; it is filled from the sanitary tan k ,
the supply b eing regulated by an automatic flo at valve When the main -

.
engine is not working the sanitary tank may be filled by the donkey pump ,
or Downton .
I n s a i li n g s h i p s the s u p p ly o f s e a w a t er is obtaine d through an

-
underwater sea cock in the fore peak A suction pipe being le d from .
4
this to a small force pump ( termed the kea a p ump or D ownton placed ’
,
at the end o f the forecastle which is arranged to discharge into th e fi re ,
m ain the sea m e n s water clo set or into buckets fo r conveyance to the
’
-
, ,
water closet cisterns in the poop A sea cock is a source o f danger fo r it

-
.
,
may become deranged the bolts fastening it to the shell plating may give ,
way or the suction pipe may leak ; for this reason in sailing ships it is
, ,
-
,
al w ays placed in the peak w here it is accessible and where water should , ,
it enter would do little harm The cock is usually permanently open I t

,
. .
should b e controlled by a spindle from the upper deck fo r when the peak ,
is full o f coal as is usual it may not al ways be accessible ; usually how

, , ,
ever a wood trunkway is provided do wn which a man may pass to the

,
cock The cock is of brass or gunmetal and the bolts connecting it to the
.
,
shell are usually o f iron ; but as these owing to galvanic action are par , ,
t i c ularly liable to corrosion ( in some cases they are found wasted away to
mere wires ) they should be o f Naval brass ,
.
A r t 4 3 6 I n passenger vessels there must be a c o n s t a n t s u p p ly o f

. .
fr e s h w a t e r by gravitation To provide this a large cistern ( the da i ly

,
.
s up l
p y ta n k) is placed like the sanitary tank on the top of the machinery , ,
casing I t is filled periodically from the fresh water tanks in the hold by
.
-
,
a D ownton or by a small steam pump in the engine room specially fur

n i sh e d fo r this work and provided it may b e with a water meter to , , ,
indica te during the voyage how much fresh water is being consumed The .
fresh water is conducted from the cistern to the various lavatories pantries , ,
and galleys ( and sometimes to the cisterns over the wash basins fin the
passengers cabins ) by a fore and a ft main and branches A tank having a
’
- -
.
,
steam heating coil is also provided for supplying h o t fr e sh w a t e r to the

-
,
pantries and galleys I n sailing ships and small cargo steamers the fresh .
-
water is obtained from the tanks in the holds by a small lift pump portable -
,
or fixed .
L arge o c e an go i n g p a s s e n ge r v e s s e l s may carry immense quantities

-
o f fresh water ( perhaps 1 0 0 tons or more ) and d i s t i l l i n g a p p a r a t u s is ,
always provided as well fo r producing fresh water during the voyage , .
Some vessels carry comparatively little fresh water but have instead , , ,
specially powerful distilling apparatus capable o f producing from 2 0 to 4 0 ,
tons per day A s a rule ho w ever the distilling apparatus serves merely
.
, ,
as a stand by because to di sti l fresh water by b oiling do w n salt involves the

-
, ,
burning of large quantities o f coal F r e s h w a t e r t a n k s may be built .

-
complete in themselves and be placed in any convenient part o f the t w een ,

’
d ecks or hold or they may be in one with the stru cture of the hull their
, ,
containing walls b eing formed in whole or in part by the vessel s bulkheads , ,

’
decks or side plating O n e or more o f the d o u ble b o t t o m t an k s are

, .
-
very commonly used fo r fresh water fo r feeding the boilers or fo r pa s sen gers ,
or cattle I f employed fo r drinking water these particular tanks are

.
,
appropriated solely fo r this p urpose for i f used occasionally as ordinary ,
ballast tanks they might be filled with the dirty w ater o f a harbour when , ,
o f course the purity o f th e fresh water subsequently carried would be very

,
d oubt fu l .
Art 4 3 7 ]
40 7
are advantageous in that there is no chance o f

S e l f-c o n t ai n e d t a n k s
the water being spoiled by salt water leakage When a large volume o f .
water is required several tanks are provided for a tank which held more
, ,
than s ay 2 0 ton s would b e too unwieldy to fit i n place an d would have

, , ,
to be strongly constructed with division plates When fresh water is , .
di s tilled it is passed while still hot into one o f the fresh water tanks where
, , ,
-
,
it cools be fore being used The position o f the fresh water tanks varies .
-
formerly they were o ften placed j ust aba ft the collision bulkhead and in ,
some cases the outer ones to economize space were built to the form o f , ,
the hull but it is well that a space should be le ft so that the vessel s sides
, ,
’
may be accessible for cleaning and painting O rdinary cargo steamers do .
not carry much fresh water and in these the tanks are often placed at the ,
a fter end o f the bridge one or two at the centre or on either side or they may
, ,
be placed i n the hold over the thrust recess in which case the engine room
, ,
-
bulkhead and tunnel top may be made to serve as one o f the si des and the
bottom I n sailing ships they are placed abaft the main mast When
.
-
.
placed in th e hold they may be very deep i n w hich case they may su ffer ,
considerable water pressure sometimes the resulting bulging o f their sides ,
is quite pronounced They are filled by hose through a pipe from the .
upper deck ; and in large vessels where the upper d eck is high above ,
the tanks the filling pipe should not be connected to the tank top but
, ,
should be placed over a manhole fo r i f the tank is of the usual light ,
scantlings and the water were allowed to rise in the pipe and overflow on
,
the upper d eck the bursting pressure at the lower part o f the tank might
,
be more than it could sa fely h ear The thickness o f the plating vari es .
from to — inch and the corner and sti ffening angles are usually 2 by
1 '
1 6 ,
2 by inch ; in many cases however the si d e plates are flanged , , .
Special cast steel corner pieces are sometimes employed ( see Fig 1 5 P late .
,
5 Th e sides are strengthened against bursting pressure by fi tting cross

ties between the s ti ffeners ; and the ends o f the latter at the corne t s
should be connected by plate brackets Each tank is provided with .
an air and sounding pipe and with a manhole and drain plug ; also with a , ,
suction pipe to a steam pump in the engine room or to a hand pump on ,
deck They are cleaned out periodically and painted with lime or cement
.
wash Small tanks are galvani z ed They are boxed in to protect them from
. .
cargo and the cargo from damage by sweat They are sometimes seated on
, .
wood chocks but as these are liable to decay a proper angle bar seating
, ,
-
should be provided elevated i f practicable so as to give access below They

, , .
are secured in place by uprights brackets or by encircling bands o f iron , , .
Ar t 4 3 7 To drain water from the decks all are provided with

. .
,
scuppers an d in high class vessels the deck houses and other erections
,
-
are provided with s c u p p e r p i p e s to convey water from their gutters to ,
the gutter waterw a y o f the upper deck A s described in Art 1 6 9 the upper . .
,
deck scuppers are usually mere apertures cut in the upper part of the sheer
strake but in passenger vessels to prevent d irty water from trickling down
, ,
over the cabin windows scupper pipes are led down and passed through ,
the vessel s side belo w ( see Fig 2 2 P late

’
The pipes are usually o f .
,
galvani z ed iron and to avoid choking are made o f large size 4 or 5 inches
, , , ,
.
Scupper and water closet s o i l p i p e s if well above the w a t erline may be

-
, ,
o f lea d but the elbow at their lower ends

, where they bend round and ,
connect to the shell should be o f cast steel brass or gunmetal ; to bolt

, , ,
the lead pipe to the side would be very improper fo r a stab w ith a boat ,
hook from the outside might pierce it I n ordinary cargo boats the ben ds
, , .
are of cast iron but this is in ferior to gunmetal fo r it is brittle and might
-
, , ,
be fractured by pressure from quay w alls or from other vessels alongside .

[Art 4 3 7 .
P ipe s which discharge near or below the waterline should b e of i ron cast ,
or malleable for i f o f lead they might be damaged and admit water ; rats
, ,
for instance have been known to gnaw holes in lead pipes and i f a fire
, ,
should occur the pipes would melt L ead pipes should be securely boxed .
in so that they may not be damaged by cargo and those which pass
, ,
through coal bunkers should be cased in with sheet iron .
Water does not often wash about on a lo w e r d e c k but small quantities ,
may collect through sweating or leakage from the deck openings ab ove
,
.
To remove this s c u p p er p i p e s are provide d one at each end of each

compartment or perhap s only one at the lowest part of the deck —on either
, ,
side They are usually o f lead about 2 inche s diameter and are pa ssed down
.
, ,
th e vessel s side to the bilge the end o f the pipe overlapping the cement
’
,
below the ceiling planking To avo id boxing them in they are usually .
,
placed out o f the way behind the reverse frames I n passenger vessels .
having tween deck cabins the lower deck scuppe rs are provided with
’
-
,
-
s yp h o n t r a p s so that the e ffluv i um fro m dirty bilge water may not pass
,
up and pervade the living spaces ( Fig 7 P late 7 I n large passenger .

,
vessels where the second deck is well above the waterline its scuppers are
, ,
led through the s ide like those o f the upper deck ; fo r large quan tities of
,
water may get on this deck when it is being washed by hose or should sea ,
water pass down by the numerou s openi n gs in the deck above These .
scuppers must b e provided with s t o rm v alv e s ( Figs 1 and so that sea -

.
water may not dash up the pipes into the tween deck space ; and all ’
scuppers are provided with deck grating s to avoid choking .
A s the t o p o f a d e e p b a ll a s t t a n k forms a deck provision must be ,
m ade fo r the removal o f drainage water I n the ca s e o f a peak tank a .

,
small well or pocket is usually formed in the t ank t 0p and the suction
, , ,
from a deck hand pump led into it Sometimes automatic float valves are .
fitted in the tank top which may pass drainage water into the tank but
, ,
which close should water from the tank seek to pass up these however , ,
are not reliable When the space above is not used for cargo a screwed
.
,
plug may be provided in the tank top by removing which drainage water ,
may pass into the tank .
I n high class vessels scupper pipes are s ometimes led from the W i n c h
’
-
s o l e plates down below the deck across it and through the vessel s side
’
, , ,
to drain away dirty oily water Th e c ab i n s i d e li gh ts conden s e water

, .
,
and they may leak and when open may admit rain or spray To collect this
, .
water d r i p p a n s portable or fixed are usually fitted below the sills of the
, , ,
lights ; in some cases a small vertical scupper pipe is led from the s ill of each
light down to a larger fore and aft pipe which di s charges over some ,
- -
,
adjacent lower deck scupper ; the pipe s are o f cou rse covered in by the
-
, ,
cabin lining .
A r t 4 3 8 Water clo s et s o i l p i p e s discharge just above the waterline

. .
-
,
where they ma y b e washed by the waves ; and to prevent the sea from ,
dashing up they are provided with fl a p o r s t o r m v a lv e s ( Figs 1 and 6

,
-
.
,
P late 7 I f the water closets are o f double valve type an up draught - -

,
-
,
whether of air or water would not pas s into the closet but i f the sea were
, ,
free to rush up the pipe the sudden pressure might discover weak places ,
or leaky joints Storm valves are usually so arranged that the flap may be
.
li fted fo r cleaning from within the ship ( Fig 6 ) and sometimes to facilitate .
repairs or cleaning operations at sea an outer sluice or screw down valve ,

-
is provided this being essential in soil pipes which discharge belo w water
,
.
Th e lower part o f the soil pipes connecting to the storm valves should be , ,
o f iron lead is permissible only fo r those p i pes which are well above water .
I n large passenger vessels where many closets are placed together the fitting , ,
[Ar t 4 40 .
C H AP TE R XX X .
Ar t . arrangements fo r ventilating the di ff erent compartments

4 4 0 Th e .
vary greatly while in high class vessels they may b e extensive and -
elaborate in others they may b e quit e elementary V e n t i l a t i o n may be

, .
described as the introduction o f fresh air and the simultaneous removal o f

that which has become hot moist or vitiated Many cargoes are o f such , , .
a nature as not to be a ffected by or themselves a ffect the condition of the , ,
air surrounding them and of course in such cases whether or not the holds, , , ,
are ventilated does not matter Delicate cargoes ho wever ( such as grain and .
,
fruit) which are apt to decompose require for their preservation a constant
, ,
supply of fresh air more particularly i f they are to be long con fi ned in the
,
hold V entilation may not al ways be beneficial for if the outer air is
.
,
warm and humid and the hold and contents cold its introduction results
, ,
in a continuous deposition of its moisture in the form o f sweat I n such ,

.
cases ventilation may actually b e detrimental to the cargo ; and with ,
moisture trickling down the sides o f the hull and entering the interstices o f
the riveted joints the ordinary slow corrosion o f the structure may b e
,
greatly accelerated .
A r t 4 4 1 C o a l c a r go e s are peculiar as regards v e n t i l a t i o n fo r upon

. .
,
this depends very much their freedom from s p o n t a n e o u s c o mb u s t i on .
C oal when won from the mine ab sorbs oxygen from the air ( ab out three
times its bulk ) and during the absorption heat is evolved w hich under
, , , , ,
favourable circumstances may become s o pronounced as to cause ignition ,

.
Freshly made charcoal is very acti v e in this respect it absorb s ab ou t three ,
times as much oxygen as coal and i f ex posed to the air in a heap will , , ,
take fire without fail in a fe w hours I t has b een ascertained that

, , .
1
spontaneous combustion of co al cargoes is most likely to occur under the

following circumstances w hen the coal is b ituminous and is put on b oard
fresh fro m the pit when it is broken up s mall so as to present a large
,
absorbent surface and when the supply o f air is neither too great nor too
,
small When fire occurs it usually originates in that part o f the cargo
.
which is situated under a hatchway where the tumbl i ng down o f the coal ,
during loading has broken it up into small pieces I n sailing ships making -
long voyages cases o f spo ntaneous co mbustion are not uncommon

.
,
In .
2
steamers they are even more frequent but here it is not usually the cargo ,
that takes fire ( for the shortness of the passage does not usually give
time fo r the coal to heat) but the coal in the bunkers where th e natural , ,
tendency to heat is increased by the warming e ffect o f the adjacent boilers .
I t is a common i n cident for a steamer to arrive in port with the machine ry

bilges and pump suctions choked with the coal dust washed out o f the
m i t ubj L
1
F t i g i f m ti
o r so e th i
n e re s t p p
n b y P f
n or w a o n on s s ec see a a er r o e sso r e es,
Tr an s I ti t ti.
f Nns l A k t
u t 1 8 9
on o l t h p r t f t
av ah R y l C m m
rc i qf
z ec s , 0, a so e re o o e o a o i ss on
N ew S ou tk Wales
p o i n te d i n 1 8 9 6 ap
A cco rdi ng t o th e Roy a l Com m i ssi on , a p po i n ted i n 1 8 7 5 , th e r e w e re —a s fa r a s kn o w n

, .
—la t e as t
57 c oa -
la d e n e ss e s oslt t h r o ugh sp ovn t a n e o l l
us co m busti o n b e t w e e n t h e ye a rs
1 8 7 5 a n d 1 88 7 .
Ar t 44 2]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I B B UI L D I N G . 11
bunkers by the water poured into them to extinguish a fire A s a bunker .
space is comparatively sma ll the seat o f a fire may usually be located and ,
the fire extinguished be fore serious damage is done this being limited as ,
a rule to a fe w burned ceiling planks and perhaps one or two buckled

,
plates and bars I n warships and high class merchant vessels the chance
.
-
,
of the coal in the bunker taking fire is provided against by insulating the
bunker bulkheads where they fall close to a boiler ( Fig 1 1 P late and .
,
by fitting tube s in the bunkers ( projecting inward s from the bulkhea d) into ,
which thermometers may be thrust to ascertain w hether or not the coal is

heating and thus permit o f early preventive measures Similar tubes are
, .
provid ed with coal cargoes one or two being passed down amidst the coal ,
at each hatchway .
H e a t i n g o f c o a l c a r go e s may b e prevented either by supplying no

air at all and thus providing no oxygen fo r absorption or by supplying it
, ,
in s uch large quantities and so continuously through every part o f the cargo
, , ,
as to dissipate heat as soon as generated The first plan could be carrie d .
out by simply closing all deck openings The secon d is impracticable fo r .

,
with ordinary means o f ventilation it w ould be impossible to send quantities

o f air continuously through every part o f a densely packed mass of coal ,
weighing perhaps many thousands o f tons When the hold is ventilated .
in the usual way by cowls which m ay be inoperative in heavy weather , ,
the supply of air may be just sufficient to supply the necessary oxygen to
further the preliminary heating The plan of closing all d eck openings .
,
although it may have much to recommend it has not met with approval , ,
fo r it is urged against it that it would allow the accumulation o f explosive

gases Th e plan generally a dopted is not to attempt to force fresh air
.
through the cargo but merely to pass it over its surface below the
,
deck so as to remove any gases that may rise upward from the coal
, .
This s u r fa c e v e n t i l a t i o n is generally adopted in the coal bunkers o f

both merchant vessels an d warships I t should be observed that cases .
o f explosion unlike spontaneous combustion are rare when a cargo

, ,
has once taken fire however the c on flagra ti o n is accompanied by frequent

, ,
explosion a circumstance which makes it di fficult and dangerous to attempt

,
to extinguish it .
A r t 4 4 2 The provision of at least two openings the one to act as

. .
,
i n l e t and the other as o u t l e t is a fundamental feature o f all ventilation ,

.
O f cour s e one large opening might serve both purposes fo r the air would
, ,
pass in at one part and out at another but the interchange is greatly ,
facilitated by dividing the opening w ith a vertical partition or screen fo r ,
then the in and out currents ( the air itsel f will constitute the one opening
an inlet and the other an outlet ) d o not clash and obstruct one another .
For the ventilation o f the holds b e l l m o u t h e d or c o w l v e n t i l a t o r s -
are universally employed ( Fig 1 P late 7 When turne d to face the .

,
wind they act as powerful d o w n c a s t s and when reversed they form -
u p—
,
t a k e s for as the wind rushes past the projecting lip it d raws with it
, ,
or induces an upward current in the tube Sometimes to increase the

, .
,
induction and up draught a trumpet like tube is fitted through the back o f
-
,
-
the cowl to act as a central air blast ( Fig

,
I n fine w eather w ith a good .
,
breeze o f wind co w l ventilators are most e fficient but when spray is fl ying
, ,
over the ship it becomes necessary i n ord er to prevent it from entering the ,
ventilators to turn them all with their backs to the wind when o f course
, , , ,
with all acting as up takes the ventilation becomes very poor I n very
-
,
.
heavy weather it may cease altogether fo r to avoid the danger of the cowls , ,
being swept a way they are then unshipped and their coamings closed w ith
,
w atertight plugs O r dinary cowl ventilator are made o f thin sheet iron a n d
. s
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G A 4 42
41 2 .
[ r t .
have no great strength their tubular formation however lends them , ,
strength and if raise d sufficiently high above the sea level the precaution
, ,
o f unshipping them is not o ften required but to prevent water from ,

,
entering and passing below it may be necessary to close their mouth s with ,
tarpaul i n covers The tubular derrick posts now commonly fitted in cargo
.
steamers ( Figs 4 5 and 6 P late form most excellent ventilators fo r

.
, , , ,
they are exceedingly strong and as they stand some 1 5 or 2 0 feet above ,
the deck a short cowl or mushroom ventilator placed at the top enjoys
, , , ,
almost perfect immunity from sea water Fig 6 P late 7 5 shows a cowl . .
, ,
ventilator designed to prevent the passage o f water into the hold i f water 1
enters its m o nth it falls upon the sloping ba ffle plate and flows out through
, .
the side port which being provided with a somewhat weighty flap will
, , ,
not open to the light pressure o f a current o f air A nother is sho wn i n

’
Fig 3 here the front part o f the ventilator tub e is extended upwards into
.
the cow ] and forms a convex shield so that should spray strike it it is
, , ,
thrown against the sides of the cowl and trickle s out .
A r t 4 4 3 I n c a r go s t e a m e r s at least one cowl ventilator i s fitted at

. .
,
each end o f each hold the one to serve as down cast and the other as ,
-
up take P late I n many cases two pairs are provided for each hold
-
( .
I f a thorough ventilation o f the cargo is required one of the two ventilators ,
should be extended to the bottom of the hold fo r when b oth stop at the ,
deck the fre s h air choosing the shortest route to the outlet passes s traight
, , ,
fore and aft over the t 0 p of the ca rgo and leaves comparatively undisturbed
- -
the air at the bottom o f the hold ; but this is rarely done fo r with most , ,
cargoes surface ventilation is found to be s u ffi cient and with densely

, , ,
packed cargoes the air might not find a suffi ciently free passage through it
, ,
from the inlet to the outlet Sometimes with cargoes requiring very .
thorough ventilation a trunkway having air hole s in it s side is led fore ,
and aft at the bottom of the hold and a down ca s t ventilator is led into it so
-
,
-
,
that the air passing along the tru nkway and escaping by the apertures m a y
, ,
be distributed all over the bottom of the hold This arrangement is some .
times adopted to distribute cold air in holds which carry frozen meat .
When there is a tween d eck space down cast and up ta ke ventilators must
’
-
,
- -
be provided for it as well as fo r the hold Sometimes fo r this purpose a .
separate pair o f cowls are fitted but more usually one pair is made to serve
‘
b oth spaces by making the tween deck tube o f smaller diameter than the
,
’
-
one ab ove ( Fig 1 P late 7 Sometimes one cowl ventilator is made

.
,
to serve both as an up take and down cast by forming it in the double - -

,
'
fashion shown in Fig 5 . .
S a i li n g s h i p s do not usually require such thorough ventilation as

-
steamers for as they make long passages they do not carry goods o f a
,
highly perishable na ture They have usually one or two cowl ventilators .
at each end and one amidships The latter is placed over the pump
, .
shaft or well (for which it forms an entrance ) so as to pass air to the

, ,
bottom o f the hold Sometimes at each hatchway a large mushroom .

, ,
ventilator is fitted in one o f the hatches The m a s t s form most e ffi cient .
u p t a k e v e n t i l a t o r s for when heated by the sun they are in e ff ect tall

-
, , ,
chimneys The mast head is covered with a s heet iron hood open around
.
,
the edges ; and of course s uitable apertures should be provided at its

, ,
heel ( see Fig 1 7 P late 7 .

,
I f the cargo is one that would benefit from ventilation the ba tch e s are ,
removed whenever the weather permits and in pa s senger vessels or those ,
engaged in the fr u i t t r a d e gr a t e d h a t c h e s are provided which while , , ,
opening the hold to the atmosphere may be quickly and securely covered ,
B yl p t t v t i l t r 1
o
’
e s a en en a o .
[Ar t 44 5 .
all that is desired but in stormy weather when large numbers o f these , ,
openings must be closed the circulation may become sluggish and i n ,
adequate Nevertheless by a careful design o f the cabin spaces deck

.
, ,
openings and ventilators ventilation by natural means alone may except , , ,
in the tropics be all that is desired ; and in large modern passenger

, , ,
vessels it is endeavoured to secure this result .
N otice briefly the general system of n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i on adopted in

l a r ge p a s s e n ge r v e ss e l s Th e pa s sage ways alongside o f the t ween deck
’
.
cab i ns form natural air ducts and having provided fo r their thorough , ,
ventilation that o f the cabins is at once secured by providing apertures at

,
the top a n d bottom o f their side s ( as described in A rt 3 5 0 and illustrated .

,
in Figs 1 4 1 6 and 1 7 P late

.
,
Th e passage ways may be ventilated i n
, ,
several w ays they generally communicate with an open vestibule having ,
a staircase to a deck house or companion on the upper deck through which -
air may pass either up or down ; or a long dwarf skylight may b e placed
over them ( as shown i n Fig 5 P late 8 and P late to admit both light .
, ,
and air P assage ways on a lower deck may be ventilated and lighted by
.
doublin g the walls of the machinery casing locally or extensively so as to , ,
form narrow ventilating shafts ( as described in A rt 2 2 5 and illustrated in .
Fig 5 P late 8 and P late

.
, These make excellent up takes fo r the
,
-
,
air withi n them being heated by the hot inner wall tends naturally to
, ,
ascend Their tops may be covered by hinged skylight flaps or by a

.
,
fixed cover and glazed mushroom ventilators Fig 2 1 P late 7 5 sho ws a . .

, ,
central trunk ventilator fo r ventilating passenger accommodat i on in the ,
upper and lower tween decks V ery commonly w hen there is a deck ’
.
,
house over t ween deck cabin spaces instead o f fitting d wa rf skylights

’
, ,
which occupy deck space spe cial v e n t i l a t i n g W i n d o w s are fitted in ,
the coaming of the house through which light and air may be transmitted ,
below ( see Fig 5 P late I f the coal bunkers are filled from the upper
.
,
deck through circular shoots those which traverse the passage ways are ,
made portable and are only fitted during the coaling and i f in fine ,
weather flush gratings are fitted in their circular deck holes excellent
, ,
ventilation is at once s ecured P assage ways are also ventilated by small .
co w l ventilator s which may send air into and along a small trunk w ay or
,
conduit having opening s at intervals with sliding sh u tters or louvres to

, ,
regulate the draught ( Fig 1 8 P late 7 C abin spaces storerooms etc .

, , , .
,
in the lower tween decks are often ventilated through trunkwa ys formed
’
between the vessel s frames ( Fig by fitting galvanized sheet iron from
’
.
reverse bar to reverse bar and fitting over them in the gutter waterway , ,
of the upper deck large goose neck ventilators or i f a d own draught is,
-
, ,
-
required small cowl ventilators

, .
I n large passenger ves s els a thorough v e n t i l a t i o n of the numerous

w a t e r c lo s e t s is an important matte r
- I f not sit uated close to the .
vessel s side they are very commonly placed alo n gside of some portion of
’
the extensive machinery casings where excellent ventilation may be a ff orde d ,
by the ventilating shafts jus t described ( Fig 5 P late 8 and P late .

, ,
When these are extended to the top o f the fi ddley high above the ,
promenade deck and sea level they may be kept open in all weather and , ,
carry away unobtrusively all foul air When cabins are ventilated by the
, ,
.
same shaft as the water closets division plates or special trun kways must -
,
be introduced to prevent the entrance of foul air .
A r t 4 4 6 Th e cabins next the vessel s sides and the athwartship

’
. .
passage ways between them may be well ventilated by the s i d e l i gh t s , ,
but unless these are of the special type de s cribed in A rt 4 5 3 they cannot .
,
b e depended upon fo r unless they are high above the water level th e y can
, ,
Ar t 4 4 8 ]
41 5
only be opened in the finest weather I n a small cabin an open sidelight .

,
may cause an objectionable draught ; but in tropical climates draughts are

sought after and in the case of the side alleyways and large open deck
,
spaces occupied by emigrants the draught through the lights is artificially ,
i ncreased by inserting protruding w i n d c a t c h e r s Fig late which

( 9 P -
.
,
catch the wind and send it inside as a pleasant breeze Sometimes a .
similar purpose i s secured by pivoting the lights so that they may revolve ,
and lie in an athwartship plane the one hal f projecting beyond the vessel s ,
’
side ( Fig 7) and by sloping them forward or aft they may either send
.
, ,
air within or suck it out by induction

, .
A r t 4 4 7 Th e h e a t fr o m t h e v e s s e l s f u n n e l a n d b o i l e r s is
’
. .
very commonly utilized as a means o f ventilating the contiguous spaces of

the hull I f a large pipe or trunkway be led from the contiguous tween
.
, ,
’
deck space into and up the funnel the air within the latter portion , ,
becoming heated would naturally ascend and by drawing a fter it the cold
, , ,
air from the tween deck space give continuous ventilation I n practice
’
-
, .
,
the pipes do not enter the funnel sometimes they are pas s ed up between
its double walls (a funnel has always an outer shell to reduce radiation ) , ,
but more usually it is found su fficient merely to lead them up within the
casing fo r the air here being heated by the funnel and boilers is always
, , ,
very hot ( Fig 1 1 P late Al though an ti p draught so established is

.
,
-
positive and continuous it is not very po w erful and is there fore only , , , ,
applicable fo r ventilating contiguous spaces fo r i f the conduit pipes were ,
long the current through them would be sluggish This system of f u n n e l

, .
v e n t i l a t i on is chiefly used as a means o f ventilating the coal bunkers ;

those in warships are always so ventilated a large tube being led from the ,
upper part o f each bunker into and up the casing near the funnel Some .
times in merchant vessels the boiler room tank o f the double bottom is so -
ventilated I t is o f course the heat from the boilers and funnel that
.
, ,
makes the shafts described in Art 2 2 5 such excellent up take ventilator s .

-
.
A r t 4 4 8 I n passenger vessels which pass through or trade in the

. .
,
tropics m e c h a n i c al v en t i l a t i o n on a more or less extensive scale is

,
n o w al ways provided A n d in other vesse ls it is usually provided fo r

.
cabins situated lo w down in the hull where in rough weather when , , ,
numerous openings may have to be closed or when lying in harbour with ,
no wind blowing past the ship natural ventilation might almost cease I n ,
.
warships the numerous small watertight compartments cut o ff from the ,
atmosphere by the continuous watertight protective deck mu s t be ventilated ,
by mechanical means ; in these vessels there fore mechanical ventilation , ,
on a large scale is essential ,

.
I n passenger vessels the mechanical ventilation is now usually provided

by e l e c t r i c fa n s or blo w er s A ll modern steamers have dynamos fo r .
electric lighting so that with little extra provi sion electric power may
, , ,
always be availab le fo r driving the fans These may be arranged to .
exhaust air from the passage wa ys and send it into the machinery casing ,
or up any other shaft or ventilator specially provided or other wise I t is .
advantageous to blow the air into the machinery casing for it promotes at , ,
the same time ventilation of the hot engine room A s already noticed i f
,
-
.
,
the passages between the cabins are thoroughly ventilated the ventilation ,
o f the latter is at once secured simply by provi d ing apert ures in their walls ,
.
I n some cases the better to regulate the passage o f air through the cabin
,
sides a small 6 inch electric fan is substitute d for the usual fan light or
,
- -
grating over each doorway which may be switched o ff and on by the ,
occupant of the cabin Electric blowers may also be fitted within the .
large skylights o f the saloons etc to assist the upward out flo w o f heated , .
,
-
416 .
[ .
air I n A tlantic cattle vessels the upper tween decks is usually set apart
.
’
for cattle and if not thoroughly ventilated it would become hot and foul
, ,
numerous large cool ventilators are therefore provided and in some

, , , , ,
cases electric fans are fixed in the base o f the up takes -

.
I n temperate climates the v en t i l a t i o n is su fficient if it merely removes

or prevents the sensible formation o f heated or vitiated air I n t r o p i c al .
c li m a t e s however this does not suffice ; here it is necessary for the

, ,
com fort o f those on b oard that there should b e a constant movement of

the air such as is secured by the well known punkah o f the East This i s
,
-
.
readily accomplished by means o f small electric a i r p r o p elle r s or b e e s ,
w i n g fan s They may be placed anywhere ; very commonly they are

.
fixed under the roof of the saloon and sometimes small ones are placed ,
in the sleeping cabins I n some ves s els a machine driven p u n k a h is

.
-
provided formed by a small sha ft placed under the beams of the cabins
, , ,
furnished with proj ecting arms on which there is s tretched a web of canvas .
The shafts are led to the engine room ca s ing and are made to oscillate -
,
through an angle o f 9 0 degrees by a suitable connection to a reciprocating ,
part of the main engine or by a small engine provided for the purpose ,
.
I n some vessels the mechanical ventilation o f the cab ins on the lower
deck is accomplished by means of a large c en t r i fu ga l fa n or blower , ,
placed in or near the machinery casing This exhausts or propels air .

,
from or into an a i r t r u n k o r c on d u i t of rectangular section which is

, , ,
led along the passage ways under the beams ( as in Fig 1 8 P late 7 or .
,
through the cabins below the berths where it is out o f the way and is , ,
provided with louvres to regulate the supply of fresh air into each space .
The connection of the fa n to the trun k way may be so arranged that by ,
turning a flap valve air may either b e drawn from or sent along the
,
trunkway I n warships this is the method of ventilation generally adopted

.
for the compartments below the protective deck .
The a i r bl a s t o r i n d u c t i o n sy s t e m o f m e c h a n i c a l v e n t i l a t i o n
- 1
may b e described as follows A n air compressing engine placed in or .

-
,
near the engine room pumps air into a receiver to a moderate pre s sure o f
, ,
about five pound s per square inch From thi s reservoir a pipe ( about 3 inches .
in diameter) is led fore and aft in the tween decks having small gginch - -
’
,
i -
branches to the bases o f the various cowl ventilators ( Fig 2 P late 7 which .
,
may or may not be connected with a trunkway The end of each branch .
is provided with a nozzle so designed that the compressed air escaping , ,
in an ann u lar jet up the ventilator o ffers with a minimum volume of , ,
discharge a maximum surface to the s u rrounding air When the jet is

, .
turned on the still air within the ventilator receives a powerful impulse
, ,
— —
and is forced upwards o downwards almo st as i f driven by a piston
r .
So e fficient is the inducing power of these jets that for each cub ic foot of ,
air that escapes therefrom fi fty cubic feet of s till atmospheric air are ,
ca rried with it I n some vessels the arrangements for ventilating on this

.
system are very extensive being capable it is said of inducing a current , , ,
of air having a volume of over cubic feet per hour or some ,
fifteen or twenty times the total internal volume of the hull The very .
2
thorough ventilation so secured is particularly use ful in Eastern trading -
vessels which when carrying delicate cargoes may pass quickly from a
, , ,
cold to a hot climate With ordinary systems of ventilation the amount

.
,
o f air blown through the holds is so small that when the vessel loaded in ,
a cool port meets fo r the first time with hot weather the introduction of
, ,
the hot moisture laden air to the cold holds at once re s ults in extensive
,
-
L ees A n cler son s , or G r ee n s sy stem

1 ’ ’
.
2
E ng i n eer i ng for N o e mbe r 2 7, 1 8 9 1 v .
.
[ .
these confined s paces that the manhole covers have been removed some
,
time previously .
A r t 4 5 1 A s regards the v e n t i l a t i o n o f t h e m a c h i n e r y s p a c e
. .
,
large volumes of fresh air are required to ca rry away the air which has
become heated by contact with the hot engine and boilers and to support ,
the combustion in the furnaces I f the ventilation is inferior the machinery .
space becomes unb earably hot ; in the tropics it may attain a tempera
t ure of 1 5 0 degrees or more when of course the lab our O f stoking , , ,
becomes exceedingly trying The stokeholds are ventilated by large .
cowls two in each space ( Figs 1 and 5 P late 1 0 9 and Fig 4 P late
,
.
, , .
,
they extend down to within about 7 feet o f the stokehold platform so as to ,
supply the fresh air where ne eded i e near the furnace doors and where , . .
the men are at work M ore air passes down the ventilators than is required
.
fo r the furnaces or funnel draught and the surplus always accumulating at

’
, ,
the lower part o f the stokehold displaces or force s upwards the heated air , ,
which escapes through the open fi ddley g ratings The cowls are strongly .
const ructed and as they are ele vated on the top O f the fiddle y casing they
, ,
can with s tand almost any weath er They sometimes pass water below but .
,
in the stokehold this does not matter ; as the fi ddle y gratings however , ,
may pass large volume s it may be nece ssary to cover them in heavy ,
weather ( Art To secure the maximum draught the cowls must face
.
the wind and in large vessels to avoid the necessity of going on deck to
, ,
adjust them they are geared so that they may b e rotated from the stoke
, ,
hold either by an endless chain passing round the lower part of the cowl
,
or by pinion or worm gearing To reduce friction large cowls are provided .

,
with casters or roller bearings Th e engine room is usually ventilated by .
two or more cowls extending well down toward s the b ottom the hot air
, ,
escaping through the skylight .
I f there is no wind on deck the current of fre s h air passing down the ,
stokehold ventilators is slow fo r it is only brought about by the natural ,
tendency of heated air to rise and o f cold to descend All the air which , .
passes up the funnel must first descend through the stokehold ventilators ,
and if the downward current of fresh air were only caused by the up draught -
in the funnel the latter would be retarded the comb us tion in the furnaces
, ,
would be sluggish or incomplete and the stokehold Would become un ,
bearably hot All this is minimized by providing sufficiently large venti

.
lators and fiddley O penings but it may be avoided altogether by assisting

the downward current o f fresh air by mean s of centrifugal fans or blowers .
I n large vessels this method is now very commonly employed ; it ensures

thorough ventilation and ample air for the furnaces independently of the
wind and weather and it permits o f comparatively small fi ddle y openings
,
and ca s ings an important matter in pa ssenger ve ss els where midship deck

,
’
space is valuable A lthough the supply of air to the stokehold and furnaces
.
is here e s tablished to a certain extent by arti ficial means the fact that the ,
fi ddle y is open precludes the possibility o f any actual pressure of air and , ,
accordingly the draught through the furnaces and the combustion is

,
natural and not forced The expressi on n a t u r a l dr a u gh t is there

,
“
.
”
fore applicable but a s s i s t e d d r a u gh t is more appropriate and is the

,
”
,
term generally used the former being reserved for ca s es where there are
,
no fans at all .
I f in a stokehold ventilated on the above system all the outlets

, ,
excepting the furnaces were closed then the surplus air sent down by the ,
fans would accumulate and by raising the air pressure beyond that o f the
, ,
atmosphere greatly expedite the rush o f air through the furnaces the fires
, ,
in consequence would be urged the combustion would be accelerated and

, , ,
Art 4 5 3 ]
9
the steam raising power of the boilers greatly enhanced This c lo s e d

-
.
s t o k e h o ld s y s t e m o f fo r c e d d r a u gh t is commonly adopted in war

ships 1
I n many merchant vessels forced draught i s also employed but
.
,
here instead o f clo s ing the numerous stokehold openings w hich involves
, ,
many di ffi culties and objections the simpler plan is adopted o f fitting ,
special airtight doors to the furnaces and injecting air through them , ,
above and below the fires A mong other advantages this syste m admits .
,
2
O f the air being heated b the gases in the smoke box be ore it is sent
( y ) f
into the furnaces which greatly i ncreases its e ffect i n promoting thorough
,
and rapid combustion .
A r t 4 5 2 C o w l v e n t i l a t o r s are made of galvanized sheet steel

. .
,
from 415 to 116 inch thick The thickness 15 usually specified i n wire gauge
. .
The head or co w l is composed o f segments hammered to shape a n d

, , ,
riveted together The lip i s strengthened by a stout beading The fixed or

. .
,
coaming portion is strongly made of steel plating 1 to 3 inch thick rolled

, , ,
into a tube and riveted with an inside strap ( Fig 1 P late I t is .

,
riveted to the deck plating by an angle bar and i f the latter is riveted first ,
to the tube the camber o f the deck must be taken into acco unt With a
, .
wood deck it is o ften merely bolted to the planks a flat iron ring being ,
fitted below to take the bolts but Lloyd s rules no w require a deck plate ,
’
to be provided ( Fig The cowl ships over the coaming and it may rest
.
,
on the toe o f the d eck angle ( Fig but it is better to provide a special .
bearing ring ( Figs 1 to Th e coaming should stand at least 3 feet above

.
the deck to minimize the chance of a downpour o f water fo r o f course i f

, , , ,
solid water got on deck the loosely fitting cowl would not form a w ater ,
tight cover to the coaming Sometimes it is made 4 or 5 feet high .

,
so that by mean s of an adju s table bearing ring the cowl itself may be
, ,
raised or lowered this is O ften convenient when cargo or cattle are carried
in a temporary shelter on the upper deck fo r it permits of the tops of the ,
ventilators being raised well above the obstruction The tween deck .
’
-
portion of a ventilator tube may be fixed or portable ( Fig Fixed .
ones if n o t boxed in sho uld be of s tout material

, , .
V e n t i l a t i n g t r u n k s s uch as are employed for mechanical ventilation, ,
are usually o f galvanized sheet iron riveted with a longitudinal seam the ,
di fferent lengths may connect by shipping into one another ( B Fig 1 8 , .

,
P late but it is better that they should be connected by flanges ( A Fig , .
They are of rectangular section about 9 or 1 2 inches square ; i f ,
placed belo w the beams they are made broad and shallow to maintain the ,
head room I f there are lo uvres all along the trunk i t may be tapered
.
, ,
becoming smaller the further it is removed from the fan The s e trunk .
ways o f course should not pierce watertight bulkheads ; in warships

, ,
they o ften do but to prevent water from passing through the m from
, ,
one compartment to another e fli c i ent automatic float valves are fitted as ,

-
shown in Fig 2 0 . .
A r t 4 5 3 The s i d eli gh t s s i d e s c u tt le s o r p o r t h o l e s vary greatly

. .
,
-
,
-
in design ; one of ordinary type is shown in Fig 4 P late 7 6 Th e fixed .

,
.
frame is riveted to the shell plating the glass holder frame is hinged to it ,
-
and i s closed watertight by pivoted bolts ( one i n small lights and two in
large) which press a V shaped projection on the one frame a gainst an -
i n di arubbe r packing r i ng i n the other To protect the glass i n heavy .
weath er against blows from the waves a portable plug or shutter i n the , ,
form of a disc of cast steel or malleable cast iron is placed outside being , ,
1
Th i p e ua r i l d t k h ld d
ress treu ll y nx d b ut 1 } p
a c o se s o e o o es no us a e ce e a o oz . er
s uare i h ncw h t p or t d by 2 i h h
a d fw t r
i s re rese n e a nc ea o a e
q ,
.
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G A t 4 5 3
42 0 .
[ r .
held in position by a small proj ecting lip on the fixed frame This plug .
is not watertight A s a provision against the breaking of the glass and the
.
entrance of sea water an inner watertight cover having an i n di arubb er , ,
packing ring is pro vided ; it is hinged to the fixed frame and is hove up
,
by a tightening screw These plugs and covers are only u s ed in heavy .
weather at other time s they are stowed away near the light The plug is
, .
not always provided .
Sidelights vary in diameter from 6 inche s in a small cargo vessel or in , ,
the crew s quarters to 1 5 inches in the saloons of large passenger vessels

’
, ,
the average size is 9 or 1 0 inches They must b e mas s ive and strong for .
,
they are subject to severe blows from the waves The glass varies in .
thickness from 5 inch i n a 6 inch light to 1 } inches i n a 1 4 inch one But -

.
although so thick it often cracks due to de fective glass or to undue lo cal ,
stress from the tightening screws and insufficient massiveness and rigidity
in the bra s s frame holdin g it The brass used for sidelights is O ften o f .
inferior quality and the frames o f too slender a design and a s a con
, ,
sequence they sometimes fracture I n war s hips tough bronze or gunmetal .
is used for s uch parts Those sidelights at the bow and ste m which come
.
within the range of the cables should be protected by external iron bar s ,
( see C,
Fig 1 P late . I n high clas s vessels zor zg
, g les or e
y eb r ow s are -
,
fixed over the lights to throw O ff water a s i t trickles down the vessel s side
,
’
( see A and B Fig I n others the up per part o f the frame usually
, .
proj ects ab out half an inch beyond the shell pla ting When there is .
an insu fficient mean s of lighting cabin spaces prismatic glass deck lights ,
are sunk in the wood deck ( Fig They are held down by a bra s s .
or s teel frame and are made narrow and long so as not to cut more than
, ,
two deck planks They are made prismatic the better to disperse the
.
li g ht.
Fig 3 P late 7 6 shows a high cla s s light ; when shut it is held in place
.
, ,
-
by the five catches C ; the s e engage with wedge shaped projections on the -
frame A this frame being revolved slightly by the handle B By a s mall

,
.
movement of the handle therefore the light may either be firmly secured , ,
or released ready for opening .
Fig 5 P late 8 7 show s a p a t en t v en t i l a t i n g s i d eli gh t much u s ed

.
, ,
1
,
in high class passenger vessels for lights situated near the waterline I t i s
- .
designed to g i ve c on t i n u o u s v e n t i l a t i o n without draughts and wi thout ,
risk o f an inflow of water even s hould it be entirely submerged I t will .
b e observed that when tlie glass is closed ( the plug being removed) air
,
is still free to enter as shown by the arrows ; water cannot pa s s ,

”
,
however fo r if it entered the chamber A the cork float valve B

, ,
-
would at once rise and block the pas s age and even i f by chance this ,
valve failed to rise there is a second one above it and it is very i m

, ,
probable that both would fail to act To give a suffi ciently large air .
pas sage with a minimum inward proj ection of the light there are two lower
, ,
valve chambers abreast and two upper The air passage may be closed .
watertight by the hinged lid and metal plugs and covers are provi ded to ,
protect the glass or take its place should i t break The upper valve .
chamber o f these lights forms a suitable termination for the air p i pes from
fresh water tanks or for ventilating pipes from lower deck spaces or coal
-
,
bunkers Large window lights for fixing to the coaming o f a deck house
.
( as i n Fig 5 P late 7 )
6
. may
,
also b e arranged w i th float valve s as above ,
fo r giving continuou s ventilation to the cabin space s in the tween decks

’
,
even in heavy weather when the deck i s awash with solid water Fig 6 . .
,
P late 8 7 shows a large window for the side of a deck hou s e ; here float
,
’
or t -bole v en ti la tor .
1
Utley s
p
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 45 5
2 .
[ .
i nsulated , then when it and the cargo ( frozen s ti ff before shipping) are
chilled to the required temperature ( from 1 5 to 2 0 degrees they
will remain so with little necessity for further re frigeration and small
,
chance of local heating such a s sometimes occurs through imper fection s in

,
the insulation I f on the other hand the insulation is imperfect the

.
, , ,
temperature tends constantly to rise and to keep it down may involve the ,
more or less continuous running of the refrigerating engine with ,
danger to the cargo through variations of tem perature and considerable ,
expenditure of coal O f course should the temperat u re rise at any time so

.
,
as to thaw and so ften the carcas es the cargo might be seriously damaged ,
it is rarely however that this happe ns except locally under the hatches
, , , ,
or where the insulation has b ecome de fective or in co m ers where the cold ,
air from the refrigerating engine ha s not penetrated or in ca s es where the ,
carca s es have been shipped soft and have become so crushed together as
to prevent the cold air from circulating bet ween them this is most likely
to happen in the ca s e of the lower carcases in a deep hold .
C harcoal is the i n s u l a t i n g m a t e ri a l usually employed ; either the

finely divided flake c/za r coa l or the coarser tw ig cka r coal both when well , ,
pa cked giving equally good results Si li ca te cotton and p umi ce stone

, .
( in fine gravel ) are occasionally used ; as regards weight and insulating

properties they are not inferior to charcoal and they have the advantage o f ,
incombustibility in case of fire Felt cow ka i r cor k etc are O ften used .
,
-
, ,
.
,
for insulating small spaces A commonly adopted metho d of insulating .
the h old is shown in Figs 6 to 9 P late 7 6 The layer of charcoal on the .

, .
ship s s ide is usually 8 or 9 inches deep ( Fig 8 ) it is ramme d tightly in

’
.
,
to prevent subsequent subsidence and the fo rmation of vacant spaces this ,
being the mo s t fruit ful cause of local heating and damage to the contiguous
meat Silicate cotton does not sub s ide and in thi s respect it is better than
.
,
charcoal The outer wood lining is covered with sheet zinc as a precaution
.
,
again s t the charcoal running into the air space should the wood become
imperfect by decay or be gnawed through by rats when carrying general
,
cargo I n many cases however an air space between the shell plating
.
, ,
and the charcoal ( as also between the tank top and charcoal ) i s dis
p e n se d with the charcoal being filled in against the plating
,
This of .
,
course is a cheaper arrangement and a s regards insulation appears to be

, , , ,
no less e ffi cient ; it is objectionable however in that should water leak , , ,
through the ship s side the charcoal becomes sodden and is apt to cause
’
, ,
rapid corrosion of the vessel s plating and frames Small tween deck store ’
.
’
-
rooms such as are provided in large passenger vessel s for carrying chilled
,
beef provisions and fruit at a temperature somewhat ab ove the freezing

, ,
point need not be so thickly insulated and in such cases soft felt sheeting
, ,
may be substituted for the usual thick layer of charcoal The hatches over .
an insulated hold are formed like boxes and are filled with charcoal ,
( Fig . and similar batches are provided over the tank side gutters and
manholes in the tank top to give access to those places Before insulating ,
.
a hold the steel work should be t horoughly c leaned and well painted for
, ,
when once covered up it may b e many years before it is again accessible

fo r recoating To permit of its condition as regar d s freedom from
.
,
corrosion being a scertained from time to time small portable box shaped
, ,
-
plugs should b e provided in the insulating wall three or four on each side
‘
in each hold .
A r t 4 5 6 The refrigerating engine is usually placed in the tween

’
. .
decks near the insulated holds ; in other cases it is placed in the engine
room There are three well known systems o f refri geration all o f which
.
-
,
“
are used on board ship The c o ld a i r sy s t e m may be briefly -
.
Ar t 4 5 6 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G . 23
de s cribed as follows I n the first place air drawn from the hold is .
, , ,
compressed to about 6 0 pounds per square inch ; this makes it hot and ,
the h eat is then abstracted by passing i t through a coil of piping surrounded

by cold sea water ( and also through another coil surrounded by cold air)
-
when allowed to expand again (against the resistance o f a piston ) it becomes

i ntensely cold about 8 0 degrees Fahr and it is then ret urned to the
, .
,
hold through wooden trunkways I n what is known as the a m m o n i a .

1
”
s y s t e m ammonia gas i s compressed instead of air ; when compressed
,
and cooled it become s a liquid in which state it is pas s ed into a long coil ,
Of 1
3 3 41 011 iron piping placed in an insulated chamber in the tween decks ’
,
where i t is allowed to expand and reassume the ga s eous form I n this .
0 0 11 here are several miles of piping which by the expansion the

t o f , ,
conta i ned ammonia become intensely cold Ai r is then withdrawn from

, .
the hold by a fan passed over the cold coil and being tho rougly chilled
, , ,
( to about zero F is returned to the hold through large w ooden trunk

ways I n the c ar b o n i c a n h y d r i d e s y s t e m carbonic acid gas is used
.
” -
,
-
i nstead of ammonia but it is expanded in quite a small coil which is

, ,
placed in a tank filled with brine ( a solution o f chloride of sodium or o f

calcium ) and as the brine becomes chilled to the requisite temperature it
, ,
i s withdrawn by a pump and made to circulate through long coils o f 2 inch -
piping fixed in the hold under the deck and on the upper part o f the
,
vessel s sides ’
.
The ammonia and carbonic anhydride systems are more economical -
and e fficient than the cold air system ; the first however is O bjectionable -
, , ,
in that should the smallest leakage of ammonia occur the surrounding air
, ,
becomes filled with noxious fumes of a most insupportable and dangerous

character The carbonic anhydride system is advantageous in that it
.
-
,
permits o f precise regulation o f the temperature and although an escape ,
o f carbonic acid gas might be dangerous -

it is a respirable gas and in ,
, ,
small quantities does not cause inconvenience and as it is heavy it lies

, , , ,
at the bottom O f the compartment .
I n all vessels provision is made for w a r m i n g t h e c a b i n s p a c e s in

cold weather I n large passenger vessels this is usually done by leading
.
copper s t e a m p i p e s along the passageways between the cabins The .
pipes vary in size ; if large say inches they may be locally reduced at , ,
the joints so as to permit of small flanges and reduce the stress on the
, ,
connecting bolts ; and the joints may be formed as shown in Fig 1 0 .

,
P late 7 6 so as not to restrict the flo w of condensed water

, O therwise .
small — é inch pipes may be employed connecting at intervals to heaters in , ,
the form o f copper cylinders about 3 0 inches long by 3 inches diameter , ,
or to cast iron r a d i a t o r s The pipes are connected to the ship s boilers

-
.
’
but as the steam pressure here is unnecessarily high fo r mere heating

purposes a reducing valve is usually introduced which closes automatically
, ,
should the pressure in the pipes exceed a certain limit To avoid the .
danger O f steam heating pipes bursting they should be capable o f with ,
standing the full boiler pressure and s hould be tested 1 0 0 per cent above ,
.
it To remove condensed water automatic drain taps are provided The

.
,
- .
wood deck below the pipes may be protected from the heat by sheet lead ,
laid upon thick felt with a teak coveri ng board over all and the pipes , ,
themselves may b e protected by an O rnamental cast iron or brass grating -

.
I n some large modern passenger vessels the cabin spaces are both heated
‘
, ,
and ventilated by blowing warm air ( heated by passing it over a coil of

1
I f w t ti gh t b ul kh d
a er p i d b y th t u k w y g d w
ea t ti gh t d
s a re e rce e se r n a s, eare a er o o rs
mu t fs , o u b p vid d t p
co rse ,v th i t g i ty f th bul kh d b th w t tigh t
e ro e , o rese r e e n e r o e ea s, o as a er
pa r ti ti o ns a n d fi re scre e n s.
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
[Art 4 5 6
.
steam piping or a special steam heater) along a trunkway having louvre

openings in the various spaces to regulate the draught I n some cases the
.
air is cooled be fore sending it along the trunkway by passing it over a

,
coil o f piping through which cold b rine is circulated To warm isolated

.
cabins such as those of the officers on the u pper deck small steam radiators
, ,
are employed having a cock by which the occupant O f the cabin may
,
regulate the temperature I n the saloons O f pas s enger vessels there is

.
O ften a handsome fireplace ; but in most cases s team radiators are

employed these being more e ffi cient in every way
, .
[Ar t 4 5 8 .
Ar t 4 5 8 . rate o f corrosion of iron or steel may b e very much

. The
increased or diminished by ga lv a n i c a c t i o n I f a piece o f copper and .
a piece of iron are immersed in a weak acid without any metallic contact , ,
both will corrode i f however they touch or are placed in metallic contact
, , ,
however indirect say by a wire a galvanic current will at once h e established

, , ,
between them and as a re sult whil e the copper will cease to corrode the
, , , ,
iron will corrode very much faster the immunity o f the former being secured ,
at the expense o f the latter The arrangement forms the well known voltaic .
-
cell or electric battery in which the corroding metal is said to be electr o

,
p o s i ti ve ,
and”
the other electr o n e a ti ve
g I f zinc is substituted for copper .
”
,
the conditions will be reversed for as zinc is electro positive to iron it will , ,
corrode rapidly and the iron not at all Sea water owing to its dissolved .
,
salts has the e ffect of a weak acid i e it promote s a galvanic current

, , . .
between dissimilar metals ; and this circumstance has an important bearing

on the rate and nature O f the corrosion of ship s hulls O ther metals ’
.
besides copper are electro negative to iron and cause it to corrode lead , ,
tin and brass alloys have even a greater e ffect ; and ordinary rust and
, ,
especially mill scale are also electro negative to iron ,

.
The markedly c o r r o s i v e e ffe c t o f b r a ss o r O o p p e r a llo ys upon

iron when in contact with it in s ea water is often O bserved un der water
, ,
-
sea cocks for in s tance are sometimes of brass and it i s common to find
, , ,
that the shell plating contiguou s thereto is deeply corroded A nd when .
the propeller is o f bronze the s tern frame and rudder are liable to very ,
pronounced corrosion ; this i s usually provided against by bolting slabs of

zinc z i nc p r otector s on the contigu ous pa rts of the hull for these being , ,
electro positive to iron waste away rapidly in virtue of which the iron
-
, ,
enjoys almost perfect immunity from corrosion Much trouble has always .
been experienced by local corrosion of the propeller shaft through galvan ic ,
action A s shown in Fig 1 1 P late 2 9 part of the sha ft within the stern
. .
, ,
tube i s covered with brass liners and as the tube is alwa ys full O f sea water , ,
a galvanic e ffect takes place between the brass and the iron in consequence ,
o f which the latter often becomes deeply corroded at point s C close to the ,
end of the liners The drain plugs fitted in the garboard strake are u s ually
.
o f brass ( Art and it might be expected there fore that through

.
, ,
corrosion of the plating by galvanic action they would loosen and perhaps ,
drop out ; this is not found to be the case however because the plating , ,
around the plugs is always well coated with paint and the plug itself well ,
grea s ed ; for o f course when one or both metals are covered up they are
, , ,
not in contact with the corrosive fluid and s o cannot set up galvanic action , .
I t is evident however that all such under water brass fittings should be
, ,
-
frequently inspected C lean metallic l e a d has a markedly corrosive e ffect

.
,
on iron but in practice this is not a source of trouble because the lead is
, ,
rendered inactive by the fact of its becoming covered with a coating o f its
own oxide The bilge suction pipes fo r instance are often O f lead and
.
, , ,
although immersed in bilge water and in contact with the steel work o f the
hull the latter is rarely found to su ff er The corrosive e ffect of lead may
, .
O ften be obs erved in O ld iron railings

; if fixed to the stone work by lead
grouting the bars at their juncture with the lead are sometimes corroded
,
entirely away .
Ar t 4 5 9 . O rdinary ru st scale is electro negative to iron and

.
, ,
consequently a plate which has s cale upon it corrodes more quickly than
,
one which has none Even when not immersed in water a sc al e o f r u st

.
,
a c c e l e r a t e s c o rr o s i o n for it has the peculiar property o f absorbin g ,
mo i sture ( a characteristic described by the word lzygr oscop i c ) on ”
break i ng O ff hard and in appearance perfectly dry scale moisture will , , ,

Art 4 5 9 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G
.
] .
42 7
O ften be o bserved between it and the iron I t follow s therefore that .

, ,
while a clean plate may su ffer little or nothing from corrosion one that is ,
covered with s cale will corrode continuously the scale becoming thicker ,
and thicker For the preservation O f the structure therefore it is evidently

.
, ,
an i mportant matter that s cale should be removed w i thout delay The .
very erroneous idea is s ometimes enterta ined that the hard firmly adhering ,
scale which sometime s forms on deck plating and other parts acts ,
beneficially a s a protective covering and that it is better not to remove ,
it Loo s e scale may be removed by the vibratory and concussive e ffects

.
O f hammer blows ; if firmly adhering chisel faced chipping hammers are ,

-
employed ; and as its removal is then a tedious process it is not O ften ,
undertaken The s hell plating for instance i s not O ften chipped ; in the
.
, ,
region o f the water line scale may commonly be observed standing out in
-
thick patches below the paint to paint over this a s is frequently done i s ,
compa ratively useless —i t might be likened to varni s hing a table while

,
omitting to remove the cloth When scale gathers on the backs o f the .
reverse frames it is not easy to remove and very commonly there fore it
, , , ,
is not removed and as this part is out of sight and is di ffi cult to paint it ,
is o ften not painted consequently the reverse bars usually su ffer more than ,
any other parts from corrosion in old vessels they are gene rally the first parts
,
to require renewal V ery commonly they are repaired by riveti n g a flat

.
iron bar on the exposed flange I f the sur face of the steel work i s cleaned .
perfectly free from all foreign matter ( a condition seldom secured ) and is ,
well coated with good oil paint it will enj oy immunity from corrosio n for ,
—
many yea rs assuming o f cour s e that the paint is not subject to erosive or
, ,
chemical action .
Th e m i ll sc a le o r m a gn e t i c o x i d e which is found on practically

all new steel plates is particularly active in promot i ng by galvanic action
, , ,
rapid corrosion o f the steel quite as much so as copper I t is peculiar in .
that unlike other oxide it is impe rvious to water so that if it entirely

, , ,
covered a plate it would protect it from corrosion ( it ha s been proposed to

protect steel structures by producing artificially a coating of magnetic
oxide ) I n practice however it never does form a per fec tly continuous
.
, ,
covering for as it is brittle it breaks o ff locally with the riveting and

,
hammering Should part of a scale covered plate be exposed the steel an d

.
-
,
the scale when immer s ed in s ea water form a galvanic couple to the rapid
, , ,
corrosion of the steel I f the shell plating o f a new vessel is painted be fore
.
removing the mill scale it will receive little protection from the paint fo r
,
as patches o f scale with paint attached become loose and fall O ff the plates
, , ,
where bare are exposed to widespread galvanic action and the resulting ,
rapid corrosion accelerates the loosening of the remaining sca le .
M ill scale is not found so much on iron plates nor does it adhere with ,
such persistency as on those of s teel ; n e w iron vessels there fore were , ,
usually quite free from scale be fore painting I n the early days of steel the .
peculiar prope rties o f mill sca le were not Understood or realized and as no ,
special endeavours were made to remo ve it it was a common experience to

— —
,
find on the first dry docking perhaps a year after the launch that the
,
under water shell plating was entirely devoid O f paint and had su ffered
-
seriously from corrosion O ften of a loca l and excessive kind The cause
,
.
of this wa s not at first known it was attributed simply to a pronounced ,
tendency in steel to corrode The French A dmiralty were the first to use.
mild steel ; but having experienced trouble o f this kind they thought it
,
-
,
advi s able in their earlier steel ve s sels ( built in

,
to u se iron fo r the
under water shell plating
- 1
.
1
Tr a n s I n sti tut i on N av a l A r c/ntects , 1 88 1 , 1 08
.
f
o .
p . .
42 8 .
[ .
Th e corrosive influence of mill scale is now guarded against b y

removing it as f ar as practicable be fore finally painting the bottom To
, ,
.
do so by mechanical means is not easy for it adheres firmly and does not , ,
like ordinary oxide fly o ff in flakes whe n struck by the chipping hammer

,
.
Th e method commonly adopted in high class vessels and always in warships -

, ,
is to immerse each plate in a bath o f dilute hydrochloric acid ( one part o f

acid to from 1 0 to 2 0 o f water) and after steeping fo r half an hour or longer , ,
wash it w ith alkaline water and scrub it with machine driven revolving wire -
, ,
brushes A nother excellent method as yet rarely adopted is to clean the

.
, ,
completed shell with the w ell known sand blast this has the most desirable ~
result of producing an absolutel yclean metallic surface well fitted to take ,
an excellent and enduring coat o f paint I n ordinary practice the method

—
.
usually adopted is simply to de fer the painting o f all parts of the hull
till j ust before the launch so that the natural process O f rusting may cause ,
the scale to drop O ff or loosen it so that it may be readily removed by, ,
hammer blows ; or the rusting may be expedited by the applica tion o f

water Sometimes the painting o f the shell is deferred until after the
.
launch ( the vessel when ready fo r sea being put in dry dock for the
, ,
purpose ) so that the short period of unrestrained rusting may e ffect a

,
thorough removal of the scale An d sometimes new vessels are sent a .
short voyage before painting the bottom Shi powners generally anticipate .
poor adhering and protective qualities in the first coat of paint and dock ,
their vessels for repainting two or three months a fter the launch ; and
unless special care has b een taken to remove the mill scale this measure is ,
usually justified by the bare and ru sty condition of the plating .
A r t 4 6 0 A s just noticed different metals excite corrosion by

. .
,
galvanic e ffects but even in a structure composed of one metal there may
,
be feeble galvanic action between contiguous parts due to slight di fferences ,
either in their chemical composition or molecular structure E xperiments .
show fo r insta nce that steel which has been strained is electro negative to
, ,
that which is unstrained when in contact in sea water the latter corrodes “
, ,
the faster I t is common to fin d in old iron vessels that while the plates
1
.
, ,
are much corroded the rivets are little a ffected and project beyond the ,
surface of the plates the molecular arrangement of the metal of the rivets
is o f course di fferent from that o f the plates fo r they are staved up and
, , ,
compressed by hammer blows A steel plate O ften corrodes in patches one .

,
part of the surface more than another ; this may be due to the presence o f mill
scale or to di fferences o f composition due perhaps to slight local variations ,
in the proportion o f manganese through an imperfect mixture o f this added ,
element at the steel works ( Art I ron and steel di ffer both in their .
chemical and physical qualities and consequently they may set up quite , , ,
marked galvanic e ffects the electro positive or corroding element is some -
times the steel and sometimes the iron but more usually it is the iron , .
2
The points of iron rivets in submerged steel plates usually corrode faster
than the plates but o f course no corrosion can occur so long as the
, , ,
surface is well coated with paint .
O rdinary rusting takes place fairly uniformly over the surface O f the
plating ; when due to galvanic action it occurs irregularly in patches or , ,
still more locally by p i t t i n g A plat e pitted by corrosion is covered with

, .
, ,
little hollows like finge r marks in dough ; in a badly corroded plate they
,
-
may be deep and with sur face corrosion between the surface may become
, , ,
v e ry rough and irreg ular P itting is attributed to the presence o f small

.
i solated particles o f mill scale which by setting up galvanic action in the

, ,
V l C X VI I I
1
A d w T I t t t
n
f Ci l E g i
re s, r ans . ns i u i on o vi n n eer s , o . .
2
Fa rquharso n , I n s ti tu ti on q f A a va l A r c/ntects ,
’
1 88 2 .
O
[Ar t 4 6 1 .
advantageou s ; often however its inferior qualities grea tly detract fro m
, ,
any superiority it may have as regards corros i on I r o n p l a t e s o wing to .

,
their non homogen eous st ructure o ften corrode i n a very irregular fashion ,
.
An d they often contain l a m i n a t i o n s i e loosely cohering layers which ,

.
, ,
in the case of deck plates may present themselves i n a most objectionable ,
fashion ; fo r as the surface corrodes water finding its way between the
, , ,
layers and setting up corrosion may burst them asunder and raise large , ,
blisters whose sharp salient edges require constant chipping

, ,
.
Ar t 4 6 2 D i ff e r en t p ar t s o f t h e h u ll a r e li a b l e i n di ff e r e n t
. .
d e gr ee t o c or r o s i on ; i f all were kept well coated there would be no ,
corrosion but paint decomposes and loses its protective qualities and the
, ,
conditions which cause this are usually identical with those which cause
corrosion I t might appear at first sight that the o u t e r s u r fa c e o f t h e
.
, ,
h u ll would b e more liable to corrode than the inside fo r it is constantly ,
immersed in sea water and is only accessible for repainting at intervals ,
when the vessel goes in dry dock I n reality however the reverse is the .
, ,
case chiefly becau s e of the circum s tance that apart altogether from corro
, ,
s ion it is imperative that the bottom plating shall be recoated periodically

, ,
to prevent f ouli ng i e the attachment of sea weed and shells A ccordingly

, . .
-
.
,
whether or not the bottom plating requires a fresh an ti cor r osi ve coverin g -
,
it does require and receives at regular intervals a fresh coating for

, , ,
a n ti f ouli ng purposes
-
I n the early d ays O f iron ships the necessity for
.
,
frequent docking and painting was not fully realized ; the bottom was
ob s erved to foul quickly but as docking facilities fo r large vessels were ,
poor especially abroad it was sought to secure immunity from fouling by

, ,
the use O f novel anti fouling pa ints o ften of a dangerously corrosive nature
-
, .
A s a result the shell plating of vessels which had been abroad fo r long
,
periods without docking sometimes su ffered seriously from corrosion in , ,
exceptional cases it was so much wasted away that in scraping o ff the ,
weed and barnacles ( whose growth was usua lly little reta rded by the
a nti fouling composition ) the scrapers actually penetrated the plating
“ -
” 1
, .
I n consequence of these experiences the under water plating of the earlier ,

-
iron vessels was made thick and towards the h o w it was unreduced for it , ,
wa s anticipated that the fluid fricti on due to the vessel s motion would here ’
accelerate the wasting tendency All ves s els are now docked and painted .
2
at least once a year ; high class liners which pass through warm tropical -
,
waters are docked a fter every voyage perhaps four or five times a year , .
The O bject of course is to maintain a clean bottom but it results at the

, , , ,
same time in securing for the under water s hell plating almost complet e
,
-
immunity from external corrosion .
The sh e ll p l a t i n g a b o v e w a t e r a n d t h e i n s i d e o f t h e h u ll do
not always receive careful treatment for here there is no fouling to guard ,
against but only corrosion and this may continue fo r a long period w ithout
, ,
a ffecting the vessel s effi ciency For the s ak e of appearance the outside of
’
the hull above w ater is usually covered with paint but—excepting well kept
.
,
-
—
,
vessels as this o ften merely s erves to hide scale it s e fli c i ency as an anti ,
corrosive may be very poor The topside plating i s particularly apt to

.
corrode for the heat of the sun alternate conditions of wetness and dryness
, , ,
and the friction of broken water quickly destroy the watertight and ,
protective qualities o f the pai n t A s regards the interior O f the hull where .
,
appearances need not be c o n side re d the coating of the steel work is

'
sometimes much neglected to paint means an expenditure with no ,
immediate return and o ften therefore it is delayed until the last coat
, , ,
has disappeared and s cale ha s accumulated To re coat e ffi ciently the .

-
1
Tr a n s I n s ti tuti on
.
f N av a l A r ckztects
o , 1 8 6 3, p . 162 .
2
I bi d .
,
1 860 , p 82. .
Art 4 6 4]
. P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
31
irregular and more or less inacces s ible framework involves very con s ider ,
able expense for unless the old decomposed paint and rust s cale which
, ,
may have formed below the last coat are removed a fre s h coat is O f , , ,
course of little value

, .
Ar t 4 6 3 The steel work within the coal bunkers is particularly liable

. .
to corrode ; while in the holds there may be little evidence o f c o r r o s i o n

, , ,
i n t h e b u n k e r s it is O ften so pronounced as to call for repairs There .
are three causes for this : the di ffi culty O f providing a coating capable of
withstanding the abra s ive action of the coal ; the warm damp atmosphere ,
o f the bunker ( warm beca use of the contiguou s boilers and damp because
, , ,
not only is the coal often wet when shipped but owing to the warmth , , ,
there is much sweating ) and the corrosive e ffect which damp coal ( carbon
is electro negative to iron ) has upon steel or iron The worst corrosion .
occurs in the vicinity o f the coaling hatchways for as the coal is shot ,
in from above it quickly rubs o ff the protective covering and rain water
, ,
may sometimes have access through the hatchways Throughout the .
whole bunker moreover the coal by gradually sinking as it is worked out

, , ,
from below has an abra s ive or grinding e ffect on all expo s ed parts laying
, ,
bare fresh metallic surface s to the corrosive influence s The parts which .
su ffer the most are the exposed flanges of the reverse frames and bulkhead
stiffeners for they present two s urface s to the coal and in the case of the
, ,
reverse frames the inner surface may escape the periodical cleaning and
coating The isolated cross beams and tie bars also su ffer severely for
.
,
they have so to speak to crush their way through the descending mass
, ,
o f coal The bunker bulkheads not being structu ral parts are generally
.
, ,
of thin material not more than f§ inch and ; in consequence they are
,
~
, ,
quickly eaten through ; i n O ld vessels they are often s o much repaired as

to be merely a mass of patches I n the ca s e of the tween deck bunkers .
’
-
,
the deck plating especially i f it extend s over a hot boiler or boiler

, ,
room is o ften seriously reduced by corrosion for it is practically never free

, ,
from coal dust and drainage water may gather upon it ; and while the
, ,
sides may be chipped and recoated the deck s eldom is ; its thin condition ,
is O ften disgu ised by a continuous covering of hard scale perhaps 3 inch ,

-
thick I n small vessels where the bridge house is used as a coal bunker
.
, ,
the side plating being originally thin is O ften seriously reduced by corrosion
, , ,
it is not uncommon to find it worn through in holes The best preservative .
coating for coal bunkers is a bitumastic paint or black varnish ; this dries
with a hard yet tough glossy sur face and if properly applied to c le an
, , ,
s teel an d renewed at suffi ciently short inte rval s there need b e no trouble
, ,
from corros i on .
A r t 4 6 4 Some other parts of the hull which are particularly liable to

. .
corrosion may b e mentioned here The tendency o f the shell plating to .
corrode under the sidelight s is noticed in A rt 3 5 0 When wood work i s . .
bolted to expos e d plating sea water gettin g bet ween and saturating and , ,
pe rhaps rotting the wood may cause continuous corrosion ; formerly it ,
was c us tomary to fix wood carving on the bo w and ste m and as a result

the plates behind were O ften eaten through in holes The upper—
, , ,
deck .
mast wedges are covered with a coat of painted canvas and i f this should ,
leak the wedges becoming saturated with water may ca us e unob s erved
, , ,
corrosion of the mast plating ; a s this might be a serious matter the ,
classification societies require that the masts shall be doubled at this

part and be periodically examined
,
I n some sailing ships the c hain .
-
locker is built around the heel of the mast and in some cases the rubbing ,
action of the cable and the fact of its being stowed wet and dirty have
, ,
caused serious corrosion of the mast I f the upper deck s tringer plate in .
-
‘
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Art 46 4
43 2 .
[ .
the gutter water way is covered with thin badly adhering cement it may , ,
su ffer from corrosion due to water lodging below the cement ; in some ,
cases the plates have been wasted through in holes When there is a .
wood deck the coaming o f the b oiler casing and the deck plate or tie to
,
which it connects are specially liable to corrode I n O ld vessels the .

,
presence of a thick scale of rust on the tie plates may O ften be c bse rv e d
by a bursting up or elevated position O f the deck planks coveri ng them
, ,
( A r t .
The flo o r p l a t e ,
w here
there is no double b ottom might b e
s ,
expected to su ffer badly from

corrosion because they are constantly ,
exposed to damp air and bilge water and being covered up by , ,
the ceiling planking are out o f sight and inacce s sible I n practice ,
.
,
however this is not found to be the case for they are periodically
, ,
coated with cement wash and although the environmen t is damp it , ,
is cool Bilge water is sometimes exceedingly foul due to the presence

. ,
of grain etc or to drippings from nitrogenous and chemica l cargoes

,
.
, ,
and i f allowed to remain it might cause damage to the floors ; in

the wells o f a double b ottom fo r instance where foul mud is apt to , ,
accumulate and lie fo r long periods serious corrosion of the floors etc is , , .
,
not uncommon C orrosion o f the floors may b e observed by the enlarg e

. .
ment o f the limber holes for these are at the lowest part and owing to the , , ,
constant wash through them they are subject to attrition as well as corro s ion , .
The erosive e ffect of moving bilge water is particularly pronounced in the

case of the thin wash plates or intercostals of the side keelsons in old
vessels they are sometimes wasted entirely away at their lower part The .
interior of a double bottom excepting the portion under the boilers is , ,
usually little a ffected by corrosion for as it is cut o ff from the holds no , ,
corrosive foreign matter has access ; the contained air is kept cool by
the sea and the coating o f cement wash i f periodically renewed say
, , , ,
once a year gives perfect protection ,

.
A r t 4 6 5 Th e h e a t fr o m t h e b o i l e r s is most active in promoting

. .
r a p i d c o r r o s i on o f t h e fr a m e w or k o f th e h u ll b e l o w With .
shallow open floors the reverse frames are the first parts to su ffer ; in
, ,
a comparatively short time their upper flanges i f situated near the boilers , ,
m ay become thin like sheet iron or entirely disappear a circumstance , ,
disguised by a thick layer of rust scale The floors and b oiler stools also .
become thin and may actually waste away in holes a serious matter in
, ,
the case o f the boiler stools suppo rting as they do the heavy mass of the ,
boilers I f there is a double bottom the deterioration is more rapid ; the

.
,
tank top is generally the first part to su ff er fo r it is more directly expo s ed ,
to the heat of the boilers and its upper surface may be covered with wet , ,
warm coal dust in many cases it becomes wasted through in holes some ,
times in so short a period as four years The floors and lo ngi tudi n als .
1
within the tank also su ffer particularly at their upper parts where most , ,
heated ; like the tank top they may become thin like sheet iron or be ,
wa s ted entirely away in places .
Th e reason for the fa s t e r c o r r o s i o n o f a d o u b le b o t t o m under

the boilers than of O pen framework is that here the most favourable con ,
di ti o n s fo r corrosion are always present namely w a r mt/z a n d moi stur e , , .
For as the air contained in the tank becomes heated oven like by the ,
-
,
hot top plating it v apouri se s the mois tu re within the tank and as the
, , ,
resulting moist warm air is confined it remains to carry on the

, ,
corrosion I f the boiler room tank is in one with the tank under the
.
-
tu l d i ll u t ti f th w t d p t w i ll b f u d
1
A u t
n acco f m n o so e ac a case s , a n s ra o ns O e as e ar s e o n
in a p ap er by Mr A K H a milton , Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N a v al A rcl ntccts ,
. . . . 1 893 .
[Art 46 5
.
covering but while protecting the upper surface O f the plating neither
, , ,
it nor an y other thin coating prevents the passage of heat and con
sequent corro s ion within the tank This result i s somet i mes atta i ned to .
a considerable extent by covering the tank top with a layer O f cement

3 or 4 inches thick or with a flooring o f bricks embedded in c ement for
, , ,
by its insulating or non conducting properties such coveri ng prevent s the -

,
free pa s sage o f heat When laid on a large smooth plated su rface thin
. , , ,
cement does not adhere ; it may crack rise from the plating admit water , ,
below and result in unobserved and perhaps serious corrosion of the plating .
This may be avoided by ri v e tin g angle or jackstay bars on the tank top t
,
about 2 feet apart for these have the e ffect of locking the cement so that
, ,
it adheres a s a solid mass to the plating .
Th e upper part of the b oiler is lagged ( i e it i s covered with thick non . .
“
conducting material termed lagging and if the b ottom were also
,
lagged comparatively little heat would pass out to the tank top To lag
,
.
the bottom of a boiler requires special arrangements but s ince the recent ,
introdu ction of suitable lagging material it is now occasionally done and , ,
with excellent re s ults in checking corro s ion I f in conjunction with .

,
bottom lagging ba ffle pla tes were introduced betwee n the boilers and
,
the tank top so as to intercept radiant heat if the tank top were thickly
, ,
coated with cement and air were allowed free acce s s there would be little
, ,
trouble from corro s ion I t is sometimes attempted to ventilate the inside.
of the tank so as to carry away heated air but with the u s ual small openings
, ,
a sufficient circu lation o f air can only b e secured by mechanical means .
The framework within the boiler room tank is u sually coated— as in -
other tanks —with cement wa s h but in some ca s es double boiled lin s eed ,
-
O i l is used with good res u lts ; to be e ffective however such internal , ,
coatings require frequent renewal ; in some cases they are found to last
so s hort a time and to give prot ection so poor that it is not thought worth ,
‘
while to apply any coating at all A s noticed in Art 1 9 5 some shipowners . .

,
have experienced so much trouble and expense from the corrosion of

boiler roo m tanks tha t they prefer not to have them in their newer vessels
-
this is to be regretted fo r to abandon a contin u ous i nner bottom with its

, ,
great structural efficiency and the safe ty which it confers to the ship is ,
undoubtedly a retrograde s tep .
A r t 4 6 6 A cu rious phase O f c o rr o s i on i s it s b ur s t i n g e ffe c t on

. .
ri v e t e d w o r k Should the rivet s binding two part s together b e wide

.
apart water getting between an d setting up corro s ion result s in the

,
formation of ru st scale which becoming thicker and thicker may force , , ,
the part s a sunder bending them in loop s between the rivets an d ultimately
, ,
breaking the latter Figs 2 2 and 2 3 P late 5 0 represent a frame angle of

. .
, ,
an old ve s sel s o affected the black portion represents the scale I t i s a -

.
feature of s u ch corrosion that it only a ffect s j oints in which the rivet s are
wide apart in relation to the thickne s s of the parts connected ; while one
in which the rivet pitch i s over say 9 diameters may corrode b adl y , , , ,
another having a clo s er pitch tho u gh s ubject to the same conditions may
, , ,
not su ffer at all I n both joints water may have acce s s between the faying
.
surface s b u t while in the one the only effect i s the formation O f a thin
, ,
cement like scale which merely fill s and tighten s the j oin t in the other
-
, ,
the scale gradu ally increase s in thicknes s and u ltimately burs t s the parts ,
asunder The cont i nued growth Of the scale in the latter is due to the
.
smaller clamping e ffect of the widely spaced rivets ; and the immense
bursting pressure which when it ha s become thick it appears to acquire , ,
( while the thin scale in the closely riveted j oint appears to have none) is
probably due to an increase in its bulk through c he mi cal change '
.
Art 4 6 7 ]
43 5
These e ffects are o f course only observed in vessels o f con s iderable

, ,
age I n those of modern build it does not occur so readily fo r the spacing
.
,
o f the rivets throughout the structure is closer than that formerly adopted .
I n old vessels for i nstance the spacing of the frame beam and keelson rivets
, , , ,
often exceeded 9 diameters but now the maximum is 7 The presence o f , .
thick scale between the shell plating and the frames is of course a serious , ,
matter for the condition of the rivet shanks is then doubtful ; they may be
,
wasted away or perhaps be broken ; and should any straining occur the brittle ,
scale might fall out and leave the rivets loose which if belo w water would , , ,
result in dangerous leakage The presence of scale between the frame s .
and the thin side plating of a poop bridge or forecastle may be O bserved , ,
in almost any old vessel if examined merely from the quay side some of the ,
frame rivet points may u s ually be discerned each one in the centre o f a slight ,
depre s sion in the plating ( s o mewhat like the buttons in a cushion ) and some ,
may have drawn partly through the plating E xtensive repairs have o ften .
to b e made on this account the shell rivets being cut out the scale removed, , ,
the holes re coun te rsunk a nd re riveted in some cases the frames and the -
,
plating behind them may be so much wasted as to require renewal The

, .
riveted seams of the fiddle y casing are particularly liable to su ffer from
accumulations o f scale between the faying surfaces ; it may be observed
here in comparatively new vessels and is due to the thinness o f the casin g ,
plates a wide rivet pitch the heat from the funnel and exposure to sea
, , ,
water To avoid it the rivets should be closely pitched not more than
.
, ,
43 diamet ers and the entrance o f water should be prevented by caulkin g

,
the exposed edges .
Ar t 4 6 7 O n e of the principal causes of internal corrosion is the

. .
s we a t i n g o f the s teel work i e the condensation o f the moisture in the , . .
air within the hold s This is brought about in the same way as ordinary
.
dew or as the moisture which forms on a glass o f cold water in a warm

,
room War mair can hold in suspension much invisible w ater vapour but
.
,
should such moisture laden air be chilled then being no longer capable o f
-
, ,
holding so much moistur e the surplus would be deposited as dew or s weat

, .
Through the day the deck and s ide plating are warmed by the sun a n d in
, , ,
turn warm the air within the hold so that it may vaporize and hold in
, ,
suspense much water ; but at night these part s again become cold and by , , ,
chilling the contiguous air in the hold cause it to depo s it upon them its ,
surplus moisture O n examinin g the inside o f a s hip which has ju s t returned

.
from a long voyage evidence of sweat i ng may be clearly observed by ru s ty

—
,
streaks and stains where the moisture has lain or trickled down signs
which may readily b e mistaken for evidence of leakiness E xcessive .
sweating may cau s e damage to cargo ; to avoid it d eli c a t e go o d s a r e ,
c a r e fully d u n n a ge d to keep them clear of the steel work and cargoes ,
s u ch as grain or flour are fu rther protected by matting and canva s

covering s .
When the upper deck i s of wood or of plating sheathed wi th wood

‘
, ,
there is much less sweating for as the wood planking forms a thick non
'
“
conducting layer it doe s not readily transmit heat or cold and as the air ,
within the hold remains at a more even temperatur e it does not alternately
vapori z e and condense so m u ch moisture For thi s rea s on in pa s senger .
,
ves s el s and those which carry fruit or cargoe s particularly s usceptible to

,
damage by moisture it is essential that the upper deck should be of wood

, ,
or be wood s heathed I f cabins are placed immediately below a plated

.
u p per deck and are not covered on the under side with wood lining or
,
panelling the sweat dropping on the furniture sleeping berths etc is o f

, , , , .
, ,
course very obj ectionable TO avoid it it is common to coat the plating

'
, .
,
[Art 4 6 7 .
forming the roof of the cabin with gr a n u l a t e d c o r k ; first a coat of sticky

varnish is applied then the cork is dusted thickly over it and the whole
, ,
finally painted with two or three coats o f white paint This covering is so .
good a non conductor that even should the deck become cold it will not at
-
once chill the contig uous air of the cabin The Board of Trade requ i res .
,
in the interests of seamen that exposed deck plating over their sleeping ,
berths shall be lined with wood for unlike cork paint the effi ciency of a , , ,
wood covering as a protection against sweating is never open to doubt

, , .
A r t 4 6 8 Of a n t i c o rro s i v e c o a t i n gs there are five distinct kinds

. .
-
oil paints ; spirit varnishes ; tar, tarry compounds or asphalts P ortland

cement ; and galvanizing A n O il paint differs from a varnish in that .
whereas it dries by oxidation and increases in bulk a varnish dries by ,
evaporation and diminishes in bulk A paint consists of two parts the .

,
ve/ zi cle and the p i men t inseed oil is the u s ual vehicle in drying it
g L .
,
oxidizes and forms a tough leathery skin termed le n ox i n “

I f used
, , .
”
alone it would be too thi n and porous ; to give it therefore the necessary
body or substance a pigment is added —u s ually a mineral oxide A lthough
, ,
.
,
it then forms a tough elastic covering it is neither perfectly air nor water ,
tight for it contains minute pores which enlarge as the paint ages ; to
, ,
provide there fore a durable and watertight surface of paint two or more
, , ,
coats must be applied so that each may fill or cover the pore s or fissures
,
in the one below .
There are several p i gm e n t s in general u s e R e dlead or oxide o f .
lead whi telea d or carbonate of lead red oxide or oxide of iron oxide of
, , ,
zinc metallic zinc in a finely divided powder and lamp black Although
, , .
all of these give good results the metallic zinc has the advantage that a ,
p aint made with it is under all condition s perfectly harmless to the s teel
, , .
SO long as a paint remains sound and imperviou s to water the pigment , ,
being wrapped up in it can have no e ffect on the s teel ; when however it

, , ,
decomposes and b ecome s dry and flowery the pigment being thrown into , ,
direct metallic contact with the steel may if electro negative exercise a , ,
-
,
corrosive e ff ect No w whereas lead and oxide of iron are electro negative
.
,
-
to iron zinc is electro positive so that should a zinc paint decompose the
,
-
, ,
resulting contact of the pigment with the steel would actually retard
corrosion I n practice ho wever ; good re dlead ( the quality of paints
.
,
varies very much) is rarely found to have any prej udicial e ffect on steel ;
it ha s had and s till has a more exten s ive use than any other paint for it
, , ,
has excellent adhesive and covering qualities and it s endurance is often ,
remarkable I t is almo s t universally used for ship s bottom s for the first
.
’
and second coats and alone for i n s ide work .
I n a p p l yi n g o i l p a i n t it i s e s sential that t h e s t e el sh o ul d b e
,
p e r fe c t ly d ry fo r if not its adhesion may be very imperfect paint which

,
has been applied to wet plates may sometimes be torn o ff in ribbons I f .
the steel is warm when painted the adhe s ive and endu ring qualitie s of the ,
paint are greatly enhanced in evidence of this ca s es are sometimes cited ,
o f findin g when breaking up old iron structures the man u factu rers numbers
, ,
which were painted on the hot plates with whitelea d at the iron works .
A dvantage i s s ometime s taken of thi s circu m s tance in the ca s e of the ma s ts

and yards when once riveted up the interior of an ordinary spar cannot ,
be recoated but if as is common each plate is painted while s till hot after
, , , ,
rolling recoating i s unnece s sary

, .
The v a rn i sh e s u s ed for ships b ottom s contain i n s tead of oil a volatile ’
, ,
sp i ri t such as naphtha benzine turpentine or bisulphide o f carb on in w hich

, , , , ,
re sm s or gums are dissolved and in addition to give colour and body a

, , , ,
p i gment usually red oxide These s pirit varnishes are distinguished by

, .
[Ar t 4 6 9 .
probably be poisoned before they obtained a secure hold I t should be .
observed that when marine growths once secure an a ttachment the poison ous ,
nature o f the paint has little effect upon them for the attaching medium 15 ,
not like the roots of a plant a means of nutrition but acts merely as
, , ,
a mooring While a vessel when newly painte d i s lying in harbour the

.
, , ,
cont i guous layer of still water m ay b e rendered so highly poisonous as to

turn o ff or destroy any germs essay i ng to attach themselves ; but w hen at ,
sea any poison that exudes from the paint is so diluted by the limitless
,
volume of pure water passing over the surface that its deleterious e ffect ,
becomes inappreciable .
Th e success o f an anti fou ling paint depend s very largely on the -
vessel s movements a fter coating the time she lies in harb our the length
’
, ,
o f the voyage th e particular seas navigated ( whether warm tropical seas

, , ,
teeming with active germ life or comparatively cool sea s such as the ,
A tlantic) the season of the year and other matters

,
For vessels in a ,
.
regular trade and route a composition is usually found well suited to their
,
requirements but the same one might be quite usele s s in another vessel
,
di fferently engaged fo r it might wash O ff too quickly or too slowly or it

, , ,
might be insu ffi ciently poisonous or its anti fouling qualities might not be ,
-
fully develope d at the right time Mail boats and others making voyages .
,
to the East or to the C ape are recoated as a rule each time they come , , ,
home i e every three or four months but at certain seasons when germ
, . .
, ,
li fe is less active the same composition may serve for two voyages
, .
A merican liners navigating the cold A tlantic need only b e coated once a
, ,
year .
For s ailing ships making long voyages one o f the O lde s t and perhaps
-
, , ,
one of th e best anti fouling coatings is tallow melted down and applied
,
-
hot a little white zinc or red oxide being added to give body and colour ;
it ha
,
s the advantage not pos s essed by many other anti fouling compositions
,
-
,
of being also a very perfect anti corrosive A mong Other odd com -
.
positions commo n powdered blacklead mixed with sour beer or water

, , ,
acidified with vinegar is sometimes found to give excellent re sults O f, .
course anti—fouling compositions are only applied as an outer coat on the

, ,
top o f re dlea d or other anti corrosive paints ; to apply some o f them to -
bare plating might give very poor results fo r having as a single coat little ,
or no anti corrosive qualities they would be quickly thrown O ff by corrosion

-
,
o f the plating below A t each dry docking the bottom receives only one
.
coat o f anti foul i ng composition the one last applied having disappeared or
-
,
lost its anti fouling properties and o f course be fore coating the weed
-
, , , , ,
shells and loose paint are scraped off more or less thoroughly A s regards
, .
the preservation o f the plating it i s well sometimes to chip O ff all the old ,
paint and recoat the bare i ron with anti corrosive paint for after many ,
years paint loses its properties as a protective watertight covering in O ld

vessels it is common to find a hard scale o f oxide belo w the pa int When .
several coats are applied one a fter the other they should be di fferently , ,
tinted so that as each fresh one is put on no part may be omitted

, , ,
.
A r t 4 7 0 Wood s hips owing to their c o p p e r sh e a t h l n g enj oy perfect

. .
, ,
immunity from fouling The cop per sheathing not only prevents foulin g .
,
but protects the planks from the attacks o f worms ; in the latter respect it i s
essential i n all vessels navigating warm waters Marine growths ca nnot .
attach themselves to copper fo r the reason that its sur face is under a con ,
stant process o f convers i on into soluble poisonous salts o f copper which , , ,
in washing o ff ( or exfoliating as i t is sometimes not very aptly termed) ,

”
, , ,
carry away any germs which m ay fi nd a momentary fixture A copper .
sheathe d ship may remain afloat without docking as long as the sheathing , ,
Ar t 4 7 0]
439
lasts t e four years or more according to its original thickness At one

, . .
, .
time pure copper was used but latterly yellow metal was sub s tituted for , , ,
while possess i ng almost as good anti fouling properties it lasts longer and ,
i s cheaper With a view to still greater economy z i n c s h e a t h i n g has

.
,
been tried on wood vessels but though giving protection against worm s it , , ,
has no anti fouling propertie s .
Steel warshi ps are commonly sheathed with copper the under water ,
-
hull being first s heathed with wood to prevent metallic contact between the
two metals for of course if sea water penetrated freely to the steel shell
, , , ,
d i f this and the copper were anywhere in contact they would form a ,
powerful electric battery to the rapid destruction of the wetted steel Z inc , .
,
b eing electro positive to iron might be fixed as a sheathing directly to the

-
,
shell plating and by it s elf wasting away protect the steel and at the same
, , ,
time prevent the attachment of mari ne growths A part however fro m .

, ,
the difficulty o f attaching the zinc it was found in ca s e s in which it was , ,
tried t hat it wasted too rapidly through excessive galvanic action ; and
, ,
that where it did not waste thus rapidly it did not prevent fouling A s , .
noticed later s mall ve s sels are galvanized with zinc but this I S a di fferent
, ,
thing from zinc sheathing .
Between the years 1 8 6 0 and 1 8 7 0 be fore the opening of the Suez ,
C anal when the C hina tea trade wa s conducted with large sailing ships
,
-
( steamers could not then be profi tably employed on the long voyage roun d
the Cape ) a quick run home was s o important that the cleanne s s o f b ottom
,
due to copper sheathing was thought essential To revert to small .
wood ships was of course out of the question and to s heath iron ships
, , ,
with wood with a vie w to coppering them was deemed too costly
, , .
A ccordingly the well known c o m p o s i t e s ys t e m O f s h i p b u i ld i n g was

,
~
introduced in which the hull is built o f iron with the exception of the shell
, , ,
which is of teak wood from 5 to 6 inches thick No t many vessels were ,

.
constructed on this plan fo r with the opening of the Sue z C anal steamers , , ,
took up the tea trade and although i n the matter of s trength and dura ,
bi li ty those built have proved satis factory the advantage of immunity

, ,
from fouling is an insu ffi cient o ffset to their great costlines s For thi s and .
other reasons the composite system of construction is as regards merchant ,
vessels practically O bsolete fo r yachts however it is particularly suitable

, , , ,
and is frequently employed .
I n w a r s h i p s it is very necessary tha t the bottom should always be

—
clean for on this depends two of their essential qualities speed and small
,
coal consumption A ccordingly those which are likely to b e engaged in

.
,
distant crui s ing are always w o od sh e a t h e d a n d c o p p e r e d The pre

1
.
sent practice o f the Bri tish A dmiralty is to build the hull o f s teel through
out in the usual way and o f the u s ual scantlings and finally to fit teak
, ,
planking about 3 5 inches thick on the under water shell A t one time in -
.
,
order to insulate thoroughly the copper sheathing from the steel it was ,
thought necessary to fit t wo thicknesses o f planking ( Fig 2 P late .

,
Th e planks are fastened by n a va l br a ss bolts ( Art inserted from the .
outside and screwed right through the plating so that nuts may b e hove ,
up on their points within as a security against stripping of the thread in ,
the thin shell plating Their heads are sunk well below the su rface of the
.
wood and are covered with marine glue so that they may not for m points ,
of contact bet ween the shell plating and the copper Be fore the planking .
is fitted the watertightness of the shell plating 15 tested by hose and the bolt ,
holes are drilled i n the s hell after the planking i s fitted To avoid galvanic .
1
V l u b l i f m ti
a a e th ubj t f h th i g w i l l b f u d i
n or a on Si \V H
on e s ec o s ea n e o n n r . .
Whi te s p aper i n
’
th e Tr a n s I n st i tu ti on of N av a l A r ckztects fo r
. 1 8 95 .
440 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
[
A r t 4 7 0 .
action it is essential that no water shall pass through to the shell plating ,
and so not only is this thickly painted and the wood sheathing care fully
,
caulked but re dlead is inj ected between the planking and the plating so
, ,
that by filling every crevice water may neither find access nor lodgment
, ,
.
E very part o f the under water hull is covered with wood except the stem -
,
stern frame rudder and shaft brackets and as these therefore cannot b e
-
, ,
-
, , ,
o f steel they are of phosphor bron z e ( Art

,
A s the shell plating .
receives considerable sti ffness and support from the planks a reduction in ,
its thickness might be thought admissible but in large vessels the thickness
o f the plati n g is regulated by the requirements of longitudinal strength ,
towards which wood planks can contribute little assi s tance and in small ,
vessels where it may be dependent on the requirement s o f local sti ffness,

,
a reduction is usually undesirable for among other reasons i f the plating , , ,
were thinner than fi inch ( a common thickness in small warships) the ,
sheathing bolts tapped through it would have but a poor grip

, , .
A r t 4 7 1 G a lv an i z i n g is largely employed for protecting small

. .
deck fittings from rusting for rails awning stanchions bollards fairleads , , , , ,
ventilators deck b olts cleats etc The s e are well suited for galvanizing
, , , .
,
for they are small and being completely fini s hed be fore treatment there
, , ,
is little chance of the zinc coating being b roken of by s ubsequent hammer

ing I t is al so employed fo r the structural parts of s mall vessels whose
.
,
slender scantlings a ffo rd little or no margin against corrosion Torpedo .
b oats and small craft for tropical rivers and lakes are always galvanized ,
each plate and bar being separately treated in the galvanizing bath after it
is shaped and punched ready fo r fitting in place in the hull I n high .
class yachts the deck beams and deck plating are u sually galvanized with ,
a view to avoiding rusty discoloration of the cabin roof such a s might occur ,
through deck leakage or sweating .
A thin skin of zinc if it were complete and contin u ous would afford , ,
very perfect protection to the under water s h e ll p l a t i n g but as the -

,
riveting is done after the galvanizing not only are the rivet points exposed , ,
but the hammering may chip off the surrounding zinc with the result that ,
the exposed steel by forming a galvanic couple with the zinc may cause
, ,
its rapid corrosion and disappearance E ven apart from galvanic action .
,
zinc itsel f when exposed to sea water corrodes and wastes away rapidly
, ,
by oxidation For these reasons galvanized hulls and deck fittings are
.
painted in the usual way The galvanizing is u s eful nevertheless in .

, ,
a ffording additional protection an important matter in s mall b oats whose ,
shell plating may not be thicker th an 1 inch I t is particularly suitable fo r ,

.
r i ve r a n d l a k e b o a t s the bottom painting o f which may O ften be ,
scrubbed O ff for fresh water unlike salt does not corrode zinc and has
, , , ,
little galvanic e ffect Fresh water is also very inert as regard s ordinary
.
corrosion ; the fresh water lake steamers of N orth A merica for instance
-
, ,
suffer little from external corrosion even though the shell may b e imper ,
fe c tly covered with paint P aint adheres badly to a smooth galvanized .

,
surface but this may be overcome by artificially roughening the zinc by

, ,
treatment with some corrosive flui d 1

.
U ntil recently all articles were galvani z ed by immer s ing them in a bath
of molten zinc For slender parts such as shell plate s and frames this is
.
, ,
not satisfactory because the high temperature causes t h em to warp

, .
L ately however an electric process has come into use in which a cold
, , ,
solution of sulphate o f zinc takes the place o f the hot molten zinc a ,
suitable electric current causing the required deposition o f the metal By .
1t Se e M r P Wo od s pa per
. .
’
, R u s tless coa ti ng s f or i r on a n d s teel,
”
Tr a n s A m er i ca n
.
S oci e y f M ec/z a n i ca l E ng z n eez s

o
,
1 8 94 .
[Ar t 4 7 2 .
the floors ; s ome of the earlier vessels were not cemented and a case is on ,
record where shell plating inch thick was eaten through in six months 1
2
’
time To provide aga i nst the action o f sugar the cement was sometimes
.
1
worked up the floors and this is also done i n ve s sels which carry copper
,
ore for copper in solution i n the bilge water has a very corros i ve e ffect on
,
the i ron work The permanence and dur ability of P ortland cement is not
.
readily a ffected by ordinary substance s sulphate of ammonia however i s , ,
an exception it makes it quite so ft and as i t i s largely exported from this

, ,
country its i nju rious e ffect should b e kept i n view

,
.
I n the earlier iron ves s els the cement was laid very thick 3 or 4 inches ,
at least so that it might be level With the limber hole s in the floors and it
, ,
was usually mixed with broken bricks to form a concrete I n some fin e .
lined ships it was laid about halfway up the floors so that it might serve as
permanent ballast Y a c h t s require ballast to immerse them to their
.
designed water line fo r they carry no cargo and m u st be of fairly full form
, ,
below water in order to secure su ffic i ent breadth and area in th e ca bin
floor I n s teel yachts c e m e n t c on c r e t e is generally used for this
.
pu rpo s e in addition to portable i ron or lead ballast and sometimes cast

, ,
i ron blocks or scrap iron are imbedded in the cement The concrete .
amid s hip s I S usually laid so deep as entirely to cover the floors this is an
excellent arrangement as regards the durability of the structure for steel or ,
iron when buried in cement is practically everlasting The b ottoms of wood .
vessel s are not cemented for the ceiling plank s are here so thick and well ,
fitted that there is little cha nce of anything passing below nevertheless a ,
stray stone has been known to cut a dangerously deep furrow in the outer
plankin g The bottoms of composite vessels are cemented to protect the
.
plank s frames keel plates and numerous b olt heads

, , , .
I n modern ves s els to red u ce weight the cement on the botto m is

—
, ,
u s ually thin little more than 1 inch ; it i s worked up as a fillet over the
frame rivets and special drain holes provided as described in A rt 9 0
, It , . .
is usually laid rather thicker towards the keel where the greatest attrition ,
may occur and is tapered off towards the bilge ; but as noticed later it
, , ,
should not be thinner at any part than at least 1 inch I n laying it it is .

,
endeavoured so to work it that at no place may bilge water be trapped or

locked up but tend everywhere to run down to the keel and thence pass
,
fore and aft through the drain holes The pocket s between the deep
- - “
.
”
floors at the bow and ste m P late 2 9 and P late 1 1 0 ) are always filled ,
more or less deeply with c e m e n t c o n c r e t e limber holes being provided ,
at the proper height to drain off water if these confined and inaccessible
spaces were not filled with cement dirt would accumulate and ca use ,
continuous and unobserved corrosion When cement is as thick a s .
3 inches it is mixed with broken bricks or coke for th e resulting concrete

, ,
is cheaper and no less e fli c i e n t A coke concrete has the advanta ge of .
lightness but the coke should be hard and clean and the cement s o well
, ,
mixed with it a s to fill all interstice s Sometimes fo r the sake of economy .

, ,
furnace re fuse compo s ed of a s hes and small cinders i s s ubstituted for coke
, , ,
but this does not make a good solid concrete , .
A r t 4 7 3 C e m e n t has o t h e r a p p li c a t i o n s ; it is used as a pro

. .
t ec ti ve paving for the stringer plate in gutter waterways and for the deck ,
plating in the galley and donkey boiler house ; in the latter places it is -
particularly u s eful fo r it is una ff ected by dirt heat and moi s ture I n

, , ,
.
passenger vessel s the deck plating in the water closet s lavatories and bath -
, ,
rooms is cemented and tiled ; and when there are several water closets or -
bathrooms in a group the wood coamings of the part itions should be ,
M t ll T I
1
t t ti f Nar e l A hi t t
, 88 r a ns . ns i u on o av a rc ec s, 1 0 .
Art 4 7 4 ]
. P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
44 3
elevated above the tiles ( by fixing them to deep angle or Z lugs riveted to
the plating ) so as to keep them clear o f water and permit of the floor being
,
wa s hed by ho s e in one operation and of being drained by one scupper ,
( see Fig 2 P late .

, I t is also used for filling the trough like spaces -
between the frames at the sides of the tween decks and at the upper ’
margin o f the ceiling planking at the bilge ; as a substitute fo r wooden

wedges at the heels o f the m asts and for the deck plank next the hot ,
machinery casing I t is also sometimes employed under the winches and

.
steam pipe s of deck machinery .
I n s t e a m e r s w h i c h c a r r y c a t t l e to provide a good foothold the , ,
deck plating under the stalls is sometimes paved with cement and further , , ,
to prevent the animals from slipping and falling i n heavy weather ledges
of wood f oot— locks— are provided being fixed clear o f the cement to
,
— ,
, ,
proj ecting lugs tap bolted or riveted to the deck plating This cement .
covering a ffords little protection to the plating for as it seldom exceeds , ,

1 inch in thickness it does not adhere and as it has no marginal angle and
, ,
may become cracked in places water and uri ne from the cattle are free to ,
collect below with the risk o f unobserved and serious corrosion o f th e

,
plating For these reasons it is now common to substitute a thick coating

.
,
o f bitumastic cement or asphalt I n vessels adapted fo r the cattle trade

.
,
and whose deck s may b e o f wood the necessary protection from wear and ,
tear is s ecured by doubling the deck under the cattle stalls .
A rt 4 7 4 P ortland c e m e n t i s c o m p o s e d o f c h a lk a n d c l a y ( lime
. .
,
silica and aluminium ) ground down with water into a dough calcined in a ,
kiln and then ground into the familiar blue grey flowery powder When
,
-
, .
mixed or ga uged with water into a dough it undergoes in a few minutes a , , ,
chemical and molecular change it sti ffens and is said to set Some , ,
.
cemen t s may s et in ten minutes or less from the moment of mixing with
water others may take much longer— half an hour or more ; the former
,
“
would be described as q u i c k s e t t i n g the latter as s l o w se tt i n g
“ -
,
-
.
”
This set does not leave the cement hard it merely transforms it from a so ft , ,
wet dough into a comparatively dry solid ; its surface formerly glossy ,
with water becomes dry and to work it further more water must be added
, , , ,
.
Th e actual Iza r den i ng o f the cement a fter it ha s set is gradual it may be , ,
said to be hard when the thumb nail cannot indent it A quick sett ing
-
.
-
cement may harden within an h our a slow setting one in from tw o to six ,
-
hours ; this hardening is sometimes referred to a s the s econd or final set .
A distinctive characteristic o f P ortland cement is that it hardens just as

well under water fresh or salt but it takes about four times as long I t is
, ,
.
,
there fore termed a hydraulic cement

,
“
C ement should not b e worked .
”
or moulded after the period required fo r the initial set for it has then ,
crystalli z ed and to disturb it w ould prejudice its subsequent e fficiency

,
”
as a hard coherent and adhesive mass For ship work where a consider
, , .
,
able period may elapse be fore the gauged cement is finally laid in place a ,
slow setting one should be employed Freshly made cement is usually too
-
.
quick s etting if kept fo r some months it improves becoming slower

-
,
setting and more suitable fo r general purposes

, .
C e m e n t m a y b e fi n e o r c o a r s e gr o u n d I ts fineness is tested by -
.
si fting a sample through a hair sieve and noti ng what percentage does not
pass With an ordinary cement all but 5 to 1 0 per cent will pass through
. .
a sieve having 5 0 meshes to the lineal inch ( or 2 5 0 0 per square inch) and ,
an exceedingly fine one will all pass through a sieve having 1 8 0 meshes to
the line a l inch The finer the cement the stronger is its agglutinating
.
power when mixed with sand in the usual way i f used neat however i e , ,
. .
without sand it will be less s trong than a coarser one There are t wo
,
.
[Ar t 47 4 .
essentials in goo d cement : when set hard it must b e strong and du i ng th e ,

r
setting and hardening it must not shri nk and alter shape or blow as i t i s , ,
”
termed The principal test to which cement is s ubj ected is a t en s i le one

. ,
briquettes o f n eat cement 1 square inch in section b eing formed in moulds

, ,
and drawn asunder in a testing machine Th e s t r e n gt h increases wi th .
the age o f the briquette seven days is the period usually allowed duri ng ,
the last six o f which it is immersed in water The strength of a seven .
days briquette varies from 4 5 0 to 5 0 0 pounds per square inch the ,
standard commonly specified being 3 5 0 pounds I f a briquette is kept for .
a month it may become 2 5 p er cent stronger ; a slow setting cement .

-
,
although less strong at the end of a week than a quick setting one will -
,
gain more strength through time and ultimately will usually be the , , ,
stronger The above refers to neat cement in which condition the tests
.
,
are usually made When mixed with sand in the common proportion of
.
three of sand to one of cement the tensile strength will be considerably

les s—with ordinary cements little more than one third but with finely
,
-
,
ground ones about four fifths -

.
A n y t e n d e n c y t o b l o w i e to alter shape during the hardening is a ,

. . ,
fatal fault ; a cement that does so is unfit to b e used I t occur s usually in .
those which contain too much lime A good test for this defect is to place .
a small neatly moulded briquette on a piece of glass allow it to set hard

, ,
in a moist warm ptm o sphe re ( 1 0 0 degrees

,
and then immerse it for
twenty four hours i n warm water ( 1 1 0 degrees Fahr ) if it is then found to
-
.
be quite hard and adhering to the glass it is good but if deformation , ,
h a s occurred or if it has parted from the glass it is bad and unfit for use 1
.
, ,
Th e p r o p o r t i o n o f s a n d a n d c e m e n t adopted in ship work varies

greatly ; in some shipyard s equal parts are u s ed in others three of sand to ,
one of cement The less sand the stronger the finished mass but as a high
.
,
degree of strength i s not essential in a mere paving the precise proportion , ,
w hether three to one or less i s unimportant s o long o f course as b oth are

- -
, , , ,
o f good quality and are well mixed and properly applied When laid
, .
thick say over 1 3; inch a three to one proportion may be perfec tly
, ,
- -
efl i ci e n t ; if thinner a two to one or equal part s i s preferable fo r the

,
- -
, , ,
cement is then s tronger it adhere s b etter and is less pervious to water

, ,
.
Th e mixing is often done very carelessly the sand and cement being ,
measured in a rough and re ady fashion by shovel fuls and as a result , , ,
some parts o f the cemen t on the vessel s b ottom may have so much sand ’
as not to attain su fficient hardness and strength The sand should be free .
from loamy matter and it should be sharp i e the particles should not
, ,
. .
be round but jagged ; quartz sand is there fore the best Formerly
, , , .
,
importance was attached to the employment o f fresh water sand for it was -
,
thought that the salt in s ea sand prejudiced the hardness and durability of
the cement ; the presence of salt however merely reta rds the setting ; , ,
cement that is gauged with sea water takes about four times as long to set ,
but its ultimate hardness is little a ffected .
A r t 4 7 5 C e m e n t w i ll a d h e r e t o a n y c le a n s u r fa c e
. . A briquette .
one inch square placed on a sheet o f glass was found after a year to
, , , ,
have an adhesive force o f 1 2 5 pounds ; the adhesion to an iron plate after ,
a month was 6 8 pounds ,

?
A dhesion so per fect is rarely found in the
cement on a ship s bottom ; the cement in each frame space is firm and
’
immovable but its fixture appears to b e due chiefly to the dovetail

,
“
ing o f its margin where it covers the frame rivets ; i f broken away
”
,
carefully with a vie w to leaving an isolated patch on the smooth pla ting
, ,
1
Se e E ng i n eer i ng , Se ptembe r 2 2 , 1 8 93 .
2
S ee Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of Ci v i l E ng i n eer s,
. v ol. l xx i .
, p . 2 6 7.
small quantitie s are indirectly supplied much of it may be inherently bad , ,
a circumstance which may not be discovered for years afterwards I n .

.
cementing a ship s bottom only small quantities should be gauged at a

’
,
time it should be laid in place with out delay the sand and cement sh ould
, ,
be carefully mixed the plating should be free from oil and should b e
,
wetted or cement washed be fore the cement is laid upon it ; frosty weather
-
should be avoided for if the cement be frozen be fore it becomes thoroughly

,
hard its adhesion may be spoiled I t should be observed however that

,
.
, , ,
as regards concrete work on shore frost is not found to a ff ect the effi ciency ,
o f the work
1
.
A r t 4 7 7 The circumsta nce that ceme n t must be thick in order to

. .
,
give thorough and permanent protection to the shell plating detracts ,
con s iderably from the vessel s w eight carrying power I n some cases ’
-
.
,
there fore thi s is avoided by substituting a thin co vering of b i t u m a s t i c

'
c e m en t o r a s p h a lt This is applied in a hot molten state being laved

, .
, ,
over the sloping parts o f the bottom until by cooling it accu mulates , ,
su fficiently to cover the rivet heads When well applied it penetrates .
every crevice and as it adheres with pe rsi steflc e to the stee l it forms a
,
'
,
good anti corrosive covering ; nevertheless it ha s several obj ectionable

-
,
characteristics which make it very in ferior for general purpo s es to good

,
P ortland cement For although it form s an excellent anti c orrosive cover

.
-
ing it i s too thin to give su bstantial protection against the erosive action
,
o f loose stones etc A n d it is usually defective as regards perma n ence

, .
,
fo r if it s nature is such that it does not become brittle and crack it

may at times become so s oft a s to flow leaving bare the sloping parts ,
o f the bottom and rivet heads and accumulating in thick masses else ,
where A nother fault is the tendency to decompose an d rise in blisters

.
,
large and small which when broken are usually found to contain water
, , , ,
but in some cases inflammable gas Th e latter circumstance is a serious .
matter for it sometime s happens when th e inside of a d ouble bottom tank

, ,
i s being examined by candle light that the breaking of a bli s ter is followed ,
by an explosion to the danger of the investigator

, .
The fact that asphalt does not a fford sub s tantial protection against
erosive action i s comparatively u nimportant in the ca s e of a double
b ottom for here loo s e stones etc are rarely if ever present But to apply
, , .
, .
molten asphalt in an encl osed tank is impossible for the fume s would “
asphyxiate the men when adopted in new s hips it must be applied before
the tank top plating is fitted I n such case s should it become defective
-
.
,
at any time it cannot be renewed ; and to substitute P ortland cement is a

,
costly affair for to secure proper and permanent adhesion every particle
, , ,
of the t ough and firmly adhering asphalt must first be chipped o ff A sphalt .
was employed as a substitu te for cement in some of the earliest iron ve s sels ,
but it wa s found to b e unsatisfactory Later it wa s again introduced but .

,
at the pre s ent time its employment i s very limited for as none of the ,
asphalts available are free from one or other of the above de fects their ,
adoption has usually been followed by trouble and expen s e The bottom .
“
plating of warships is coated in side with black varnish ; and thi s i s al s o

sometimes employed within the double bottoms of merchant ves s els .
S E g i m g S p t mb r 2 9 1 8 99
1 ’
ee n ne n , e e e , .
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G Art 4 7 8
45 0 .
[ .
of every part o f the hull are ascertained it is constantly re ferred to b y the ,
draughtsman when arranging and ordering the plates and bars and when ,
giving to the workmen the necessary information fo r the shap i ng of the

di ff erent parts For the latter purpose it or a part of it i s drawn o u t full
. , , ,
“
size a procedure termed laying o ff
,
.
”
Notice b riefly the principles which govern the m e t h o d o f d e p l e t i n g

o n p a p e r t h e fo r m o f a v e s s e l s h u l l To indicate in a drawing the ’
.
shape o f a solid there must be at least two views of it ; thu s the shape o f ,
a rectangular box could not be determined from its plan alone i e from a , . .
V iew o f its top for only its length and breadth dimensions would appear ;
,
to indicate its third or depth di mension an elevation either o f its side or

, ,
end must b e given Further while only two views would provide all the
.
,
necessary data as to the dimensions o f the box they would not readily
—
,
convey to the eye its precise form ; for this three views are necessary a
plan a side elevation and an end elevation I n the sheer draught o f a
, ,
.
ship ( see P late 7 7 ) these three views are given the plan usually referred ,
to as the ka lf br ea dtk p la n
“
the side elevation or p r ofi le ; and the
-
“
,
end elevation or body pla n

“
,
I n the case of a rectangular box the form .
,
in each View is fully indicated by the outline only for the surface of which ,
this i s the boundary is a plane I n a ship however a single outline would .

, ,
give no idea of the form of the curved surface lying within it To depict .
this the hull must b e assumed to b e cut up into numerous parallel layers ,
or sections for then the outline of each layer ( all of which are drawn ) will
,
represent the contour o f the hull at each place The block o f wood from .
which the ship s model is hewn is composed of horizonta l planks ab out

’
1 inch thick glued or screwed together

,
When the model is viewed side .
ways o r endways the junctions or contour line s of the planks appear as

, ,
parallel straight lines but when viewed from above the model b ein g
—
, ,
keel up they appear as curved lines termed w a ter li nes or level li n es

-
,
“ “
,
.
I f now the model when viewed keel up were crushed flat without lateral
, , ,
-
, ,
deformation its original solid form would still be discernible from the
,
unchanged curved form o f the water lines ; and being no longer a s olid , ,
but a plane it would b e identical with the hal f breadth plan o f the sheer
,
-
draught .
The water lines are curved only in the half brea dth plan in the profile -
,
and body plan they are straight T0 show in the profile the curved form .
of the hull another set of layers or sectional planes must be assumed ; here
,
they are disposed fore and aft and perpendicular to the ve ss el s deck or - -
,
’
water lines Their contour lines are termed buttock li n es ( properly

.
“ ”
speaking those forward of midships are termed bozo

, and as shown ’
,
in P late 7 7 they are curved only in the profile for here they are parallel
, ,
to the plane of the paper whereas in the half breadth and body plan they ,
-
are perpendicular to it and of course whatever he the outline o f a plane , , , ,
it appears as a s traight line when viewed end on -

.
To show the curved form of the hull in the body plan still another set ,
of layers or sectional plane s must be assumed which in this case are ,
disposed in tran s verse vertical plane s H ere the conto u r lines are not , .
necessarily imaginary for they may repre s ent the ves s el s frames ( they are
,
’
“
termed f r a mes “
secti ons or ,
”
and o f course as before ,
”
, , ,
they appear as straight lines in the profile and hal f breadth plan I t will -
.
be observed that in P late 7 7 one side o f the body plan represent s the
forward hal f of the vessel or f or e bod
“
and the other the af ter body
”
y , ,
.
E very one o f the numerous points o f intersection o f the buttock ,
frame and w ater lines appear in each o f the three views o f the hull and
, ,
i f the three views are properly drawn i e i f each one represents the same
, . .
Ar t 4 7 8 ]
45 1
s hip viewed merely from different aspects the three repre s entations of any
, ,
particular point must occupy the same position in space ; that is to say they ,
must be the same longitudinal distance from the bow the same athwartship ,
or transverse distance from the fore and aft centre line plane and the s ame - - -
,
vertical distance from the top of the keel or base line ( see points P and Q ,
sho w n in the three plans in P late Th e position o f a point in any

particular view can of course only b e observed and checked as regards
, ,
two of these measurements fo r fore and a ft distances cannot be measured - -
in the body plan nor breadths in the profile nor heights in the half brea dth
, ,
-
plan I t will be observed by making measurements on P late 7 7 that the

.
, ,
points of intersection of each water line with each buttock occupy the same
fore and aft po s ition in the profile and hal f breadth plan and that they also
- - -
,
correspond as regards height in the profile and body plan and as regards
, , , ,
breadth in the body plan and hal f—

,
breadth plan I t follows therefore .
, ,
that if these points are situated on the surface of the hull the surface ,
indicated by them must be fair and regular in every direction because ,
curved lines ( buttock frame and water lines ) drawn through them in three
, ,
directions and which of necessity must also be on the same surface are
, , , ,
fair and regular .
Th e buttock frame and water line s represent the lines of intersection

, , ,
“
or traces o f three sets of planes ( vertical longitudinal vertical transverse
,
-
,
-
,
and horizontal ) with the vessel s hull But besides these the trace s of any ’
.
, ,
other plane may be shown thus in Fig 3 P late 7 7 the line A A represents , .
, ,
a fore and aft d i a go n al l y d i s p o s e d p l an e I ts trace in the profile

- -
.
and hal f breadth plan is shown by the curves AA ( obtained in the usual
-
way by measuring in the b ody plan the heights and breadths o f its points
,
O f intersection with the frames ) these however do not show the true form , ,
of the vessel s hull where cut by the diagonal plane nor of course the true
’
, , ,
fo rm and length of the curved trace This is shown by the curve A A on .

’ ’
the hal f breadth plan which is obtained simply by measuring on the line AA
-
, ,
in the body plan the diagonal distance s from the centre line to the points o f
,
inter section with the various frames and setting them o ff on their respective
-
,
frames on the hal f breadth p lan The diagonal line or plane under con
-
.
, ,
“
sideration is usually referred to as the b i l ge d i a go n al it will be
observed from the body plan that it passes through the intersection of the
rise o f flo o r and half breadth line and the load water and centre line I t
- - -
,
-
.
is a particular useful line in the work o f drawing and fairing the sheer
draught for as it meets the frames squarely the points of intersection are
, ,
de finite and easily loca ted which is not the case for instance with the , , ,
lower water lines and inner buttock s I t is al s o useful in that the vessel s .
’
displacement may be readily approximated from the area o f its plane ( as

contained between its true contour and the centre line in the hal f breadth -
plan ) for this i s dependent on and is affected by all three dimensions

, , , ,
length breadth and depth ; the area of a water line plane fo r instance can
, ,
-
, ,
give no indication of the displacement fo r it is una ffected by the depth or ,
draught o f the hull .
Th e foregoing describe s the finished s h e e r d r a u gh t N otice now .
h ow i t m ay b e dr a w n I t will be assumed that the o u tline of the

.
pro file and o f the upper deck in the half breadth plan are already drawn
,
-
, ,
as also the various straight water lines and frames What is now required .
is to indicate by curved line s in the body and half breadth plan the surface ,
-
,
of a well shaped ship which shall have the specified displacement or

-
,
volume A s the draughtsman in drawing these lines judges o f their

.
s uitability by the eye he must be familiar w ith the general form of the
,
vessel as regards fulness or fineness Th e precise degree o f fulness or .

S H I P E UI L D I N G Art 4 7 8
52 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
fi neness is ascertained by dividing the displacement in cubic feet ( i e the . .
volume o f the under water hull) by the volume of the rectangular tank -
which will j ust enclose the under water hull when denuded of its shell -
“
plating and keel This fractional figure is termed the coefii ci en t of fi nene s
. s ,
it expresses how nearly the hull approaches the full form of a rec tangular
tank ; if it were o f the same fulness i e if it itsel f were a rectangular tank , . .
,
the two volumes when divided would of course give unity i f it occupied , ,
only hal f the volu m e o f the tank the coe fficient would b e 0 5 and the , ,
volume of the tank ( i e the product O f the length breadth and draught O f
. .
, ,
the ship) multiplied by the c o e fli c i en t 5 wou ld of course give the di s 0

'
, , ,
placement O f the ship in cubic fe ét I n fi n e lined yachts the coe ffi cient .

1 -
,
may be as lo w as O 4 ; in full lined cargo boats it may be as high as 0 8 3 -

, .
Th e p r o c e d u r e followed by the draughtsman i n d r a w i n g t h e li n e s

depends on his experience and methods To an expert the form of the .
,
curved water lines and sections is so familiar that he is able to draw with , ,
little hesitation a suitable load water line in the hal f breadth and a fe w
,
-
,
intermediate sections in the body plan which when tested will be found , , ,
to represent not only a fair hull surface but one not very much astray as ,
regards fulness or fineness To test whether or not the sections roughly .
drawn in the body plan represent a su rface which is fair longitudinally the ,
breadth of each one at each water line or intermediate water line is set off , ,
—
on the half breadth plan and curved water lines are run as nearly as ,
possible through these points it will b e found that some points are too far
in or out relatively to their neighbours which means that these particular ,
frames on the body plan are too lean or too full H aving drawn the water .
lines from the roughly drawn frames as a basis the procedure is reversed , ,
the frames being corrected or drawn a fresh from the water lines as a basis
and i f this process is continued and curved b uttock lines or diagonals are ,
also drawn it will soon result in a perfect correspondence in all three sets o f
,
curves i e in the delineation o f a perfectly fair hull But before troubling

, . . .
,
to secure this result the d i s p l a c e m en t must be checked by calculation

, ,
which in the firs t instance need only b e approximate This is done by .
computing the areas of the transverse sections by planimeter or by the ,
well known rules for the mensuration of areas bounded by curved lines
-
,
2
and subsequently finding the area o f a plane bounded by a curve the length ,
of whose ordinates is represented by the areas of the sections just found ,
and whose length is that of the ship ; the result being the displacement ( or
half displacement) in cubic feet A s the lines so far have only been drawn .
, ,
in to the eye in a tentative fashion it is not to be expected that the dis

, ,
placement will be exactly what is required but when the discrepancy is ,
known a skil ful draughtsman may very quickly so fill out or reduce the
,
breadths o f the various curves as to add or take away the deficit or , ,
surplus volume .
Th e speed and accuracy of the work when done in this way is ,
evidently entirely dependent on the skill and experience of the draughts

,
man But there are variou s well known mechanical methods by which a
.
-
fair hu ll of any required degree o f fulness or fineness may be delineated

, ,
with con s iderable precision in the first instance without the need for
special skill or experience in the draught s man .
3
Th 1
t l di pl m t f th
e a c ua hi p w ld b th g t r d t th i
s ac e en i o e s ou e ra er re a e , ue o e n creas e n
th b l k f th
e u d ow t h ll d by th
e un h ll p l ti g
e r- a er u c ause e s e a n .
will b f d i M Th
2
I t ti i th i m tt
n s ruc on n ls w k T/
a ti l Ner l e o un n r . ear e s
’
or on ~
z eor c ca ava
A /i t t
rc z l i th t f M A ttw d
ec u r e, a so n a o r . oo .
A 3
x ll t l i w hi h th bi l g di g l i u d
n e ce en ru e , b i wi ll b f u d i
n c e e a ona s se as a as s, e o n
'
n
Mr .R Z i m m e rm a n n s p ap e r ,
.
’
A m et/z oa of obta i n i ng t/ze desi r ed di spla cemen t
’
in desi gn i ng
”
s ki s ,
p Tr a n s I n sti tuti on of N a va l A r c/ntects , 1 88 3
. .
454 PR A C TICAL SH IPB UIL D IN G .
[Ar t 4 7 9 .
wide o f the water line ju s t drawn by an inch more or less and the next , ,
operation is to measure the amended breadths set them off on the body ,
plan and run frame curves through them and i f some o f the latter curves
,
pass clear o f the spots the water lines are corrected to correspond and
, ,
then again the frames i f necessary until a perfect correspondence is

, , ,
secured The work of mea s uring the breadths and heights on the mould
.
lo ft floor is facilitated by making the centre and base line coincident with
the si de o f a long straight edge permanently fixed on the floor so that -
, ,
w h en the end o f the measuring batten is held against this it is certain that ,
it lies exactly over the centre or base line I n fairing the sections the , .
,
buttock lines and diagonals are al so used because the horizontal water lines ,
a fford but a poor check on the fairness of those portions of the frames
which approach the horizontal — as on the ve s sel s b ottom amidships and ’
,
under the quarters or buttocks A s yet only every fifth or sixth frame is laid .
,
o ff on the body plan and now the remainder are run in by measuring their
, ,
breadths from the corrected water lines and their heights from the buttocks ,
and as these lines are now perfectly fair this is straightforward work , .
Th e next operation is the simple one of transferring the completed

body plan to the scrive b oard ( see P lates 7 8 and For this purpose
the various breadths heights and diagonal di s tances are carefully marked
, ,
in penci l on any one o f the four sides of long battens 1 inch s quare in ,
section The height of the deck b eam s at each frame are also noted and
.
,
such other mea s urements as are necessary for accurately trans ferring the
various curves to the scrive b oard H aving serv ed their purpose these .
,
battens are usually preserved so that should it be required at any time to ,
build a duplicate ship the laying o ff work may be saved for of course th e
,
-
, , ,
battens embody practically all the in formation for which this work is
undertaken .
I t will be noticed that the only useful purpose served by laying o ff the
water and buttock lines in the half breadth and profile is to check the -
,
breadth and height measurements supplied from the small scale sheer -
draught ; n o w as in these two plans only breadths and heights are dealt
,
with it is evidently immaterial whether the frames on which they are set
,
o ff are the full distance apart or a smaller distance that is to s ay it does ,
not matter whether the length of the ship as indicated in the profile and ,
half breadth plan is laid o ff full size or on a c o n t r a c t e d sc a l e of say

-
, , ,
one quarter one third or one half full s i z e This contracted method o f
-
,
-
,
-
.
laying o ff is generally adopted fo r it has many advantages ; it permits of a ,
large ship being laid o ff in a small loft ; it is easier to fair the lines ,
because owing to the foreshortening they have a greater curvature and a

, , ,
good flexible batten when siza rj fily bent a ss umes naturally a fair curve ;
, , ,
there is less con fu s ion where the numerou s lines gradually approach and
cross one another and owing to the smaller fore and aft distances the
, ,
- -
,
laying off work is less laborious O f course when the profile is contracted .
, ,
a properly shaped stem ste m and stern frame must b e drawn separately
, ,
-
,
fo r making the moulds etc fo r these parts , .

, .
A r t 4 8 0 The spacing of the frames is indicated on the vessel s keel

’
. .
,
so that the lower part of each one as it is erected may be fixed in its , ,
proper fore and aft position Their upper parts are fixed temporarily
- -
.
together at the proper di s ta nce apart by fore and aft r i b b an d s one

, ,
- -
,
near the gun w ale and others between this and the keel I n fixing .
them to the ribbands their spacing might be adjusted simply by ,
measuring the f or e— a n d af t distance between them fo r which purpose ,
thwartship lines w ould have to be stretched across those frames which

varie d in bread th Sometimes t h is procedure is adopted but in most
.
,
Ar t 4 8 1 ]
455
cases the position of each frame is previously marked on the ribba n ds ,
their spacing as measured on these ( which o f course is variable ) , ,
being supplied to the Shipwrights from the lo ft on long battens To .
prepare these battens the loftsman first draws in the ribband lines on ,
the body plan takin g care not to place them in way o f the inner strakes
,
o f shell plating the side s tringers or keelsons They are also shown on
, , .
the scrive board ( P lates 7 8 and in order that their vertical position
may be nicked in on each frame The loftsman must now expand these .
ribband lines so as to obtain their true length and the po s ition o f the
,
variou s frames upon them When straight on the body plan this is a .
simple a ffair for they may be expanded in the half breadth plan by merely
,
-
measuring diagonal breadths and as the curved lines so obta ined appear in ,
full length the battens may at once be applied to them and the position
, ,
o f the frames marked for the use o f the Shipwrights .
I f the ribband line s are curved in th e body plan their true length may ,
be obtained as follows I n Fig 2 P late 9 4 AF is the ribband line as it . .

, ,
appears in the body plan I n Fig I A F is the same line as it appears . .

,
’
,
in the half breadth plan and a s obtained from Fig 2 by measuring hori
-
, .
z o n tal bread ths at each frame

; it does not here appear in its full length ,
however for while the point F is in the plane of the paper the point A is
, ,
’
the height Aa Fig 2 above it To show it in full length it is first ex

, .
, .
pan de d horizontally by applying a batten to it ( to A F Fig I ) marking on

'
.
, , ,
this the position o f the frames B C D etc and then springing it out on , , , .
,
any straight line as A F Fig 1 and transferring thereto the various frame
, , .
,
marks No w the point A or A Fig I is shown in Fig 2 to b e above

.
,
’
, .
, .
the level o f th e point F ( or the plane of the paper) by the height A a and ,
the heights of the intermediate points B C D etc are also shown and , , , .
, ,
accordingly i f in Fig 1 these heights are set off each one as a pe rpen
, , .
, ,
di cular then a curve a F ( Fig

, drawn through them will be the correct
, .
expanded length o f the ribband having upon it the proper position or ,
spacing o f each frame and from which the ribband battens and ribbands ,
may be accurately marked I n practice it is usually found quite sufficiently .

,
accurate to make a simple expansion o f A F as seen in the body plan ,
treating it as a diagonal by measuring breadths a long i t instead o f along ,
hori z ontal water lines .
A r t 4 8 1 A s noticed in A rt 8 1 the two flanges o f all frames beyond

. . .
,
the midship flat body are bevelled and not only is the bevel of every
’
, ,
frame di fferent but it varies throughout the length of each one The
,
.
bevels may b e li fted by the loftsman a s a final operation on the scrive

“ ”
board and are given to the workmen on b e v el b o a r d s one of which is

, ,
shown in Fig 1 1 P late 8 0 ; otherwise the workmen may lift them them
.
,
selves for each frame as required What is wanted is the bevel o f each
, , .
frame at intervals of four or five feet in its length For this purpose the . ,
loftsman sometimes scrives in a few diagonal or b e v el li n e s across the body ,
plan the intersections of which with the frames indicate to the workmen
, , ,
the points in each one at which the various bevels must be applied in
the actual b evelling work ; otherwise the water lines s hell landings or , ,
ribband lines are made to serve as bevel lines Th e lifting of the bevels .
is a simple operation Fig 1 1 P late 8 0 represents part o f a scrive board . .

, ,
with two frames scrived upon it No w i f the frames are spaced 2 feet .
,
apart in the ship the actual relative positions o f the two frames in Fig I I
,
.
are shown by their sections in the upper sketch and the bevel of frame 5 ,
is shown by the angle b The bevel o f any frame at any point may there . ,
!
fore be obtained merely by setting up a pe rpendicular ED in length equ al

, , ,
to the frame s pacin g at on e e n d of th e sho rt l i ne C E drawn s qu a re ly , . , , ,

[Ar t 4 8 2 .
bet ween the particular point and the adjacent frame and completing the ,
triangle C E D I n the lower sketch Fig I I there is shown a contrivance

, .
, .
,
fo r li fting the bevels which when considered in conjunction with the , ,
upper sketch explains itsel f , .
A r t 4 8 2 N otice now some of the more important practical opera

. .
tions of the drawing ofli c e O n the completion o f the sheer draught the .
_
model and w orking drawings may b e made and the s tructural material ,
measured for ordering from the steel works Th e latter operation is usually .
re ferred to as the [or d e r i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l Th e var i ous plates and

”
bars cannot of cb urse be ordered of the precise finished di mensions for

.
‘
, , ,
these are n o t known until the parts are actually a bout to be fitted 111 place
in the ship aimed at i s to order them o f such a size as will provide
.
just su fficient margin fo r inaccuracies in the measurements made from the

s mal l scal eplans and model and for slight di fferences 1n the shape o f the ,
p art as shown on the plans or model and as fitted in the ship I f gi rl ,

.
i s ordered too small it is o f course useless for its inten d ed purpose , , ,

“ ,
and be fore another is procured s erious delay may occur I f the .
N
ordered are much i n excess the s urplus material re ,
moved i n shaping the part will be large and as this s c r a p s t e el when

w
, ,
returned to the steel works only fetches ab out one third o f the price , “
ori ginall y paid for it the loss in each shi p may b e considera le Th e
b ,
.
a ir -
n N
‘
material i s weighed as it leaves the steel w orks and the weight I S entered
k‘ m ~ ,
1n vo i ce ; the di fference therefore between the invoiced w eight and

h ‘
, ,
the we1ght o f the steel worked into the ship represents the total waste or
scrap I e percentage of scrap varies with the care and skill o f the
.
‘
draugh tsman who orders the material ; 7 per cent is a low fi gure 1 1 per .
,
cent i s a high one I t

. be minimized if instead o f measuri ng all size s
.
, _ M
from the small scale plans and model accurate measurements are obtam e d
G Q
a. fi
f n
-
,
from the fu ll size lines i n the mould lo ft The more important measure
-
.
ments afé usually checked in this way but not always fo r where great
'
"
, , ,
expedition i n building is required it may be inadmissible to postpone the ,
ordering o f the material until the laying o ff work is completed -

.
N otice some of the more important matters in connection with the

ordering of the material As regards the fr a m e s only a fe w are shown .
,
on the b ody plan but when their lengths are measured with a flexible ,
batten and set o ff on paper as ordinates from a base line a curve drawn
through the s pots at once permits of the intermediate ones being corre ctly
, ,
measured The lengths o f the frames are usually measured on the heel
.
,
and as the outer flange of the frame angle stretches considerably d uring
the bending process little or 11 6 margin o f length i s required I n tbe case , .
of the side frames howev er when deep and sti ff they should b e ordered
‘
, ,
fro m9 to r 2 inches long because it is impracticabl e to b end them properly , ,
right up to the end Th e r ev e r s e fr a m e s may b e set o ff in a similar .
way on the same expansion plan but as they contract slightly during the
, ,
bending they must be ordered full 1 e assuming them to be measured on , . .
the line of the heel .
P l a t e s a s o r d e r e d from the steel works may be tapered on one or

both sides ( Figs 1 3 and 1 5 P late or on one or both ends ( Figs 1 4
.
,
.
and m which cases one length and two breadths or two lengt hs and ,
one breadth are given in the order with a statement of the nature of the ,
taper O r they may be o f quite an odd form in which case a sketch

.
,
with figured dimensions must be provided ( Fig A s the cutting o f .
od dly shaped sketch plates involves extra labour and waste at the steel -
works an additional charge 15 usually ma d e should there b e an excessive

,
number o f them .
[Art.4 8 2
For the purpose of identification every plate and bar is ordered under ,
some d i s t i n gu i s h i n g i n i t i a l l e t t e r a n d n um b e r which are painted on ,
them at the steel works Thus the frame angles are u sually marked F1
.
, ,
F2 etc
,
the reverse bars R I R 2 etc tank top plates T T ; upper deck
.
, , , .
-
,
-
plates U D ; bulkhead plates B H etc D i ff erent s trakes of plating are

, , , .
usually identified by letters in the case of the shell for instance A

, , ,
represents the garboard strak e B the next ; and the plates in each strake
, ,
are numbered consecutively be ginning from the stem or stern Beside s

, .
these marks the ordered dimensions o f each plate and bar are painted on
,
them at the steel works and as each part is delivered in the shipyard it s ,
size and thickne ss are care fully checked similar parts being stacked or
"
laid together in separate batches under a travelling crane s o that they may ,
be easily found li fted and taken away by the workmen I f the steel has
, .
been tested by Lloyd 5 R egister every plate and bar i s stamped with the
,
Society s well known monogra m ( th e letters LR s uperposed ) or if tested

’
-
,
by the Bureau V eritas or British C orporation with their monogram or ,
initials and to ensure that only tested material is received into the ship
,
yard these stamp mark s should be looked for and examined

, .
Art 4 8 4 ]
4 59
C H A P TE R XXX I I I .
Ar t . 483 Before describing the operations connected with the bending

.
or setting of the frames , it will b e well to notice the information supplied

to the workmen , and some o f the shipyard plant necessary for the work .
The r i v e -b o a r d has already been d escribed , and the two bodies o f a

sc
sailing ship as scrived upon it are shown in P late 7 8 ( for clearnes sake
-
’
s
some of the frames have been omitted ) A s the frames on both sides o f .
the ship are alike only one side need be shown in each body ; when there
,
is a cellular double bottom however the lower part in way of it is u s ually , , , ,
drawn in full I n ve s sels o f unusual or complicated structural design

.
,
such as wars hips both sides are scrived in Scrive b oards ( Fig I I P late
, . .
,
8 0 ) may be o f pitch pine yellow or white pine P itch pine is the best , , .
,
fo r its surface does not tear under the scriving kni fe even though the
lines be close together and as it is hard the lines are not readily effaced
, , ,
by wear I nferior b oards are roughly made of white pine board s A

.
-
.
good solid b oard may be made with deck planks The most e ffi cient are .
made of pitch pine planks about 1 1 by 2 5 inches b u ilt in large batc he s

-
,
-
, ,
and j ointed with metal dowels so that they may be put together temporarily ,
i n the lo ft and on the completion of the scriving work taken to pieces

, , ,
and united again precisely as be fore in the frame shed ; in this way time
, ,
may b e saved and the frame setting work o f various vessels carried on
,
-
without intermission A fter the frames of a s hip are finished the scrive
.
,
board may be planed and blackened for another ; o ften however it is , ,
not planed the body plan of the new vessel being scrived in over that of
,
the old which by this time is usually almost obliterated To preserve

, .
the surface of the board fro m the wear and tear due to the repeated
application of heavy framing material thin strips o f iron are s ometimes ,
nailed acros s it .
A r t 4 8 4 The s crive board does not show the structural arrangement

. .
of the frames but merely their curvature and the position on each one o f
,
the shell landings side stringers keelsons deck b eams floors etc The
, , , , ,
.
necessary detailed information is supplied to the men in a fr a m e li s t and ,
a plan o f the m dship section and profile The frame list is a tabulated
’ i
.
statement fully describing the peculiarities of each and every frame I t takes .
account of and indicates the following matters The scantlings o f each

, .
frame angle reverse bar and floor Th e height to which the reverse bars
, , .
extend Those frames which have to be cut at watertight deck flats or at

.
,
cargo ports scuppers etc and those which have heel pieces at the centre
, , .
,
line or are doubled at any parts and to what extent Those to which
, ,
.
beams are at tached with the depth of the beam knees and the number
, ,
and si z e of the connecting rivets Those which are o f web type and .
,
those to which watertight and other bulkheads are attached Those whose .
shell flange is reversed fo r special reasons or whose floor plates re quire to ,
be punched fo r intercostal plates Those in the machinery space which .
have double reverse bars and in which special rivet holes are required for ,
[Ar t 48 4
.
the attachment of the engine seating boiler and sha ft s tools etc The , , .
connection to th e margin plate is also described whether by si ngle o r ,

‘
double lugs or by gusset plates The spacing and size of the rivets is also .
given for each part o f each frame and the spacing o f the bolt holes in the ,
reverse bars for the ceiling planking and sparri n g Together with th i s , ,
.
in formation detailed sketches of odd parts with dimensions should be , , .
given so t hat as each frame is taken in hand the men may by noting its
, , , ,
peculiarities on the list and in the profile plan construct it exactly as ,
required The neglect to provide sufficiently full information may o f

.
,
course lead to considerable trouble and expense through the necessity

, ,
o f ma king alterations subseque n tly when the various parts of the hull are , ,
put together .
A r t 4 8 5 The b e n di n g s l a b s or b lo c k s on w hich th e re d h o t
~
~
. .
, ,
frames etc are bent form together a solid cast iron floor ( see Fig 5
, .
, ,
-
.
,
P late 8 2 and Figs 5 and 6 P late 8

,
The individual slabs vary in si z e ;
.
,
in Scotch yards they are usually from 5 to 6 feet square by 5 or 6 inches ,
thick Thickness is advantageous not only in giving anvil like s olidity

.
,
-
against the blows of heavy hammers but in reducing the tendency to ,
deformation ; fo r owing to the heat and the constant hammering th e , ,
upper surface o f the slabs expands laterally and in doing so becomes , , ,
convex i e each slab bends gradually upwards in the centre ; in the course
, . .
o f a couple of years 6 inch slabs may become rounded to the extent o f half ,
-
an inch I n practice this tendency is corrected by periodically turning

.
them upside down The slabs are pierced with holes from 1 5 to 1 % inches .
,
-
in diameter about 4 inches apart ( Fig 5 P late

,
I n shipyards on the .
,
north east coast of England the holes are square ( Fig

-
Square holes are .
superior to round in that as square pins cannot turn in them they greatly , ,
facilitate the maki ng up

“
With square holes the making up may be .
”
,
precisely the same as with round ones but it may al s o be made with square ,
section L headed pins ( see P Fig

,
-
and a wedge shaped locking pin , .
- -
may be inserted in the hole alongside of a s quare pin ( as shown at E - ~
Fig . so that the latter being deprived of side play may not turn but , , ,
stand ri gidly to its work .
The surface of the slabs as a whole should lie i n one plane s o that , , ,
when the frames etc are hammered down flat upon them they al so may , .
, ,
be in one plane A s the slabs form together a very heavy mass they must
.
,
h ave a solid foundation to avoid subsidence and un fairness of sur face , .
There must be an open space below them so tha t the scale and slag which ,
drops o ff the hot bars and other small objects may fall through and not , ,
choke the ho les They m ay be supported at the corners only by shor t

, .
vertical blocks sitting on cross logs otherwise they may sit on low
, ,
foundation walls of brick or concrete To prevent the slabs from shi fting .
under the s evere lateral forces brought to bear when bending heavy frames
and stem bars the outer rows are tied together by cross bars running
,
u de rn e a th contiguous outer slabs being connected by edge fi sh

p
p ates .
The frame angles are heated in a long flue like f urn a c e o f r ev e r ,

-
,
b e r a t o ry t yp e heated by coal fires placed in side chambers at interval s

,
throughout its length O nly flame and heated gases enter the furnace .
proper and a fter passing from end to end they turn back under the floor
, , , ,
heating thi s still further on their way to the chimney The stoking or firing .
must b e carefully done so that the furnace may be maintained a s nearly as ,
p o ss1ble at an equal temperature throughout ; i f much hotter at one part

than another a frame bar in course o f heating might be overheated or
, , ,
burne d at one part while insuffi ciently hot at another } Some modern ,
[Ar t 48 6 .
in such matters the workmen soon ascertain what is the proper allowance
,
to make .
Th e batten is now laid out straight on the top of the particular frame
bar ( keeping their upper ends flush) s o that the po s ition o f the rivet holes ,
may be ind icated by chalk marks across it ( Fig 1 9 P late I n marking .

,
those on the shell flange a blank space must be left in way of the landings
, ,
fo r the holes here are not punched until the frames are erected The hole s .
on either side of the landing ( i f there is only one landing rivet ) are not
placed s ymmetrically with it but with the probable position o f the landing ,
rivet which as noticed in A rt 5 1 9 is placed close to the edge of the

, ,
.
,
overlapping plate ( Fig 2 3 P late I f the holes in the varying distances

.
,
between the landings cannot be spaced exactly in accordance with the list
they should b e placed closer together—mot wider apart A hole should
,
not be placed exactly opposite the deck marks for the presence of the deck ,
stringer and b eams may interfere with the holding up of the rivets and ,
similarly with intercostal side stringers keelsons and the lower edge o f bulb , ,
and channel beams having plate knees .
A s the transverse flange of the frame bar is a wide one and the holes ,
are not punched in its centre their po s ition a s regard s the toe is indicated ,
by drawing a line upon it ( Fig 1 9 P late 8 1 ) from end to end of the bar .
,
( by means o f a gauge and a piece of slate ) A t the lower part of the bar .
,
where it connects to the floor plate the holes are reeled i e slightly , , . .
zigzagged ( Art which disposition is indicated by placing the chalk

.
marks on either side of the gauged line as shown in Fig 1 9 I n this ,

. .
flange a blank space must b e le ft in way of each beam knee fo r the s e ,
holes are marked subsequently by template ; and a blank space should

also be left in way o f the side stringer s so that the holes for the connecting ,
lugs may be correctly placed later An d similarly a blank s pace s hould .

, ,
be le ft in way o f the flo orh ead The drain holes are also marked at .
,
this time clo s e to the heel o f the bar in accordance with the midshi p
, ,
’
se c t l o n .
A fter
a number of frames have been marked the corresponding r e v e r s e ,
b a r s are taken in hand The heel of the reverse bar lies within that of
.
the frame angle with ordinary frames it is distant the depth o f the frame
angle and so in applying the batten on the scrive board it is kept this
, , ,
distance within the frame scri ve Starting as before from the upper end .
, ,
of the bar ( the position of which is indicated on the frame list ) the various ,
deck s side stringers and the floor head are marked and when the latter
, , ,
point is reached the batten is carried round the upper e dge of the floor as ,
indicated by its scrive line and the side keelsons and centre line marked ,
upon it The batten is then laid alongside of the straight reverse bar the
.
only hole s now to be marked are tho s e in its fore and aft flange for the - -
bolts for the ceiling planking and s parring which are spaced ( in accordance ,
1
with the frame li s t) between the keelsons side s tringers and decks the , , ,
positions of which are marked on the batten Th e holes in the other .
flange for the connecting rivets to the frame are trans ferred subsequently
from the fra me angle itself .
Th e p u n c h i n g o f t h e b a r s is ca rried on simulta n eou sly wi th the

marking by another plater assisted by a number of helpers small or large
, , , ,
according to the weight of the bars dealt with Long heavy bars ar e .
,
supported at the punching machine on trestles having a top friction roller ,
or on large drums ; very heavy bars are s uspended from a crane A s no .
great precision is required in the placing of the holes the punch may be ,
Th b l t h l f th p
e o i g l t
o es o r
g l l y
e s d i l l
ar r nd b d i th hi p ft r
c e a s a re e n era r e or ea re n e s , a e
the sp i g i l i d i f i ly w i th b tt
a rr n s ne n a r a en s .
Ar t 4 8 7 ]
worked at a high Speed making 4 0 or 5 0 holes per minute The bars are ,
.
not cut to length u ntil they are bent .
A r t 4 8 7 When a number o f fr a m e b a r s are punched the work of

. .
,
b en di n g or se t t i n g them is taken in hand thi s being done by another ,
plater assisted as be fore by a number of helpers The first operation is to

,
.
bend a set seei r on or r ef ba r to the frame scrive This is a long flat bar o f
,
-
,
-
.
,
soft iron ( Fig 2 P late 8 2 ) about 1 5 by inch more or less according to

.
, ,
the scantlings of the frames it is usually in two lengt hs but to simpli fy the ,
following description it will be assumed to be in one A s the frames are .
usually erected in the ship from aft forward the a ftermost are the first !
,
required and are there fore the first bent ; sometimes however where
, , , , ,
expedition is necessary they are erected from midships working towards ,

’
,
both ends in which case the midship frames may be taken in hand first
,
’
and those of the two b odies may be bent s imultaneou s ly by s eparate

squads on di fferent slabs
, .
Suppose now that a frame near midships is about to be bent the first
’
operation is to modify the curvature of the set iron which has j ust been -
,
used for the preceding frame This is done by applying it to the scrive .
,
and where it does not correspond striking it edgewise with a hammer a , ,
pair of large hammers being held up behind on either side of the place ,
about to be s truck ( see Fig 2 0 P late or a single large hammer may .

,
b e used (as shown by the dotted lines ) Finally when it coincides with the .
,
frame scrive the position o f the top of th e frame o f the floor head and o f
, , ,
the various bevel lines or points at which the bevels are li fted are marked
, ,
upon it I t is then laid on the bending slabs ( as shown at A Fig 2

.
, .
,
P late its upper end next the furnace door and its outline and the ,
variou s marks are chalked upon them A n d then another curve is drawn .
parallel to the first by means o f a gauge to represent the toe of the

, ,
transverse flange of the frame angle ( B Fig Th e set is then turned , .
upside down and its outline again chalked on the s labs this second mark
, ,
b eing for the frame on the other side o f the ship .
Th e set must now be fixed down on the slabs so that it may serve as a
pattern or mould round which to bend the bar ; but as its cu rvature is at
present that of the outside or heel o f the frame it must be modified to ,
correspond with the inner curve o n toe ( B Fig 2 P late as chalked , .

,
on the slabs After this adjustment there is another matter to consider

.
,
b efore fixin g it down namely the tendency of an angle b a r ( or any other

, ,
bar not symmetrical in cross section ) to warp or bend as it cools I f a .
straight red hot angle bar is left alone to cool it will when cold be bent as
,
-
, , ,
in Fig 1 9 P late 8 0 This is due to the fact that the material forming
.
,
.
the toes or tips of the flanges cools before the rest for it is slender and ,
expo s ed I n cooling it does not freely contract fo r it is restrained by the

.
,
still hot and un co n tracti n g mass elsewhere ; and when subsequently the , ,
latter ( the greater bulk o f the material) cools it contracts in a natural ,
manner being little impeded by the distant toes and as these now cold
, , , ,
fail to contract with it there results a uni form bending o f the bar ,
If .
,
therefore a frame angle were bent in the first instance to its proper shape
, , , ,
the above warping action would cause it to straighten during the cooling
and lose s ome of its curvature and at the s ame time cause its middle part ,
to bend upwards from the slabs The latter deformation may be easily .
corrected by downward blows from a hammer and the former may be ,
provided against by the simple expedient o f bending it in the first instance , ,
to a slightly greater curvature I n practice therefore after the set has .

, ,
been adjusted to the curve of the toe of the frame angle it is sprung ,
e bent within the elastic limit) outwards by fixing its two ends and
( i
. . ,
[ .
pulling it outwards in the middle a fdo t or so according to the length o f ,
the bar b eyond its normal position ( as shown at C Fig 2 P late

,
As ,
.
,
the excess o f curvature should be uniform from end to end the pulling ,
or bending force should not all be concentrated at the middle point I n .
the course o f bending the numerous frames the workmen s oon ascertain ,
what is the proper excess o f curvature to allow .
The set is then fixed down on the slabs by means o f dogs or lzoldf a sfr -
,
and its inner edge is backed up against the pressure o f the frame bar b y
pins roun d or rectangular placed in the slab holes in the manner indicated
, ,
i n Fig 6 P late 8 3
.
,
No t many holes may b e so placed with regard to the
.
set that pins in them will just bear against its edge in which case L headed ,
-
pins are used or straight pins may be inserted in the nearest holes and the
, ,
space between made up with bits o f iro n washers and wedges o f which
.
, , ,
there is at hand a large quantity o f various shapes and sizes ; when the
holes in the slabs are round as in Fig 5 ca st iron perforated discs ,
.
,
-
,
circular or cam shaped may be used Where the sti ff heel of the frame
-
, .
takes contact with the set the frame may be bent against pins only the , ,
set iron not being interposed ( Fig 6 P late

-
.
,
As shown in Fig P late 8 d is simply an L—shaped bar o f

1 2 0 a o g .
, ,
—
round iron about 5 inch in diameter or rather smalle r tha n the slab holes
1 , , i
.
Th e two arms one o f which is shorter than the other meet at an angle
, ,
about 1 0 degrees less than a right angle so that when the short one is ,
inserted in a slab hole the end o f the long one is the first part to take
,
contact with the surface of the slab or with the flange o f th e frame a n gle
which it is required to clamp down I f now the dog is driven into the .
hole the end of the long arm will exert a pressure on the slabs i f driven
,
further and further down the pressure will increase the angle between the
, ,
arms w ill open and finally the dog will bend permanently or break The
, .
reason why it is able to exert so powerful a down “ard clamping pressure

without rising out o f the hole is that the friction set up at the two points ,
of contact of its short arm with the sides of the hole in the slab
increases with and is always in excess o f the upward pressure at the
, ,
end of its long arm I n Fig 1 2 any increase of the pressure at A

. .
is followed by a similar but greater increase in the two equal horizontal

pressures at B and C ( the force at A multiplied by the length of the ,
long arm is equal to the fo rce at B or C multiplied by the thickness of

,
the slab ) but the latter two forces each beget a vertical frictional
,
resistance F with the s lab which increases as they increase and is always
,
in excess o f the vertical force at A The clamping pressure at A is .

,
therefore limited only by the breaking strength o f the dog Th e dog may
, .
be instantaneously released however tightly driven by simply striking it a , ,
horizontal blow at B for this causes a momentary dis s ipation o f the

,
frictional resista nce at this point When dogs are unduly forced they .
bend or break at the elbow and sometimes to avoid this they are made o f , , ,
cast steel with an en largement at the elbow but as elastic bending is

, ,
essential to a s ecure grip such dogs are o f little use A nother kind o f dog
, .
,
used by Shipwrights for temporarily clamping timber is shown in Fig 3 0 , .
( see also Fig 1 4 P late .

,
While the set is in process of fixing the frame angle is heating in the ,
furnace, heel up with its keel end next the door

, When at a bright .
yellow i t is pulled out ( by a long bar hooked into one of the rivet holes
.
,
or by tongs with chain attached) and it s end placed w ithout delay against ,
the set and there fixed with dogs and pins A s the bar contracts in cooling .
( about 7 inch to the foot ) its end is kept from 1 to 3 inches beyond
“
1
1 ; ,
the deck mark as chalked on the slabs Th e bar is then pulled round .
[Ar t 4 8 7 .
fo r the pressure water being led to it from the roof o f the shed so as not ,
to interfere with its movement ) and may be quickly placed against any ,
part o f the frame being backed up by a pin inserted in a hole in the slabs
,
.
The use of this power ful and handy contrivance e ffects a great saving in
time and labour and ensures good work however sti ff and heavy the bars
, , .
Frames which have considerable bevel are b e v e l le d b e fo r e b e n d i n g ,
and are reheated for the bending process A straight bar is bevelled by .
-
hand— a s follows I mmediately it is withdrawn from the furnace the ends

.
are dogged loosely down and the bevelling lever is then applied to the ,
standing flange ; as each part of this is successively bent over th e other ,
flange rises from the slabs as sho wn in Fig 2 2 P late 8 0 and i s struck ,
A
.
, ,
down by a succession of quickly delivered blows from four or five hammers .
Th e ab ove procedure tend s to curve the flanges as shown in Fig 2 6 , .

,
instead o f bending them over from the throat or heel a s shown in Fig 2 7 , .
,
and this de formation must be corrected subsequently by applying a , ,
fl
'
a lfen zng i r on as shown in Fig

,
26 A s the bevel is reduced by this . .
flattening proce s s it must be made exces s ive in the first instance The
, .
bevelling is te s ted a s before by the application of bevel squares the , ,
bevel stations being previously chalked on the slab s ; per fect accuracy is
not required at this period for the s ubsequent bending tends to alter the ,
bevel and any discrepancies may be made good when the bar is again hot
, ,
after the bending A nother way to bevel a straight bar is shown in Fig 2 8
. .
the tool A while being moved grad ually along the bar is struck a series
, ,
of blows with heavy hammer s The ab ove methods o f bevelling are only .
“
applicable where the bevel is O pen or obtuse ; a close “
shut or ,
”
,
”
,
”
acute bevel is not so easily impressed Th e bevelling lever cannot well .
b e used for a close bevel b ecause as its j aw cannot grip the standing , ,
flange close to the root it rounds it over as shown in Fig 2 5 a deformation

, , .
,
which unlike that which occurs with an open bevel is not easily remedied
, ,
by the fl attening iron For this reason a close bevel is usually impressed
.
,
simply by hammering the flange numerous blow s b eing s truck clo s e to ,
the heel of the bar a s s hown in Fig 2 9 , . .
M ost yards are equipped with a b e v e lli n g m a c h i n e I t runs on rails .

,
and when a bar is about to be bevelled is pushed in front o f the furnace door
, , ,
so that the bar passing between its rollers is drawn out of the furnace and
, , , ,
at th e same time bevelled to any degree The action o f the machine i s

,
.
shown by the diagram Figs 4 and 5 P late 8 0 The roller R revolves by

”
.
, .
,
steam or electric power ; the three mitred discs ab ove it run loosely .
Th e central disc A may be inclined to the right or left ( by means of the

hand wheel B) and as in making this movement it i s constrained to
, , ,
pivot about its lowest point it bends the flange over from the throat , ,
without curving it The inclination of this disc is indicated automatically

.
by the pointer C The bevels supplied to the men in the case of machine
.
,
b evelling are given in degrees and are li fted by the loftsman ( or by

, ,
the frame bender himself) at every 4 feet in the length of each

-
frame .When a bar is about to b e bevelled the workman tick s off ,
its particular bevels or angles with chalk on the bevel indicator D , , ,
marking them 1 2 3 etc The bevel marked 1 is that required at the end
, , , .
o f the frame N o 2 is that required 4 feet from the end

, . No 3 8 feet , .
,
from the end and so on A s the bar enters and pa ss es through the
,
.
machine the man who works the hand wheel B must observe that when
,
-
the end of the bar enters the machine he has the pointer C at No 1 bevel .
,
and that during the next 4 feet of travel of the bar he ha s caused it
to move gradually to No 2 bevel H e does not require however to . .
, ,
watch the progress of the bar itself for this is conveniently s hown by the ,
Ar t 4 8 7 ]
46 7
clock faced indicator E The s e machines can also bevel Z and bulb angle
-
.
-
bars After passing through the machine a bar i s still s u fficiently hot fo r
.
,
the bending process ; one 4 0 feet long fo r instance may be bevelled in , ,
little more than a minute I f bevelled by hand before bending it requires

.
, ,
to be reheated The machine thus saves both time and labour ; and it
.
does it s work well fo r whether the bevel be close or open it bends the
, ,
flange over from the throat and leaves it fair and regular conditions , ,
scarcely attainable with hand work I t should be ob served that i f the bar .
is very hot and soft the pressure o f the feeding roller if too great tends
, , ,
to lengthen it and throw out the landings and rivet holes

When impressing a considerable bevel on the frame bars it is not
.
practicable to bend both the flanges over preci s ely from the heel the ,
material here being an unyielding mass ( see Fig 8 P late No w while .

, ,
a hollow in the transverse flange ( B and D Fig 8 ) i s unimportant it is , .

,
very obj ectionable in the shell flange ( C and E Fig owing to the , .
impossibility o f securing close contact with the shell plating and in view , ,
of this it should be endeavoured so to bevel the bar s that the irregularity

,
shall be in the transverse flange ( B and D Fig This e ffect is o f course ,

.
, ,
also found with machine bevelling ( when excessive) and it is particularly ,
marked with heavy bars of bulb angle section I n practice when the -
.
,
hollow in the shell flange is pronounce d as at C and E Fig 8 the sharp , , .

,
ridge formed by the heel of the frame is usually chipped o ff .
A fter the two frame angles are bent the corresponding pair o f r e v e r s e ,
b a r s may be taken in hand The first operation is to chalk their outline .
on the slabs A s regards the upper part this is already done for the
.
,
outline here is the same as that o f the frame angle The outline of the .
floor portion i s found on the scrive board and having bent a short set iron , ,
-
to this and marked thereon the floor head and centre line it is laid on the
, ,
slabs in its proper position with regard to the frame curve ( as ascertained
by the floor head marks and its known height ab ove the frame at the,
centre line) and chalked in The complete outline of the reverse bar is .
thus chalked on the slabs but in view of the warping action which ,
accompanies the cooling the bar is not bent precisely to this line ,
.
C ontrary to what occurs in the frame angle the curvature of a reverse bar ,
increases during the cooling for its heel is on the inside o f the curve , .
H ere there fore when fixing down the set ( which is usually in two pieces
, , ,
one fo r the frame and one for the floor portion ) its ends are drawn slightly ,
outwards The procedure in bending the bars is similar to that just

.
described for the frames the bevelling being the same except in way o f
, ,
the floor plate where there is no bevel A s the standing flange o f the
, .
reverse bar is on the inner edge o f the curve it may b e bent round pins ,
alone without the interposition of a set iron The men are sometimes
,
-
.
careless in bevelling the reverse bars for as only the side stringers and ,
lower deck g unwale bar are attached to the fore and aft flange inaccuracies
- - -
,
are not so noticeable .
After the reverse bar is bent and bevelled it s cur vature is tested ,
by applying it to its outline as chalked on the slabs I f o f light scant .
lings compared with the frame angle then so long as it is fair perfect , , ,
coincidence is not required for the sti ff frame bar will pull it into place
, ,
and even i f this in so doing should it s elf bend slightly as a whole it will
, , , ,
be pulled or pushed into shape by the beams and stringer s I ts curvature .
at this time should indeed be less than that finally required fo r the
, , ,
subsequent punching o f the rivet holes in it s transverse flange tends to

‘
increase it This is due to the fact that as the punch forces its way through
.
the flange some of its intense compressive force i s diverted laterally which
, ,
[Ar t 48 7 .
circumstance by stretching the flange results in a b ending o f the bar at

, ,
each hole the e ffect is very slight but as there are a large number the total , ,
e ffect throughout the length o f the bar may become quite marked I t is .
more pronounced in bars o f fi ght scantlings and when the holes are o f ,
large diameter a n d are punched near the toe i f situated on the neutral ,
axis there w ould o f course be no bending tendency

, , ,
.
F lo o r p l a t e s o f shallow type are b ent simultaneously with the frames ,
by another set o f workmen The back end of the long narrow frame .
, ,
furnace is sometimes enlarged to ser ve as a plate heating furnace a small -

,
slab floor being provided in front o f it Th e shape o f a floor plate before . ,
during and a fter bending is s hown in Fig 1 P late 8 2 The midship

,
.
, .
’
fl oors are in two pieces and in the case un der consideration they are lap
, , ,
jointed on either side o f the centre line O nly the narrow end is bent .
,
and the more readily to bend its extreme end where sharply cur ved the
, , ,
surplus breadth at this part is first sheared o ff A massive set iron ( about .
-
3 by 5; inch ) is then bent to the upper edge ( as scrived on the scrive b oard ) ,
and the floor head being chalked upon it it is fixed down on the slabs
, ,
.
Th e same set usually serves without modification for a large number of floors .
O nly as much o f the narrow end as it is required to bend is heated and ,
when at a bright yellow heat the plate is withdrawn by a chain attached ,
by a clamp to its butt end I ts head is then fixed against the set as shown .
,
in Fig 1 and its butt end pulled round by the chain For th i s work a
.
, .
,
small winch is employed because to bend a plate edge wise requires con , , ,
si de ra ble force D uring the bending the in n er edge constantly buckles

.
,
up whereupon the bending is stopped momentarily until it is beaten down

, , ,
.
I t is i mportant that the edge should be pulled every where close against the
set fo r i f not it must a fterwards be sheared to shape and this is an
, ,
awk ward thing to do fo r a curved shear kni fe mu s t b e used which while

, , ,
fi tting one part of the curve does not fit another , .
A r t 4 8 8 The next frame making operation is to a d j u s t a n d t r y

. .
-
t o ge t h e r the three parts the fr a m e a n gl e r e v e r s e b a r a n d flo o r so

, , , ,
that they may be bolted together ready fo r riveting This work may b e .
started as soon as a fe w frames and floors are bent I t is conducted on .
the scrive board by another set o f workmen Th e first operation is to test .
the curvature o f the fr a m e a n gle with its scrive P erfect coincidence is .
not expected fo r so far it has only been checked by applying the bar to a
,
rough chalk line on the slabs ; discrepancies are now corrected by hammer
blows as already described and a fter wards the bar is laid to the scrive
, ,
and the following marks trans ferred to it A s the bar has always some .
surplus length at the keel the centre line is marked across it and i f its , ,
upper end extends ab ove the deck line it also is marked for cutting , ,
about 1 inch below the beam line Then the plate landings are marked .
,
also the lower decks side stringers ribband lines a n d a horizontal

, , ,
w ater line situated say 8 feet above the ba s e line all m arks being
, , ,
nicked in by a cold chisel and d i fferent ones distinctively The rivet , .
h oles fo r the beam knees are marked by a pattern template as shown in ,
F1g 1 6 P late 8 1
.
, I t is important that this template should be accurately
.
applied fo r as two o f the holes in the beam knee are also marked
,
from i t an y inaccuracy would spoil their coincidence

, I ts top is cut .
W1th a radius so that whatever the angle o f incidence o f the beam line
,
and frame it may just touch the former A s the beams near amidships
, .
are all about the same height it is not possible to indicate all o f them ,
clearly on the scrive board and so fo r these the lo ftsman supplies the men , , ,
w 1th a short batten on which are marked the proper heights o f the beams
,
from some convenient level line Th e three holes which have been .
[Art 48 8 .
position on the overlapping plate ( Fig the guide arms extend over
—
.
the lower one and when all the holes are marked including those in the
,
gu ide arms— and the overlapping plate is removed it may be replaced ,
sub s equently ( by means of the guide holes ) in exactly the s ame position
for marking the holes in the lower plate ( Fig Sometimes the holes .
are punched in the overlapping plate before it i s laid in place but this ,
usually involves extra labour The holes in the frame and reverse bar .
which fall on the lap may be trans ferred to the lower plate when the upper
one is removed by the frame angle still in position and the reverse bar
, , ,
set iron L imber holes are marked on the floor plate in accordance with
-
.
,
the midship section The level line is permanently marked with a centre
’
.
punch and the dabs encircled with paint these marks are use ful in cheek
,
ing the relative positions of the t wo floor plates when riveting them together ,
fo r checking the vertical position of the heel pieces and fo r roughly ,
plumbing the frames during erection .
The r e v e r s e b a r s are now tak e n in hand So far the only holes .
punched in them are tho s e in the fore and a ft flange for the ceiling b olts - -
,
and now the rivet hole s in the other flange for the connection to the floor ,
plate and frame angle which have already b een punched in the latter must
, ,
be transferred For this purpose the reverse bar is tu rned up s ide down
.
,
and the frame angle laid on top of it as shown in Fig 1 4 P late 8 1 Th e ,

.
,
.
two bar s mu s t b e so placed that their lower parts where they diverge are , ,
in their proper relative positions for i f not they would not both conform ,
with the floor plate in which the rivet holes are already marked Thi s
, .
might be accomplished by actually trying the floor plate in place between

them but the same result may be more conveniently secured by means of
,
th e floor set iron which in e ffect is equivalent to a strip of the upper edge
-
, , ,
o f the floor When this is applied to the reverse bar as shown in Fig
.
, .
1 4 with its end overlapping the frame angle as it did before when the
, (
floor was marked) then when the latter i s so adjusted lengthwise that
, , ,
the guide holes previously marked upon it from the set are again coincident
, ,
with the s ame hole s in the set the two bars must necessarily be in their ,
proper relative positions i e the holes in b oth of them ( so far only indi cated
, . .
on the reverse bar by the set) will correspond with tho s e already m arked
on the floor plate .
To complete the marking of the reverse bar its upper and lower ends ,
are marked fo r cutting the latter at the centre line as indicated on the set
,
( g 1 4 P late
F i .
,and the former flush with the top of the frame angle ,
or if it stops at a lo w er deck rather more than the height of the con

, ,
t i n uo us gu nwale bar ab ove it Then the position s of the keelsons and side .
stringers are nicked in the former from the marks on the set and the latter
, ,
from those on the frame angle and a rivet hole is marked on the fore and -
a ft flange on each side o f these nicks fo r the connection of the fore and aft - -
keelson angles U nles s the work is carefully done however it is pre ferable
.
, ,
to bear these two holes in the ship after the keelsons are lined off ( Art 5 1 ,
.
I f special holes have been punched in the floor for the keelson lugs their ,
position is shown on the set iron and they are now transferred to the reverse -
,
bar ( Fig A rivet hole may also be marked on the fore and aft flange
.
- -
just ab ove the lower deck to take the continuous gunwale bar but it i s , ,
better to bear this hole in the ship a fter the deck beams are faired The .
curvature o f the reverse bar may not b e quite that o f the frame angle and ,
when the latter is placed upon the reverse bar to transfer the holes it must ,
be care fully adjusted successively at each part so th at its toe may be flush ,
with the heel o f the reverse frame or in the case of deep frames at a , , ,
fixed parallel distance therefrom as indicated by a line previously gauged ,

Ar t 4 8 9 ]
47 1
on the reverse bar I f at the floor head a blank space has not been le ft
.
, ,
in the transverse flange o f the frame angle one of its rivet holes may fall ,
hal f on and half o ff the toe of the former in which ca s e it is better not ,
to punch it but to introduce another ; this ill placed hole i s a common

,
-
feature in ships frame s ’

.
The reverse bar and floor plate may now be cut and punched It .
should be observed that the holes in the u pper edge of the floor are not
marked on the faying surface and if the utmo s t e fficiency in the riveting ,
were required they would have to b e reversed to the other side of the
,
plate But although the rule of punching from the faying surface is strictly
.
observed an exception is generally made of these particular rivets in the

,
floors A s the lower curved edge o f the floor plate —as chalked from the
.
frame angle— is on the faying surface it should be reversed s o that the plate , ,
may be sheared from the other side to the faying surface ( Art This .
may be readily done by punching a fe w consecutive holes (at the same

time as the others ) from the edge of the plate to the line s o that when the ,
plate is turned over the ends o f the scores so formed may locate the
, , ,
curve and enable it to be struck in with a chalk line ( in short lengths ) or -

,
with a flexible batten The scoring o f the plate in this way is also a dvan
.
ta geo us in that it causes the shearing to fall o ff in short pieces if in one ,
long piece it would interfere with the adjustment o f the plate at the
machine The edge is sheared from i to inch within the frame line so
.
,
as to leave ample clearance from the shell plating .
The fr a m e h e e l p i e c e s are usually fitted when the frame s are s crewed

up ready for riveting I n a vessel having a large rise o f floor they have
.
,
a sharp bend in the middle ( P late and in such case they are made
by an gle smiths Th e position of each one when put in place on the
.
,
frame to mark the holes should be checked by gauging from the level line ,
nicked in on the floor for the purpose I t would be improper to adjust .
it merely flush with the shell flange of the frame angles for a s the latter , ,
are not always fair at their ends the heel piece might not lie on the top ,
of the keel or it might be too low and thus by elevating the entire frame
, , , ,
destroy the fai rness o f the vessel s bottom and deck beams Sometimes ’
.
the heel pieces are made at an early period so that they may be fitted on ,
the scrive board The keelson and side stringer l ugs are also fitted when
.
-
the frames are screwed up ready for riveting The position o f each .
keelson and side stringer is indicated by a nick on the reverse bar and ,
the lugs should be fitted symmetrically with these but if three holes have
not b een specially punched this may be impracticable for in taking the , ,
three nearest holes the lug s may project more on one side than on the
,
other and be unnecessarily long I f the three rivet hole s in the frame
, .
have been punched by a pattern template the same template may b e ,
employed fo r m arking the lugs Lugs towards the vessel s ends which .
’
,
are much bevelled should be fitted and marked in place otherwise they
, ,
are very apt to be out of line with the reverse bar b oth in bevel and level ,
( see Fig 7 P late

.
, T his is a common de fect and it is o ften due to ,
the fact that keelson lugs and the like are fitted by lads I t is o ften .
clumsily remedied by fitting liners at the back of the keelson or stringer

angles ( Fig but sometimes it is not remedied at all in which case
.
,
the only contact secured is that due to the distortion o f the flanges
during the rivetin g ( see Figs 8 and .
A r t 4 8 9 I n b en d i n g fr a m e s at the bow or ste m which have a

. .
d o u b l e cu rv a t u r e two set irons are required one fo r the lower part

,
-
,
and one fo r the upper I n fixing them to the slab s ( only that set which
.
takes the toe of the bar need be fixed down ) one is so placed as to ,
72 P RA C TI CA L .
[ .
take the heel of the bar and the other the toe and when the bar ( already ,
bevelled) is withdrawn from the furnace it is placed in the gap between ,
the two sets and b oth ends bent round simultaneously Fig 6 P late
,
. .
,
8 2 illustrates the manner o f b ending b ossed frames ; here the bar is bent
,
in detail being reheated as required When there is only a small reverse

,
.
curvature as shown in Fig 7 the hot bar may be forced into the hollow of
,
.
,
the set by blows from a massive ramming tool slid forcibly against it over ,
the surface of the slabs .
Th e b u l k h e a d fr a m e o r s h e ll a n gl e s are b ent with the other frames

, ,
.
I n the case o f the end bulkhead s one o f the bars ( if there are two ) has a ,
close and the other an open bevel ( Fig 6 P late

,
I n the former the .
,
holes in both flanges are punched be fore bending and bevelling those in ,
its transverse flange being trans ferred to the other when both are bent The .
holes are punche d in the close bevelled bar be fore it is bent and bevelled -
,
because owing to the bevel it would be a w kward i f not impracticable to

, , , ,
do so afterwards When marking the holes in the transverse flange o f the

.
straight bulkhead bar a space should be left in way o f those decks and
,
side stringers which pierce the bulkhead so that suitable holes may be ,
punched subsequently fo r the watertight collar angles ( Figs 1 1 and 1 2 .

,
P late I n trans ferring the holes from the one bar to the other the one ,
is placed on the top o f the other and i f there is any bevel it is important , , ,
that they should be kept apart by the thickness of the bulkhead plating ,
and with their shell flanges in one plane if placed in contact then when , ,
riveted to the bulkhead the one flange would proj ect beyond the other , ,
as s hown in Fig 6 P late 8 0 This al so applies to th e marking of the

.
, .
double frame angles required at the fore end of vessels of full form ( A rt .
For caulking purposes b oth toes of the open bevelled bulkhead ,

-
, ,
frame angles should be planed be fore bending otherwise they must be ,
chipped by hand .
A r t 4 9 0 C h a n n e l fr a m e s are bent in a similar way to angle

. .
frames They do not alter curvature i n cooling which simplifies the

.
,
work ; they warp vertically but this of course may b e easily corrected , , ,
.
A s they combine in themsel v es frame angle and reverse bar they are sti ff ,
to bend ; and care must there fore be taken to bend them to their exact ,
~
,
shape in the first instance I f when cold they do not correspond with .
, ,
the scrive they cannot as with angle frames be corrected by hammer

, , ,
blows : i f there is a beam bending machine at hand they may be bent by -
it or the rail straightener shown in Fig 2 P late 8 3 may b e used ; other

,
-
.
, ,
wise they may be bent o n the slabs by dogging them down and applying
, ,
the squeezer as already described ; the hydraulic squeezer described in ,
A r t 4 8 7 is o f course particularly e fficient fo r heavy work o f this kind

.
, , , .
Th e tendency of the rivet holes in the shell flange at the bilge to become
oval with the bending is here exceedingly marked due to the fact that in ,
a channel bar the neutral axis is midway between the two flanges and not ,
close to the shell flange as in an angle bar I n practice there fore even .
, ,
when the curvature at the bilge is very easy the punching o f the rivet ,
holes must be de ferred until a fter the bending .
I t is not every punching machine that can deal with channel bars ,
for the b olster must admit o f the lower flange occupying a position directly
under the one in process of punching ; one especially adapted fo r this
work is shown in Fig 1 2 P late 1 1 5 Bevelling machines are not adapted
.
, .
fo r channel bars they must there fore be bevelled by hand but the angle
, , , ,
o f bevel is usually small for the b ow and stern frames where alone it is
, ,
considerable are usually o f built type I f the bevel is c onsiderable they

, .
,
are bevelle d ( in one or both flanges ) before bending fo r as there are two ,
474 .
[ .
advantage therefore the blocks are usually made with double ends
, , ,
suitable for bars of di fferent sizes The method of bending a Z bar when
.
split at the bilge i s shown in Figs 3 4 and 5 P late 8 2 I n this respect

.
, , , .
they are more easily manipulated than a channel bar becaus e as the split , ,
reverse bar and frame portions stand at di fferent levels a set for each one
-
,
may b e fixed down permanently as shown in Fig 4 T0 fair and adjust

, . .
Z frames on the scrive board is awkward fo r they do not lie flat and
, , ,
as the heel is elevated about 3 inches above the s crive its coin ,
c i de n ce therewith must b e ascertained by means o f gauges as shown ,
at C Fig 6 P late 8 3
, .
, .
B u l b a n gle fr a m e s are bent in the same way as angle frames a

-
,
thicker set being required to take contact with the bulb L ike channel .
and Z frames they are sti ff to bend and the holes in the flange at the bilge
, ,
are subj ect to the same pronounced o valli n g tendency A ccording to the .
relative massiveness of the bulb and heel their curvature during the cooling
,
may alter in either direction or it may not alter at all

, .
Ar t 4 9 1 ]
47 5
C H AP TE R XXX I V .
Ar t 4 9 1
. various parts of the hull are not tried in place until they
. Th e
are shaped and finished To put each one in its berth in order to mark .
,
1 ts outline and rivet holes and then take it away and a fter shaping and
, , ,
punching it bring it back would in volve much lab our and loss o f time
, , .
I t should be observed that in the early days o f iron shipbuilding when ,
expedition and economy were less considered this was a common plan , .
Th e independent preparation o f the various part s is accomplished by

means of t e mp l a t e s O f these there are two di s tinct kinds those which
.
,
serve merely fo r trans ferring the holes and o utline of one part ( or parts ) ,
already punched to another and those which s erve as patterns fo r marking

, ,
both parts independently An y flat piece of wood ( or metal ) on which

, .
the position of the holes in a part already punched may be marked fo r , ,
transference to a conjoined part about to be punched may b e termed a , ,

“
I f the holes are bored in it so that both parts
”
tr a n f er r i ng temp la te
s .
,
may be marked from it it i s a p atter n temp la te The former is the more

“
, .
largely used and will be noticed fir s t in the following

, .
A t e m p l a t e such as is used fo r t h e s h e ll p l a t e s is shown in Figs .
3 and 8 P late 9 1 , I t is simply a skeleton mould made o f pine battens

.
, ,
about inch thi c k tacked together I t must of course be sufficiently

, .
, ,
strong not to rack and alter shape should it by chance b e roughly

handled ; it might be made amply strong in this respect by fitting a
diagonal stay acros s the variou s parallel members but as this would b e ,
somewhat in the way it is u s ually pre ferred to secure the necessary strength
,
by substantial tacking of the joints The platers generally make their own .
templates but where as in the s hell plating one may serve fo r marking a
, , ,
large number of plates it may be neatly made in the joiners shop ,

’
.
I n proceeding t o m ar k a p l a t e fo r c u tt i n g a n d p u n c h i n g the ,
template is first fixed in the berth it is to occupy ( by elzjos or knte/z kooks) in ,
such a way that all the rivet holes in the frames etc are covered by it , .
,
( see Fig 8 P late

.
,
T h e holes are then marked on its inner sur face by
a mar ki ng p i n or mar ker This i s simply a hollow cylinder or tube o f .
metal the end of which being dipped in whiting leaves a circular impress
, , ,
on the template I t is important that the diameter of the marking pin

.
should be j ust that o f the rivet holes through which it is thrust fo r i f , ,
smaller its mark would n o t often be concentric with the holes Some o f
,
.
the holes may b e transferred to the template by striking the latter with a
flat faced hammer against the steel work so that the so ft wood may take
-
,
an impression of the holes This method is advantageous in tha t i t indi .

,
cates very precisely the s i z e and position o f the holes the circle o f whiting ,
left by a marking pin being more or less blurred and imperfectly concentric
with the hole ; it is particularly useful where through inaccessibility it , ,
may be di fficult or impossible to use a marking pin .
The outline o f the template need not be precisely that of the finished
plate ; that is to say its marginal battens may extend beyond or fall
, ,
[Ar t 4 9 1 .
within the edges of the plate as indicated in its berth P referably they
, ,
.
,
should fall rather within fo r then their position may be taken account o f ,
by s p i l i n g s i e by noting in figures at various points on the margin of the

, . .
,
template how fa r o ff from its e dge is the position of the edge o f the plate at
,
these points ( Fig 8 P late I f the template were the precise shape of the
.
,
plate there would of course be no n eed to take spilings but to make an

, , , ,
accurately shaped template for each plate would b e tedious especially i f its ,
edges were cur ved ; by the usual method the same one may serve for a ,
larg e number of plates and with slight modification fo r many more I f , , , .
the edges o f the template are straight and i f the plate has a straight edge , ,
then of course one edge o f the template may be placed coincident with
, ,
the straight edge o f the plate ( Figs 3 and .
I f the position of the edge of the plate is indicated ( at its berth ) by a

line as at B Fig 8 P late 9 1 and the template extends beyond it it may be
, ,
.
, , ,
trans ferred to the template by thickening it at points with chalk ( as shown ) ,
and striking the template against it at the s e places O r gauge marks ( or a .
gauge line ) may be made previously at a fixed distance from the line so , , ,
that by their means its position when covered by the template may be , ,
d etermined and marked upon it ( see Fig I f the plate makes an

e dge to—
.
-
edge or butt joint with another already in place then i f the
, , ,
template overlaps the e dge o f the plate this may be pencilled directly upon ,
it I f it falls short of the edge spilings may be taken ; but if accuracy

.
, ,
is require d tongues of wood are usually tacked upon the template with
, ,
their ends either butting again s t or overlapping the e dge of the plate as ,
at C Fig 8 , . .
T0 mark the plate from the template the latter is laid upon it with its
m arks uppermost ( Fig 3 P late I f one e dge o f the finished plate is .
, '
straight and the rough plate happens to have a straight edge the nece s sity
, ,
to shear it again may be avoided b y disposin g the template from it as a

basis ( Fig An d similarly it may be possible to avoid the shearing o f
.
, ,
one of the ends I f the edges o f the finished plate require to be planed
.
,
then the template must be so disposed as to leave a margin of at lea s t

4 inch The edges are trans ferred by setting off the spilings noted on the
.
template but i f their position is marked on the latter they are transferred
, ,
to the plate below by striking a fine centre punch right through the tem -
plate a t the marks ( Fig Subsequently when the template is removed a .

, ,
chalk line is struck through these spiling marks or centre punch dabs ( Fig ,
-
.
2) if the edge is slightly curved the chalk line may be struck sideways or , ,
in short lengths ; but i f the curvatu re is considerable a flexible batten must ,
be employed E dges which are to be planed are marked permanently by

.
a centre punch and for this purpose the plater sometimes employs a
-
double punch which makes a second dab about 1 inch within the line for
, ,
by this means he is able to check the work of the planer in ca se the latter
should spoil the plate by planing more o ff the edge than is required .
A s regards the trans ference o f the holes some it may be necessary to , ,
mark on the upper surface of the plate and some on the lower depending , ,
on which is the faying surface fo r these particular holes I n the case o f .
an inside strake of shell for instance the faying surface for the frame , ,
rivets is the inside of the plate and that fo r the landin g rivets the outside , , ,
and consequently ,these two sets of holes must be punched from opposite
,
s1de s
( A rt They are trans ferred by the double arm m a r k e r s or
.
-
,
r ev e r s e r s sho wn in Figs 4 to 7 P late 9 1 The reverser Fig 5 is

, .
,
”
.
,
.
,
employed fo r marking holes on the under sur face when using it the plate ,
I S la i d on trestles and each time the hole in the end o f the upper arm is
,
adjusted over a hole on the template a boy below the plate marks the hole ,
[Art 4 9 2 .
double bottom by pattern templates as also many other parts of the hull ,
.
Th e system is sometimes re ferred to as d o u b l e t e m p l a t i n g because

“ ”
,
the template serves for marking the holes in botk connected parts instead ,
o f in one only I t I S advantageous in that it results in great expedition

.
and minimizes lab our ; for all parts may be made independently and , ,
there fore without delay and many may be riveted together by hand or
, ,
hydraulic power before they are erected or before even the keel is laid ,
.
I t I S also advantageou s m that as the templates are prepared 1n the mould ,
loft the most suitable disposition of the conjoined parts and o f the con
,
meeting rivets may b e care fully determined and thus leave nothing to the ,
uncertain j udgment o f individual workmen But on the other hand it .

, ,
demands great care on the part o f the men for a small mistake in ,
applying the templates may result in numerous bad holes and ill fi tti ng or -
spoiled parts The chance o f serious error is greater than in the single
.
template system because not only is there a chance of the pattern template
, ,
being placed say a shade too high in the one part and a shade too low
, , ,
in the other but there is also a possibility o f some of the holes being
,
punched a s hade ab ove the mark in the first and a shade below it in the ,
second an accumulation of four errors which might result in a s erious

,
discrepancy But with single te mpla ti ng there is also a considerable

.
, ,
chance of error fo r besides deviations of the punch inaccuracie s may

, , ,
occur in marking the holes on the template and again in transfe rring them ,
from this to the plate or bar for as the marking pin i s always at least
— — inch s maller than the hole through which it is thrust it s impress may
,
1
6 ,
not be concentric with it and may be so ill de fin ed as to o ffer but a poor

,
-
mark for the punch With a pattern template the marking work is more
.
accurate because the hole s in the template are cylindrical and the marker
, ,
is made to fit them with plug like accuracy and further throughout the -
, ,
whole o f the work the parts are conveniently placed in the shed I n yard s , .
where the double template sy s tem is largely adopted it is found that when
-
,
the men exercise due care the work is no less accurate than when done by
the single template system -
.
B efore describing the procedure o f preparing the part s of a cellular

double b ottom by pattern template it will be well to notice a point o f ,
fundamental importa nce in this system of work I n the example just given .
o f the angle bars connecting the floors to the vertical keel it is evident that ,
in the four applications of the two templates ( to the floor vertical keel and , ,
each of the two flange s of the angle bar) they must be disposed in the
relative positions they were designed to occupy when made in the mould
lo ft fo r if not the floor plate when connected to the vertical keel would
, , ,
not occupy its proper position it might be too high or too low I f when , .
,
the two templates were made their lower ends were cut flush with say , , ,
the top of the keel and i f each time they were applied to the struc tu ral
, ,
parts their ends were again kept flush with the top of the keel ( or with its
,
known position ) the required result would of course be secured The

, , ,
.
keel however cannot b e taken as a basis fo r its position co u ld not be

, , ,
indicated on all of the parts what is done therefore is to as s ume a le v el , ,
l i n e ab out halfway up the floors say 2 feet above the top of the keel
, , , ,
mark it on all the structural parts and on all the pattern templates and , ,
use it as a common basis in applying the latter This level line is lettered .
L L in the various pa rt s shown in Figs 3 4 7 and 8 P late 8 4 For instance .

, , , ,
.
,
when the first of the two templates ( A or B Fig 4) for the vertical con , .
n e c ti n
g angles I S applied to mark the holes in one o f the flanges a mark ,
i s ma d e on the heel o f the bar opposite a mark or nick L L on the , ,
template which serves as a guide when applyin g the other template to

,
Art 4 93 ]
47 9
the other flange Also when applying the same templates to the vertical
.
,
keel and floor their guide marks are kept coincident with the level line
,
drawn on these parts ( see D Fig 4 P late I n some cases the two , .
,
templates are united as shown at Q Fig 4 P late 8 4 so that both flanges , .

, ,
o f the angle bar may be marked by one application but unless the angle ,
bar is perfectly straight this method leads to inaccuracies .
A r t 4 9 3 N otice now the procedure of p r e p a r i n g t h e fr a m e w o r k

. .
o f a c e l l u l a r d o u bl e b o t t o m such as that shown in Fig P late 8

3 4 .
, .
I t should b e observed that in few shipyards is the work carried out in

precisely the same way ; in the following an e x cellent and fairly common
method will be described The scrive board fo r a vessel having a double .
bottom is shown in P late 7 9 I n large full lined cargo boats quite .

,
-
,
one third o f the double bottom frames amidships are identical so that
-
,
these may be made entirely by template without any re ference to the ,
scrive board The various templates provided for the work are shown in
.
Fig 4 P late 8 4
.
, .
N otice in the first place the preparation o f the frame a n gl e s

, For , .
those amidships there are two templates C and D ( Fig 4 P late , .

,
Template C is for the vert ical or floor flange it is a duplicate o f the lower
par t of the floo r template and it not only gives the rivet and drain holes , ,
but the curve o f the bar Template D is for the shell flange ; it gives the .
rivet holes and shell landings and it will be observed that there is a hole ,
in each landing for in way o f these frame s the landings are parallel to the
,
keel and there is no uncertainty a s to the ultimate position of the frame s

,
( A rt . By means o f these two templates the frame angles may be

bent cut and punched I f the bars as delivered in the shipyard are free
, , .
, ,
from twist they might b e bent to shape cold in the beam bending machine
, ,
-
,
fo r they are s hort of light scantlings and almost straight

,
But it is usually ,
.
found easier and more satisfactory to bend them in the usual way on the ,
slabs for they may then be finished flat and fair and as the one set iron
, ,
-
serves for all the bars the work may be done expeditiously in wholesale, ,
fashion Sometimes the necessity to bend these frame s is avoided by

.
placing the tank margin plate so far in from the bilge as to include within
the tank only that portion of them which is straight ( Fig 1 4 P late 1 7 .
, ,
and P late The holes etc are marked after the bars are bent by , .
, ,
means of the templates ; and in applying these they must be placed in a , ,
certain lengthwise position relatively to one another fo r if not the s hell , , ,
landings would not be at the proper di s tance from the keel Their proper .
relati ve position is of course fixed by the lo ftsman who makes them and
, , ,
is indicated by correspond ing gauge or guide marks as shown I f the two ,

.
templates were applied to the frame angles simultaneously they would be ,
properly placed when their guide marks were opposite each other but as ,
they are applied separately a mark is made on the heel o f the bar as already , ,
d escribed The end of the bar might be taken as a guide in adjusting

.
the templates but as a rule the ends are rough and irregular
, , , .
Th e frame angles towards the vessel s ends which vary in shape are
’
, ,
marked punched bent and bevelled by re ference to the scrive board as

, , , ,
already described fo r ordinary frames I f the vessel has a fla t plate keel .

-
,
and it is fitted be fore the frames are erected the shell flange o f the latter ,
should be le ft blank in way of it fo r it is better to drill these particular ,
holes in the s hip A fter the frame angles ( those at the ends which vary
.
in shape ) are punched bent and bevelled the curvature of each one is , , ,
adjusted on the scrive board the shell landings nicked in and the ends ,
marked fo r cutting While each one is lying in position on the scrive

.
board a short template G ( Fig 4 P late

,
which is also u sed for marking
, .
,
[Ar t 4 9 3 .
the ho les in the end of the floor ( Fig is placed as in Fig 7 in line .
,
.
,
with the margin plate scrive and with its guide mark coincident with the ,
level line LL on the scrive b oard ; when so placed its lower end overlaps
the frame angle and the guide hole 15 marked through upon it This hole
,
.
( blackened i n the sketch ) serves later for chalking in the fr ame curve on
the floor plate .
The r e v e r s e b a r s on the upper edges of the floors are all perfectly

straight and they are cut and punched by the templates H and J Fig 4
, , .
,
P late 8 4 That shown at. i s fo r the floor flange ; it is identical with

the upper batten o f the floor template and the outer ends o f those bars ,
beyond midships which vary i n length are marked upon it That shown
’
.
at H is fo r the tank top flange the landings of the tank top plating being -
,
-
marked upon it Separate templates are provided fo r those reverse bars

.
in the machinery space or elsewhere in which the rivet holes are o f odd , ,
size or spacing or which may be specially arranged to take the engine

,
seating boiler stools bulkheads etc

, , , .
The midship flo o r p l a t e s are marked entirely from the skeleton

’
template sh own in Fig 4 the upper and lower edges of which are identical .
,
with the frame and reverse bar template I and C A fter marking the -
.
hole s and edges from the template the position of the air limber and , , ,
manhole s are marked ( the latter by an oval template ) all in number and
, ,
position as indica ted on the midship section or frame list The level line ’
.
LL l S struck m and marked pe rmanently by centre punch dabs

, The edges .
are sheared within the line so as to leave a clearance from the shell and ,
other plating All marks are made on the same side of the plate ; this 15
.
the faying surface for practically all the rivet holes the edges therefore , , ,
should be sheared from the other side but i f the shear kni fe is in good ,
order this is unimportant Th e manholes are punched in the hydraulic .
machine described in A rt 5 4 0 Sometimes to avoid the work of shearing . .

,
the midship floors an outline mould is sent to the steel works so that
’
, ,
they may be cut there exactly to the finished s hape .
The floors towards the ends which vary in outline are marked a s , ,
follows and as shown in Fig 8 P late 8 4 The full size midship template
’
-
, .
,
.
,
is fir s t applied with its upper edge and inner end flush with those o f the
,
rough plate and the holes in these parts and in the cross bar for the
, ,
-
intercostal plate marked through The level line LL is struck in also

, .
,
the line o f the outer end of this particular floor ( as marked on the floor
template) and a short piece o f the lower edge near the keel The template
, .
is then removed and the holes in the outer end of the floor ( as just struck
,
upon it) marked by the short template G ; this being applied as shown ,
with its level line mark coincident with the level line L L The frame
-
.
angle already bent is then applied as shown with its keel end coincident
, , , ,
w ith the chalk mark made at that place and with the guide hole specially , ,
marked at its outer extremity coincident with the gu ide hole in template ,
G this being again applied in position a s shown in Fig 8

, When thus ,
. .
placed the frame angle occupies its proper position and completes the
, ,
outline of the floor precisely as scrived on the boards , .
Th e parts o f a cellular double bottom are di fferently arranged at

di fferent parts under the en gines for instance additional intercostals are , ,
introduce d and towards the ends the ordinary line of intercostals may
,
step inwards towards the centre line and the frame angles may be doubled ,
.
These variations are indicated to the workmen on the plans and frame list .
I n the case o f the intercostal plates the extra ones may be embodied m ,
the midship floor template the workmen o f course only usin g those
’
, ,
which are required for the particular floor uride r treatment

,
.
S H I P B UI L D I N G Ar t 494
2 P R A C TI CA L .
[ .
reverse bars and margin brackets are prepared in the manner described ,
fo r ordinary frames Th e frame angle and reverse bar being bent . ,
and adj usted the margin bracket plate as yet untouched is laid on
, , ,
the scri ve board with i ts upper edge coincident with its scrive and
, ,
with its inner end just overlapping the margin plate scrive as shown -
,
in Fig 5 P late 8 4 The latter represents the i nner surface of the margin
.
, .
plate and the line of its outer surface is struck on the bracket with a
,
chalk line Th e frame angle is now laid in place with its bilge portion
.
,
overlapping the bracket ; as the latter covers the frame scrive one or two ,
gauge marks are made previously on the boards say 1 2 inches out from it , , , ,
which permit of the frame being placed exactly over it A pattern .
template K is n o w applied to the upper edge o f the bracket ; the same

one is used to mark the reverse bar care being taken o f course to place , , ,
it in the same position with regard to the frame in each case ( as described ,
in Art .
Th e side frames are connected to the tank margin plate by short angles
( M,
Fig 3 P late. one in small
,
vessels and two in large O n e of them .
is riveted to the margin plate be fore the side frames are erected ( sometimes
by hydraulic machine before the margin plates are erected ) fo r it is then ,
more accessible fo r riveting To save labour and expedite the building .
work it is very desirable that immediately the side frames are erected they
,
should be bolted in their proper positions to the connecting angles on the

margin plate This o f course involves the punching o f the holes in both
.
, ,
parts the bracket plate and connecting angle They always are punche d
, .
,
o f course in one of the parts but sometimes they are drilled in the
, ,
other pending which operation the frames are held temporarily in place
,
by cla mp plates shores and ribbands ( Fig 2 P late , , .

,
When punched in b oth the angle and bracket the required corre ,
sp on de n c e in the holes may be secured by marking b oth parts with a
pattern template I n applying this to the two parts it is essential that it

.
,
should occupy the same position with regard to the heels or outer surface
o f the frames other w ise the side frames when erected would not form a
, , ,
fair surface with those within the tank This may b e b est accomplished .
by assuming a base line on the margin plate parallel to and say 1 2 inches , , , ,
within the outer surface o f the frames with which a corresponding mark on ,
the template may b e adjusted when marking both parts A s shown in .
Fig 5 P late 8 4 M is the template and the guide mark shown upon it
.
, , ,
represents the 1 2 i nch base line on the margin plate as set up from the
-
,
frame scrive To mark the holes in the bracket plate the template is
.
,
applied to it as shown in Fig 5 with its edge coincident with the outer
, .
,
surface of the margin plate and with its guide mark coincident with the ,
r z inch base line

- The b racket flange of the angle is marked by the same
.
template and a nick is made in its heel opposite the guide mark I ts
, .
other flange is marked by applying the angle itsel f to the margin plate as ,
shown in Fig 6 The latter with all its holes punched is already screwed
. .
, ,
up in its place in the ship and the 1 2 inch ba s e line is sheered in on its ,
-
outer surface parallel to the heel of its fore and aft shell angle which
,
- -
,
represents the outer surface of the frames ( Art and when applying .
,
the connecting angle to it it is adjusted with its nick coincident with the ,
1 2 inch base line

-
When marked thus the connecting angles may be .
,
punched and riveted forthwith to the margin plate and any holes punched , , ,
in their transverse flanges will — i f the work ha s been care fully done
correspond with those also punched in the bracket plates o f the side
frames so that when the latter are erected and bolted in place they w ill
, , ,
form a fair continuation o f the frames within the tank When there are .
Ar t 4 95 ]
48 3
two connecting angles the second one is marked in place a fter the side ,
frames are erected .
A r t 4 9 5 We b fr a m e s should be made concurrently with the others

. .
,
so that they may be riveted up and erected with them The workmen are .
provided with a plan showing the structural details o f each one After the .
shell and face angles are punched bent and bevelled the margin bracket , , ,
and various plates all specially ordered are laid in position on the scrive
, ,
b oard with their ends overlapping We b frames which are narrow and
, .
have an easy curve may be made o f a single parallel plate heated and bent ,
to shape on the slabs O therwise they are ordered with a su fficient margin
.
o f breadth to permit of their being cut to shape in which ca s e to save , ,
scrap they may b e made of two or three plates jointed together

, .
Before laying the plates on the scrive board the positions of their joints ,
and of the various decks and side stringers are struck in with chalk and ,
these lines are afterwards trans ferred to the plates A fterwards the shell .
,
angle is laid in place over its scrive the position of which though hidden , ,
by the plates is determined by gauge marks made previously on the boards

, .
O n e of the face angles is laid in place at the proper parallel distance from
the shell angle The outline of the web is now chalke d in from these two
.
bars the ends of which are marked fo r cutting and their holes marked
, ,
through on the plates I f there is only a single face angle and it is turned
.
,
the reverse way to the shell angle it is usually te m pla te d from the web ,
plate a fter the latter is erected in the ship ; the line o f the inner edge o f
the web plate in such a case being lifted like that o f the outer by gauge
, , ,
marks H oles are also marked on the fore and aft flange o f the face angle
.
- -
,
to take the diamond straps in way o f the side stringers Where there are .
two face angles one o f them is marked from the other as a pattern The
, .
rivet holes for the lap j oints o f the di fferent plates may be marked by a
pattern template as shown in Fig 1 7 P late 8 1 ; or a fter marking the
,
.
, ,
overlapping one its end may be li fted an inch or so to permit the use o f
,
the marker shown in Fig 6 P late 9 1 or the holes may be punched in it .

, ,
as a preliminary operation before laying it in place The holes in the , .
lower end fo r the connection to the tank margin plate are marked as
described in Art 4 9 4 Those fo r the connecting lugs of the side stringers
. .
are also marked ; a blank space has been — o r —

should have been le ft at
this place in the frame and face angles and holes are n o w suitably marked ,
in these to take the ends of the stringer lugs ( Figs 5 and 7 P late If .
,
the side stringers pierce the web suitable apertures are marked for cutting ,
( Fig . I f a beam connects to the web frame by a knee plate ( Fig .
the latter may be fitted and riveted in the first place either to the beam or , ,
to the web ; and while all the remaining rivet holes may be punched in
,
one o f the parts only two may be punched in the other by a pattern
, ,
template as described in Art 4 9 7

, . .
When all the holes etc are marked the plates and angles may b e cut , .
, ,
and punched and all parts screwed together ready for riveting which as
, , ,
with other frames is u s ually done by hydraulic machine I n the case o f web
, .
frames which are pierced by side stringers it is usually better to de fer the ,
riveting until the vessel is framed and the side stringers fitted fo r i f riveted ,
be fore this it may b e di ffi cult to reeve the long stringer bars through the hole s
in the webs Web frames which form a continuation o f a shallo w floor ( Fig
. .
2 P late 7 ) cannot well be riveted together as one piece be fore erection fo r

, ,
their contour might alter during the riveting and being inflexible they , , ,
cannot yield to the fairing ribbands like ordinary frames A n d moreover .

, ,
in a large vessel a web frame extending from gunwale to gunwale w ould be

,
too heavy and cumbrous to erect w ith the ordinary li fting a p pliances .
484 .
[ .
C H A P TE R XXX V .
Ar t 4 9 6
. transverse b u lkh e a d s may be built in the ship piece by
. Th e ,
piece or they may be prepared on the scrive b oard The latter is the
,
.
usual plan fo r the w ork is then easier a nd as it may be done at an early

,
period immediately the bulkhead frame angles are bent to shape the
, ,
bulkheads may be erected at th e same time as the frames When con .
structed in this way it is important that their outline should be precisely

,
that shown on the scrive b oard fo r i f not they would not when erected , , , , ,
con form with the adjacent frames and b eams A n d further as they form .
, ,
unyielding diaphragms while the adjacent frames are more or less flexible
, ,
it is important that they should be fitted in place b efore the frames are
finally faired so that they may be taken as a sort o f basis in the fairing
,
work ; and as no building operations can proceed in the ship unti l the
frames are faired the bulkheads should evidently be taken in hand at an
,
early period so that they may be ready fo r erection i mmediately a fter the
,
frames I f owing to the non delivery o f material they cannot be mad e

.
,
-
,
until the frames are erected and faired it is better to build them in the ,
ship but it may still be advantageous to fit the marginal parts on the scrive
,
board the frame angles being laid aside fo r the purpose

,
.
Th e b u l k h e a d s m a y b e c o n v e n i e n t ly m a d e o n t h e sc ri v e
b o ar d because their correct outlines are given here together with the
, ,
position o f the decks tank top side stringers etc I n order not to interfere
, , ,
.
with the frame making operations on the scrive board their outlines are
-
,
usually scrived on some other board or floor The following is a common .
mode o f procedure in making a bulkhead such as that shown in Fig 5 .

,
P late 3 3 in which the plates are disposed vertically and the alternate
, ,
sti ffeners placed on the seams A sketch o f each bulkhead is o f course

.
, ,
supplied to the workmen showing every structural detail and giving figured
, ,
dimensions fo r the si z es and positions o f the various parts The first .
—
operation is to strike in with chalk line on the board s the various plate , ,
edges sti ffeners doorw ays tank top tunnel side stringers etc all in
, , , , , , .
,
position as shown on the plan the beam line o f the decks if not scrived ,
in being obtained from the beam mould ( Art

, G a u ge marks are .
also made at inter vals say 1 2 inches out from the frame scrive so that
, , ,
vh en this is covered by the plates its position may still be determined
z Fig .
I n making bulkheads and the like where large numb ers of rivet holes ,
must be marked and punched in the plate edges and stiff ening bars all in ,
straight rows and at a certain pitch it is advantageous to prepare in the , ,
mould lo ft a pattern template in the form of a long batten having a row

, ,
o f holes at the required pitch Fig late e holes should be

( A 5 P 3 T h , .
,
bored precisely the same distance apart and in perfect line for then one , ,
part o f the batten being the same as another any part of it may b e used ,
to mark corresponding holes in conjoined parts and i f shorter than the , ,
parts to b e marked it may b e applied consecutively There should be

, .
[Ar t 4 9 6
involve extra labour in handling and transporting and if the bars did not ,
lie flat on the plating it would be awkward to trans fer their holes The
,
.
horizontal and intermediate vertical sti ffeners cross one another at various
points and the holes in both parts are arranged clear of the crossings I n
,
.
t h e case of the hori z ontal sti ff eners account must be taken of the holes ,
already punched in the vertical seams by trying the template in place ( as ,
shown in Fig 5 ) and marking upon it the position of any edge holes with
.
which its own do not coincide When a full breadth batten template is .
-
employed hidden holes may be marked upon it with a reverser O r a

,
.
short batten having three holes in it may be used as shown in Figs 6 7

, , ,
.
, ,
and 8 ; this is applied as a sort o f gauge ( be fore the hole is covered as ,
shown in Fig with one of its end holes over the edge hole in question
.
,
so that marks made through the other two ( anywhere on the plate ) may
permit o f its being replaced as b e fore ( Fig 8 ) to locate the third when .
covered Sometimes the rivets in the seams are arranged to clear the
.
hori z ontal sti ffeners which by avoiding an awkward three or four ply rivet
, ,
-
,
saves some trouble But a wide rivet pitch then occurs at these places
.
,
which although unimportant i n ordinary bulkheads might not b e com

, ,
patible with the per fect watertightness necessary in those of the peaks or
deep tanks Sometimes the s e particular holes are drilled in the horizontal
.
sti ffeners or the rivets may be closed with countersunk points before fitting
,
them .
The deck line may be marked on the plates by layi ng the beam mould
in place The ri vet holes in the deck angles and in the plates may be
.
marked independently by a pattern template ( sprung to the curve o f the

deck ) but it is better first to pun c h and bend one of the angles and then
, ,
lay it in place to transfer its holes to the plates ( Fig 5 P late 3 An d in .

,
marking it holes should be suitably placed to take the seams o f the plating
,
( or to clear them ) in which a blan k space

,
has been left purposely I t .
should run over the frame angle and in the case o f lower deck s a kneed , ,
corner piece should be fitted at this place as shown in Figs 5 and 7 , .

,
P late 2 2 I f there are two deck angles one is marked from the other as
.
,
a pattern but of course only one need extend over the frame The
, , ,
.
lo wer ends of the plates are struck in rather more than twice the thickness
o f the tank top plating ab ove the scrive which of course represents the
-
, , ,
heel o f the reverse bar within the tank The holes for the connecting .
angles ( or angle ) to th e tank top are marked now on the plates but the ,
angles are marked after the bulkhead is erected in the ship because u ntil ,
then the position of the holes in the tank top and o f those in the bulkhead ,
relatively to the tank top is uncertain , .
To mark the frame line o f the bulkhead one of its double frame angles ,
( port and starboard ) is laid upon it precisely over its hidden scrive as , ,
determined by the gauge marks previously made on the boards ( Fig 5 .

,
P late 3 3 ) its heel is then drawn in and its holes marked through on the ,
plating I f the for w ard side of the bulkhead is uppermost then of course
.
, , ,
the forward frame must be applied ; and in the case o f a bulkhead which
has only a single frame angle care must be taken to la y it out on the ,
b oards with the surface on which the frame is fitted uppermost otherwise ,
the latter could not be applied to transfer the holes Before removing .
the plates for punching and shearing any odd lines of rivets for ea si ng ,
angles stringer lugs etc are marked upon it a n d any scores or notches
, , .
, ,
required to pass the side or deck stringers are marked on the marginal , ,
part with suitable rivet holes fo r the watertight collar angles all as indi
, ,
c ate d on the plan The plates are o f course shorn about

. inch clear o f , ,
the heels o f the frame tank top and deck angles ,

-
,
.
Ar t 49 7 ]
. P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
48 7
Ar t 4 9 7 . . The b e a m s
should be made at the same time as the frames ,
so tha t both may be erected together

.
A separate bar is ordered o f the .
proper length fo r each one A s delivered from the steel works they are .
,
usually far from straight ; if not twisted corkscre w fashion they may be , ,
faired in the beam bender ; i f twisted they must be heated and faired on ,
the slabs and as this causes much additional labour they should b e
, ,
ordered free from t w ist Formerly when beam bending machines were .
,
-
worked by hand it was common to heat the bars and bend them to the
,
required camber on the slabs and sometimes to avoid this work a beam , ,
mould was sent to the steel or iron works so that the bars might be bent ,
to shape while still hot after rolling A t the present time many shipyards .
find it advantageous to supply templates moulds and battens to the steel , ,
work s so that the b eams may be finished there complete in every res pect
, , ,
ready fo r erecting in the ship .
I n m a k i n g s o li d b e a m s there are three distinct operations— marking

the holes etc pun ching and bending the bars and making the knees Two
, .
, , .
platers u s ually undertake the work one o f whom does the marking and the ,
other the punching and bending For their guidance they are provided with .
a b e a m l i s t a plan o f the deck a bea m mould battens and bevel boards

, , , , .
The b eam list describes each beam I t states the scantlings and whether .
the beams are to b e punched fo r deck planks or for plating or what portion ,
for the former and what fo r the latter ( as determined by measurement from
the centre line ) with the pitch and size of the rivets and deck bolts I t
,
.
also states which beams are reversed or c ut to form hatchways etc and , .
,
the distance of their inner ends fro m the centre line and a sketch is ,
provided showing the nature of the connection to the coaming plate so ,
that suitable rivet holes may b e punched fo r the connecting lugs and
coaming angle those beams from which it may be required to remove at
places half of the flange or bulb and those in the web o f which rivet holes ,
are required to take hatch coamings bulkheads or casings ; the distance , ,
o f each pillar from the centre line so that the neces sary holes may be ,
punched in the web for the connection o f their heads or o f the lugs fo r a
pillar head stringer Sketches are also provided o f the beam knees showing
- .
,
their shape and size and the number and disposition of the rivets ,
.
The exact length o f each beam i s provided from the mould lo ft on a

batten the full length of which represents the half length of the midship
,
’
beam ( Fig 2 2 P late When m a r k i n g a b e a m for cutting the batten

.
, ,
is held with the breadth mark fo r that particular beam flush with one o f its
ends the inner end o f the batten is then over the centre o f the beam and
,
‘
its position being nicked in the batten i s reversed and the other end ,
marked there being usually an inch or so of spare length Th e web o f

,
.
the beam may require to be cut at an angle to suit the line of the frame or ,
beam knee ; the e angles are supplied from the mould loft on a bevel s
,
board ( Fig 2 and they are indicated on the beam by making a couple
.
o f nicks on the web ( Fig,

With tee bulb beams part o f one flange .
-
,
must be cut away to clear the reverse bar or transverse flange o f the frame
angle ( Figs 7 8 and Th e precise configuration may be indicated on a
.
, ,
template provided from the lo ft as sho w n in Fig 1 0 The midship beam ends ,
. .
’
may be marked directly from this template one flange o f those towards the
bow and stern should be cut at an angle to clear the bevelled reverse bars
( Fig . very commonly however this work is roughly done the flange , , ,
which would foul the reverse bar being simply cut well back The length .
o f this template represents the breadth o f the stringer plate amidships all
the rivet holes are bored in it and they are suitab ly placed to take the ,
gu nwale and waterway bars whose positions are indicated All of the ,
.
[
A r t 49 7
.
’
midships beam s are marked by it the waterway bar and inner edge o f ,
the stringer being nicked in on each one The stringer tapers in breadth .
beyond the hal f length amids h ips and its breadth at eac h beam is pen ,
c i lle d across the template as sho w n Th e holes in these end b eams may .
b e spaced by measurement to suit the particular breadth o f the stringer , ,
but those in way o f the gunwale and w aterway bar must be accurately
marked to take these parts ; and a blank space sho uld b e left at the
landing edge fo r where the stringer tapers its position is uncerta in With
,
.
deep frames it is sometimes necessary to cut the beams clear of the

gun wale bar ( see Fig 8 P late so as to avoid a bad three ply rivet half
.
,
-
,
on and hal f o ff the beam end ( Fig 3 P late A similar template .

,
is provided fo r the beams o f the lower d eck and in this hole s are specially , ,
arranged in way o f the continuous gunwale bar within the reverse frames
( Fig . 1 5 P late ,
The remaining holes in the bea m are punched to suit the deck material .
I f the deck is plate d account must be taken o f th e position o f the landing

edges as shown on the plan ; or for this purpose a batten having these
, , ,
m arked upon it may b e supplied from the loft A s the landings are usually .
parallel to the vessel s centre line one batten may su ffice if their distance
’
,
from the centre line varies at di fferent places special battens may b e ,
supplied fo r the beams o f these places or di fferent arra n gements o f land ,
ings may b e marked on the same batten with proper indications showing to ,
w h ich beams they apply The batten being applied to a beam holes are
.
,
carefully marked in the centres of the lan dings and the others spaced in ,
bet ween at a pitch not exceeding that given on the beam list ( 5 or 7
,
diameters A rt Sometimes a blank space is le ft in way of each

, .
landing so that holes may b e accurately beared in the ship a fter the plate
,
edges are lined o ff I nstead o f a batten it is advantageous to provide a

.
,
long template batten having all the rivet holes bored in it fo r the work ,
is then more likely to be uni fo rm and accurate .
When the deck is of wood ( as in Fig 1 8 P late rivet holes are .

,
punched only in way o f the stringers tie plates and other local plating ; , ,
elsewhere bolt holes are provided being spaced to suit the breadth o f the ,
planks The position o f the ti e plates etc is first chalked on the beams
.
, .
, ,
in accordance with the measurements given in the beam list or as shown

on the plan o f the deck and su i table rivet holes marked at these places
,
.
Th e position o f the centre o f each deck plank from the centre line is , ,
provided on a batten from the loft and a b olt hole is marked at each ,
spot ; if the beam has a double top flange they are zigzagged ( Fig ,
.
The batten should ( i f practicable ) be prepared from measurements taken

from the actual planks ; fo r i f when these are planed and finished they , ,
should be slightly broader or narrower t han their nominal size the holes , ,
in the case o f a large number o f planks might fall considerably o ff their ,
centres but even then they may not fall in the centres of the planks i f as , ,
is usual the beams are bent a fter punching I n many cases there fore to
, .
,
ensure the bolts being in the centres o f the planks the holes are beared in ,
the beams after the planks are lined o ff

, .
H oles are m arked in the web o f the beam for the connection of the
pillar heads the position of which is given on the beam list Fo r this
, .
purpose a small pattern sheet iron template bent to the shape of the pillar
,
-
,
head may be employed a similar one being used by the smith fo r drilling
, ,
the holes in the pillars Th e holes required in the top flange to take
.
the heels o f the pillars are drilled a fter the pillars are erected I f there is .
a pillar head stringer ( Fig 1 7 P late

-
the holes i n th e beams fo r the
.
, ,
connecting lugs are marked by a small template from w hich the lugs also
, ,
[Art 4 9 7
.
ship s side makes with the beam ; these angles are supplied to the men
’
on a b evel board ( Fig 2 3 P late which with a dimension sketch o f

.
, ,
the knee ( givin g its length on frame and beam ) enables them to cut the ,
di fferent plates to their proper shape ( see Fig Th e rivet holes fo r the .
beam connection are marked by the same template that is used fo r marking
the corresponding holes in the beams ( Figs 1 and When the knee .
plates are cut and punched they may b e riveted forthwith to the beams ,
Fi g 3 )
Thf: next operation is to mark one or two holes in the knees by which ,
the beams when erected may b e b olted temporarily to the frames They
, , .
are marked by the template sho wn in Fig 4 P late 8 1 a duplicate of which .

, ,
( Fig 5 ) is employed to mark the corresponding holes in the frames I n

. .
the case o f the frames all the holes are punched and the same holes
, ,
might also all be punched in the beam knees but as the sources o f error ,
tending to produce bad holes are numerous and practically unavoidable , ,
n o t more than two are punched at this time the remainder being drilled in ,
—
the ship sometimes indeed none at all are punched all being drilled in
, , ,
the ship The holes in the frame angle are marked as it lies in position
.
on the scrive board as shown in Figs 5 and 1 6 and it is evident that i f

, .
,
the beam were also laid on the scrive board in its proper position relatively
to the frame the holes in its knee would be accurately marked if the tem
,
plate were applied to it in exactly the position it occupied when marking

the frame I n practice however this procedure cannot well be carried
.
, ,
out for among other reasons the beams and frames are made by di fferent
, , ,
sets o f men at di fferent times A good method which is o ften adopted is .

, ,
to provide a special b e a m s c ri v e b o a r d as shown in Fig 2 0 on which , .

,
there is scrived the full length midship beam and on each side a short
-
’
, , ,
portion o f every frame to which a beam connects all in their proper ,
positions with regard to the centre line but all with their beam lines ,
coincident with the one beam scrive To mark the beam knees each .
,
beam is laid in po s ition on the board with its upper edge coincident with ,
the scrive and its centre line m ark exactly over the centre line ( Fig -
.
The template is then applied to each knee as shown in Figs 4 and 2 0 ,

.
,
with its outer edge exactly over the frame scrive and it s rounded end ,
flush with the top o f the beam and when so place d one or two holes are ,
marked through .
I t will be observed that the templates in Figs 4 and 5 P late 8 1 are

”
.
, ,
not identica l in the matter o f breadth fo r while the former is applied with ,
its outer edge coincident with the frame scrive the latter must be kept ,
about 3 inch within it in order to clear the shell flange of the frame angle
; , .
I n the case of plate knees they may or may not be riveted to the beam at ,
this sta ge ; in the latter case they are laid in position upon it and w hile , ,
marking upon them the two frame holes the holes already punched for ,
the connection to the beam are marked through on the beam By this .
method the coincidence o f the two frame rivet holes is less assured ,
because the plate when riveted to the beam may not occupy precisely
, ,
the position it did when it was laid upon it to mark the holes I n such .
cases however this disadvantage may b e avoided by not riveting the knee
, ,
plate either to the frame or beam until the beams are erected in the ship .
Th e half beams at the sides o f the hatchways etc are adjusted on the
-
, .
,
board wit h their inner ends at the proper distance from the centre line
( the line o f the hatch coaming plate being chalked on the board) and ,
w hen so placed the holes fo r the lugs may be marked on their ends by
template and the lugs being prepared from the same template may b e
, , ,
riveted to the b eams at the same time as the knee plates .

Art 4 98 ]
49 1
V ery commonly instead of the beam board just described a broad , ,
b e a m m o u l d is provided ( Fig 2 1 P late having the frames scrive d .

,
across it in the same way ; and i f there are two decks and both have
.
,
the same camber both sides of the mould may be used But although
,
.
this mould gives the same in formation as the scrive board ju s t described ,
it is less convenient to use .
Built beams consisting o f a bulb bar and two angles are made as
, ,
follows The two angles are first bent to the camber of the deck or slightly ,
in excess o f it to allow for the straightening e ffect of the punching The .
holes in the vertical flanges may be conveniently marked in both bars by

a pattern template a fter which the two bars are laid alongside of each
,
other and their ends and the holes in the deck flanges marked as already
, ,
describe d I n these beams the ends o f both o f the top bars are sometimes
.
cut clear o f the frame ( Fig 1 1 P late 8 1 ) so as to avoid a four ply rivet .
,
-
through the frame and an awkwardly situated three ply rivet through the
,
-
gunwale bar Sometimes instead o f marking both angles independently

.
,
by a pattern template one o f them is punched and applied to the other as ,
a pattern but this involves extra handling The bulb plate is now taken
, .
in hand ; it is first faired and bent to the camber i f twisted and irregular , ,
it may be necessary to heat it and fair it on the slabs or it may b e passe d ,
through the rolls O n e of the angles now punched and cut is then
.
, ,
applied to it to mark the holes Th e angles may not have the precise .
curvature o f the finished beam but if they are o f ordinary light scant ,
lings the sti ff bulb plate is well able to pull them into place I n this
,
.
type o f beam the knees are o ften welded which work is ta ken in hand ,
be fore the angle bars are fitted The angle bars are practically al ways .
hydraulic riveted to the bulb plate this work being particularly suitable fo r ,
machine riveting .
A r t 4 9 8 The method of forming di fferent kinds of w e ld e d k n e e s is

. .
described in A rt 1 3 3 and illustrated in P late 1 2 Suitably shaped anvil s

.
,
.
are o f course used fo r the w ork I n the case o f s l a bb e d k n e e s such

, , .
,
as that sho w n in Fig 6 in which the bulb is carried down each knee piece .
, , ,
or slab is cut to shape by the s mith from a long bulb bar A represents the
,
.
bar a fter the first heat during which the bulb is cut o ff and its end thinned ,
do w n as fo r a scarph The bulb is cut o ff by a chisel which is held at an .

,
angle so as to leave a b evelled edge The knee piece B is now prepared .
for welding by heating it and staving up the w elding edge and the end of
,
the bulb all on the bevel so as roughly to match the corresponding edge
, ,
of the beam The knee piece and beam are then heated in separate fires
.
to a white heat and welded together forthwith A perfect union of the

,
.
two parts at the ends of the weld t e at the bulb and at the outer edge o f , . .
the knee is not always secured in the first heat these places are there fore
, , , ,
finished o ff with one or two additional heats and i f as is usual there , , ,
should be a local lack o f substance a piece o f iron is heated white hot and ,
hammered in ; iron is pre ferred to steel fo r this purpose for the reasons ,
noticed in A rt 3 1 9 Beam knees are sometimes carelessly welded the

. . ,
line of weld being o ften clearly visible on one side ( the underneath side
during the weld ) and in exceptional cases the metal may b e rendered so
,
brittle by overheating that the knee may be broken o ff across the weld by , ,
a blow from a sledge hammer -

.
O nly small beam k nees can be satisfactorily welded in one heat 1 f the
length o f the welding edge exceeds say 9 inches some parts are very l1kw , , ,
t o cool below the welding temperature be fore they are properly hammered
together I n such c a se s there fore one o f the edges is cut back locally as
.
, , ,
shown at D Fig 7 P late 1 2 so as to leave in contact only as long a

, .
, ,
[Art 4 9 8 .
portion as can be welded in the first heat The condition of the knee after .
the first welding heat is shown at E Fig 7 and the weld is completed , .
,
during the second by welding a suitably shaped piece o f steel or iron into
the gap The reason for cutting back those parts of the edges w hich
.
cannot be welded in the first beat is that as the furnace blast during the , , ,
second heat may then pass between and impinge upon them they are the
, ,
first parts to attain the required welding temperature The proper heating .
o f the two parts is the principal feature o f good wel d ing work When .
heated in a smith s fire a piece of steel or iron doe s not become uni formly
’
hot the parts directly exposed to the blast may become white hot and
,
begin to burn while the remainder may b e comparatively cool No w in .

,
heating fo r a weld the only part that should become white hot is the ,
welding surface fo r i f through careless manipulation of the fire some other

, , ,
part became white hot it might be overheated bu rned and damaged before , , ,
the welding surface attained the desired temperature The making of .
turned beam knees is described in A rt 1 3 3 and illustrated in Figs 1 1 .

, .
and 1 2 When made at the steel works they are heated by gas jets these
.
,
play upon the seam which when brought to the required temperature is , , ,
struck rapidly on both sides simulta n eously by machine driven hammers

, ,
-
to give the necessary surplus material fo r the thinning e ffect of the

hammer blows strips of small spe cially made H section iron are placed
, ,
-
in the seam which also serve to hold the knee plate in position until it
,
is welded .
After welding the knee the smith cuts its outer edge to the proper ,
bevel fo r which purpose he is provided with a bevel board and breadth

,
batten the latter giving the hal f length of each beam from the centre to
,
the outer edge o f the knee I n beams w hich have a double top flange .
,
he must also cut back one flange to clear the reverse frame and it i s ,
usually he who cuts the beam bar to length by hot chisel and hammer i e , , . .
those beams which have welded knees and whose section is such that they ,
cannot be cut with the available shearing machines .
Ar t 4 9 9 B a r k e e l s are described in A rts 5 9 and 7 5 and illustrated

. . .
,
in Fig 1 1 P late 5 and Fig 6 P late 8 5 The variou s lengths are usually
.
, ,
.
, .
delivered i e with t h e holes drilled and scarphs machined in . .

,
accordance with a detailed dimen s ion sketch s upplied from the shipyard .
“
I f forged in the yard or delivered r ongk from outside the scarphs are , ,
first blocked out in the smith s shop and are then machined so as to fit ’
accurately with one another and occupy their proper fore and aft position - -
.
U nless specially ordered rolled bars are not straight when delivered ; ,
if of lig h t scantlings and free from twist they may be faired in the
beam bender but if heavy or twisted they must be heated and faired
,
on the slab s .
Th e h o l e s may be conveniently m a r k e d b y a p a tt ern t e m p l a t e ,
supplied from the lo ft on which also the positions of the frames are ,
marke d fo r nicking on the keel bars all as described in the next ,
A rticle on side bar keels Th e holes are arranged in a fixed relation with
-
.
the frames so that they may suit the butts o f the garboard plates which
,
fall midway between the latter ; and the scarphs o f the various bars
shoul d be so disposed as to fall in with the ordinary arrangement of holes ,
and be clear o f the garboard butts O wing to their roun d ed knuckle the .
,
garboard plates leave th e keel at a distance from its upper e dge of

three to four times their thickness ( Fig 6 P late 8 and accordingly the .
, , ,
centres of the upper row of rivet holes should be placed at this distance ,
plus one d iameter below th e upper edge forward and a ft however where , ,
the garboard plates have less knuckle they may be higher up The centres , .
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G Art 5 00
94 .
[ .
with regard to the frames is not importa n t) and the position o f each frame ,
is also nicked in on the upper edge The lengths of the various bars in .
,
frame spaces is seen from the plan o f the keel supplied for the purpose
, , ,
and the frames as they are nicked in may be numbered in accordance

, ,
with the plan For drilling purposes the centres o f the holes must be
.
dabbed in with a centre punch I f it is intended to punch the holes in -

.
the vertical plate ( a fter marking them by the s ame template ) the dabs ,
made by the centre punch on the side bars for the drill must be perfectly
-
,
concentric with the holes in the template and this may be readily done by ,
mounting the punch in a plug o f wood or metal made to fit the holes in the
template ( Fig The h o les i n the vertical keel plate should also be
i
marked in this way and by using a punch with a fi nder p oi nt ( A Fig 8

, , ,
.
,
P late they may be punched with great accuracy ( Art .
H aving marked one o f the bars say No 9 on the starboard side as , , .

,
shown in Fig 1 0 P late 8 5 the corresponding one of the port side is placed
.
, ,
underneath it as shown with one o f its ends between the particular pair of
, ,
frames indicated on the plan and as nicked in on the up per bar ; its other
end will of course project beyond the upper bar Th e two bars are then
, , .
clamped together and the frame marks on the upper one as also its end
, ,
marks being nicked across the edge of the lower one the holes marked
, ,
on the upper bar are drilled through both The upper bar is then removed .
,
and the next one adj oining it ( No 1 0 Fig 1 1 ) having been marked from .
, .
the template i n th e same way is placed on the portion o f the lower one ,
not yet drilled with its end mark coincident with that o f the bar j ust
,
removed and which has been nicked in for the purpose on the lower one
, .
I ts frame marks are then trans ferred to the lower bar the other end o f ,
which is nicked in for cutting between a certain pair o f frames I n this .
way all the bars are successively drilled a fter which their ends are cut , .
This must b e done smoothly and precisely to the line so that they may ,
butt close upon one another and yet not thro w the contiguous bars out of
position lengthwise The best tool for the work is a cold saw for it makes
.
,
a smooth cut exactly where required I f cut in a hydraulic or other .
shearing machine the ends are rough and uneven and require to be planed
, , .
A r t 5 01 Th e v e r t i c a l p l a t e k e e l in connection with a side bar

. .
- -
keel may be marked in the same manner as that in connection with a flat
plate keel ( as described in the next paragraph ) the only difference being ,
that a template representing the side bars is applied to its lower edge instead
o f one representing the lower angles I f the plate is to be drilled in place .
,
only the tack rivet holes need be marked I f it is to be punched the holes .
,
should be marked with the plugged centre punch ( Fig 8 P late and - .
,
punched with a fi n de r point punch as already noticed The end j oints of

-
, .
the plate s are usually lapped and in such ca s es the parts in way of the side ,
bars are either tapered in the slotting machine as shown in Fig 7 or cut .
,
away as shown in Fig 6 P late 4 7

, .
, .
All t h e p ar t s o f a v e rt i c a l p l a t e keel may be p re p a r e d i n d e -
p e n d e n t ly b y p a t t e r n t e m p l a t e s Those required for marking the .
keel illustrated in Fig 5 P late 8 5 are shown in Fig 4 A complete .

, , . .
outline template need not b e provided fo r the plates themselves ; i f there

were a large number to be marked (and all were alike) it might b e
advantageous to make one but as there are only a few the detached , ,
templates used fo r the various angle bars may quite well serve the purpose .
The procedure of marking one o f the plates is illustrated in Fig 4 I n the . .
first place its two edges and the 2 foot level li n e ( A rt ,are struck in -
.
with a chalk line in most c a se s o f course only one edge need be sheared
-
, ,
.
To ensure accuracy in this important lining o ff work the men should not -
,
Ar t 5 01 ]
495
be required to consult the plan and set o ff important and constantly

recurring measurements with the foot rule but gauge battens should be ,
provided from the lo ft N ext one end o f the plate is marked by the
.
,
template A which is applied as shown with its central arm coincident with
, ,
the level line The j oint which is a lapped one falls midway between two
.
, ,
frames the position o f one o f these being marked across the central arm
, ,
and when this frame line is struck square across and the holes are marked ,
through the template may be removed

, .
Th e templates T and B for the top and bottom angles are n o w applied
coincident with the chalked edges o f the plate These templates do not .
require to be o f any particular length fo r as they are identical from end to , ,
end they may be applied consecutively ; fo r convenience however they

, , ,
should be as long as the plate I f one edge of the plate in process o f .
marking does not require to be sheared it should fall rather within the ,
edge o f the template in which case the precise position o f the latter from
,
the level line should be checked by the gauge batten The longitudinal .
position of the two templates is determined by the frame line just struck
across the plate with which similar frame marks on the templates should
,
coincide V ertical lines representing the frames or floors are now struck
.
, ,
in across the plate through the frame marks on the two templates and
, ,
a fter the various rivet drain and air holes are marked the templates may
, ,
be removed The other end o f the plate is now marked like the first the
.
,
template being so adjusted that the frame marks on its arm are coincident
with the floor lines just struck across the plate The plan is o f course .
, ,
consulted to ascertain between which particular pairs o f frames the ends of

the plate fall and the frames marked upon the plate are numbered
,
accordingly .
Th e joints of the top and bottom angles fall between two frames their ,
position being shown on the plan Each bosom piece must take at least .
three rivets in the end o f each bar ( in each fl ange ) and in order that when , ,
thus including in its length the necessary rivets it may not be more than ,
about 2 feet long it is usual to space the terminal rivets in each flange o f each
,
bar closer together ( see C and C Fig 5 P late When marking the 1
,
.
,
vertical keel plate therefore a Special spacing o f the holes is required in

-
, ,
every frame space in which the top and bottom angles have a j oint and the ,
necessary modification is readily made as shown in Fig 4 by deleting the , .

,
holes already marked ( darkened in the sketch ) and applying the small
templates C and C to mark suitable fresh ones the templates being
1
,
adjusted in position by means o f an unmodified hole at either end which ,
also serves fo r adjusting them when similarly r e arranging the terminal holes
in the bars themselves I t will be noticed that the holes fo r the upper j oint
.
pieces are not in line with the others but slightly nearer the toe of the bar , ,
which places them in the centre o f the clear flange o f the bosom piece .
I n order to dispense with tapered liners where the fore and aft angles - -
cross the lapped j oint o f the vertical plate it is usual either to cut the plates ,
as shown in Fig 6 P late 4 7 or taper them away in the slotting machine as

.
,
'
, ,
shown in Fig 5 P late 8 5 The last method is the best fo r by it the holes
.
, .
,
in the fore and aft angles need not b e specially arranged in way o f the
- -
joints ; by the other two methods they should be arranged clear of the ,
ends o f the plates Tapered liners throw the fore and aft bars out o f line
.
- -
transversely and this in the case o f the lower angles is inadmissible i f

, , ,
their holes and those of the flat plate keel are marked independently by -
,
pattern template ( Art .
The holes fo r the short angles connecting the floor plates to the vertical
keel are marked by template D Fig 4 P late 8 5 the same one being used ,
.
, ,
4 96 .
[ .
fo r marking the angles it is applied to the plate with its edge coincident
with the chalked frame line and with its level line mark ( L) coincident ,
-
with the level line struck on the plate Where double angles are required .
,
a double template is employed as shown at E A special template having , .

,
holes at watertight pitch is employed for marking the holes for the water
,
tight flo o rs the same one being used fo r marking the floor angles
,
( Art . Th e plate is completed by marking the limber holes ; these

may be punched in every frame space or wide apart or only in way of the , ,
pump suctions at the a fter end A fe w additional rivet holes are punched .
in the upper angles ( Fig to act as air holes unless of course the
.
, , ,
vertical keel is intended to form a watertight division .
A ll th e other plates are marked in the manner just described I f the .
end joints are butted instead of overlapped care must be taken in planing ,
“
them that they be not left full fo r as each plate would the n b e slightly ,
”
displaced by its neighb our the coincidence of their rivet holes with those ,
o f contiguous longitudinal parts — not subject to the same displacement
would be spoiled To ensure accuracy in the marking work all long

.
,
templates and battens should b e o f teak wood and they should be kept ,
dry i f o f pine they are apt to shrink or elongate w ith the weather and the ,
holes cannot b e b ored so truly E xcepting the rivet holes in the over .
lapped end joints every rivet is a three plier and as the vertical plate is
,
-
,
the middle thickness it does not matter from w hich side the holes are
,
punched The rivets in the lapped j oints must be punched from the
.
faying sur face and in order that this in each plate may be the same fo r
, , ,
both joints both ends of every alternate plate should b e made to overlap
,
to port and all these plates be marked on the starboard sur face and all
, ,
the others on the port ( Fig .
Th e m a r k i n g o f t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m a n gl e s is a simple a ffair .
There are two templates fo r the lo wer angles ; one fo r the vertical flange ,
just used fo r marking the vertical plate and one fo r the hori z ontal which , ,
may also be used for marking the fla t plate keel Th e length o f each bar -
.
( in frame spaces ) is ascertained from the plan also the positions o f the ,
watertight floors and the j oints o f the adj oining bars and fla t plate keel ; -
and the holes as marked from the template are modified at these places
, ,
by small supplementary templates as already described Care must o f , .

,
course be taken when applying the two templates separately to the two
,
flanges that they occupy the proper relative fore and a ft position this being - -
,
determined by a guide nick made anywhere on the heel o f the bar The .
ends o f bars as delivered from the steel works are usually rough and
, ,
ragged and in order that the b osom pieces and the ends o f the bars may
,
fit close it is well to cut both ends a fresh and for the reasons just noticed
, , , ,
they must not be left full I n the case o f the upper angles the vertical
.
,
flanges are marked as just described but the holes in the horizontal flanges ,
may be spaced by measurement fo r the centre strake o f tank top plating ,

-
is marked by a trans ferring template I n marking these holes there are .
several matters to con s ider ; they mu s t b e kept clear of the floor plates so ,
that these may not interfere with the insertion and holding up o f the rivets -
,
they must be specially placed in way of watertight floors bulkhead s engine , ,
and boiler seating hold pillars and the end joints of the tank top plating
, ,
-
very commonly a blank space is left in way of the last two parts so that ,
suitable holes may be drilled as required later The procedure o f fitting .
and riveting together the various parts of a vertical plate keel are described -
in Art 5 0 9. .
A r t 5 02 F l a t p l a t e k e e l s are described in A rt 7 7
. .
- The di fferent . .
plates being all alike may b e conveniently prepared by means o f a pattern

,
498 P RA C TI CA L S H I B B UI LD I N G .
[Art 5 03.
The ste m i s h e ated s l ab s i n the manner an d b en t on th e

desc ribed for frames A s a bar so massive is sti ff to bend a chain is
.
,
attached to its end and a steam winch employed to pull it round ; or

, ,
in the absence o f a steam winch the bending rolls i f conveniently placed , , ,
may be used ; other wise a number o f men may pull it quickly round by ,
walking away with the fall o f an attached tackle A cut water stem is bent .
-
i n two O perations Special care must be taken that the stem lies flat during
.
the cooling fo r i f not i t would not when erected i n place lie m a fore a n d
, , ,
-
a ft plane When cold a bend or twist i s not easily remedied ; a slight

.
,
bend may b e corrected by striking numerous blows with small hammers

on the concave side which by expanding the surface metal causes the
—
, , ,
w hole bar to bend at this part aga nst i —

as it were the hammer blows .
, D
A set i r0n ( in two pieces ) may be bent to the shape o f the stem in the
mould lo ft ( where it is drawn down full size) fro m which the outline o f ,
the stem may be chalked on the bending slabs ; in most cases however a , ,
wood mould is supplied from the lo ft ( Fig 1 P late .

,
C are must be taken when bending the stem that the scarph at the , ,
lower end ( i f j ointed with a bar keel) occupies its proper fore and aft - -
position with regard to the upper part other wise the vessel would not be ,
of the designed length The end of the scarph is cha lked on the slabs
.
,
but the end of the hot bar must be kept beyond it to allo w for shrinkage , .
Th e total shrinkage may be determined by noting the expan sion that

occurs with the heating by marking w ith chalk on the slabs the position,
of both ends o f the straight cold bar as it lies in the position it will occupy
when about to be bent and again as it lies in the same position a fter ,
heating As it is only the lower half of the stem that i s heated the
.
,
amount o f shrinkage is quite uncertain unless tried in this way I f .
scarphed the scarph is usually machined be fore bending and to prevent

, ,
the thin lip from being overheated and burned during the long period
necessary fo r the proper heating of the remainder it is covered with ,
fi re clay
-
.
A fter the stem is bent the holes in the curved part are drilled They
, .
and the others should be arranged to suit the sight edge s of the shell plating
( F igs 1 0 and 1 1
. P late 9 This is not always done but if care is taken
, ,
when sheering in the plate edges they may generally be kept between the ,
existing holes ( Art I n exceptional cases none of the upper part of

.
"
the stem is drilled until after the bend i ng so that the holes may be marked ,
to s uit the plate edges which are trans ferred to it from the stem mould
,
( Fig . 1 P late
, T h e positions o f the frames are nicked in on the lower
part and the direction o f a plumb line on the upper so that when the stem
, ,
is erected it may be fixed at its proper fore and aft inclination plumb o r - -
,
otherwise ; these marks are trans ferred from the mould loft floor by means -
,
of the set iron or stem moul d

-
.
Art 5 05 ]. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
49 9
C H AP TE R XXX VI .
A r t 5 04 around the vessel s berth a double row o f s t a ge p o l e s or

. A ll ’
-
u p r i gh t s must be erected to support the sta ging required during the work
of construction ( Fig 1 4 P late Stage
. poles may be
, m a de as shown in -
F1g 1 r o f fir stems split up the middle the two halves being fixed about
.
, , ,
1
7, 1n ch e s apart by bolts and short distance pieces i f poles o f greater length
a d strength are required they are made o f hewn timber as shown in
n ,
F1g 1 2 . They are fixed erect by planting their ends 5 or 6 feet deep
.
m the ground The cross t h w a r t s or s t a ge b e a r e r s may b e placed at

.
-
any required height by inserting bolts in the stage poles through holes
,
-
made fo r the purpose ( Fig The fore and a ft distance bet w een the poles
.
- -
should b e about 4 feet less than the length o f the stage planks — the latter
are usually about 1 6 feet long of white pine about 3 inches thick and 1 1 , ,
inches broad The distance between the two rows of poles depends on
.
the space at disposal in the yard ; i f there is plenty o f room they may be ,
as far apart as 8 feet but if there are other vessels close alongsi d e 4 or 5
, ,
feet may su ffi ce I n some cases vessels are built so close together as to

.
permit o f only a single row o f pole s ; and sometimes a single ro w is

adopted even when there is room fo r two rows the inner ends o f the ,
thwarts in such cases being supported horizontally by brackets or by

, ,
links and bolts through the vessel s frames or plating ( Fig Th e

’
.
inner row should be at least 2 5 feet clear of the vessel s side otherwise ’
the shell plating could not be conveniently riveted The poles should extend .
above the highest point of the hull ; a fe w additional short ones being
introduced under the overhanging quarters Throughout the work o f .
const ruction stage planks are placed at whatever height is most convenient
,
fo r the current operations as a rule two or three planks placed bet ween ,
the ship s side and the inner row o f poles form a su fficient stage ( Fig
’
,
.
When a new vessel is about to be built the Ship w rights are provided with ,
a plan giving in figures the extreme breadths and heights o f the hull at
,
intervals of about 2 0 feet so that the vessel s outline may b e staked o ff on

,
’
the ground and stage poles erected to suit ; unless the dimensio n s o f the
-
vessel previously built are widely di fleren t only the inner row o f po les ,
need be r e arranged I n laying o ff the various slipways it is well if space

.
, ,
is limited to place the vessels in pairs close together so that on at least

, , ,
one si d e o f each there may be a wide avenue bet ween the stage poles fo r -
the fore and aft conveyance o f bulky building material

- - .
A r t 5 05 Th e keel blocks having been built up as described in

'
. .
A r t 5 4 4 the various k e e l b a rs a r e l a i d upon them and are faired

.
, ,
side ways and held erect by three cornered fe rrings nailed on the blocks -
and transverse shores as shown in Fig 1 4 P late 9 6 The scarphs are

,
.
, .
then riveted with tack rivets and their tops and ends caulked The s t e m
, ,
.
is not put in place until the frames are erected The s t e rn fr a m e is not .
-
always made by this time but to allo w of the a ftermost frames being ,
erected its keel portion may be represented by a log or a plank set on

,
56 6 P R A C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G .
[Art . 5 05
edge Wh en later it is made it is usually conveyed to the lower end o f

.
, , ,
the slip on a shallo w draught scow or keel which may b e floated into -
,
”
position at high tide and then scuttle d to transport so heavy and cumbrous
,
a mass on a trolley over the so ft ground between the stage poles o f the -
various building slips is o ften impracticable To li ft it from the scow into .
its berth alongside a pair o f logs are erected as sheer legs and a po w er ful
,
-
,
tac kle attached I t shoul d be observed that in nearly all shipyards the
.
vessels are built with their stern to wards the water ; in cases however , ,
where the river opposite the yard is narrow the b ow is sometimes placed ,
next the water The latter method is advantageous in that should the
.
vessel when launched strike the opposite bank any damage resulting to
, , ,
the stem will be more readily repaired than damage to the stern frame and -
,
further the work o f erecting and boring the heavy stern frame and building
,
-
,
the stem is more readily done at the accessible upper end o f the slip
,
.
A r t 5 06 Th e fr a m e s may be erected immediately the keel is laid

. . .
The method o f making shallow flo o r frames has already been described all -
,
but the final operation o f ri v e t i n g t h e c o mp o n en t p a r t s t o ge t h e r .
This is usually done at the vessel s berth each frame being put together
’
when lying in a hori z ontal position over the keel at the upper end o f the
ber th Th e a ftermost frame is the first dealt with and as each one is
.
,
riveted it is hauled down over the keel and erected forthwith in its proper
place During the ri veting operation it is essential that the frames should
.
lie in one plane fo r any lateral twists or bends would be made permanent
,
by the riveting ( Art To support it there fore horizontally and

.
, , ,
facilitate the work o f bolting th e various parts together ( this work is done
by the frame squad ) it is usual to erect temporary fore an d a ft skids on
,
- -
,
either side o f the keel and level with it so that while the keel supports the ,
centre o f the floor the skids support either end— the upper ends o f the
,
frame may be propped up by shores Th e skids are also use ful when .
running the frame d o w n a fter riveting fo r a large frame might bend i f ,
supported horizontally at the middle o f its floor a n d upper ends only .
When bolting the di fferent parts o f each frame together the relative ,
positions o f the tw o halves o f the floo r plate are checked by applying a

line to the level line dabs ma d e upon it at the scrive board ( A rt
-
.
When these are in line the contour o f the frame is necessarily correct A t .
this period the fitting of the heel pieces tapered liners at the flo o r head ,
-
and the various keelson lugs is taken in hand as d escribed in A rt 4 8 8 , , . .
The frames are generally riveted by machine i f by hand care must be taken , ,
that the faying surfaces are properly closed ; w ith the usual wide pitch o f
7 diameters this is not al ways easy especially at the flo o r head a n d bilge ,
-
,
where the transverse flan ge of the angles may have crinkled with the
bending When hydraulic riveted the machine may nip all parts forci bly
.
,
together ( Ar t .
A r t 5 07 I n the absence o f special li fting appliances such as

. .
,
travelling overhead cranes or gantrys or numerous derricks and derrick

, ,
posts the fr a m e s a r e e r e c t e d by upright derricks one on either side o f

, ,
the berth These are simply long fir poles or logs to the tops o f w hich the
.
,
upper blocks o f the hoisting tackles are ma d e fast They are held erect .
by three guy ropes and are shi fted up or down the berth a little bit at a
, ,
time to suit each frame ; an operation which is facilitated by stepping them on

,
a fl at sole piece or skid The frames o f small vessels may be erected by

, .
han d winch but most yards are provided with a portable steam winch and
,
attache d d onkey b oiler hy draulic derricks or electric w inches w hich may , , ,
be employed fo r all heavy hauling and hoisting work These appliances .
m a y be place d any w here alongside or at the upper end o f the vessel s berth ,
’
,
[Ar t 5 07 .
which are placed one at every fourth or fi fth frame Th e ribbands not .
only hold the frames at fixed distance but impart in some degree the ,
characteristics of a continuous structure so that the supporting and fairing ,
e ffect of individual shores may be distributed over a numb er o f otherwise

independent frames .
R ibbands are usually o f yellow pine 4 0 or 5 0 feet long and from 4 to , ,
6 inches square according to the sti ffness and massiveness of the frames
,
the stouter they are the more likely are they to pull the frames quite fair
, ,
a n d the greater the rigidity a n d continuity imparted to the structure .
Those which are sharply curve d at the b ow and ste m are o f elm tapered ,
towards one end Th e side which fays on the frames should of course be
.
, ,
fair and regular They are connected to the frames by clamp plates
.
,
“
termed plate or long washers as shown in Fig 1 0 P late 9 6 ; this
“ ”
,
”
.
,
mode of connection perm its of the frame ( and ribband ) being adjusted to
its mark a fter it is screwed up by simply striking it forward or aft with a
, ,
hammer The s ame ribbands s erve for many ves s els new holes bei n g
.
,
bored where necessary to suit the new frame marks Their ends are .
usually butted and j ointed by clamp plates otherwise they may be ,
scarphed ( Fig The ribbands used for fairing the deck beams etc
. , .
,
are sometimes made as shown in Fig 6 P late 9 7 this formation avoiding .

, ,
the necessity of boring holes and facilitating the work of fixing the ,
ribbands .
No special e ffort is made t o fa i r t h e fr a m e s until a considerable

number are erected Th e b ilge and side ribbands are then put in place
.
,
and the transverse bulkheads i f prepared in the shed are also erected A s, ,
.
the various frames are erected their upright condition is checked by plumb ,
lines suspended from the centres o f the beam s ( Fig 1 4 P late As a .

,
rule only one frame need be horned and held by fore and a ft guys but - -
,
the squareness of the others ( across the keel and fore and a ft) is checked at - -
intervals I f the frames and bulkheads are properly made the fixture of
.
,
the various ribbands should result in a perfectly fair outer surface The .
shell flange of the frame angles should lie close to the ri bbands ; if only
the toe touches it the frame should be twisted in such a way as to bring
,
the heel close by tomming the frame o ff from the adjacent one as shown
, ,
in Fig 1 0 i f this be not done be fore the side stringers and shell plating
. ,
are fi tted it may be d1fli cult to secure proper contact between the frame
,
and shell without the use o f objectionable kni fe e dged liners ( Fig 1 8 P late -
.
,
C are in this respect is particularly necessary in the case o f deep ,
solid frames for being very rigid the shell rivets may be quite incapable
, , ,
o f twisting them fair and pulling the heel close to the shell .
Th e condition of the frames when faired ri bba n de d and shored is , , ,
shown in Figs 6 and 1 4 P late 9 6 The number o f ribbands varies w ith

.
, .
the si z e o f the vessel The s h o r e s are placed at every fourth or fifth

.
frame ; those under the lower bilge ribband are required to support the
w eight o f the frame and b eam in their absence the midship frames o f a ,
large vessel (having shallow floors) might bend downwards at either bilge .
They are not removed until an adjacent strake o f shell plating is fitted ,
when they are trans ferred to it and the ribband removed fo r the fitting o f
the next strake the vario us ribbands are of course placed in w ay o f the
-
, ,
outer strakes The side ribbands may be removed whenever the side
.
stringers are riveted to the frames The gunwale ribband and shores may .
be removed when the deck strin ger is in place ; the shores need not be
replaced During the remaining period o f the vessel s construction w hen
.
’
,
her w eight is constantly increasing she is kept erect and the keel blocks , ,
r e l1e v e d o f some weight by t wo or three rows o f stout shores placed ,

Ar t 5 08 ] P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G 50 3
.
.
u nderneath the bilge and flat o f the bottom and by b i lge b l o c k s ( see ,
F1gS - 3 and Th e latter ma y be described as substantial pedestals ,
composed of wooden blocks and planks arranged athwartship and fore and
a ft wedges being driven between the upper pieces to adjust the pressure
, ,
as m Fig 3 or the upper pieces may be we dge shaped as in Fig 5 I n
. -
, . .
a vessel o f moderate size there may be three or four bilge blocks on each
.
s 1de and they should be placed below the transverse bulkheads As they
, .
are per fectly stable and solid they ensure the vessel sitting upright almost , ,
i ndepe n dently o f the numerous unstable shores O n the north east coast .
-
of E ngland where the keel blocks are not very substantial numerous small
, ,
b1lge blocks are employed spaced about 2 feet apart all fore a n d a ft
5
When there are only a few bilge blocks they must be adjusted with special
, , , .
care for should any subsidence of the ground occur they may cause
, ,
undue local pressure and deformation of the hull I n the building o f a .
large vessel Sh ipwrights are told o ff for the sole duty of adj usting the
,
numerous shores and blocks so that at all times all may take approximately , , ,
the same pressure K eel blocks are described in A rt 5 44. . .
A r t 5 08 Th e sur face of the u p p e r d e c k b e a m s is fa i r e d imme

. .
-
di a te ly a fter the ri bba n d in g and fairing o f the frames ; for which purpose
fore and a ft ri bbands are fixed on their upper surface one on either side of
- -
,
the hatchways so that they may support the inner ends o f the hal f beams
,
-
( Fig 1 4 P late 9 6 and Figs 5 6 and 7 P late

.
, ,
I n the absence o f.
, , ,
pillars the beams are supported by shores which are placed with their
, ,
heels on the floors ( on a stage plank or strake of tank top plating ) and -
their heads under the beams a plank being introduced as required to , ,
distribute their supporting e ff ect ( Figs 5 6 and 7 P late Th e b ea ds .

, , ,
o f the shores should b e tied with rope or wire so that should they loosen
,
they may not fall and injure the men The beams being flexible may .
, ,
be set up several inches by the shores ; to ensure there fore that they , ,
are at their proper height and that the deck surface is fair as a whole a , ,
batten is provided from the lo ft giving the height o f each beam above ,
the top o f the keel By this time the bulkheads should be i n place
.
,
and as they form fixed points in the deck sur face the beams must be ,
faired up or down to suit them I f the various parts of a vessel s frame .

’
work were prepared with absolute precision the fairing o f the framework , ,
when erected and put together would b e a simple a ffair fo r all parts , ,
would fall naturally into their proper place in ordinary shipyard operations ,
ho wever there are many sources of error resulting in small discrepancies

, , ,
some in one direction and some in another and consequently when , ,
adju s ting the various parts judicious compromises must be made ,

.
The central part o f the beams having been faired and supported by ,
shores their ends at the gunwales are next dealt with A long sheeri ng
, .
batten say 3 inches broad is first applied to the outside o f the frames
, ,
( Fig. 1 P,late 9 )
6 with its upper edge level with the tops
;
o f the bulkheads
( if these are erected ) and with as many o f the beams as is consistent with
,
a fair sheer line ( a large number will be found to be above and below it by
—
§ inch more or less ) ; its lower edge is then marked on the rames its f
upper one cannot fo r it stands above them Beginning now from aft any
,
.
,
beam that requires adjustment is fixed to its frame by a scre wclamp as ’
shown in Fig 1 ( or by a long washer below the knee) the bolts l n the knee
.
,
are withdra wn and the beam struck up or down with a hammer until its top
,
is 3 inches above the batten mark on the frame a condition determined by ,
m eans of a gauge as shown A t this period there are only t wo holes in the
,
.
beam knees and of c ourse the adj ustm en t o f the beam spoils their coincidence
, , ,
( they may become half blind or wholly blind ) but the remaining holes may
[ .
now b e drilled and the two unfair o n es ri m e re d to a larger size V ery

,
.
commonly the latter are so un fair that they ca nnot be even approximately
corrected by rim e rin g in which case it is better to drill one or two fresh
,
holes To expedite the work it is usual as each beam is faired to drill

.
, , ,
only one or two holes in each knee fo r then all the b eams may be quickly ,
faired and bolte d the remaining h oles being drilled at leisure

,
This work .
is undertaken by Shipwrights with two or three drillers in attendance ,

.
I n some shipyards to avoid bad holes in the b eam knee s all are , ,
drilled a fter erection the beams being held temporarily in position by

,
clamps and long washers belo w th e ends of the knees The beams o f
, .
small vessels are sometimes riveted to the frames b efore erection in which ,
case to ensure a fair deck and side the hole s in the beam knees should be
, ,
m arked from the frames as they lie on the scrive board While fairing the .
beam ends up or down attention should be given to the fairnes s o f the ,
u pper parts of the frames ; if these should b e seen to be too fa r in or out
( by running the eye along the gunwale ribband Fig 1 P late they , .
,
should be adjusted where practicable b efore drilling the beam knees As a ,

.
rule the tops of the frames are never quite fair so that tapered liners of
, ,
various thicknesses must be introduced between them and the sheer strake .
I f the coaming lugs are already riveted on the ends of the half beam s at -
the sides o f the hatchways they must be kept in line when drilling the holes ,
in the knees a condition readily secured by bolting a fore and aft ribband
,
- -
on the lugs I n many yards the b eams are not faired until the deck
.
stringer is fitted on their ends which procedure has the advanta ge of ,
allowing the upper ends o f the frames to be properly faired inwards or ,
outwards .
A r t 5 09 C onsider now the method of e r e c t i n g th e fr a m e w o r k o f

. .
, ,
a v e s s e l h a v i n g a d o u b l e b o tt o m such as that shown in Fig 6 P late 9 6 ,

.
, ,
the various parts o f which have been prepared as described in A rts 4 9 2 E) .
4 94 . The fl a t p l a t e k e e l when deposited on the blocks are faired laterally

-
, ,
by the centre o f keel marks on the sides of the latter ( Art

- -
Th e fore .
and aft angles are then bolted in place the position of the various length s
-
,
b eing ascertained from the plan a fter which the v e r t i c a l k e el p l a t e s ,

-
may b e erected one of the two angles being loosely bolted to facilitate their
,
insertion between them I n the absence of special lifting appliances the .

,
plates may be lifted and cante d into position by a body of labourers but if ,
very heavy small sheer legs must be erected When the vertical keel plates
, .
-
are in place their top angles are fitted I f the various parts have been
, .
properly prepared ( Art all should fall naturally into place with close
.
,
joints and fair holes throughout The fairness of the keel fore and aft .
, ,
may be checked by stretching a wire from end to end alongside of the lower ,
angles The vertical plate is held upright by side shores ; it need not b e
.
plumbed fo r the subsequent fitting o f the floors does this The vertical
, .
connecting lugs and the various buttstra ps and bosom pieces are now
prepared after which the entire keel structure may be riveted which work
, , ,
i f the keel is long and of heavy scantlings may b e advanta geously done ,
by machine I n many yards the flat plate keel is fitted with the rest of the
.
-
shell at a late period w hen the structure is sufficiently rigid to permit of

, ,
the removal o f the keel blocks ( in groups ) in such a case the vertical keel ,
w ith its lower angles is laid directly on the blocks or a deck plank may
, ,
be in terposed This method is advantageous in many respects

. .
I mmediately the keel is riveted the floor plates may b e erected In ,

.
m any cases the vertical angles fo r the connection to the keel are riveted
to them ( instead o f to the vertical keel) before erection ( A1 t If .
expedition is important the midship floors should be put in place first so ,

’
,
[ .
by plate so as to give ready access to the tank V ery com monly the
,
.
fi tting o f the intercostal plates is also deferred until the s hell is in

place fo r the latter then serves as a convenient plat form fo r the work
,
.
Th e other method o f fitting th e tank top plating be fore the shell is

,
-
,
advantageous in that the tank top rivets may be conveniently held up -
by a man standing erect between the floors the subsequent holding up of ,

-
the shell rivets in the confined space of the tank being comparatively easy
, , ,
due to the fact that the force o f gravity assists the hammer Further the .
,
tank top plates are more easily put in place owing to the absence at this
-
, ,
period o f the side frames ; and the tank top when plated forms a good
, .
, ,
working platform and permits of the bulkheads being erected and other
structural work proceeded with I t should b e observed however that in .
, ,
yards w here the tank top is not fitted until a fter the shell plating provision ,
is made for the early erection of the transverse bulkheads by fitting a special ,
t r a n s v e r s e strake of tank top plating in way of each one ( P late -
When the margin plate is in place the s i d e fr a m e s may b e e r e c t e d .
Their short connecting angles are usually riveted to the margin plate
be fore t hey are erected ( Fig 6 P late so that they may b e bolted or .
,
clamped to them forthwith I f prepared as described in A rt 4 94 the . .

,
rivet holes in both the lugs and the frame brackets are punched to
correspond i f not the holes in one of the parts must be drilled I n
, , .
some cases to avoid drilling these holes the frames are secured in place
, ,
temporarily by lugs or long w ashers as shown in Fig 2 P late 9 6 until , .

, ,
the connecting angles are marked punched and fitted in place I n any , , .
case o f course the lower ends o f the frames are supported and held more
, ,
or less rigidly by a stout ribband and numerous shores so that individual ,
frames are not entirely dependent on their temporary fixture by lugs or

long washers .
The aftermost frames are usually the first put in place but if expedition ,
is required the midship ones are erected first fo r then the work o f
,
’
,
erection may proceed simultaneously forward and aft Each side frame .
and uppe rd ec k beam must of course be lifted s eparately so that com , , , ,
pared with the erection of sha llow flo o r frames the work is slow Some -
, .
times the beams are not put in place until all of the frames are erected and
secured to the margin plate and in order that in their absence the frames , ,
may be faired long planks u pon which the deck breadths are set o ff
, ,
from the lo ft are fitted at intervals from frame head to frame head this
,
procedure must sometimes be followed owing to the non delivery o f the -
beams from the steel works When a number of side frames are in place .
,
they are faired in a similar way to that described for ordinary frames ;
but greater care is required for owing to their severance at the margin ,
plate and the imperfect and unrigid character of the temporary bolt
,
connection thereto they have no natural tendency to fall into their prO pe r
,
positions I f the transverse bulkheads are already made they should be

.
,
put in place before the frames are finally faired When faired shored .
, ,
and ri bban de d the side frames should form a fair and continuous surface
,
with those within the tank ; and when this condition is secured the lugs ,
connecting them to the tank margin plate ma y be riveted which operation ,
at once imparts rigidity to the entire framework and permits o f other

structural work being proceeded w ith .
Art 5 1 1 By the ordinary building procedure the b e a ms however

. .
,
soon they may be made are not required until the frames are in course o f
erection which o p e rati oii in the ca s e o f a vessel having a cellular double
,
, ,
bottom may not take place fo r some weeks a fter the first delivery o f
,
material Sometimes therefore when great expedition is require d or

.
, , ,
Ar t 5 1 2]
50 7
when it is desired to keep a large number of workmen employe d the ,
upper deck beam s are made at an early period but instead o f putting
-
, ,
t hem aside to await the erection o f the frames they are l a i d i n a v a c an t ,
b e r t h upon suitably arranged blocks and fore and a ft logs where they
,
- -
,
are ri bban de d shored and faired all at the proper spacing and relative
, , ,
height in such a way that the deck surface s o formed has precisely the
,
sheer it will have when the beams are erected in the ship The beams .
are faired of course by means of height battens from the lo ft and a fore
, ,
and a ft base line marked o ff on the blocks underneath the centre nicks on
-
,
the beams being placed in one straight line all fore and a ft When so .
arranged the whole of the deck plating may be prepared as also the ,
hatchways deck houses casings etc so that all may be ready fo r riveting
, , , .
,
in place immediately the beams are erected in the ship .
A r t 5 1 2 Th e s i d e s t r i n ge r s a n d k e e l s o n s must be fitted i m
. .
mediately the frames are erected and faired so that the framework may ,
b e bound as one piece independently of the temporary wooden ribbands .
B efore proceeding to fit them their precise line must be sheered i n ( w ith ,
a batten or chalk line) so as to pass fairly between each pair o f holes in

, ,
the reverse bars and lugs I n most cases however to ensure fair stringers .
, ,
and well placed holes the holes are beared after the s tringers are lined
-
,
o ff or the fitting o f the lugs themselves may be deferred

, .
Th e follo w ing is the usual procedure of making an I section c e n t r e -

,
k e e l s o n such as that illustrated in Fig 1 P late 4 7 and P late 1 0 1

,
.
, ,
.
Firstly one of the lower angles is fitted in place for the whole or a
, ,
portion o f the ves s el s length ; the holes in the reverse frame and lugs being
’
trans ferred to it by a batten template one edge o f which i s placed hal f ,
the thickness of the vertical plate from the centre line— previously struck
in with chalk The holes in its vertical flange are spaced by measurement
. ,
six being placed rather closer together in way of the joints o f the other
angle and four in way of the joints o f the vertical plate ( if butted as in
, ,
Fig 3 P late
.
, A plan is of course provided showing the position of , ,
the various j oints a n d other features a ffecting the construction Where

,
.
watertight bulkheads are pierced holes should be s uitably placed in each ,
flange to take the collar angle ( Fig 1 3 P late .

,
The first lower angle being screwed up in place the second is te mpla te d ,
from it The same templa te serves for marking both flanges fo r having
. , ,
been applied to the vertical flange o f the bar now in place it is canted ,
down without shifting it longitudinally to mark the holes in the lugs and
, ,
reverse frames I t should be long enough to include a complete vertical

.
plate as well as the angle fo r then it serves to mark b oth parts I f one o f ,
.
the vertical plates is already in place the position o f its end is noted for ,
the preparation of the next by nailing a short upright piece to the batten ,
template to co ver its rivet holes -i f the joint is overlapped or to touch its
, ,
end i f butted The holes in the upper edge o f the vertical plate are
.
spaced by measurement observing as be fore to place them suitably 1n way , , ,
of the watertight bulkheads and joints o f the angle bars .
When the vertical plates are in place the upper a n gles are te m pla ted ,
from them Th e same template serves fo r marking the vertical flanges of

.
both top angles but as the holes are o f course only marked on one s 1de
, , ,
of it it follows that while they are uppermost when it is appl 1ed to one o f
,
the angles they are underneath and out o f sight when applied to the other
,
.
I n th e latter case they may b e marked either by hammering the template

against the bar so that the whiting marks may leave an i m pre ssmn or 1f
.
, ,
,
as is usual they have been trans ferred to the first by driving a centre punch
,
through the wood the small perforations serve to locate the holes fo r ,
[Ar t 5 1 2 .
similarly marking the second The holes l n the horizontal fla n ges fo r the . ,
covering plate are spaced by measurement ; those i n way o f the j oints of

,
the latter should be placed rather closer together and i f the fl anges are , ,
wide l n two rows ; and a blank space should be le ft 1n way o f the heels of
,
the hol d pillars z e at every second frame fo r these should be drilled sub
.
,
sequently through holes already drilled in the pillars When the upper
.
,
.
,
angles are bolted tightly i n place the covering plate may be fitted this , , ,
and the fitting of the buttstraps does not requ i re special notice ,
.
I n making a s i d e i n t e r c o s t a l k e e l s on such as that illustrated in

, ,
Fig 1 4 P late 8 9 one o f the bars I S first screwed down l n place then the
.
, , ,
intercostal plates are fitted and sub sequently the second bar The inter ,
.
costal plates may be conveniently made by means o f two b oards cut out ,
in the manner indicated at A Fig 1 4 These are fitted in the frame space , . .
as shown and when the holes in the keelson angle and the position o f the
, ,
heels of the two frames are marked the triangular notch on one board
—
,
being pencilled on the other permits of the boards being put together ,
exactly as before when laid upon the plate Each pair o f boards may b e
, .
used simultaneously for the corresponding plates on both sides of the ship
( the marks being made on both sur faces ) and successively for a large ,
number The e dges of the plates having no connection to the floors must
.
, ,
b e carefully sheared so as to bear upon them the triangular notches in , ,
way of the reverse bars are usually cut out by punching consecutive rivet
holes but the tool described in A rt 5 3 4 does the work quicker and better
,
. .
I f the keelson falls over an inner strake of shell the outer edge s o f the ,
intercostal plates must be cut slightly within the frame marks ; i f over an
outer strake about 7 inch beyon d I f the frame spacing is less than 2 9
,
1
,
.
inches four holes are punched in the lower edge fo r the shell angle ; other
,
wise five are required A limber hole is usually punched as shown in Fig I 4 . .
,
the triangular opening at one corner serving to pass drainage water O n e .
edge of the plate o ften fouls one of the frame rivet heads in w hich case ,
it must be notched ; this may be avoided by keeping all rivet holes clear
of the lines o f intercostal plates when marking the frame bars ( Art .
A fter the intercostal keelson or side stringer ( as also the deck stringer
plates ) is riveted the sh ell a n gl e s o r l u gs may be fitted and riveted V ery
, .
commonly this is de ferred until the shell plating is in place but this involves ,
extra fitting work and awkward riveting When fitted previously care must .
, ,
o f course be taken so to place the angles that they shall fa y with precision
,
on the shell plating so as to touch without displacing it I f the keelson or

, , .
stringer falls over an inner strake of shell then of course the angles must , , ,
b e kept flush with the shell flanges of the frames but if over an outer ,
strake they must project beyond by the thickness of the plating ; with
, ,
j oggled plating all must be flush with the frames P erfect accuracy may
, .
be ensured by using the gauge shown in Fig 1 4 P late 8 9 This is applied .

, .
not only when marking the angles ( they should be marked by applying
each one in place ) but subsequently to check their position when screwed
,
up ready for riveting a n d af fer riveting Where the thickness o f the shell , .
plating varies di fferent gauges must b e used A s the intercostal plates o f

, .
a side keelson stand square to the tops of the floors they do not owi n g to , ,
the rise o f floor stand square to the shell ; i f the divergence is consider
,
able the shell angles must be bevelled but as a rule the bevel is so small
, , , ,
as to be negligible .
A r t 5 1 3 I n the case of the s i d e s t ri n ge r s m any of the bars are more

. .
,
or less curved I f the curvature is slight the bars may be su fficiently flexible
.
,
to be pulled into position w ithout preliminary bending ; if considerable ,
or i f the bars are o f rigid section each one must b e bent approximately ,
[Ar t 5 1 4
.
A r t 5 14
. . Special
bars should be provide d fo r cutting up into b o s o m
p i e c e s having
,
at least the same thickness as those i t is intended to
connect but flanges inch narrower Their heels are usually removed
,
.
in the plate planing machine fo r although bars may be rolled fo r the ,
purpose with rounded heels they are not readily obtained in small
, ,
quantities ; to avoid unnecessary lab our howeve r it is well that bars o f , ,
this description o f standard sizes should be kept in stock To secure a

, ,
.
proper caulk in bosom pieces o f watertight work such as gunwale bars , ,
the rounded toe must be removed ; in such cases therefore it is common , ,
to use bars o f the same sca ntlings as those connected and shear about ,
inch o fl the toes the she a re d e dge being sufficiently sharp and square
"
,
k
fo r caulking purposes ; otherwise the toe of a small bar may be planed but ,
unless the special machine described in A rt 3 2 3 is available this involves .

,
extra labour and loss of time The holes provided in the ends o f the bars .
fo r the bosom piece should not be punched in the centres o f their flan ges ,
but rather nearer the toe so that they ma y fall in the centres o f the flanges
,
o f the bosom piece An d the ends o f the bars should be smoothly cut ;
.
very commonly the rag left by the hot saw at the steel works is not removed ,
in which case the bosom piece cannot b e fitted close The work o f fitting .
bosom pieces is generally entrusted to lads or unskil ful workmen and , ,
consequently it is o ften badly done

,
.
A r t 5 1 5 The t a n k m a r gi n p l a t e s m a y be flanged first and cut and

. .
punched a fterwards or vi ce a ward The flangi ng is usually de ferred until

,
.
the floors are erected but it may b e undertaken at any time from bevels
, ,
taken from the scrive board and it is advantageous to do it at an early ,
period so that the plates may be fitted without delay immediately the tank
, ,
frames are erected They may be fl a nged either hot or cold as described fo r
.
,
garboard plates ( Art The precise radius of the knuckle is unimportant

.
,
but in way of watertight floors it should o f course con form with the corner of , ,
the watertight angle frame i f this is already made The plates amidship s , .
are straight fore and a ft but those towards the ends i f not arranged as , ,
described in A rt 1 93 are more or less curved The required curvature

.
, .
may be obtained from the scrive board by s etting o ff the breadth s there ,
given at each frame and running a curve i f the curvature is considerable ,
a set iron should b e bent to check the form o f the plates but very commonly
-
,
only the deflection from the straight is noted The curvature is usually .
small and is impressed by heating the plate supporting it at either end

, , ,
and striking the flange down with large hammers ; or one end of the
hot plate may be li fted and dropped so that its middle part may sag ,
downwards bet w een the supports the bending tends to distort th e flange ,
which is faired subsequently by hammering V ery commonly the plates .
are improperly bent i n which case the pulling of them into place by
, ,
scre w bolts causes the flange to buckle up and the flat surface to become
,
hollow transversely due to the fact that the flange doe s not b end
,
longitudinally with the remainder Such deformation is made good by .
fitting liners b etween the plate and the floor end lugs but these are very -
objectionable for the connecting rivets whose soundness is very important

, , ,
may then be four pliers I n arranging the tank top plating and margin plates
-
.
-
,
it is well when the latter are not straight fore and aft that their flange
, ,
should be as narrow as practicable to facilitate the fore and aft bending ,

- -
.
The margin plates when flan ged may be te m pla te d immediately , ,
the floors are erected ; there are o f course only the cross rows o f , ,
rivets to trans fer V ery commonly when the flange has no fore and aft
.
,
- -
curvature they are te mplate d in the flat before flan gi ng ; when a cold
,
flan gi n g machine is available this is an easy matter The te m pla ti n g o f a .

Ar t 5 1 6 ]
plate already flanged is done in the manner described fo r garboard plates

in Art 5 2 1 I f the plate has fore and aft curvature special care must be
. .
- -
,
taken in applying the template to the flange or tank top portion to allow -
,
fo r any discrepancy i n its fore and a ft curvature When the flange is so - -

.
narrow as only to take one or two rivets in the end o f each reverse bar the ,
work of fitting the plate is greatly facilitated i f in s tead o f punching these ,
holes in the reverse bars they are drilled subsequently through hole s suitably,
punched in the margin plates or they may be punched in the reverse bars ,
and drilled through the margi n plate and this procedure has the advantage
o f ensuring go o d holes for in most cases when they are punched in both , ,
parts they are un fair When the one margin plate overlaps the end o f the
, .
other care must be taken to secure a proper fit at the knuckle the radius o f the
, ,
knuckle o f the overlapping plate being made rather greater than that o f the
other To bring the t wo plates close at the knuckle a rivet hole is usually
.
,
drilled at this point The end o f a plate already flanged is not readily cut
.
only one end need be cut ho wever to do which it is sheared as close to the , ,
knuckle as practicable the knuckle portion being removed by punching ,
consecutive rivet holes a fterwards it may b e planed fo r caulking but ,
as the knuckle portion must be hand chipped it is usually found more ,
convenient to chip the whole The end joints are so metimes butted and .
strapped in which case the straps ( i f single) are usually placed on the
,
inside being flanged like the plate so as to cover the entire j oint ; if placed
, ,
outside their lower ends are not easily caulked The lower edge o f the
, .
margin plate should o f course be cut sufli c i e n tly back to clear the shell
, , .
Th e holes along either edge should be marked on the outer or fayi ng

surface they are spaced 4 diameters apart keeping them clear of the fl oor ,
ends For the pro per fixture o f the lugs which connect the side frames to
.
the margin plate the lines o f the floor ends must be nicked in on the
,
outer surface of the latter fo r which purpose they are marked on the ,
template at the ship and trans ferred thence to the plate I n some yards
, .
the margi n plates are made complete from pattern templates provided from
the lo ft the lugs on the floor ends being also punched to correspond so
, ,
that immediately the floors are erected the margin plates may be screwed ,
up in place When this procedure is adopted the side o f the double bottom
.
is usually designed to form three straight lines in plan as shown in Fig 3 ,

.
,
P late 8 9 .
A r t 5 1 6 Th e m a r gi n p l a t e s h e ll a n gl e should b e fitted imme

. .
-
di a tely the plate is screwed up in place I t is essential that it should .
be fair with the sur face o f the contiguous tank frames otherwise it would ,
show as a ridge or depression on the outside plating ; in many cases ,
through careless fitting the line of the margin plate is clearly discernible
,
.
Fairness may be readily secured by employing a long batten template

having a straight outer edge and so adjusting it that its edge is fair fore and ,
a ft and at the same time flush with the ends o f the tank frames ; a fe w o f
, , ,
the latter may lie slightly within it in which case they must be li n e red when ,
fitting the shell I f it is intended to punch the correspo nding holes in the
.
frame brackets and margin plate connecting angles ( in the manner described -
in A rt then before removing the batten template the 1 2 inch gauge

.
, ,
-
line must be chalked on the sur face o f the margin plate parallel to its outer ,
edge Where the margin plate falls on an outer strake o f shell the angle
. ,
bar should of course proj ect beyond the heels o f the tank frames by the
, ,
thickness of the plating ; and towards the ends where it may leave an , ,
inner strake and pass on to an outer one it may be joggled or a tapered , ,
or parallel liner fitted between it and the shell .
When the sh e ll l a n d i n gs c ro s s t h e m ar gi n p la t e they do so

512 P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 5 1 6 .
obliquely and consequently the t wo rows of landing rivets are alternately

, , ,
too near the heel and too near the toe o f the margin a ngle This is ,
.
usually avoided to some extent by cutting the edge o f the inner strake as
, ,
shown in Fig 5 P late 8 9 and sometimes also by enlarging the flange o f

.
, ,
the margin angle as shown in Fig 4 But it will be observed that some , . .
o f the shell rivets are still too near the throat or toe o f the shell a n gle and
the caulking edge o f the shell plating and in such cases tap rivets screwed , , , ,
in from the outside must be substituted The best plan o f avoiding the ,
.
ab ove difficulty and one which is adopted in high class vessels is to alter
,
-
,
the line o f the entire shell landin g where it approaches the margin plate as ,
shown in Figs 6 and 7 I t will be observed that the shell landing after it
. .
,
has crossed the margin plate may either b e brought back to its ori ginal line ,
( Fig .or be continued in its new one ( Fig T h e method of making the .
margin shell angle is the same as that described for gunwale bars J oint .
pieces are sometimes dispensed with in this angle i f fitted they are placed ,
on the inside o f the margin plate ( Fig for this position avoids some .
three pliers and the joint is more easily caulked Tapered liners are usually
-
, .
introduced where the margin angle crosses the lapped j oints of the shell ,
otherwise the ends o f the inner lapping shell plate may be tapered in way -
of the angle .
Art 5 1 7 When the frames and beams are faired the d e c k p l a t i n g

. .
,
may be proceeded with The stringer plates are the first dealt w ith fo r .
,
when they are in place the gu nwale ribbands which till then have served ,
to hold the frames fair and at the proper distance may b e removed Th e ,
.
position of the various plate landings and the true centres of the beams
are first lined off on the latter by a loftsman or ship w right in accordance , ,
with the plan and with the ordered dimensions of the plates ; sometimes
the landings are already nicked in on the beams and i f the holes are not ,
already punched they must now be beare d The position o f the fore, .
and aft angles o f d eck houses etc should also be marked on the beams
-
,
.
, ,
to assist the platers in marking the necessary lines o f rivets on the plates .
A working plan is of course provided fo r each deck showing every , , ,
feature a ff ecting the plating and giving figured dimensions fo r all distances ,
and sizes Such a plan is shown in P late 8 6 but the dimensions are not
.
,
all given .
A template such as is u sed for an u p p e r d e c k s t r i n ge r p l a t e is -
shown in Fig 1 6 P late 8 9 I t will be observed that little attempt is made

.
, .
to shape it precisely to the outline o f the plate fo r this may be noted more ,
quickly and easily by pencil marks or spilings The only requirement .
is that it shall cover all beam holes ; and it is usually preferable that it
should fall rather within the boundary lines of the plate fo r it is easier to ,
note spilings than to transfer marks which themselves may be covered by ,
the template All marks and spiling figures should o f course be noted
.
, , ,
finally on the underside of the template fo r this is the side that is

, ,
uppermost when laid on the plate I f there is a wood deck the positions .
,
o f the centres of the various planks are noted on the template ( in two
cross lines one at either end of the template) by means of a breadth

, ,
batten supplied from the loft the inner end o f which is held to the ,
centre line nicks on the b eams as indicated in Fig 1 6

-
, . .
The beam holes and those in the end of the adjoining plate having
been marked on the template it is laid upon the plate with its marked , ,
sur face uppermost and i f practicable it should b e so disposed as to avoid

, , ,
the necessity o f shearing both edges and ends The holes are now transferred .
w ith a marker ( Fig 6 P late and the various edge m arks noted either by
.
, ,
setting o ff the spilings or by drivin g a fine centre punch through the marks
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art 5 1 8 .
the batten template employed to trans fer the stringer plate holes should -
have a fair outer edge and be fitted in long lengths and be fore marking , ,
the holes be care fully faired by a skil ful shipwright or loftsman When
,
.
the sheer strake is an o uter one and has no doubling the edge o f the ,
batten should proj ect beyond the flanges o f the frame s by the thickness
o f the strake below the sheer so that the frame liners behind the latter ,
need not be tapered Th e upper ends o f the frames however are o ften
.
, ,
un fair with one another ( due to careless bending or to their being ,
pulled or pushed out o f line by the riveting of the beam knees ) and , ,
accordingly in fairing the batten it must be adjusted in such a way that

, ,
while fair to the eye it may con form with the greatest number of frames
, .
When the sheer strake is doubled below the stringer ( P late care
must b e taken that the edge o f the batten projects beyond every frame by
not less than the thickness o f the doubling Forward and aft where the .
,
side of the ship is sharply curved an ordinary batten template would not ,
b end su ffi ciently and here there fore a special template must be made
, , , ,
composed o f short pieces cut to shape and tacked together .
Th e follo w ing is the procedure o f making the di fferent lengths o f gun

wale bar First the toes are planed fo r caulking either by the plate planing
.
,
machine or the special machine shown in Fi g 1 8 P late 1 1 5 but o f .

, ,
course i f the hori z ontal flange is covered by a wood deck it need neither be
, ,
planed nor caulked I n work that is not high class the toes of the bar are
.
,
nei ther planed nor chipped be fore caulking The next operation is to .
bevel the bar ; th e re quired bevel may be obtained from the ship or scrive
board ; amidships where the side tumbles home it is slightly close but
, , ,
to w ards the ends it gradually opens A n open b evel when very slight may .
, ,
be neglected otherwise it may be impressed cold in the beam bending

,
-
machine as described in Art 5 3 5 ; when considerable the bar must be

,
.
,
heated I n the case o f the close bevelled midship bars it is very

.
-
’
important that the bevel shall not be less than required otherwise it is ,
unlikely that the sheer strake will take contact with the heel o f the
ba r ; this de fect is not uncommon fo r the punching o f the bar after ,
it is bevelled tends to open the flanges After the bevelling the bar .
,
is bent to the required fore and aft curvature ; when this is small - -
,
precision is unnecessary fo r so long as the bar is free from local , ,
irregularities it is su fficiently flexible to pull into place I t may be bent in

, .
the beam bending machine the required curvature being ascertained by

-
,
stretching a line from end to end o f the place the bar w1ll occupy in the
ship and no t ing the departure at one or two points from the straight
, .
Those bars which are sharply bent must be heated for though they might ,
be bent cold in the beam bender the operation would destroy the bevel ,
in such of course the bevelling is done hot as described fo r frames

, , , .
When bevelled and bent the holes are transferred from the batten template
, ,
w hose outer edge must o f course be kept everywhere flush with the heel
, ,
o f the bar Th e holes in the vertical flange may be punched a dva n

.
tage o usly be fore the bending Those in the deck flange i f the curvature is .
,
considerable should not be punched until after the bending fo r the con
, ,
traction o f the flange d uring this operation would spoil their coin cidence
with those in the stringer When bevelled cold as described in A rt 5 3 5.
, .
,
no holes can b e punched till a fterwards fo r their weakening e ff ect would ,
exaggerate the tendency o f the flanges to curl over from heel to toe To .
punch a small close bevelled bar i s not easy for w hen the flange about to
-
,
be punched is lying hori ontally on the die the holes may fall too near z
,
the toe ( Fig 1 1 P late . To avoid this the bolster is usually bevelled
, , ,
as sho w n in Fig 1 2 The rivet holes are generally countersunk i n both

. .
Ar t 5 18 ]
. P R A C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G .
flanges but when the deck is not sheathed or when there is a gutter
, ,
waterway the points o f the rivets in the horizontal flange may be of

,
hammered type and the heads of those i n the vertical flange o f ordinary
,
pan type when the gutter wa y is cemented the projecting heads and points
,
are advantageous in holding the cement in place Care must be taken .
not to countersink the holes at the ends of the bars which take bosom
pieces and those which take rivets through the inner strap s of the sheer
,
strake j oints ; mistakes are o ften made in this matter .
The continuous gunwale bar in the tween decks is made in a similar

’
way to that just described for the upper deck bar The holes in the -
.
stringer plate are trans ferred by a template in the usual way and care ,
should b e taken when marking the holes on the latter that its edge is kept
, ,
in contact with each reverse frame The holes in the latter amidships
.
, ,
may be trans ferred by canting the template up on edge without shi fting it
longitudinally ; very commonly these holes ( i f punched when making the
frame ) fall too near the toe or heel of the bar due to the beams being ,
raised or lo wered when fairing them and for this reason it is better to
,
bear them after the beams are faired The fit o f the gun wale bar against
.
th e reverse frames is o ften very imper fect particularly towards the bow and
,
ste m ; this may b e due to careless fitting o f the gunwale bar inaccurate ,
bevelling of the reverse bars un fairness in the frames and variations in

, ,
their depth— when o f built type Discrepancies are usually corrected by

.
fitting washers behind the gunwale bar or by locally distorting its flange
,
with hammer blows as shown in Figs 8 to 1 0 P late 8 0 The shell lugs

, .
, .
may be fitted either be fore or after the shell as described in Art 5 1 2 ,

. .
[Ar t 5 1 9 .
C H A P TE R XXX VI I
A r t 5 19 When the frames are faired the s h e l l l an di n gs may be

. .
,
“ “
sh e er e d or li n e d i n ”
Their positions are already indicated by a .
nick on each frame made on the scrive b oard but these do not always give
, ,
fair line s fo r they are developed from the excessively fore shortened line
,
-
on the scrive board they are roughly transferred and the frames do not , ,
always occupy the prec i se position they were expected to do A s the land .
ings are conspicuous i t is of course very desirable that they shall be fair
, , , ,
they are lined in by long s/zeer mg ba ttens which are fixed to the frames by ,
clips as shown in Fig 2 2 P late 9 2 and so adjusted t hat while fair to the
, .
, , ,
eye they may coincide with the greatest number of nicks Beside s securing
, .
fair landings the sheering operation is use ful in that the breadths o f the
,
various strakes may be modified i f required to suit the breadths o f the

plates ordered from the steel works fo r when ordering these there is always ,
a chance that in the endeavour to minimize scrap the ordered breadths

, ,
may be rather less than what is actually required A ccordingly as each .

,
strake is lined i n with the sheering battens its breadth is checked with the
-
,
ordered breadths o f the plates and if these should be found to b e rather ,
s cant the battens are suitably adjusted to provide a sufficient margin

,
.
The sheering operation is underta ken by a loftsman or skilful ship

wright 1
For his gu idance he is provided with a list giving the ordered
.
,
breadths o f each shell p late the breadths of the landings and the positions , ,
of the various end joints The sheering battens are of pitch pine about .
,
4 0 or 5 0 feet long by 3 by inch They are applied to each landing

, .
separately the ends of the di fferent battens b eing overlapped The

, .
forward and a fter b odie s are taken separately The fir s t landing dealt with .
is that o f the garboard s trake and then the other s con s ecutively out to , , ,
the bilge after which the sheer s trake landing i s taken then those below
,
-
, ,
consecutively H aving placed the sheering battens to the nick s on the

.
frames repre s enting the garboard landing and faired them to the eye the , ,
breadths o f the garboard strake so lined ofl are compared with the ordered '
breadths of the plates by means of a flexible mea s urin g batten which is

held to the frame and—i f there is a bar keel— bent down the keel as the
, ,
garb oard plates will be bent The breadths of each plate are of course . , ,
g i ven at its ends and the necessary mea s urements are therefore made at
, , ,
the nearest frame I f the position of the sheering batten 18 fou nd to b e

.
compatible with about 1 inch of spare material i ts edge may be ma rked on ,
each frame A s a rule it is m ore convenient to s et o ff the ordered brea dths

.
of the plate s on the frames before fixing the battens The particular edge of .
the landing to which the batten I S adjusted is usually the s igh edge 1 e the , . .
one repre s enting the edge of the overlapping or outer strake ; the other edge
may not be a continuou s line for the breadth o f the landing may diminish ,
towards the b ow and ste m according as the thickness of the plates and the ,
A p p ly qu li fi d h i p w i gh t h ul d h v p
1
ro er d thr ugh
a
p ied f t i
s i g i r s o a e asse o a er o o ra n n n
th e mo u d lo ft l .
[Ar t . 5 19
then numbered and put asi d e for the sub sequent guidance of the plater in
preparing the sheer strake and bul wark plates - .
A r t 5 2 0 I mmediately the shell landings are sheere d in the fi t t i n g

. .
,
o f t h e s h e l l p l a t i n g may be proceeded with This is usually contracted .
fo r by a squa d o f some six or seven platers w h o d ivide th e work among ,
themselves into separate departments so that each man b y acquiring , ,
special pro fi ciency in his o w n work may do it easily quickly a n d w ell , , ,

.
Th e work may be divided as follows : t e mpla ti n g the plates punching ,
and shearing them ; rolling mangling and countersinking furnacing and , , o
shaping those o f awkward form ; fitting the finished plates on the ship .
Two platers usually undertake the t em pla ti n g work each assisted by a ,
couple o f b oys ; t wo also engage in punching and shearing each assisted ,
by a number o f helpers ( the precise number depending on the weight o f the

plates dealt w ith and the facilities fo r handling them ) and other three take ,
the remaining work each assisted as before by helpers , , , .
The necessary in formation is provided on an e x p an s i o n p l a n o f t h e

s h ell and in some yards by a model o f the ship A lthough every detail
, , .
is shown on the expansion plan a model is useful in show ing at a glance ,
the shape and disposition of the various plates P art o f an expansion .
plan for a large vessel is shown in P late 9 0 The following are the .
principal matters usually indicated The ordered dimensions and marks .
o f each plate ( this however is often more conveniently provided in tabular

, ,
form in a small book known as a strake

,
The position form and
, , ,
thickness of all doubling plates and the sizes and positions o f cargo ports , ,
sidelights and scuppers , All w atertight bulkheads tank margins and .

,
divisions the decks intercostal stringers keelsons bilge keels and fenders
, , ,
.
Th e brea dths o f the landings lapped j oints and buttstra ps and the size and , ,
spacing o f the rivets Th e di fferent classes o f riveting whether double or

.
,
treble etc may b e shown conveniently by tinting the j oints with different
, .
,
shades o f colour and providing marginal re ferences ; otherwise the riveting

,
o f each j oint whether single double treble or quadruple may be con

, , , , ,
v e n i e n tly indicated by the letters S D T or

Q or by m arking across them , , , ,
one two three or four short lines as shown in Fig 2 1 P late 9 2 When
, , , , .
, .
both sides of the ship are not alike indications must be given as to which ,
si d e the particular marks apply Large scale sketches should be provided .

-
to illustrate the metho d of fitting special parts such as the disposition of ,
the buttstra ps the rivets in the sheer strake joints and tack rivets in the
,
-
,
doublings the mountings of cargo ports etc I t is important that every ,

.
feature a ffecting the fitting o f the shell plating should b e clearly sho w n so ,
that no trouble and expense may be incurred subsequently in drilling and

cutting by hand a fter the plates are fitted .
I n a vessel having a bar keel the garb oard plates should b e the first ,
dealt with so that the frames may be rigidly united to the keel ; fo r until
,
they are in place the connection is the very imperfect one a fforded by bent
plate washers ( Fig 9 P late
-
The next s t rake fitted should be an
.
,
i nner one near the bi lge so that shores may be placed below it to support ,
the increasing weight o f the hull Subsequently the remaining i nner .
strakes o f the bottom and side may be taken i n hand no particular order ,
being observed C orresponding plates on either side o f the ship are fitted
.
consecutively fo r then the same template serves ( w ithout m odification in

,
its shape) fo r marking both and in making the second the plater has the ,
advantage o f familiarity with any special features peculiar to it I t is .
a dvantageous to template the plates consecutively in a forward direction , ,
fo r as th e a fter end o f each plate overlaps th e one already in place th e end ,
holes may be trans ferre d from the template like all the others to the inside , ,
Ar t 5 20]
9
of the plate and all tem plate d holes may be punched from this the faying
, ,
sur face When the j oints are butte d it is also advantageous to template
.
the plates consecutively for then only one end o f each nee d be accurately
,
fitted and if necessary to secure a close butt a small fore a n d aft

, , , ,
- -
adjustment may sometimes be made without appreciably a ffecting the

fairness of the various rivet holes The procedure generally adopted .
,
there fore is to template several plates of the inner strakes ami dships an d
, ,
while these are preparing several at the a fter end and as the plates are , , ,
put in place to template the contiguous ones working forward

, , .
Th e general system of t e m p l a t i n g is described in Art 4 9 1 A tem . .
plate fixed in place fo r marking a s h e l l p l a t e o f an inside strake is

, ,
shown in Fig 8 P late 9 1 When taken do wn it is turned upside down

.
, .
and lai d on the inner surface o f the plate as shown i n Fig 3 and the , .
,
holes and other marks are transferred The plate on the removal of the .
,
template is shown in Fig 2 add itional holes being marked o ff to take

, .
,
the shell lugs of the deck stringer The holes are then punched and the .
edges sheared all from this the inside o f the plate ; when this is
, ,
done the plate is turned over and the rivet holes in the landings and , ,
forward underlapping end spaced o ff by measurement as shown in Fig 1

, , , . .
The breadth o f the landings and the si e and number o f rivets between z
each frame are given on the expansion plan T0 mark the holes lines are .
,
struck in with a chalk line to represent the two rows o f holes and the rivets ,
are then indicated by cross chalk marks as shown When a row o f holes , .
is indicated (fo r punching purposes ) by a line this is not st ruck through ,
the centres o f the proposed holes but touching them because the si de o f ,
the punch forms a better guide than its centre which can only be guesse d ,
at and it is placed on that side o f the holes which is the outermost at the
punching machine because when a plate is in process o f punchi n g it is
, , ,
then al ways in sight The cross lines o f rivet holes in the end joints are
.
placed in line with the holes in the landings when the latter are at their
u s ual pitch the width o f the overlap is greater than is necessary ( Fig 2 7
,
.
,
P late When reduced to the normal ( Fig tw o additional landing .
rivets may be required in this frame space Th e holes in the joint are .
spaced by measurement ( 3 % diameters apart or 4 i f the joint is quadruple ,
riveted ) and if a deck intercostal stringer or keelson falls upon this

, , ,
particular strake holes must be punched in line with its s hell angle
,
( Fig 1 .P late A s,
the edges o f an inside strake are out o f sight no ,
great precision need be observed in shearing them ; and i f those o f the

rough plate are fair and neatly cut and i f there is only about é inch o f , ,
spare breadth it is common not to shear anything o ff but simply to

, ,
increase the breadth of each landing by inch A s only the a fter e n d o f .
the plate is caulked it only need b e planed The ends o f the shell plates
,
.
are cut parallel to the frames but near the stern where the landings may , , ,
cross the latter very obliquely they are often cut square to the landings , ,
which has the e ffect o f reducing the length o f the joints the number o f ,
rivets and the length o f the plates

, .
When a portion of tw o adjacent inner strakes is in place and well ,
bolted the inter mediate outer strake may b e taken in hand but in the first
, , ,
place its sight edges must b e lined in fair to the eye on the inner strakes
, , , ,
as shown in Fig 8 P late 9 1 Their precise position is seen from the nicks
.
, .
made fo r the purpose on the toes o f the frames during the shearing opera
tion ; i f they are curved the m arks are trans ferred to the inner strakes at,
each frame so t h at they may be struck in by a chalk line in short length s

,
.
A second l ine known as a gauge or detective line is sometimes st ruck

, ,
in 2 inches beyond the first and i s d abbed in at intervals with a cen tre
, ,
5 2 0 .
[ .
punch ( Fig Th e edges o f the plates are planed a n d i f the work is

.
,
care fully done they should o f course when the plates are in place b e
, , , ,
pe rfectly fair i f through careless fitting they are not fair then the nature
, , ,
and amount o f the d iscrepancy may at once be ascertained by gauging

from the detective line ; and i f to secure fairness hand chipping is resorted , ,
to the cost o f the work may very properly be charged to the platers
,
.
I n Fig 8 P late 9 1 part o f a template is shown in place fo r te m plati n g

.
, ,
a plate o f an outer strake all the holes excepting those o f the forward ,
un der lapping end are trans ferred by template a all holes with the
-
n d — ,
—
same exceptions are punched from the inside of the plate The edges as .
,
lined o ff on the inner strake a re usually trans ferred to the template by ,
thickening the line with so ft chalk at intervals ( as at B Fig and striking , , .
the template against the marks with a hammer but o f course i f the template , , ,
does not cover the lines spilings are taken The edges o f the plate are ,
.
sheared about inch clear o f the line the remainder being planed o ff and , ,
detective centre punch dabs are made as described in A rt 4 9 1 I f the edge

-
. .
is slightly curved it is planed in short lengths the man in charge o f the

, ,
machine adjusting the tool throughout the cut when sharply curved it is
chipped by hand usually a fter the plate is fitted as a prelude to the caulking
, , .
A fter a shell plate is punched and sheared its edges are planed and the ,
holes countersunk ; then i f it is curved it is bent in the rolls (A rt , , .
but i f flat it is passed through the mangle unless o f course it is already

, , , ,
per fectly fia t ( Art Sometimes all plates are mangled with a View
.
to flattening the rag existing around the un c o un te rsun k holes I f the .
corners o f lapped j oints are tapered as described in Art 3 1 2 the tapering .

,
is done a fter the punching and planing I f the landings are j oggled the .
,
plates are passed through the joggling machine as a final O peration .
When rolling transversely a plate having joggled edges the joggled part , ,
when it passes on to one o f the lower rolls is apt to cause an irregularity ,
in the transverse curvature o f the plate about a foot or so from the edge , ,
so that when fitted in place it may be di fficult to bring the plate into
, ,
close contact with the frames at this point The method o f te mplatin g .
j oggled plates does not di ffer from that just described fo r the joggling ,
does not appreciably alter the breadth o f the plate Th e plani n g o f the .
edges and machining o f the corners is the only work not done by the
platers themselves .
When the end j oints are butted great care is required in te m platin g ,
and cutting the end which abuts on a plate already in place ; and if both
o f the contiguous plates in the same strake are in place special care is ,
necessary fo r i f the plate be cut a shade too long it may be impossible to

,
fit it in place and i f too short a small endwise adjustment while closing

, ,
one butt opens the other I n te m platin g the ends the method usually
, .
,
adopted is to make two or three tongue pieces overlap the end o f the plate
already in place as shown at C Fig 8 P late 9 1 and mark the latter across
, ,
.
, ,
them with a fine pencil the marks o f which may be trans ferred to the ,
plate by a chalk line I n the case o f an inside strake the buttstrap ex

-
.
,
tends over the landing but as a rule the treble riveting o f the butt is not
,
carried on to the lan ding the buttstrap being cut away where necessary to
,
clear the landing rivets ( Fi g 2 9 P late which may b e placed rather .

,
closer together in this particular frame space I n the case o f an outside .
strake the butts o f the plates should fall midway b etween the landing
,
rivets o f the inner ones and i f there is an odd number of rivets between
,
the frames an a dditional pair should be introduced so that the butt may
, ,
fall in the centre o f the c le a r frame space otherwise there might not be ,
room between the frames to fit a treble riveted strap - .

52 2 P R A C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 5 21 .
neatly made with straight edges o f the same length and long enough
, , ,
to take the frame beyon d one or b oth ends o f the plate When fixed .
in place at the ship to mark the h oles the upper edge o f the keel ,
template is placed flush with the top o f the keel a n d the frame template ,
is adjusted w ith its lower edge just touching the other as shown in Fig 7 ,
. .
I n order that the two templates when applied to the plate may be , ,
placed in their proper relative positions ( not those they now occupy ) ,
two sets bent to con form with the ends o f the plate are placed in
, ,
position against their for ward and a fter ends and when so placed th e , ,
lower edge o f the keel template and the upper edge o f the other are
chalked upon them ( Fig A pencil mark is also made across the
.
meeting e dges o f the two templates to permit o f their being placed in ,
the same relative fore and aft positions when applied to the plate H aving
- -
.
marked the holes in the keel and frames th e templates may be removed ,
.
The sets are now placed each one against its particular end o f the plate ,
and the positions o f the top and bottom edges o f the templates as ,
chalked thereon transferred to the plate as shown in Fig 8 The

, , . .
tem plates are then applied to the plate as shown in Fig 8 with their , .
,
edges coincident with the marks just made upon it their precise relative ,
fore and aft positions being secured by the mark made across the meeting
- -
edges I t will be found that as now placed the edges o f the two templates
.
, ,
do not touch as they did at the ship due to the fact that each one has ,
been moved laterally away from the other by its own thickness ; i f they
, ,
occupied exactly the same positions the holes trans ferred from them would ,
be un fair more or less according as the thickness of the templates were

,
great or small When applying the keel template to the flange care must
.
,
be taken that its upper edge 15 parallel with or in the same plane as the , ,
frame portion o f the plate fo r the flange may have be nt longitudinally i n

, ,
its own plane during the cooling The keel rivet holes as marked on
, .
,
the template should not b e trans ferred to the plate by a centre punch as
,
-
,
is o ften done fo r it is then very di ffi cult to secure concentricity when

,
marking and punching them The ends are sheared and planed as described .
fo r margin plates ( A rt and as this is awkward work one end o f each

.
,
plate should be planed before flan gi ng and the templates should be so ,
applied that only the other end need be cut this being the one fitted ,
against the plate already in place .
I n some cases the ga r b o a r d p l a t e s are p u n c h e d a n d o u t b e fo r e

fi a n gi n g This method has the advantage that the plates may b e more
.
easily manipulated at the punch shears and plane but on the other hand , , , , ,
great care is necessary in the flan gin g work so that the knuckle m ay be m ,
i t s proper place and also in the tem pla ti ng so that both the keel and
, ,
frame rivet holes may b e coincident I f flanged hot the smaller contraction .
,
of the flange ( due to the chilling eff ect o f contact with the metal o f the
fla n gi n g machine ) is o ften sufficient to throw out the keel rivet holes and
spo i l the closeness o f fit at the butts The te m pla ti n g may be done as .
follows A s be fore two detached templates are employed the one fo r the
.
, ,
keel portion is placed with its upper edge flush with the top o f the keel ,
but the other with its lower edge distant from the keel by the difference
between the two distances A BC and A D C in Fig 9 P late 9 2 the former .
, ,
being measured on the neutral axis o f the garboard plate an d the latter on ,
the keel and frame The two te mplates having been marked are laid on
.
, ,
the plate with their edges toucfimg and when the holes etc are trans ferred , ,
.
, ,
the plate is punched cut and fl a n ged the greatest care bein g observed
, ,
that the position o f the knuckle and its radius are those assumed in the
t e m pla ti n
g .
Ar t 5 22] P RA C TI C A L S H I P B UI L D I N G 5 3
2
.
.
Th e correct assignment o f the distance between the t wo templates is

the pr1n c 1pal feature o f this metho d o f working I t may be determine d .
srm pl
y a n d accurately by bending an experimental strip o f plate o f the ,
same thi ckness as the garboard plates with the same ra dius of knuckle as ,
1 t 1 5 proposed to bend them Be fore bending it two centre punch dabs
.
-
,
are made on its surface ( the inner one as regards the ship) say 1 0 inches ,
apart , one on either side o f the region o f the knuckle An d a fter bending
'
.
1t 1 t l S adj us t ed in place a r i b e ship an d the position o f the dabs marked

,
,
upon the keel and frame ; the distance between these two marks is then
ascerta i ned by measuring up the keel and out on the frame and the excess ,
over 1 0 1n che s whatever it be is the distance required bet ween the edges
, ,
of the two templates or in other words the extent to which they must be
, , ,
brought together when marking the plate The first plate should be tried .
m place 1mm e di ate ly it is made to test the accuracy o f the method o f ,
wo rk g
m Sometimes th e templates are connected by hinge like strips of
t m ( F1g 1 0 P late
.
2 in which case when fixing them in place the strips

-
.
9 , , ,
must b e made to assume the proposed radius o f k nuckle o f the garboard

plate ; and they should lie in the position o f the centre of the thickness or ,
neutral axis o f the garboard plate at the knuckle otherwise a correction ,
must b e made fo r the extension or contraction w hich occurs w ith the

Th e buttstraps o f the garboard plates are bent to fit the knuckle
.
fla n gmg .
,
a n d they should b e tapered so as to pass well down between it and the
keel ( Fig .
A rt 5 2 2 S h e l l p l a t e s may be divided into s i x c l a s s e s : those

. .
which are flat ; those which are curved in a transverse direction only ,
as those on the bilge amidships ( Fig 1 6 P late those wh ich are .

,
curve d only longitudinally ( Fig those w hich have both transverse .
and longitudinal curvature with or without twist ( Figs 1 8 and 1 9) those, .
which are sharply bent both transversely and longitudinally such as the ,
b oss and oxter plates ( Fig 2 0 P late 9 2 and Fig 7 P late . and those
, , .
,
which are flanged such as the garb oard plates ( F1g 1 P late
, .
,
A s the b i l ge p l a t e s amidships h ave the same transverse curva ture or ,
frame set from end to end they are cylindrical and may be readily
,
”
, ,
bent to any radius in the rolls When te m plati ng those o f an outer strake .
,
the template must be adjusted everywhere at the same distance from the
frames a condition conveniently secured by clamping to the latter mid
, ,
way between the two inner strakes a fore and a ft batten o f the proper ,
- -
thickness ( Fig 1 2 P late . I f the central pa rt o f the template took

,
contact with the frames the plate also would take contact with them when
,
fitted in place with the edge holes coincident and consequently tapered , , ,
liners might b e required .
The bending of a bilge or other curved plate causes the inner sur face
, ,
to contract and the outer one to stretch with the resul t that the breadth ,
o f the plate and the spaci n g o f the frame rivet holes diminishes on
, ,
the inner surface and increases on the outer This e ffect is shown in .
exaggerated form in Figs 5 and 6 P late 93 which represent the same two
.
, ,
plates when flat and when bent ; it will be observed that while the spacing ,
o f the holes in both plates has diminished on the inner surface an d

increased on the outer it has not changed on the neutral axis hal fway
, ,
b e tween the surfaces ; and the outer plate in Fig 6 is therefore still .
, ,
1 inch broader than the inner one w hen measured on the dotted lines ,
.
Th e amount o f contraction and extension depends on the thickness o f the

plate and how much it is bent ; i f a plate is bent right round to form a tube ,
the breadth o f its inner sur face n o w the inner circum ference o f the tube will
, ,
b e smaller than that o f the outer by times the thickness o f the plate
[Ar t 5 22 .
( the circumference o f a circle being 6 2 8 times the radius

) B ut as the .
outer surface stretches duri ng the bending as much as the inner one
contracts the actual stretch and contraction is only hal f o f this or
, ,
times the thickness ; i f b ent to a quarter circle it would only be one quarter ,
-
as much or roughly three quarters o f the thickness ; i f to one sixth of a

, , ,
- -
circle one sixth as much or hal f the thickness

, ,
.
Whether or not in te mplati n g a bilge plate a correction should b e

, ,
made for the contraction o f the i nner or faying surface and the consequent ,
drawing together transversely o f the vari ous rivet holes depends on the
, , ,
thickness o f the template and how it is placed with regard to the frames .
I f it is the same thickness as the plate and is placed in t h e same position , ,
against or clear o f the frames no correction is required for its inner surface , ,
will contract with the bending ( and stretch when straightened ) just as
much as that of the plate I f it were only half as thick and its inner .
,
sur face were still placed in the position o f the inner sur face of the plate ,
then as the contraction of its inner surface would only be hal f that o f the
,
plate half the allowa nce given above would have to b e made I f for
,
.
,
instance a plate were bent to a quarter of a circle the edge rows of holes and
, ,
the edges o f the plate itself as trans ferred to its inner surface from the ,
template (assume d to have a thickness half that of the plate ) would require ,
to b e spaced three eighths o f the thickness of the plate further apart and
-
,
the spacing o f the frame rivet holes ( in the region of the bending ) pro
p o rt i o n a t e ly increase d I f a perfectly thin template were used say
. one o f ,
sheet tin then o f course the full allo wance o f three quarters the thickness
, , ,
-
of the plate would be required The necessity fo r making any allowance .
may be a voided by so adj usting the template that the centre o f its thickness
( whatever this may be ) is dis tant from the frames by half the thickness of
the plate Thus in the case o f the sheet iron template shown in Fig 1 4
.
,
-
.
,
P late 9 2 although its inner sur face does not contract ( when bent as shown )
,
like that of the plate still the frame holes as marked upon it fo r trans ference
, , ,
to the plate would by reason o f the remoteness o f the template from the
, ,
frames be further apart to begin with by an amount exactly equal to the

, ,
contraction o f the plate Through neglect o f the foregoing principle it is .

,
common to find a very imperfect coincidence in the rivet holes of the bilge
strakes especially when the plates are broad and the bilge sharp
, .
Th e bilge plates when punched sheared countersunk and planed are , , , , ,
bent in the rolls Th e required curvature is ascertained by bending a

.
small set iron to the frames and care should be taken to bend the plates
-
,
properly r ig /d out to tire edge ( A rt

, so as to avoid tapered frame .
liners an open seam and imperfect caulking A very exaggerated case of

, ,
.
de fective work o f this kind is illustrated in Fig 1 3 P late 9 2 .

, .
A r t 5 2 3 I n many curved plates the t r a n s v e r s e c u rv a t u r e v a r i e s

. .
fr o m e n d t o e n d ; if the variation is small it can be impressed in the ,
bending rolls by d epressing one end o f the top roll more than the other
, ,
but i f it is considerable it cannot for properly speaking cylindrical rolls , , ,
can only roll cylindrical plates whereas a plate having a variable curvature ,
is conical ( plate bending rolls are described in Art I n an extreme .
case fo r instance if one end o f a plate — i h process o f rolling— is flat a nd

, , ,
the other much curved say to the radius o f the top roller then while the , , ,
fl at e n d must in order to remain flat move horizontally through the rolls

, , ,
the other to remain curved must revolve with the top roll without any
, ,
lateral movement and it is evident that the t wo di fferent motions are

,
impossible in the same plate fo r i f one end revolved so would the other ,
.
I n the actual work o f rolling a plate when the variation in its curvature ,
from end to end exceeds a certa in moderate limit the pressure and ,
rt 5 23
[A .
locally by inserting sheet iron or thin slabs of wood between the plate and
the rolls .
A plate which has slight t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n gi t u d i n a l c u rv a t u r e ,
without twist may be formed by first rolling it transversely with an excess

,
of curvature and then longitudinally the latter operation while producing

, ,
longitudinal causes a loss o f transverse curvature but when this i s in

, , ,
excess i n th e first instance it may finally be what 15 required the elasticity , ,
o f the steel prevents the entire loss o f transverse curvature even when the ,
longitudinal is so great as to involve considerable rolling pressure and if ,
necessary it may be more fully maintained by placing a slab of elm wood

in the middle of the plate a n d pe rhaps one under either edge and rolling “
,
t hem in wit h the plate as shown in Fig 1 5 P late 9 2 I f the transverse

,
.
, .
and longitudinal curvature is considerable both cannot be impressed in ,
the rolls and in such cases the necessary form is secured by heating the
,
plate after the transverse rolling to a dull red and laying it with its ends ,
u pon blocks so that its unsupported mid d le part may sag downwards by
,
its o wn weight assisted if neces sary by hammer blow s ; it must not be

, , ,
heated very hot or it will lose transverse curvature and b ecome otherwise
, ,
misshapen .
A r t 5 2 4 Th e s t e m p l a t e s ( and those connecting to the stern post )

. .
are usually te m pla ted and punched be fore they are knuckled or flanged ,
and as a result of careless work the stem holes are o ften bad w hich ,
circumstance o wing to their large si z e is most prejudicial to the e fficiency

, ,
, ,
o f the riveting Th e stem portion o f the template is usually united to the

.
remainder by strips of tin and in applying it in place to mark the holes , ,
the strips should be made to lie exactly as the knuckle o f the plate itself
will lie and in the centre of its thickness otherwise the holes will not
, ,
correspond a fter the knuckling A n d in knu ckling the plate care must b e .
,
taken to place the knuckle in its proper position and give it the radius
assumed when marking the template o ften it is too far forward or aft and ,
it may not b e parallel with the stem de fects which are a common source ,
o f bad holes I n order that the pla tes o f the outer s t rakes may fay close
.
upon the s tem the inner one s are tapered ( u s ually by hand chipping) in
,
way of the landing as shown in Figs 1 and 1 0 P late 9 3 I n many cases

, .
, . ,
to reduce the tapering work it is done as shown in Figs 2 and 1 1 and , .
sometimes to avoid it altogether tapered liners are fitted as s hown in

, , ,
Fig 3 but this is very clumsy

.
, .
Ar t 5 2 5 The o x t e r p l a t e s are those which take the sternpost

. .
,
immediately below or partly on the tran s om ; one of them is shown in , ,
Fig 7 P late 9 3 O wing to the sharp bend variable tran s verse and
.
, .
,
longitudinal curvature and t w ist they are usually undevelopable i e they , , ,

. .
cannot be made from a flat plate ( and conversely be flattened out) without , ,
stretching or compressing the material at places and they must therefore , , ,
be moulded to shape w hen so ftened by heat The same remark applies to .
the boss plates and a fe w others I n such furnaced plates it is obvious .

”
that the holes must b e punched and the edges out after they are shaped ,
for be fore this it is uncertain at what precise places the various bends and
configurations will fall To mould an oxter or boss plate to shape may .
require several bea ts and to provide therefore fo r the loss of thickness , , ,
by oxidation and local stretching they should be ordered rather thicker ,
than is ultimately required .
I n shaping a f u rn a c e d p l a t e much preliminary work is required .
The first operation is to make a s k e l e t o n m o u ld at the ship This is .
d one by bending , inch round iron bars to the curve o f each frame and
3
5
- -
,
one to the fore a n d a ft curve o f each lan d ing welding them roughly
- -
,
Ar t 5 25 ]
together and trying the completed mould in place to correct its cur vature
,
( g 8 P late
F i .
, Sometimes flat bars are employed instead o f round ,
say 2 inches by 1 inch which are punched and ri veted together Very
‘
, .
commonly only an outline mould is prepared the set bars fo r the inter ,
-
mediate frames being kept detached fo r independent application to the

plate in process of making the twist being ascertained as just described , .
Some workmen prefer to make their moulds of wood cutting the di fferent
pieces o f stout material —to the shape o f the frames and lan dings and
,
—
,
nailing them all rigidly together .
Th e next operation is to make a b e d ; this as shown in Fig 9 P late 9 3 , .

, ,
is simply a substantial and more or less accurate counterpart o f the skeleton

mould whereon the hot plate may b e laid and hammered to shape I t
, .
may be made in various ways depending on the stock o f bed material at ,

‘
disposal the shape o f the plate and the practice of the workmen A s a
, , .
rule only the more prominent features o f the plate are represented fo r ,
when these are impressed the remainder o f the shaping work may be done ,
when the plate is comparatively col d independently o f the be d by judicious , ,
ham mering and the repeated application o f the skeleton mould or sets I n .
some cases the bed is simply an arrangement o f bars a n d blocks designed ,
to support the hot plate at a suitable inclination so that the part which , ,
requires manipulation may lie in a convenient position fo r hammering .
A s ordinarily ma d e it is built up on the slabs ; of iron bars ( o f any section )

and strips o f plate ( wide or narrow) w hich are bent to the fore and aft or ,
- -
transverse shape o f the plate or across any prominent feature where , , ,
owing to a sharp bend or reversal o f the curvat ure it is desirable to have a ,
check on the form and something solid on which the hot plate may bear .
The bars are fixed in position on the slab s in d i fferent ways some may be
bolted together and their ends may be turned do wn and hooked in to the
,
slab holes or they may be fixed in position by upright bars or dogs

, ,
supporting blocks of wood or iron being introduced where necessary .
N icety o f construction or even accuracy of shape is not aimed at the ,
principal requirement being a fair approximation to the shape o f the more

prominent features o f the plate and sufficient strength and rigidity to ,
withstand the weight o f the plate the displacing e ffect due to its being ,
dragged forci bly over upon it and the subsequent ha mmering Sometimes ,
.
a bed is formed by making an excavation in the ground to the shape o f ,
the skeleton mould and lining it with bricks or cement but this method
, ,
is slow and inconvenient .
The plate when at a so ft yellow heat is pulled out o f the furnace by

, ,
tongs with chain attached over upon the contiguous bed I t is very
, ,
.
important that from the moment it leaves the furnace the utmost despatch
, ,
should b e used in getting it in its proper position on the bed ready fo r ,
hammering down o r it soon loses its heat and while a few blows or even
f
, , ,
the weight of the plate itsel f may e ffect a wide alteration in form when at a ,
yellow heat very many and much e ffort are required to produce the same
,
e ffect at a lower temperature I n order there fore to expedite the work .

, , ,
and at the same time reserve the energies o f the men a winch ( preferably ,
machine driven ) should be employed fo r dragging the plate from the

furnace 0 11 to the bed and arrangements should be made to ensure its
,
sliding automatically into its proper position upon it by suitably inclined ,
skids guide bars and stops A s soon as it is in place it is struck do w n

, ,
. ,
aroun d its margin and elsewhere by long handled wooden mallets fo r in ,

-
, ,
its so ft state hammers woul d indent it ; as it cools and hardens sledge

,
, ,
hammers are substituted but the blo w s should be struck not d irectly on
,
t h e plate but on a flattening iron held by the plater in charge in the most
, ,
P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G Ar t 5 25
28 .
[ .
suitable position fo r producing the desired e ffect The res ult o f direct .
blo w s from heavy hammers is o ften observable in furnaced plates by an

unsightly lumpy appearance a n d more particularly in the case o f thin
, ,
plates .
The great heat radiated by the plate is one o f the principal di ffic ulties
in working it fo r as it is a pain ful matter to remain at close quarters long
, , ,
handled tools must be employed The heat may be greatly minimized by .
placing corruga t ed sheet iron on those parts w hich are not in process of ham
mering the greater part o f the plate fo r instance may be covered during its , ,
passage from the furnace to the bed The getting of the plate i nto position .
on the bed is the critical part o f the operation fo r it is then so hot as to b e ,
almost unapproachable and should it catch on some part o f the bed as it

,
is pulled over it or slip out o f position the necessary adjustment can only be
, ,
made with di ffi culty by pulling it with hooked bars and raising it w ith long
,
levers and o f course the loss o f time and consequent chilling o f the plate
, , ,
may make it impossible to hammer it to anything like its proper shape and ,
may therefore necessitate a full second heat O xter plates an d others

, , .
which are sharply bent must b e heated more than once ; during the first
heat they are moulded approxi mately to shape and during the second ,
sharp corners are finished o ff and the general form adjusted to correspond
with the skeleton mould A t the second heat the plate is not raised to .
more than a dull red fo r i f hotter it would flatten o f its o wn weight ; and
,
to prevent i t from losing in the furnace the form already impressed supports ,
m ust b e placed belo w those parts which curve up wards from the furnace
floor ; wooden blocks are generally used fo r this purpose fo r although , ,
they burn away they may endure fo r the short period of the reheating
,
.
A fter the second heat w hen the plate is cold co nsiderable manipulation
, ,
may still be required to fair it and adjust its shape precisely to that o f the
skeleton mould E ven when quite cold a large modification in form may
.
be produced by skil ful hammering but very commonly especially with a , ,
thick plate it is preferred rather than work it quite cold to warm it to a

, , ,
“
black heat in the furnace fo r even at this lo w temperature the steel is
”
,
much more amenable to bending treatment ( Art I n the case o f an .
oxter plate to finish o ff the sharp corner at the heel o f the transom frame
, ,
it is usually necessary to heat this part in a s mith s fire but such local ’
,
heating is objectionable in that it is apt in the absence of annealing to , ,
result in cracks o f the kind described in A rt 5 6 2 which o ften do not occur .

,
until the riveting work is almost complete When fitted in place on the .
ship discrepancies in fi t are usually corrected by heating the plate locally

,
with the blast o f a specially designed oil lamp and simultaneously screwi n g ,
up and hammeri n g the plate I n many cases furnaced plates are first .
brought approximately to shape when cold in the rolls or cold fla ng in g ,

-
machine after which they are heated ( not too hot ) and finished o ff on a
,
bed as just described .
Furnaced shell plates like all others are in pairs but as they are on, , ,
di fferent sides o f the ship the configurations are all transposed and , ,
accordingly a separate skeleton mould and bed must b e made for each
,
one as a rule however the making o f the second plate is a simple matter
, , ,
fo r most o f the sets may be worked in again by simply reversing them In ,

.
d i fferent vessels o f similar size the boss and oxter plates are o ften much
alike and fo r such plates there fore it is convenient to keep a stock of
, , ,
substantial pattern beds ( in duplicate fo r port and starboard) which may ,
ser v e w i th little m o drfi ca ti o n fo r a large number o f plates They are

, , .
made o f plates an d bars bolted together w ith countersunk bolts a n d so , ,
arranged tha t they may be taken apart and extended or adj usted by
5 3 0 P RA C TI CA L S H I P E UI L D I N G .
[Ar t 5 26 .
The trying of it in place is of course very useful in checking its form , , .
Many o f the holes in an oxter or dished keel plate cannot be punched in , , ,
w hich case they are drilled a n d those parts o f the edges w hich cannot be ,
sheared or planed are cut and chipped by ha nd To avoid the labour o f .
fitting a furnaced plate in place and a fter marking the holes taking it , , ,
do wn drilling it and bringi n g it back it i s often preferred to drill the holes

, ,
in place and to avoid having to do this from the interior of the ship which
, , ,
may be inaccessible for such work some o f the holes in the furnaced plate ,
may be punched the corresponding ones in the parts to which it connects

,
being left blank .
A r t 5 2 7 Th e fr a m e li n e r s are fitted immediately the outer strakes

. .
are in place ( Figs 9 and 1 1 P late A s they are mere fillings they
.
,
are made o f a cheap brittle iron known as liner iron or packing ;

“
, ,
”
sometimes it is so bad as to cru mble when dra wn out hot under the
hammer but o f course such material should not be employed Liners
, , , .
which are caulked such as those in way of tank margins and divisions, ,
gunwale bars etc should b e o f ordinary iron or steel A large quantity

, .
, .
of liner iron of various thicknesses and breadths is usually kept in stock ,
in bars 1 5 or 2 0 feet long ; but sometimes it is ordered in short pieces ,
all o f the proper length and thickness for the di fferent strakes of plating
throughout the hull and it may also be tapered a s required fo r clinker , ,
strakes .
The frame liners should fill the vacancies between the frames and
shell with such acc u racy that nowhere may a thin bladed testing knife be -
inserted ; o ften in bad work the rivet shanks may be felt with the kni fe
, , ,
in which ca se these particular rivets when subj ected to stress may readily , ,
loosen and admit water A ccordingly as absolute and permanent water .

,
tightne s s in the shell rivets is essential special care should be taken in ,
fitting the liners Those which fall bet ween inner strake s of di fferent
.
thickness should be tapered to suit ; as a rule however when the di ffer , ,
ence is only 1 o r 5 23 inch they are made of the smaller or mean thickness
5 0 , .
O f course i f ta pering were dispensed with when the di ff erence was con
,
si de ra ble the rivet at the end of the liner could not draw the three parts
,
properly together ( see Fig 1 4 P late 9 V ery commonly when parallel .

, ,
liners are employed the e ffect of taper i s secured by introducing a thin

,
supplementary tapered liner at one end ( Fig or even a slip o f sheet .
iron but such work is rough and does not usually stand the test o f the kni fe
, .
I n high class work each liner should b e o f such thickness and taper as to
-
fit in its place without supplementary filling slips The sheer strake lin ers .
-
require special care fo r the tops of the frames may be displaced by the ,
fitting of the beams and so are not always in a fair line with the heel o f
,
the gunwale bar .
Th e fitting o f liners and similar unskilled work is usually undertaken

by riveters who from age or infirmity are unfit fo r heavy work They
, , , .
are prepared with small templates Those which are curved are bent .
either in the rolls or by hammering a small flat iron set being bent to the ,
-
frame as a pattern I n high class work the rivet holes should be punched
.
-
no larger than those in the frames and as the liner is a middle thickness , ,
a small die should be used so as to minimize taper V ery commonly this , .
is disregarded the holes being punched a s ize larger so as to minimize the

, ,
e ff ect o f non coincidence and ensure the free entry of the shell rivets but
-
,
o f course the soundness of the latter and their e ffi ciency under stress is
,
then greatly prej udiced A n d for a s imilar reason it is evidently desirable .

, ,
that the liners should consist o f one thickness for the greater the number , ,
the less the chance o f fair cylindrical holes Frame liners are not put in , .
Ar t 5 27 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G 5 3 1
.
.
place until the shell plates are s crewed up so that they may be slipped in ,
between them and the frames but in way o f intercostal stringers an d

decks where they cannot be introduced in this way they are fixed in
, ,
place previously either by tying them to the frames with spunyarn or by

, ,
drrvm g wooden plugs through the holes ; bolts cannot be use d o f course , ,
fo r they would inter fere with the fitting of the plates Bulkhead liners .
,
be i ng large and heavy are secured in place by bolts having flat disc like , ,
-
ea s which may be forced through by a punch a fter the shell plating is
Ed
i
tte
,
are drawn down under the s team h ammer When

Ta p e r e d li n e r s .
the taper is sligh t only a foot or so of the end i s tapered With clinker
, .
strakes the liners are tapered from end to end ; but excepting those fo r
, ,
thick shell plating they are usually made short say one hal f or one third the
, , ,
- -
breadth of the strakes L iners for thin deck and tank top plating in which
.
-
,
the strakes are arranged clinker fashion are usually made quite short ( 1 2 ,
inches or so) this being adva ntageous in saving weight and avoiding some
,
three ply rivets The ends of tank top liners are cut an inch or so short
-
.
-
,
to provide air passages The frames near the bow and ste m are some .
times incorrectly bevelled in which case special k n i fe e d ge d li n e r s may ,

-
be required in way o f the inner strakes and transversely tapered ones in ,
way o f the outer ( Fig 1 8 P late 9 T0 en s ure sound rivets such liners
.
, ,
must be carefully made and fitted and more particularly at the bow where , ,
the shell riveting is severely tried by panting stresses and blows from the
waves ; o f course i n high class work they are never required Frame liners
,
-
.
o f special form are o ften fitted behind the oxter and boss plates Fig
( .
fo r owing to the awkward form o f these parts and the excessive bevelling
,
and curvature o f the frames close contact throughout is rarely secured ; ,
in consequence o f bad work at these places leaky shell rivet s are not ,
uncommon .
Besides the frame liners short tapered ones are required in way o f ,
every overlapped e nd j oint unless o f course the corners o f the plates are , , ,
machined ( Figs 2 1 and 2 4 P late They are usually made su fficiently

.
,
long to take three lan ding rivets and as they are caulked they must be o f ,
good iron or steel They are tapered in bulk under the steam hammer
.
,
and to facilitate and expedite the work two are usually made in one piece
, , ,
by drawing out both ends o f a flat bar as shown in Fig 1 9 they are then ,
.
sheared to the proper breadth and a fter the caulking edge is planed they , , ,
are cut in two V ery commonly instead o f planing the edge it is chipped
.
, ,
in place as a prelude to the caulking and instead o f chipping it flush w ith , ,
the edge o f the shell plate it is sometimes left projecting in the unsightly ,
fashion shown in Fig 2 4 They are either marked in place or by small

. .
templates and care should be ta ken that the thin end is perfectly thin an d
, ,
that the thick one utts close against the end o f the shell plate The work
o .
is o ften defective in these matters the liner being so short and the taper , ,
so imperfect as to cause sharp depressions and lumps in the shell plating

( see Fig 23
) and the
. thick end may b e cut short or sheared so roughly ,
as to preclude a close fit in which case the resulting open conduit fo r ,
water is merely plugged on the outside by driving in a wedge shaped -
fragment o f iron Sometimes when the end j oints o f contiguous strakes

.
,
fall within 4 or 5 feet o f one another instead o f fitting a tapered liner at ,
each one as sh own in Fig 2 1 a single parallel liner is introduced from

,
.
,
j oint to j oint as shown in Fig 2 2 This improves the appearance o f the

,
. .
shell plating fo r it avoids the sharp bends or twists which occur in the s i ght
,
edge at each tapered liner it has the disadvantage however o f i n vo lvmg , ,
numerous three ply rivets and double caulking - .

5 3 2 P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G .
[Art . 5 27
B esides the ordinary fr a e li n e r s , supplementary thin liners are m

i n t ro d e d at various places , not to
uc ll vacancies , but t o e r e fa i r fi s cu
ne ss i n t h e h e ll p l a t i n g ; they are fitted , for instance , even when , by
s
joggling the plating or frames , ordinary liners are dispensed with A lthough .
the frames may be bent with the greatest care , their outer surface is never
perfectly fair, i e individual frames , or groups o f frames , may at places lie
. .
a little within or beyond the normal fair surface The resulting waviness .
in the shell plating may or may not be conspicuous ; as a rule it is only

noticeable when the eye is ea st alon g the prominent landing edges fo r on ,
the plane surfaces between the se there is nothing fo r the eye to follow .
I rregularities are most observable on straight fore and a ft sur faces especially - -
,
on the flat o f the bottom because when regarded from one end the whole , , ,
area may b e focussed simultaneously the fore shortening e ffect giving ,

-
prominence to irregularities however small and unimportant ; a cur ved ,
sur face on the oth er hand must b e focussed more or less in detail and
, , , ,
consequently irregularities may escape notice U n fairnesses occur chie fly

,
.
on the bottom and bilge because while the fairing ribbands m ay pull the , ,
side frames into line they cannot do so with those on the bottom on , ,
account of the sti ff floor plates ; and moreover though the frame angles , ,
may be properly bent the riveting of them to the floors may displace ,
them slightly and they may not all sit at the proper level on the keel
, ,
.
I t is usual in all shipyards to correct any un fairnesses which are un

, ,
desirably prominent by introducing liners o f suitable thickness at the

,
slack frames i e those which fall within the normal surface A s a rule
,
. . .
,
i f the irregularity is small it is only corrected in way o f th e landings fo r , , ,
as just seen it is har dly noticeable else w here The necessary adjustment
, .
is usually made by the riveters just be fore the riveting as follo ws : I n , ,
the first place the landi n g connecting t wo strakes and the two strakes
, ,
themselves are screwed up tightly fo r a distance o f 2 0 to 4 0 feet and

, , ,
having chalked the sight edge in way o f each frame the eye is ea st along ,
so as to detect any un fairness ; i f there are hollows at places the particular ,
frames which by their slackness are the cause of them are at once located
, , ,
by the chalk marks their bolts are slacked o ff and a workman within is
, ,
notified to force the plate outwards which he does by driving a wedge ,
between it and the frames When the landing is faired in this way from .
end to end short double tapered liners are substituted fo r the wedges as
, ,
-
,
shown in Fig 1 6 P late 93 and the riveting work is then proceeded w ith
.
, ,
.
A stock o f tapered liners is usually made in the smith s shop fo r the pur
'
pose from 1 2 to 1 8 inches in length and varying in thickness from 5 to 4

, ,
inch ; i f thinner are required sheet iron is used a n d i f thicker special ones , , ,
are made I t is evident that the system of j oggling the shell plating or
.
frames while dispensing with ordinary liners does not avoid those fi tted
, ,
as above fo r fairing purposes

, .
I n some shipyards a s p e c i a l p r o c e d u r e is adopted whereby per fect ,
fairness of the shell plating is secured not only in way of the landings , ,
but throughout the breadth o f each strake By this system the ordinary .
frame liners are made of such thickness that they not only fill the vacancies
bet w een the frames and the outer strakes but make good any discrepancies ,
in the fairness and liners are also introduced as required in way o f the
,
inner strakes as sho wn in Fig 1 7 P late 93 The work is done as follows

, .
, .
When the landings are sheered in on the frames and before the plating is ,
wrought a fi ne line is stretched tightly against the frame sur face ( 2 0 or

,
3 0 feet at a time ) in w ay o f each landing so as to discover those frames ,
which are slack and the distances bet ween it and these particular frames
are then noted in fi gures on each frame Supposing now that a frame is .
, ,
[Ar t 5 28 .
C H A P TER XXXV I I I .
Art . 5 28 . Th e b u i l d i n g requires exceptionalof i n a st s y a r d s, , etc .

,
skill and consequently it is not every plater who can turn out satisfactory
, , ,
work Th e draughtsman who designs the spars makes an elevation

.
,
section and expansion plan o f each one The expansion ( which need
, .
only be fo r one strake all strakes being alike) shows the breadths o f the ,
various plates and is obtained by measuring the diameter o f the spar at

,
various points multiplying by to obtain the circumference dividing

, ,
by two or three according as there are two or three strakes and adding the ,
brea dth o f the landing For the guidance o f the plater the breadths o f the
.
finished plates so obtained are marked on the plan but as the fairness o f ,
the spar is dependent on the accuracy o f these measurements it is usual to ,
check them by making a full si z e expansion o f one strake as shown in -

,
Fig 1 2 P late 93 This is conveniently d one on the mould lo ft floor but

.
, .
,
usually the plater does it himsel f fo r which purpose he lays out the plates , ,
end to end so that they may serve as a sort o f drawing board on which
, ,
he sets o ff the breadths and dra w s in the outline with a long batten .
A ccording to some procedures the plates are laid out in this way for
marking purposes but in the procedure ab out to be described each plate
,
is m arked separately and quite indepen d ently o f those adj oining M ost
, .
spars have a rounded or barrel taper and it follows that the edges o f the ,
strakes and o f individual plates are also rounded but as the amount o f ,
curvature in each plate ( most plates are not usually longer than 1 0 feet )
does not usually exceed about 2 inch it is generally neglected which , ,
simplifies the w ork and does not appreciably a ffect the fairness o f the spar .
H aving noted ( from the full size expansion ) the precise breadth at each -
end o f each plate the various plates may be mark e d forthwith fo r cutting
,
and punching in the m anner described below , .
C onsider the procedure o f p r e p a ri n g t h e p l a t e s o f the yard sho wn

in Fig 1 3 P late 9 3 composed o f two strakes wi th overlapped end joints
.
, , .
The three middle joints are butted with inside straps to permit o f the , ,
sling hoops being slipped over them O n e strake is here an outer one .
,
a n d i f it were necessary that the longitudinal seams should fall symmetrically
with a diameter it would require to be broader than the other for it ha s

, ,
a larger radius ; in practice however to simpli fy the work all strakes are , , ,
made o f the same breadth P roceeding to mark one of the plates its .
,
breadth at either end is first set o ff N o w from the expansion just made .
, ,
only one breadth was obtained at each j oint and it i s evident from Figs ,
.
5 and 6 that the same breadth cannot be used for the ends o f both
plates fo r as one overlaps the other it has a larger radius and must b e
,
broader I f the breadths obtained from the expansion are taken to

.
represent those o f the overlapping ends those fo r the underlapping ends ,
must be reduced A s the circum ference o f a full circle is

. times its
ra dius any increase or reduction made in the latter is accompanied by
,
t i mes as great an i n crease or reduction in the former I n the case .
1llustra te d in Fig 6 which represents a section through an overlapped

.
,
Ar t 5 28 ] . P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L DI N G .
535
joint the radius o f the inner plate is 292 inch smaller than that o f the outer
,
one ( mea suring to the neutral axis in either case) and consequently its ,
breadth or girth is 15 2 inch by £2 or practically 1 inch smaller I n

,
3
, , .
Fig 5 the same plates are shown flattened out and the di fference in
.
,
breadth is here apparent ; the breadths o f the plates when bent as in ,
Fig 6 are the same as when they are s traight i f in the former case they
.
, ,
are measured on the neutral axis of the plates .
P roceeding with the marking of the plates Th e breadth at either end

( one of which is amended as j ust described ) having been set o ff the two ,
edges and the centre line are struck in with chalk (as a rule o f course only , ,
one side need be sheared) a fter which one end is marked square to the ,
latter line with a tee square as shown in Fig 2 5 P late 93 The next
, ,
.
,
.
operation is to mark the edge holes ; this is done w ith a pattern template
( rather longer than the plate and the breadth o f the landing) in which
rivet holes are accurately bored 5 diameters apart as shown I ts ends , .
are cut 1 diameter clear o f the terminal holes and when adjusted to the ,
edge o f the plate one end is plac e d coincident with the end o f the plate
,
as just m arked H aving marked the holes in both edges the other end
.
,
of the plate is s truck in 1 diameter beyond a rivet in either edge the , ,
plates being ordered with a su fficient margin of length The edges o f all .
plates are marked in this way and it is evident that as the spacing o f the ,
holes is identical and continuous throughout the length o f the spar all ,
holes must coincide when the t w o strakes are put together .
The next operation is the marking o f the holes in the ends o f the
plate fo r the lapped joints The three rows fo r treble riveting are placed .
, ,
in line with three o f the edge holes just marked ( this is convenient but
not essential) and cross lines are now struck in touching the sides of the
, ,
latter as shown in Fig 2 5 P late 93 The pitch o f the rivets is here as in

, .
,
.
,
the seams 5 diameters and a pattern template having holes accurately

, , ,
bored at this pitch may be conveniently employed fo r marking them ,

.
No w it is evident that i f the holes are spaced 5 diameters apart in say

, , ,
the overlappin g end o f each plate they must be spaced closer together in ,
the underlapping end I n any particular case the necessary modification .
is obtained by dividing the di fference in the breadths o f the two plates

.
by the number of spaces between the holes across the joint Thus in the .
,
case illustrated in Figs 5 and 6 the di fference in the breadths of the tw o.

,
plates is 1 inch and this divided by 8 the number of spaces gives 2 inch
, , ,
i e the rivet pitch in the inner plate must be 2 inch less than that in the
. .
outer The modi fi cation must o f course be made in such a way as not to
.
, ,
disturb the symmetry of the holes about the centre line To avoid the .
necessity o f making frequent computations and accurate measurements a ,
stock o f pattern templates may be kept suitable fo r plates o f di ff erent ,
thickness and fo r spars having two and three strakes Th e same principle .
must of course be observed when marking doubling plates and buttstraps

, ,
.
A ll plates having been marked in the foregoing manner they are cut , ,
punched and countersunk I t is common to punch all plates from the

, .
inside fo r when a small die is employed and the plates are thin this does
, , ,
not appreciably a ffect the efficiency of the riveting The edges of the .
outer plates must be sheared from the outside so as to secure close seams , ,
and fo r this purpose the lines are reversed— by nicking the ends o f the
plates in way o f them A s masts etc are not usually caulked the edges .
, .
, ,
Th d iff
1 i e ti m th th i k divi d d by
er e n ce s 3 di g th es e c n e ss, e 2 or , acc o r n as e r e a re
tw o th t
or k i f th p l
re e t f d
s rai f
f r t
es th k th v g th k
e a es a re o e en 1c ness, e 1r a e ra e 1c n esse s
s h ul d b t k
o e a en .
[Ar t 5 28 .
of the plates need not be planed except o f course at the end j oints if , , ,
these are butted and connected by inside straps .
The next operation is the r o lli n g o f t h e p l a t e s For this purpose .
a section at each end of each one is drawn with a pair o f large compasses
on a board ( the diameter o f the spar being given on the plan at each joint ) ,
and when any particu lar plate is about to be rolled a couple of light set ,
irons are bent to the shape o f its ends as s o dra w n .
Small bending rolls are employed for spar making I n design they are .
practically the same as ordinar y plate bending rolls except that the top roll -
,
is raised or lowered by hand gear and the upper part of the standard ,
carrying one end is made portable to permit of tube like plates being with ,
-
drawn from it end wise Few machines are capable o f dealing with plates
.
0 h —
longer than 1 eet for if t e top roll which must be of small diameter
f ,
were longer than this it would bend too readily Thi s 1 011 is of forged
, .
steel and its diameter does not usually exceed 1 0 inches but a smaller one
, ,
may be kept fo r special work .
The plates are always bent hot for the pressure required to bend them ,
cold would be so great as to cause the small top 1 0 11 to spring so that the ,
ends would ha ve a smaller radius than the middle C are must b e taken to .
roll them square to the centre line fo r i f twisted the edge holes would not , , ,
correspond with those in the contiguous strake With tapered plates this .
is accomplished by first passing them t h rough parallel to one edge and ,
then back parallel to the other a simple method because a plate tends , ,
naturally to enter the rolls with it s leading edge parallel to their axis The .
curvature is tested from time to time by applying the set irons and it is -
,
carried out to the extreme edge by inserting a convex bar o f iron as shown ,
in Fig 9 P late 9 5 and by subsequent hammering Before the plates are

.
, ,
.
quite cold their inner surface should be coated with re dlea d ( A rt .
Th e bolting together of the various plates and the subsequent r i v e t i n g

are operations requiring considerable care for if carelessly done the com ,
p le t e d spar may be crooked Whatever the size of the spar it is s crewed

.
,
up complete by the plater to check the accuracy of hi s work ; and if angle

sti ffeners are required they are now fitted by applying a long template to ,
the outside and marking it by striking it over each hole ( punched for the
purpos e in each plate ) with a hammer or if the spar is suffi ciently large , ,
a boy may mark the holes fro m within When the diameter is as large a s .
1 8 inches it may b e riveted when screwed up complete the holder u

p work
-
, ,
ing within with a long sha fted h ammer used lever fashion ( Fig 1 9 P late
,
-
.
,
and in such cases large holes ( about 1 2 inch diameter ) are usually provided
at intervals ( or a plate may be le ft o ff or loose here and there) through , , ,
which the hot rivets may be passed to a b oy within who inserts the m in ,
the holes over the holding up hammer Small spars must be put together
-
.
and riveted plate by plate the holding up work being done from the out
,
-
side and the spar growing gradually in length During the riveting o f a
, .
.
spar it is rolled over as required so that the joint in process of riveting may
,
b e on the top ; and care must b e taken to keep it quite straight during
the riveting otherwise it will not be so when finished
,
.
A r t 5 29 . . Th e form
of the outer surface o f the hull is not that of any
well known geometrical solid amidships it is cylindrical but for ward and
-
,
a ft it becomes co mplex partaking o f the character o f a paraboloid The .

,
s t e m p l a t i n g however above the kn uckle li n e and aba ft the transom

( , ,
Fig 4 P late
.
, is an exception in that it is practically always cylindrical
,
in form being formed by the rolling of a cylinder in a curved path A

,
.
cylinder in process o f rolling out the stern is depicted in Fig 4 The . .

[Art 5 2
.9
Where the stern frames do not lie parallel to the buttock lines in plan ,
they m ust be curved in elevation between the knuckle and rail line this
follo w s from the fact that when a plane cuts a cylinder ( or cylindrical
surface) i n a direction not parallel to its axis the line o f intersecti on or , ,
trace is always curved To obtain the correct curve of the stern frames
, .
at this part a point in each one between the rail and knuckle line must be
,
found For this purpose a water line ( WW Fig 3 P late 9 4) is drawn in

.
, .
,
elevation m i d way between the rail and knuckle line and having projected
, , ,
i t into the plan its points of intersection with the frames here may be
,
proj ected into elevation and thus give the required third point in the ,
curved line o f each frame A s?a rule the curvature in most o f the frames .
is so slight as to be negligible The transom frame below the knuckle has .
already been laid o ff with and to suit the adjoining surface o f the hull , , ,
and its shape above the knuckle must now be obtained ( for the body plan )
agreeably w ith the cylindrical formation of the stern as just designed I ts .
form is readily obtained by simply measuring in plan its brea d th at the , ,
rail knuckle l i ne and intermediate water line the heights of these points
, ,
-
,
b eing obtained from the elevation ( see Fig .
Th e ste m being laid o ff as just described may now be ex panded T0 , ,

.
do this it must be cut by an imaginary plane at right angles to the rake

line or path of the cylinder The trace of thi s plane ( i e it s line of inter . . .
section with the stern plating ) is a straight line in elevation Draw any .
straight line there fore say X X Fig 3 P late g4 1ts true form ( X X
, , , ,
.
,
.
” "
i n plan must now b e obtained by swinging it down into the horizontal this
) , ,
operat i on being shown by the arcs i n elevation drawn w ith point S as '
centre and its intersection with each buttock as radius The points thus
, .
revolved into the horizontal may n o w be proj ected on to their respective

buttock lines in plan and the cu rve X X representing the true shape o f
,
” "
,
the line X X drawn through them as shown I magine now that the rake
, .
line SS is revolved backwards into the hori z ontal position S S and that X X
’ 2 ’
,
is ( together with the whole o f the stern plating ) revolved with it into the
vertical I n its new position XX will appear as the straight line X X in
.
’ '
plan Though it appears to be straight it is of course curved and only

.
, , , ,
touches the paper at the centre line and what is now required is to flatten
it out or expand it ( and with it the stern plating ) into the horizontal or
, ,
plane of the paper I ts true form is shown by the curve X X in plan

.
” ”
,
a n d it is there fore possible to measure round it and take its girth with a
, , ,
flexible batten ticking o ff on the latter the points of intersection with the
,
various buttock lines The batten is then laid out straight along the line
.
X X and the various marks tran s ferred to the latter These points are
' ’
, .
the expanded positions o f the buttock lines i e the positions they occupy , . .
when the stern plating is flattened out and lines 5 5 5 etc may n ow b e , 1, 2, 3, .
,
drawn through them ; these the n ew buttock lines are o f course ( from , , ,
the principle o f the cylinder) still parallel to the centre line To obtain , .
,
now the outline o f the expanded plating the rail and knuckle line must be
, ,
drawn upon it This is done by measuring in elevation the distance o f the

.
rail and knuckle line on each buttock from the line XX and settin g them ,
o ff on th e corresponding expanded buttock lines in plan from the expanded

(
line X X ) and running curves through the points so obtained Th e shape
’ ’
.
o f the expanded stern plating as now drawn is shown in ou tline in Fig 3 , ,

.
,
and fo r clearness it is also shown separately in Fig 5 . .
I t is now required to draw on the expanded stern plating the lines o f

the stern frames and transom so that when the plates are cut to shape the ,
necessary rivet holes may be punched for their connection To do this .
the rail and knuckle lines m plan ( Fig 3 P late 9 4) are girthed with a flexible .
,
Ar t 5 29]. P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G .
539
batten and the positions of the stern frames and transom noted upon it ;
,
the batten is then laid along the expanded rail and knuckle lines and the ,
p o mts, being transferred lines drawn between them from rail to knuckle ,
l i ne wrll represent the stern frames and transom Some of these lines may .
be sl i ghtly curved on the expansion and to obtain the proper curvature

. ,
the1r points of intersection with the mid way water line should be girthed as - -
j ust done fo r the rail and knuckle line the water line being also drawn fo r ,
-
the purpose on the expansion ( not shown in Fig To obtain the .
pos 1t i ons of the stern frames on the expansion wi th absolute accuracy

.
water l i nes only must b e used instead o f the rail and knuckle lines ;
-
,
because owing to the sheer o f the latter their girth in plan is not precisely
, ,
their true girth .
H aving now obtained the expanded or flattened form of the stern , ,
p a tmg with the positions upon it o f the stern frames the butts o f the
l , ,
v a r1o us plates may b e marked o ff and templates made for each plate the
,
r i vet holes being bored in the butts if lapped so that each p late may be , ,
cut and punched ready fo r erection independently o f its neighbour I n

, ,
.
most cases however only one large skeleton mould is made from w hich
, , ,
the plates may be laid o ff in position on the scrive board in the manner
described fo r bulkheads The joints o f the plates are disposed vertically .
between the stern frames and to save workmanship the plates should be , , ,
large The lines curved or otherwise o f the stern frames are trans ferre d
.
, ,
to the plates from the template the holes being transferred from the stern ,
frames themselves a fter these are made Th e holes in the upper and
, .
lower edges at the rail and knuckle are spaced by measurement The
, ,
.
rolling o f the plates is a simple matter fo r owing to the cylindrical form o f , ,
the stern they are all rolle d in one direction i e parallel to the buttock
, ,
. .
lines which for this purpose are indicated on the templates ; and the
, , ,
exact curvature o f each plate is suppl i ed to the workmen by a mould or

sets made or bent to the true form of the line XX ( Fig 3 P late 9 4) in .
,
way of each plate The lower edge of the stern plating is usually flanged
.
or knuckled and this is done a fter the plates are rolled to shape at a
, ,
smith s fire ; and to prevent the plates changing shape with the heating
’
and hammering it is well to b olt to them a short angle bar bent to the
, ,
required curve with its heel at the line o f the knuckle so that it may form
, ,
a sti ff corner fo r the flangin g action .
Th e shape and bevel o f the stern frames are supplied to the workmen
by moulds made i n the loft one fo r each frame The necessa ry laying o ff , .
-
work is shown in Fig 3 P late 94 The outlines o f the frames as shown in .

, . ,
elevation are not their true outlines excepting those frames which in plan
, ,
are parallel to the centre line To obtain the true form o f say frame . , ,
N o 3 it must b e revolved in plan parallel to the centre line

.
,
Th e points , ,
-
.
E F and G o f Lhe rail water line and k n uckle thus obtained are then
, , , ,
-
,
projected into the elevation and as the frame is s wung in a hori z ontal plane ,
they are of course still in the same horizontal lines in elevation A line
, ,
.
E F G drawn through these points gives the true form o f the frame in way
' ’ '
o f the stern plating Th e part lying bet w een the knuckle line and the
.
transom may be curved and i f correctly laid o ff in the elevation rts true , ,
shape may b e readily obtained by means o f an a d ditional transverse farrm g

.
section abaft the transom To obtain the bevels o f the frame its toe an d . ,
heel must b oth be drawn in elevation (as sho w n in Fig when the .
bevel at any point may at once be li fted as shown in F1g 3 and as ,

.
,
described in A rt 4 8 1 H aving obtained by means of the round of beam

. .
,
line of the transom beam the height o f the forward end of the rad 1al stern ,
beam an outline mould with the bevels marked upon it may be made fo r
, , ,
[Ar t 5 29
.
each frame from which they may be bent to shape b evelled and fitted
, , ,
w ith beam and floor bracket ready fo r erection in the ship ,

Th e holes in .
the vertical lugs of the floor bracke t and beam a n d in the transom fl oor and ,
beam may be marked by pattern templates so that the stern frames when
, , ,
erected may be bolted in place at once ready to receive the stern plating
, , ,
also made by this time and ready fo r erection N o ribbands need thus be .
used The holes in the stern plating as already noticed are trans ferred
.
, ,
from the frames either by templates or by applying the frames themselves

,
to the plates as the latter lie on the ground .
A r t 5 29 A Formerly a vessel s ste m ( and bow when o f clipper type )

’
. .
, ,
was usually ornamented with W o o d c a r v i n g ; as this however was found

l
-
, ,
to result in corrosion o f the plating below through imprisoned moisture , ,
and was costly the practice was gradually discontinued A n exception is

, .
o ften made ho w ever o f the knuckle moulding fo r an iron moulding is

, , ,
awkward to fit owing to the curvature and bevel The wood is usually

,
.
bolted on in the rough and shaped in place A t one time fore and aft
, .
- -
,
h a l f r o u n d i r o n m o u ld i n gs were always fitted at the upper edge o f the

-
sheer strake and rail now they are o ften dispensed with when fitted they
,
are either of hollow section as shown in Fig 9 P late 7 4 or of fl at convex

, .
, , ,
section as shown in Figs 6 or 7 H o llo w m o u ld i n g is advantageous in

, . .
,
that it is lighter and cheaper than solid I t is in ferior structurally however .

, ,
because as the connect i ng rivets are not entirely surrounded by metal

,
between their head and point ( Fig their soundness and efficiency .
under st ress is necessarily imperfect and as water is free to enter the ,
moulding and flow fore an d aft it may pass through the plating by any ,
rivet head w hich may be imperfectly laid up or through j oints covered ,
by the moulding the caulking o f which may perhaps have been rendered
, , ,
imper fect by the riveting o f the moulding For this reason the classi .
fi ca ti o n societies do not sanction the use o f hollow moulding o n the side

o f the ship below the deck or where leakage might do harm , When a .
moulding is fitted in line with a gunwale bar bul wark landing or rail i t is , , ,
usually only connected by every third or fourth rivet .

[Art . 5 31
or punching limber holes small manholes or stringer notches Machines , , .
o f this three function type are shown in Figs 3 a n d 1 2 P late 1 1

5 an d
- .
,
Fig 5 shows one designed to do four operations

. I t is evidently .
convenient to be able to shear and punch a plate at the same machine ,
while suspended from the one crane ; nevertheless as the punching ,
o f a plate takes seven or eight times as long as the shearing of its edges ,
punching machines are more continuously in requisition and c o n se , ,
q uently in ,
yards having a large number o f machines a considerable ,
number are usually designed fo r punching only I n order that a punching .
machine may punch holes in the middle o f a broad plate the depth o f its ,
g ap or g zI Z/et must be at leasf half the brea d th o f the plate ; modern

machines have o ften a gap 4 2 inches deep but a 3 0 inch one is usually ,
-
sufficient taking as it does plates 5 feet broa d A s a d eep gap increases

, , , .
the leverage or disruptive e ffect o f the punch it involves a heavy costly , ,
machine I n the case o f shears a comparatively shallow gap suffices

.
, ,
for however broad the plate it is only its edge or marginal part that is
, ,
shorn i f it should b e required to cut a long plate in two a line o f ,
contiguous holes is punched across it M odern punching and shearing .
machines are usually built with su ffi cient strength to deal with plates at
least 1 5 inche s thick for although material so thick is rarely used and
, ,
might there fore be provided for by one special machine of large power
, , ,
still a large m argin of strength in all machines is very desirable as a

,
provision against the rash action of careless workmen I n yards which .
undertake the construction of warships mach i nes o f special power are ,
required to deal with the thick protective plating some o f these are capable
o f shearing 2 inch plates and o f punchin g 2 inch holes in 2 inch plates
- - -
.
Some punching machines are designed to punch two holes at each stroke
the s e are use ful when punching the two rows of holes required in double
riveted seams ( such as the shell landings a hole in each row being ,
punched simultaneously ; and as the punches may be used separately and ,
b e of di fferent sizes a useful choice may be o ffered to the workmen For

, .
girder work or work where there are numerous pa rts having rivet holes at
,
a fixed pitch multiple punching machine s are employed some of these are
,
capable o f punching a line o f t wenty holes more or less simultaneously , , .
There are two distinct types of punching and shearing machines the ,
eccen tr i c ( Fig 3 P late 1 1 5 ) and the

.
“
le er
, ( g
Fi T h e latter has v
”
.
an advantage over the former in that the punch may move with varying
speed throughout its stroke I n ordinary piece work punching operations .
,
the machine is driven at the highest speed compatible with a sufficiently

long interval between the s trokes to shi ft the plate so t hat the m ark of the ,
hole next to be punched may be adjusted precisely under the descending

tool No w in order that with a quick working punch there may be
.
, ,
-
,
a maximum of time to adju s t the plate it is evident that that portion ,
o f the interval b etween strokes when the punch is ac tually in contact ,
with the plate should be short and the remainder long ; that is to say
, , ,
the punch should move quickly at the lower part o f its oscillation so ,
that it may have the more time to spend clear o f the plate With a lever .
machine this result is readily secured for the cam which actuates the lever , ,
or r ocki ng bea m may be so shaped as to cause the latter to move rapidly

,
at one period o f its stroke and slowly or with a pause during the remainder
, , , .
I n an eccentric machine an eccentric disc takes the place o f the cam and ,
as it is circular it can only produce the well known invariable harmonic -
movement The lever design has the further advantage that the small
.
transverse dimension o f the part o f the machine over the punch permits o f
the workman who guides the plate getting close to the work A s regards .
Ar t 5 3 3 ]
543
shearing machines a stroke o f varying speed is n o t advantageous and

, ,
consequently the lever desi gn is most use fully applie d to punches ; when
applied to shears the cam is usually a mere di sc the resulting movement
, ,
being there fore the same as that of an eccentric machine P unches are
, , .
always provided with a stop motion so that by pushing a bar or lever or , ,
turning a hand wheel the punch is instantly disconnected ; plate shears do

-
,
not require a stop motion angle shears do although in some old fashioned , ,
-
machines it is not provided .
A useful a p p li c a t i o n o f t h e p l a t e s h e a r s is shown in Fig 1

9 .
,
P late 9 5 wherein one o f the flanges near the end o f a Z bar may be
,
removed ( about 1 inch at each stroke) ; this may be use ful when it is
required to crop the end of the bar fo r with one flange remove d the , , ,
remainder being o f angle section may be cut in the ordinary angle shears
, , .
A n d Fig 1 8 shows a method o f removing the bulb fro m one side o f a bulb
.
bar Fig 1 3 P late 8 1 showing how the same work is done by han d
, .
, , .
A nother use ful applicatio n o f a punching or shearing machine is shown in

Fig 1 P late 8 0 w herein an open bevel may be readily impressed on a
.
, ,
cold angle bar the degree o f bevel being varied by placing sheet iron
,
belo w the heel P unching and shearing machines may also be adapte d
.
fo r joggling plate landings in the manner shown in Fig I A P late 9 5 the , .

, ,
work when so done being perfect in every respect

, ,
.
A r t 5 3 2 A comb ined angle shearing beam bending and horizontal

. .
-
,
-
,
punching machine is sho wn in Fig 7 P late 1 1 5 and part o f an a n gl e .

, ,
s h e ar i n g m a c h i n e is shown in outline in Fig 2 0 P late 9 5 I t will be .

, .
observed that there are two knives a right and a le ft hand one ; both are ,
-
necessary when it is required to crop the ends o f a frame or other angle

bar which is already bent to shape fo r although one o f the ends m ay be ,
cut by the fi ght hand kni fe the other can only be cut by the left unless
-
, , ,
o f course the curved bar i s raised high above the ground or the end to
, ,
be cut is in s erted from the back o f the machine ; but to cut from the back
of the machine involves the distortion of the end o f the bar due to the ,
crushing e ff ect of the d escending blade ( Fig 2 2 P late A s angle .

,
bars are usually straight when out a single kni fe is in most cases su fficient , ,
h ence the utility o f the single angle shears o ften introduced as a third
movement in punching machines ( Fig 3 P late .
,
A r t 5 3 3 M a c h i n e s are now specially made fo r c r o s s c u tt i n g

. .
c h a n n el Z a n d b u lb t e e b a r s
, ,
All ordinary shearing machin es -
.
,
whether for plates or bars distort the part removed owing to the de , ,
scending kni fe bending it down be fore it has entirely severed it ( Fig .
22,
P late This of course does not matter when the ends of a , ,
bar are merely cut to bring it to length for the part remo ved is o f ,
no value ; but when it is required to divide a bar into two or more

pieces the distortion o f one end of each part is very obj ectionable ; i f
,
there is length to Spare the damaged portion may be sheared o ff but i f , , ,
not the end must be heated and dressed by the hammer I n the case
,
.
o f channel bars etc the distortion is very considerable but as they are
, .
, ,
practically always ordered in separate lengths fo r each part the circum ,
stance is comparatively unimportant .
A h y d r a u li c m a c h i n e Specially designed fo r c r o s s c u t t i n g ,
c h a n n el a n d o t h er b a r s is shown in Fig 1 5 P late 1 1 5 I t has a ,

.
,
.
small hydraulic locking ram R which by holding the bar firmly do w n , , , ,
permits o f its being cut precisely to the required line w hether square across ,
or at an angle ; and the whole machine may be revolve d on a vertical

pivot so that long bars may be entered from any direction and cut at any
,
angle without sle wing or adjustment Fig 1 1 sho ws another hydraulic

,
. .
54 1, .
[ .
machine having double lower kni ves between which as a die the upper
, , , ,
one d escends making a double cut and tak i ng with it a thin slice of the
,
bar ; both the severed ends are thus left per fectly free from distortion .
The lower knives are adj ustable to suit di fferent sizes and kinds of ,
bars The fact that the ends o f the bars are not distorted permits o f
.
their being inserte d under the kni fe either from the front or the rear an ,
important matter in the case of Z frames fo r it enables both ends to b e ,
o ut a fter bending A machine specially designed fo r beam work is shown

.
in Fig 1 4 N o t only does it cross cut Z channel bulb tee and other
. .
, ,
-
,
bars but combines in itsel f a hori z ontal punch and a beam bender An d
,
.
it ha s the novel feature of a h o ri z on tal shears specially adapted for re ‘
moving the bulb or flange from one side of a bulb tee or Z bar ; thi s is -
particularly useful in beam making operations when in the absence o f this -

, ,
machine these parts must be cut o ff by hand I n shipyards which have

, .
none o f the above special appliances channel bars etc may b e cross cut , ,
by a col d saw ( o f circular or band type ) this makes a neat cut but is very ,
slow in action O r they may be heated in a smith s fire and be cut by chisel
.
’
.
When the part removed is o f no value it may be cut o ff in detail as shown , ,
in Fig 2 1 P late 9 5 first one flange is removed as described below and

.
, , ,
what is le ft o f the bar being of a n gle section may be cut in the angle shears
, ,
.
With c h a n n el o r Z fr a m e s it is sometimes n ecessary t o r e m o v e t h e

i n n e r fl a n ge at the top or bottom end s o as to make them o f simple angle ,
section ( P late This may b e readily done by nicking the flange across
wi th a cold chisel as at A Fig 2 1 P late 9 5 splitting the web longitudinally
, , .
, ,
from the end o f the bar to this point punching conj oined holes bet ween ,
the end of the split and the nicked flange ( i f the former is not close to the
latter) and then breaking the flange o ff with a sledge hammer The web
, .
may be most conveniently split with the shears fo r this purpose an

ordinary kni fe cannot b e used fo r the sti ff flange on the part removed ,
would o ffer such resistance to its bending or depressing action as forcibly

to cant the bar ; a short curved kni fe is therefore substituted ( Fig 2 , ,
.
which when at the b ottom of its stroke barely pa sses below the fixed one
, ,
and to prevent canting of the bar a block o f iron is placed alongside o f

, ,
the lower kni fe below the upper one and su fficiently low to clear it w hen
, ,
at the bottom o f its stroke by the thickness o f the bar Sometimes the , .
upper knife is arranged to work in a die i e between two lower knives ; , . .
there is then no canting tendency but o f course a longitudinal strip of the , , ,
web is removed I n some cases the web is split in the plate edge planing
.
-
machine by making repeated cuts with a narrow tool but this is slow and
, ,
part o f the web is removed When it is required to split small channel or Z .
frames in way o f the floor ends so that one part may form the frame angle ,
and the other the reverse bar it may be inadmissible to remove any ,
material from the web le s t the floor flanges of the two split portions be ,
too narrow .
A r t 5 3 4 A useful tool sometimes termed a

. . ri p p i n g p u n ch
”
is , ,
shown in Fig 2 4 P late 9 5 I t is a rectangular punch about 1 2inches long

.
, .
,
by 2 inch thick at one end of which there is a guide piece ; the other
,
portion w orks like an ordinary punch making at each stroke a 1 inch slot ,
-
.
Th e guide piece does not leave the die or b olster it serves there fore to , ,
guide the work so that each rectangular slot may be a continuation o f the
,
one just punched ; and the punch may b e made to follow a straight line or
a curve I t is well adapted fo r splitting channel or Z bars and fo r cutting
.
,
lightening holes in small plates ; fo r the latter purpose it must o f course , ,
start the cut in the centre o f the plate which may be accomplished by raising ,
t h e punch bodily b applyi n g an external li fting force to the slide o f the

( y
.
[ .
pressure Th e method adopted in practice fo r bending the marginal part

.
is to place a narrow slab o f wood or a bar o f convex iron on the plate near ,
th e e dge as shown i n Fig 9 so that the upper roll by taking contact with
, .
,
it may give the necessary local pressure I n the case o f thick boiler
,
.
plates the incompleteness o f the circular form produced by the bending

,
rolls is a serious matter and accordingly in many cases these plates are , , ,
not rolled but are shaped in a hydraulic b ending press

, .
The tendency of the top roll to spring upwards in the centre when
bending a long plate transversely is objectionable in that the curvature ,
impressed on the plate is smaller at the centre than at the ends This is .
usually provided against by m aking the diameter of the roll about 1 inch
greater at the middle than at the ends i e by making it slightly barrel ,
. .
shaped in which case an up ward deflection of half an inch would result in

,
a per fectly straight lower edge A machine is shown in Fig 8 P late 1 1 5 . .

, ,
in which deflection of the upper roll is prevented by a po w erful girder ,
placed above and moving in one with it friction rollers b eing interposed , ,
as shown in Fig 5 P late 9 5 This design is also advantageous in that i t

.
,
.
permits o f a small easily forged upper roll capable o f producing a sharp

, , ,
local curvature close to the edge but o f course the beam may sometimes
, , , ,
inte rfere with the rolling of tube like plates When rolling heavy plates -
.
,
t h e slight barrel shape o f an ordinary top 1 0 11 is insu fficient to secure the

same curvature from end to end and in such cases the pressure at the ,
central part is increased by laying sheet iron or thin slabs of wood on this
part o f the plate and rolling them through with it L ong plates which
, .
require a sharp transverse curvature from end to end are sometimes ,
slightly heated in which case as the top 1 0 11 does not bend it produces the
, ,
s ame curvature throughout ; to work plates in this way however at a lo w , ,
heat is objectionable ( Art

, .
The b e n d i n g r o ll s a r e u s e d fo r o th e r p u r p o s e s besides the

ordinary one o f rolling plates They may be employed fo r knuckling the .
ends o f lapped plates stem plates etc by laying a short piece o f convex bar
, , .
,
on the line of the knuckle ( curved if the knuckle is curved) and rolling it ,
i n with the plate ; or a sharp bend near the edge with a curved knuckle , ,
may be impressed as shown in Fig 1 0 P late 9 5 by placing a stout iron

, .
, ,
bar say 2 feet long at the knuckle and advancing the plate until the upper
, , ,
roll bears upon the bar and bends the plate then backing it out shi fting , ,
t h e bar along and again advancing the plate so as gradually t o flange it

, ,
to the proper bevel and curvature ; to prevent slipping pieces o f wood ,
must b e inserted above and below as sho w n They may also b e employed .
a s a b ending press by using only the depressing force o f the top roll ; a
,
b oss plate fo r instance may b e roughly shaped in this way by heating it

, , , ,
placing it b elow the top roll and d epressing one or b oth ends so as to ,
mould the plate to shape O r they may be adapted for flan gi n g all sorts .
o f plates by tap b olting to the top 1 0 11 a longitudinal T bar which when

, , ,
the roll is depressed takes contact with the plate and bends it do wn between
,
t h e lower rolls ( Fig O r an unattached angle bar may be placed

.
bet w een the plate and the top 1 0 11 as shown in Fig 1 1 P lates up to about
—
. .
2inch in thickness such as tank margin plates may b e flanged cold in this
, ,
way but thicker ones such as garboard plates must be heated I n the case
, , ,
.
o f thin p lates a sharp well defined knuckle may b e secured b y laying a

, ,
large flan ge d angle bar between the lower rolls to act as a sort of die
-
,
( Fig . The e fficiency o f the bending rolls in the above respects

de pends o f course on the power of the depressing gear ; in some this is
, ,
too small for anything but light work A convenient method o f flan gin g .
s mall thin plates is to cut a deep narrow longitudinal slot in one o f the
, ,
Ar t 5 3 8 ]
5 47
lower rolls s o that when the edge o f the plate is inserted in this ( Fig
, .
and the rolls are put in motion the proj ecting part o f the plate when it , ,
comes in contact with the upper roll is bent over with a sharp knuckle , .
A r t 5 3 7 P lates as delivered from the steel works are never quite fair
. .
and flat but are more or less bent twisted and buckled The usual
, , , .
characteristic o f a buckled plate is a flat central part and wavy margins ,
the length measured alon g the former being less than that measured along
the latter This peculiarity is more marked in thin plates and is d ue to
.
,
inaccuracies in the cylindrical form of the rolls at the steel works or to ,
unequal rates o f cooling a fter the rolling ( Art Buckled or un fair .
plates are flattened be fore fitting in the ship in a machine known as a ,

“ ” “ “
m a n gl e p t e s t r a i gh t e n e r
l a ,
”
or fl a tt e n e r ”
O n e o f the s e is .
shown in Fig 1 P late 1 1 5 and in section in Fig 6 P late 9 5 The three

.
, , .
, .
lower rolls are driven in the same direction and at the same speed the ,
four upper ones run idly and may be raised or lowered simultaneously by ,
means of one large hand wheel ; the two end ones however may be , ,
adjusted separately by separate hand wheels The plates are mangled , .
cold ; if heated they would stretch and in cooling might again become ,
buckled O n e is shown in process o f mangling and it will be observe d

.
,
that as it passes through the machine a series o f ever changing wave like
, ,
-
,
-
undulations is impressed upon it the e ffect o f which is to stretch the flat ,
or taut portions o f the plate and thus obliterate their dra w ing or buckling ,
e ffect on the margins The exte nt of the stretching e ffect depends o f .

,
course on the pressure o f the rolls and the number o f times the plate is
,
passed through U ltimately when the plate is withdrawn the pressure o f

.
, ,
the last top roll is so adjusted as to neutralize the bending e ff ect o f th e

one next it so that the plate may emerge straight
, .
Some modern plate fla tte n e rs are su ffi ciently large and power ful to deal
with 1 2inch plates up to 8 feet in breadth such as may be employed fo r
- -
, ,
the protective decks of warships but ordinary machi nes are not usually ,
capable o f dealing with plates thicker than about 3 inch or broader than ,
5 feet Thick
. plates are not o ften buckled ; they may b e bent and twisted ,
but such deformation and even slight buckling may be eliminated by , ,
passing them backwards and forwards through the ordinary bending rolls ,
turning them upside down a fter each pass so as to reverse or eliminate the ,
curvature I t is advantageous that a plate straightener should b e strong so

. ,
that when fairing broad or thick plates the rolls may not spring away from ,
their work I n a weak machine the bending of the rolls may entirely nulli fy
.
their fairing e ffect for the pressure at the middle o f the plate ju s t where it
, ,
is wanted becomes small and that at the margins where not required
, , , ,
great I n practice this is met by rolling in with the central part o f the
.
plate sheet iron or thin slabs o f elm so as to concentrate the bending a n d

, , ,
stretching e ffect w here most required I f a thin plate is so much buckled .
as to resist the flattening e ffect of the mangle it may be faired by heating ,
it all over hammering it flat on the slab s and then allowing it to cool
, ,
uni formly fo r which purpose the margins— which tend to cool more
rapidly than the central part—may b e covered with ashes or the cooli ng
,
o f the central part may be expedited with w ater or by other means .
I n some cases a fter fairing a thin plate a s far as possible in the mangl e
, ,
those parts w hich are still drawn or ta ut may be extended by hammering

on an anvil or slab Shell plates and others are usually mangled as a .
final operation but plates whi ch are very much buckled sho uld be flattene d
,
be fore t em plati ng fo r the s tretching e ffect may sp 01l the c o mc1den c e o f

.
the hole s .
A r t 5 3 8 A .
g a r b o a r d -fla n i n
g g m a.c h i n e for flan g m g plates by han d
[Art 5 3 8 .
power when hot is shown i n Fig 1 P late 9 5 as also its mode of operation
,
.
, , .
I n modern establishments hydraulic cold fl anging machines have entirely ,
superseded the older hot fla n gi ng machines Formerly of course with -

.
, ,
iron plates heating wa s essential and as the plates were bent parallel with
, ,
the grain an extra good quality of iron had to b e employed for the gar
,
b oard strakes The red hot plate P is clamped in place by the beam B
.
-
,
which is forced do wn upon it by a wedge W passing through a standard , ,
one at each end The beam is raised and lowered expeditiously by long
.
, ,
levers L I t is essential that there shall be no delay in fixing the plate in

,
.
place other wise it might become too cold and sti ff fo r the subsequent
,
flan gi ng Th e fla n gi ng roller R is raised or lo wered by winch handles

.
H working a tra i n o f geared wheels as shown in some modern machines

,
hydraulic power is employed w hich of course on account of the greater , , ,
expedition i s very advantageous in such machines however the power is

, , , ,
s o great that the plates may b e flanged cold so that they are really ,
coldfla ngi flg
-
machines E ither end of the roller may b e raised or .
lowered more than the other so as to vary the bevel o f the flange from ,
end to end of the plate Th e required bevel is obtained by set irons one .
-
,
for each end bent previously in t he berth the plate is to occupy in the
,
ship The radius o f knuckle may b e increased or diminished to suit thick

.
or thin plates by adjusting the roller out or in by the screw S O wing

, .
to the imperfect clamping e ffect of the beam the plate is apt to s lip under ,
it so that the flange is usually made an inch or so broader than necessary

, ,
and is sheared as required subsequently The contact o f the hot plate .
with the cast iron material of the machine and clamping b eam tends by
-
, ,
local heating and expansion to cause the rupture o f these parts and , , ,
accordingly to prevent undue heating b oth parts are cast hollow so that
, , ,
they may be kept full o f water and as it is important that the lower part ,
should always be full right up to the top it should be kept under a head ,
of water by means of a cistern placed above it Many machines have

,
.
been broken through neglect o f this precaution Some o f the later one s .
are built of steel plates and bars which o f course do not like cast iron , , , , ,
fracture when lo cally heated The sketch shows how a fter the flangi ng .
, ,
the shell portion of a garboard plate may b e curved transversely .
A r t 5 3 9 A hydraulic c o l d fl a n gi n g m a c h i n e is shown in Fig 6

. .
-
.
,
P late 1 1 5 and in section in Fig 4 P late 8 3 its mode o f action being also
, .
, ,
indicated Th e plate about to be flanged is clamped firmly in place as

.
,
shown in Fig 4 by the sliding wedge piece W which is tapered longi tudi
.
, ,
nally and is forced on end b y a small ram I t will be noticed that the li p
,
.
round which the plate is bent proj ects beyond the lower clamping piece P ,
T e roller R which is actuated by t wo hydraulic rams may

( A rt . h , ,
be raised or lowered one end more than the other so as to make a flang e
, , ,
having a b evel varying from end to end ; this o f course is necessary in , ,
the case o f the end garb oard plates or dished keel plates Bulkhead plate s .
are o ften double flanged as shown in Fig 4 the small flange being made ,
.
,
first A j o ggle d fl an ge ( A Fig 4 ) may be produced by introducing two

.
, .
li n ers o f suitable thickness one below and one above the portion of the ,
plate about to be flanged ( but not over each other) when the clamping o f ,
the plate in place produces the required j oggle This is useful in the cas e .
o f —
flanged floors when the tank top plating is not j oggled and in som e ,
flanged bracket plates When fl anging floor or bulkhead plates a portion.

,
at each corner ( see B Fig 4) is usually removed before the flanging ( Figs
, . .
1 and 5 P late 2 3 and P late

, Sometimes this is done by punching
,
contiguous small holes in which case as the edge is rendered brittle the
, , ,
knuckle is very apt to crack at this point ; to avoid this therefore the , ,
[Art . 5 42
p re ss, designed fo r j o ggl i n g an gl e b a r s cold as is commonly done in

,
the case o f the frame and reverse angles within a double bottom ; the
joggling is done as shown in Fig 8 P late 8 2 I t may also b e employed
.
, .
fo r joggling plate landings punching manholes or for flan gi n g small plates

, , ,
such as the intercostal plates of a cellular double bottom ; in the case o f

plates longer than the stamp the flangi ng must be done in detail
,
.
C o u n t e r s i n k i n g m a c h i n e s vary in design ; formerly when plates

,
were small the spindle was o ften fixed a design which requires the plate
, ,
to be shi fted fo r each hole ; in modern machines the spindle is made

adjustable usually by placing it on a radial swinging arm A n excellent
, .
machine o f this kind is shown in Fig 1 3 P late 1 1 5 the tool may b e

.
,
adjusted with a touch of the handle and commands a large area of plate
, .
Ar t 5 4 3 ] P RA C TI CA L S H I P B UI LD I N G
551
.
.
C H AP TER X L .
A rt . 5 4 3 An importa nt matter in shipbuilding is the p r e p a r a t i on o f

.
'
th e sli p w a y s ,
or be rth s I n yards where the ground is hard and solid .
,
the keel blocks for any particular ship may b e laid in whatever line is
most suitable having regard to the size o f the ship the launchi n g facilities
, , ,
and the space required between it and adj oining vessels under construction
or about to be built M ost shipyards are divided o ff more or less per
.
,
m an en tly into so many berths

, I f the ground is so ft it may be incapable .
,
o f sustaining the weight o f a large vessel i n which case to avoid sub , ,
si de n c e p i le s must be driven in the line o f the keel blocks and launchin

, g
ways Such work is costly but of course i f well done and su ffi ciently
.
, , ,
extensive it need only b e d one once I n each shipyard experience accu

, .
mulate s as to the weight sustaining capabilities of the ground and those -

,
berth s where it is found to be hard and good or has been made so by ,
piling are reserved for heavy vessels The building slip fo r a modern
, .
A tlantic lin er or armour clad battleship is always extensively piled for not
,
-
, ,
only is the weight excessive but the value at stake is too great to warrant ,
any risk The ground is specially severely tried by an armour clad

.
-
,
because both it and its launching cradle are short compared with th e
launching weight .
During the building the keel block s take the greater part of the weight
, ,
and the bilge blocks and shores the remainder ( Fig 3 P late Th e .
,
most critical pressure occurs during the launch fo r then the whole weight ,
of the hull is transferred to the two strips of ground under the launching
ways ( Fig 8 P late 9 7 ) and as the weight when she slides down is
.
, , ,
rapidly trans ferred from one piece o f ground to another a severe pres s ure ,
is imposed on ground which previously has suff ered none A s mall sub .
si den c e during the launch is not unlikely to have disastrous consequences ,
fo r the resulting local pressure and friction between the ways may cause
t h e vessel to stop perhaps in a critical position ,
A similar subsidence .
during the building would be unimportant fo r the various shores and keel ,
blocks are under con s ta nt inspection and are hardened up and adjusted as ,
required .
The softnes s or hardness of the ground may be tested roughly by

thrusting into it a slender rod of iron i f this can be forced down several feet
by the hands alone the ground is unfi t to sustain any weight without piling
,
.
I n mo s t shipyards the ground is able without piling to sustain with little , , ,
or no subsidence the weight of ordinary vessels I t is usually foun d

,
.
necessary however to pile the lower end or br east of the slipway between
, , ,
high and low wa ter ( Fig 1 P late for an excessive pressure occur s here
.
,
during the launch and owing to the steep slope of the breast and the wa s h
, ,
o f the tide its solidity and permanence if unpiled is more or less doubtful
, , ,
.
E xcessive pressure may occur here during the launch because when the , ,
greater part of the cradle has left the gro und ways a corresponding part o f ,
the weight of the hull may not be waterborn e and the pressure moreover , ,
[Art 5.4 3
may be intensified by localization due to the hull pivoting about the end of ,
the ways as shown in Figs 3 and 4 An arrangement o f piles commonly

,
. .
adopted is shown in Fig 8 P late 9 7 The cross rows are from 4 to 6 feet .
,
.
apart I f specially heavy ships are to be built the outer piles which fall
.
, ,
under the launching ways are duplicated The horizontal logs distribute ,
.
the sustaining power o f the piles and form suitable foundations and fixtures
fo r the keel blocks launching ways and shores Sometimes in order still
, , .
,
b etter to distribute the sustaining power o f the piles fore and a ft logs are laid ,
- -
on their tops and cross logs upon these When all the ground o f the slipway
,
.
is bad or when it is intended to build vessels of great weight the same system
, ,
o f piling is carried all fore and a ft with the omission perhaps o f the central - -
, , ,
and outer piles alternately in alternate transverse rows I n yards where .
only light vessels are built piling even at the ends o f the slipway may b e ,
dispensed with I n such cases to distribute the weight cross logs may b e
.
, ,
laid ( square to the slipway ) flush with the ground being held in place by ,
angle bars driven down alongside and bolted to the logs I f the breast is
, .
exposed to the wash of the tide stone sets are laid between the logs ,
.
P iles are usually hewn logs about 1 5 inches square pointed and shod ,
w ith iron ; sometimes in less substantial work fir stems about 1 0 inches , , ,
diameter at the butt are employed They should be long enough to enter , .
the gravel subsoil which may be at any depth up to about 5 0 feet They are
, .
driven sufficiently s olidly when a blow from a 1 5 or 2 0 cwt monkey falling -

.
,
about 2 0 feet fails to move them more than about hal f an inch A series
, .
o f piles being driven their tops are sawn o ff and the cross logs laid on their
, ,
ends to which they are usually fastened by long driving b olts

, .
A r t 5 4 4 C onsider now the procedure of l a yi n g t h e k e e l b l o c k s

. . .
The position and inclination o f the keel are governed by the requirements
o f the launch V essels built on narrow rivers must be inclined to the
.
breast so that they may be launched up or down the stream and thus
, ,
allow sufficient clearance for pulling them up a fter they have le ft the ways .
O n good ground the blocks are sometimes placed directly upon it ( Fig 6 .
,
P late but in most cases to distribute the pressure stage planks are first , ,
laid all fore and aft as shown in Fig 1 4 or only under each block as
- -
, .
, ,
sho w n in Fig 2 P late 9 7 I f the ground being unpiled is doubt ful or

.
, .
, , ,
if a large vessel is to be built a more secure foundation 18 made by laying ,
short stage planks athwartship close together all fore and aft and superposing ,
three fore and a ft logs as sho wn m Fig 7 P late 9 6 H aving prepared the
-
, .
, .
foundation the lower blocks are laid all fore and a ft from 4 to 6 feet apart
,
- -
,
( as shown in Fig 1 P late and to every third or fourth an upright batten

.
,
is nailed in the line of and standing rather higher than the keel To suit
, , ,
.
the declivity of the launching ways the keel also is inclined usually about , ,
—inch to the foot in yards i n which the round has a large slope this may
( g
be g reatly exceeded) A ssuming T2 inch per foot to b e the dec li vi ty a .
9
,
straight edge about 2 0 feet long is prepared having nailed upon its side a ,
short supplementary straight edge inclined to the edge o f the first by -
——inch to the foot as shown m Fig 1 P late 9 7 Sta rting from midships
, ,
9 ’
2 , .
, .
,
the straight edge 18 held between and against two of the upright battens
-
,
one end to a pencil mark on the a ftermost say 3 feet 6 inches above , ,
the ground a n d the other at such a height that a spirit level placed on the
,
supplementary straight edge indicates the horizontal ; when so held the

straight edge 1 s necessarily inclined a t
-
inch to the foot and the position 6 ,
o f its edge is marked w ith pencil on the other batten I t 1 3 then trans .
ferred to the next pair o f battens and the third one marked in the same ,
way When all are marked they are cut square across at the marks and
.
,
a wire resting on their tops stretched tightly from end to end o f the
, ,
P R A C TI CA L S H I P B UI L D I N G A 5 45
5 54 .

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P R A C TI C AL

impulse in writing it I believe it will be found use ful in many quarters i f

desire to obtain full in formation may do so readily by a mere perusal o f

knowledge of the various procedures adopted in the designing and

personal observation and reﬂection a method which o f course requires

m u ch time and a great deal of patience .

I have endeavoured throughout the book to avoid all abstruse questions

understood by all intelligent readers w hatever their previous training

B ooks on the theoretical questions of naval architecture are numerous so ,

described in a popular way those fun damental matters o f theory which

o f the subject would be impossible I have extracted much in formation

o f a standard character from the technical papers published by the various

engineering and shipbuilding societies and where any matter is o f such

special interest as to merit a closer study re ference is made to di fferent

sources which w ill supply it . x

The plan o f the b ook is brieﬂy as follows : Firstly attention is given ,

di fferent structural designs by which the necessary strength to resist them

structure and the particular stresses and straining e ff ects to which it

governing them as regards scantlings and strength ; and a description o f

A s a description o f the actu al work o f the shipyard is reading o f a special

sequence generally being thus better preserved A s Lloyd s rules represent

frequently re ferred to and explained the numerous sketches in the book

o f plates being practically all d rawn in con formity therewith .

There will be found chapters on corrosion launching etc and on the , , .

w ork o f the drawing o fﬁ c e — —

A s I have aime d at making the book use ful fo r purposes o f refer

complete alphabetical index ; and to facilitate the complete study of any

chapters giving in outline the subject matter dealt with in each

building has o f late made many advances t h e necessity o f presenting the

XI V . WATE R B A LL AST, D O U BL E B O TTO M S, DEEP TA N K S, OIL

X VI I I . E N G NE I A ND BO I LER S E A T N G S, I S H A FT STOO LS, SH A FT

XI X . B ow A N D STE RN , S TE M A ND STE R N -FR A M E , P R O P E LL E R

XX VI I . A N C H O R S, C A B LES , W I ND LA SS , B O ATS, DAV I TS ,

XX I X . P U MP I NG A R R A N G E M E N TS, SC U P P E RS, FR E S H -WA TE R

E LE M E NTA RY C O N S D E R AT O N S I I ON TH E STR E N G TH AND

bi li ti e s in the matter of size were limited fo r although in s ome exceptional , ,

cases a length of 3 0 0 feet was attained fe w wood ships exceeded 2 0 0 feet , .

composed can be but imperfectly connected the inevitable slipping or ,

stra i n i ng movement of each one upon its neighbour results in time i n a , ,

the middle or hogging a s it is termed A lthough many of those

soon to admit their superiority I t was forcibly demonstrated by the .

end or with a large portion overhanging ; and although subjected to such

abnormal stress the hull s howed little or no Sign of bending No wood

straight The precise date at which iron was ﬁrst u s ed fo r shipbuilding is

unknown for to begin with it was employed in a tentative fashion for

canal barges and the like .

A r t 2 The principal feature of the hull is the s h e ll p l a t i n g

upper deck be regarded as a horizonta l portion thereo f then all other ,

posed of numerous plates riveted together ; and although alone it might ,

fulﬁl the fundamental condition o f impenetrability to water so elementary ,

immersed by heavy masses o f cargo it will su ff er no deformation or excessive

straining tendency the structure must withstand the enormous accentuation

j e c te d to these forces there must be per fect immunity

The thin shell plating requires to be sti ffened by interior fr a m e w o r k ,

and support them against collapse Theoretically considered while main .

be greatly varied ; the same total strengthening e ffect could be given by

intervals or by numerous slender ones placed closer together I f the latter .

sy s tem were carried to exce s s the ultimate result would evidently be ,

equivalent to a mere thickening of the shell plating I f su fﬁciently thick .

thickness would be required as to render the vessel useless as a cargo

A r t 3 The m o s t e fﬁ c i en t c ar go v e s s e l is that w h ich — other qualities

secure d ca n carry the greatest weight or bulk of cargo in proportion to

that to be small is here no advantage A light hull involving a small .